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Introduction to Electronics Assembly
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Table of Contents
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Introduction
Components
Interconnections
Electronics Assembly
Industry Overview
Electrostatic Discharge
Assembly Processes
Incoming Inspection
Through-Hole Assembly
Automatic Insertion
Manual Insertion
Wave Soldering
Hand Soldering
Surface Mount Assembly
Solder Paste Application
Component Placement
Reflow Soldering
Adhesive Application
Cleaning
Electrical Test
Rework and Repair
Conformal Coating
Final System Assembly
GLOSSARY
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
2
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
3
Introduction
Look around. Electronic prod-
ucts are everywhere. Theyre in
our homes, offices, schools,
hospitals, airports, banks and
stores. And year after year there
are innovations - products get
better and better, theyre easier
to use and their value increases
as they do more for the same or
lower cost.
Personal computers are a per-
fect example. Ten years ago
they were priced high and ran
slow. Now theyre a lot faster
and cheaper.
If you were to take the cover off
an electronic product youd see
components and interconnec-
tions.
An inside view of a typical
electronic device.
An ATM machine is an
electronic device we all use.
A laptop and cell phone at
work in the field.
Introduction
to
Electronics
Assembly
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
4
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
5
Interconnections
The interconnections are the
pathways where electricity
flows between components.
These pathways are almost
always printed circuit boards, or
printed wiring boards. These are
sometimes referred to as PCBs
or PWBs. The printed boards are
basically a pattern of electronic
conductors that are formed on
an insulating base material, or
laminate.
Electronics Assembly
Electronics assembly is the
process of attaching component
leads or terminations to the
lands, or conductors, on the cir-
cuit board, and then soldering
them to make both mechanical
and electrical connections.
These circuit board assemblies
are at the heart of our electron-
ic products - allowing the prod-
ucts to be both complex and
compact.
Industry Overview
Electronics assembly is per-
formed by Original Equipment
Manufacturers (OEMs), and by
members of the Electronics
Manufacturing Services Industry,
also known as EMS providers.
OEMs are companies that
design and manufacture their
own electronic products.
Usually these companies do all
or some of the electronics
A printed circuit board with
no components.
A typical Electronics
Assembly Facility.
A circuit board assembly is
inserted into a metal chassis.
Components
Components are devices that
alter the flow of electricity. The
majority of electronic compo-
nents are semiconductors -
meaning they have properties
of both conductors and insula-
tors. A conductor is a
metal/material that carries elec-
trical signals. An insulator is any
material that has a high resist-
ance to the flow of electrical
current.
Resistors and capacitors are
called passive components.
That means the basic function
of these components does not
change when they receive a sig-
nal. Resistors slow down, or
resist the flow of current to pro-
vide the proper amount.
Capacitors store an electrical
charge for a period of time, then
discharge it over a longer or
shorter period of time -
depending on the requirements
of the circuit.
Transistors, diodes and integrat-
ed circuits, or ICs, are called
active components. That means
the basic function of these com-
ponents will change when they
receive a signal. ICs can store
information, perform calcula-
tions and move the information
around. A microprocessor chip
that contains millions of transis-
tors and diodes is an example
of a very sophisticated IC.
Training References:
IPC-CD-18 Component ID
Training(CD)
IPC-DRM-18 Component ID
Desk Reference Manual
Components prior to
assembly onto circuit board.
An IC in a Dual-In-Line
Package.
A capacitor and resistor of the
Through-hole variety.
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
6
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
7
tronics industry as a whole
employs more people than the
aerospace, steel and automo-
tive industries combined.
Electrostatic Discharge
One of the critical issues in elec-
tronics assembly is control of
electrostatic discharge, or ESD.
ESD occurs when static electric-
ity from your body or a charged
source comes in contact with
and is discharged into an elec-
tronic component. This electric-
ity can degrade or destroy the
operation of many types of
components. There are a wide
variety of materials and tech-
niques to eliminate the build up
and discharge of static electricity.
Training References:
IPC-VT-19 ESD Control (Video)
IPC-CD-19 ESD Control (CD-ROM)
Technical References:
IPC-A-610 Acceptability of
Electronic Assemblies
Assembly Processes
There are two primary cate-
gories of electronic compo-
nents; through-hole and surface
mount. Through-hole compo-
nents have leads that are insert-
ed through the holes in the cir-
cuit board. Surface mount com-
ponents have leads or termina-
tions that attach directly onto
the lands on the surface of the
board. A third category of com-
ponents are those actually
embedded in or on the surface
An ESD sensitive component
getting ZAPPED by an operator
not wearing his grounding strap.
A component placement
workstation.
This board has through-hole components
on the left, and smaller surface mount
components on the right.
assembly work themselves. For
a variety of reasons, there are
times when OEMs send out all
or some of their design and
assembly to EMS providers.
EMS providers are differentiated
from OEMs in that they dont
produce their own products.
They provide assembly and
sometimes design services.
Before the assembly process
can begin the components and
circuit boards must be pro-
cured. Then these circuit boards
and components go through
specific manufacturing process-
es to create the soldered
assemblies. After processing,
the assemblies are tested. The
assembler, whether OEM or
EMS provider, usually performs
any rework and repair thats
needed. Occasionally, an EMS
provider also performs the final
system assembly, as well as sys-
tem and reliability testing.
Sometimes the OEM will have
assembly operations that not
only perform circuit board
assembly, test and system
assembly for their own prod-
ucts, but also accept assembly
work from other OEMs. That
makes the company both an
OEM and an EMS provider.
In recent years there has been
significant growth in the EMS
industry. The industry plays a
dynamic role in todays informa-
tion and entertainment-orient-
ed world. It also provides many
jobs and enjoys exciting career
opportunities. In fact, the elec-
Assembly design is a
complex process.
A training session for EMS
Providers.
Component insertion is
sometimes done by hand.
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
8
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
9
required. Incoming inspection is
a method of verifying that order
requirements have been met.
This includes the correct num-
ber and type of products, the
condition of the products upon
receipt and the function of
those products.
Many companies use a system
of certified suppliers to mini-
mize incoming inspection
sometimes called dock to stock.
In this system, the supplier
takes responsibility for the qual-
ity of the materials being pur-
chased by the customer by thor-
oughly inspecting and testing
the circuit boards and compo-
nents before they are shipped.
This means that when the
materials arrive on the loading
dock at the customers facilities,
they can be left in the packag-
ing; the associated paperwork
checked for part number and
revision level; and sent to the
stockroom. There is no incom-
ing inspection or testing needed
for verification of the customer.
When more detailed incoming
inspection is required, there are
a number of characteristics that
may be checked by inspection.
For example, a sample of circuit
boards may be checked for
proper dimensions, hole pat-
terns and sizes, solder mask
and solderability, and marking.
A shipment of electronic com-
ponents could be checked for
count, condition, marking and
solderability.
Checking board dimensions
during incoming inspection.
Training References:
IPC-VT-57 Stockroom Materials -
Storage and Distribution (Video)
IPC-CD-63 Bare Board Acceptability (CD)
Technical References:
IPC/EIA J-STD-002 Solderability Tests
for Component Leads, Terminations,
Lugs, Terminals and Wires
ANSI/J-STD-003 Solderability Tests
for Printed Boards
IPC-6011 Generic Performance
Specification for Printed Boards
IPC-6012 Qualification and Performance
Specification for Rigid Printed Boards
IPC-A-600 Acceptability of Printed Boards
IPC-DRM-18 Component Identification
Desk Reference Manual
Verifying components during
incoming inspection.
of a printed wiring board. A
printed wiring board (PWB)
with embedded components is
called a printed circuit board
(PCB).
This reference manual will dis-
cuss many of the through-hole
and surface mount processes
involved in electronics assem-
bly. (Embedded components in
PCBs are not discussed in this
document because they are
part of the board fabrication
process.) The overall assembly
processes includes incoming
inspection and preparation of
circuit boards and components;
automatic component insertion
and placement; manual inser-
tion of components; wave and
reflow soldering; hand solder-
ing; assembly cleaning; electri-
cal test; rework and repair; con-
formal coating and final system
assembly.
Training References:
IPC-VT-32 Introduction to
Electronics Assembly (Video)
IPC-VT-53 Electronics Assembly
Industry Overview (Video)
IPC-VT-24 Handling in
Electronics Assembly (Video)
Technical References:
IPC-T-50 Terms and Definitions
for Interconnecting and
Packaging Electronic Circuits
IPC-EIA J-STD-001 Requirements
For Soldered Electrical And
Electronic Assemblies
Incoming Inspection
Electronic components and cir-
cuit boards need to function as
Board inspection after the
solder paste printing operation.
Certified supplier checking components
prior to shipment to assembler.
Incoming inspection of boards at the
assembler.
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
10
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
11
DIP inserters have universal cir-
cuit board fixtures that position
the board to exact locations
underneath the insertion head.
The tubes containing DIP com-
ponents are loaded in specific
feeder locations. The compo-
nents are picked up from the
proper feeder, and are posi-
tioned in the insertion head.
The machine is programmed so
the fixture moves the board
under the insertion head and
the leads are inserted into the
corresponding holes in the cir-
cuit board.
Axial and radial inserters oper-
ate a little differently than the
DIP inserters. Axial and radial
components are supplied on
tape and reel. A sequencer is
used to cut and retape the com-
ponents in a specific order, or
sequence, for automatic inser-
tion. Sometimes the sequencer
is part of the axial or radial
inserter. Sometimes the
sequencer is a separate
machine. Once the compo-
nents are sequenced, they are
moved by metal feeders to the
insertion head. A driver with
forming fingers pre-forms the
leads, and places them into the
holes on the circuit board. One
type of process uses tooling
underneath the board to cut the
leads and bend them slightly.
The bend, or clinch, allows the
component to be mechanically
retained during subsequent
operations.
Operator checking newly taped
components on a sequencer.
Axial inserter for through-hole
components.
Sequencer close up view.
Through-Hole Assembly
Through-hole assembly basical-
ly consists of component inser-
tion and soldering.
Through-hole components,
such as ICs, often come in dual-
in-line packages, or DIPs. They
usually arrive from the supplier
in anti-static plastic tubes.
Small axial-lead components,
such as resistors, capacitors and
diodes, are usually packaged on
tape and reel for automatic
sequencing and insertion.
Some through-hole compo-
nents such as transistors are
packaged in bags or boxes and
may require lead forming and
manual insertion.
Training References:
IPC-VT-27 Introduction to
Through-Hole Assembly (Video)
Technical References:
IPC-CM-770 Component
Mounting Guidelines for
Printed Boards
IPC-DRM-40 Through-Hole
Solder Joint Evaluation
Desk Reference Manual
Automatic Insertion
Automatic insertion machines
make it possible to insert many
components into the holes of a
circuit board in a very short
time. There are three types of
automatic insertion machines -
DIP inserters, axial inserters and
radial inserters.
DIP components in
static -proof tubes.
A DIP component
insertion machine.
Axial components come
packaged on tape and reels.
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
12
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
13
Fluxing is the process of apply-
ing flux to the assembly. Flux is
made up of a combination of
chemicals. The purpose of the
flux is to remove oxides and
other contaminants from the
surfaces of the metal parts to be
soldered. Oxides begin to form
on the component leads and
through-hole lands whenever
these metals come in contact
with air. If these oxides, or con-
taminants, are not removed the
solder wont form a reliable
bond between the leads and
through-hole lands. The two
most common methods of flux
application are foam and spray.
The next part of the wave sol-
dering process is preheating.
During preheating, the entire
assembly is slowly heated to a
temperature that will activate
the flux. This allows the flux to
react with and condition the
metals for the soldering opera-
tion. Preheating also reduces
thermal shock when the assem-
bly contacts molten solder in
the next part. Thermal shock
can cause damage to the PWB
and components.
After preheating, molten solder
is delivered to the underside of
the assembly in the form of a
wave. As the bottom of the
assembly passes over the crest
of the wave, the solder is forced
up through the holes in a wick-
ing or capillary action. Wave
soldering completes the electri-
cal and mechanical connections
of the components to the circuit
board, and allows thousands of
solder connections to be made
in a very short time.
Preheating activates the flux
prior to soldering.
Training References:
IPC-VT-47 Wave Soldering (Video)
Technical References:
IPC-EIA J-STD-001 Requirements
For Soldered Electrical And Electronic
Assemblies
IPC-EIA J-STD-004 Requirements For
Soldering Fluxes
IPC-EIA J-STD-006 Requirements For
Electronic Grade Solder Alloys For
Fluxed And Non-Fluxed Solid Solders
For Electronic Soldering Applications
The assembly passes over a
wave of molten solder.
Manual Insertion
There are two situations that
require manual insertion of
components. First, some com-
ponents, because of their size
and shape, simply do not fit in
the automatic insertion
machines. The second situation
occurs when there are very few
through-hole components
required for an assembly. It
becomes more cost effective to
insert them by hand.
The leads of many of these com-
ponents need to be first pre-
formed to the proper position for
manual insertion. After preform-
ing, the components are insert-
ed into the correct holes on the
board, and the leads may
trimmed and clinched.
Training References:
IPC-VT-44 Component
Preparation and Manual
Insertion (Video)
Technical References:
IPC-EIA J-STD-001 Requirements
For Soldered Electrical And
Electronic Assemblies
IPC-A-610 Acceptability of
Electronic Assemblies
Wave Soldering
After all through-hole compo-
nents have been inserted into
the circuit board, the assembly
is ready for the wave soldering
operation. Wave soldering con-
sists of three basic steps - flux-
ing, preheating and soldering.
Each of these parts of a wave
soldering machine are intercon-
nected by a conveyor system.
Manual insertion is used for
some components.
A foam fluxer applies the flux.
Some leads must be bent, or pre-
formed, in order to fit in the assembly.
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
14
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
15
Training References:
IPC-VT-33 Introduction to Surface
Mount Assembly (Video)
IPC-VT-71-75 Surface Mount
Evaluation Series
Technical References:
IPC-TP-1115 Selection and
Implementation Strategy for a
Low-Residue, No-Clean Process
IPC-DRM-SMT Surface Mount
Solder Joint Evaluation
Desk Refernce Manual
Solder Paste Application
Solder paste is a mixture of flux
and tiny balls of solder in paste
form. The application of solder
paste is commonly done using
a stencil printing process.
Solder paste is pressed through
openings in a stencil screen
onto the corresponding circuit
board lands with a squeegee
made of hard rubber or stain-
less steel. The stencil openings
are called apertures. They are
designed to make sure the right
amount of solder paste is
deposited onto each land. The
apertures must be in perfect
alignment with the surface
mount lands.
Training References:
IPC-VT-34 Solder Paste Printing
IPC-VT-35 Solder Paste Printing
Defect Analysis and
Prevention (Videos)
Technical References:
IPC-7525 Stencil Design
Guidelines
IPC/EIA J-STD-005 Requirements
for Soldering Pastes
Inspecting a surface mount assembly
after component placement.
Solder paste printing on a
different machine.
The solder paste printing
process.
Hand Soldering
An assembly may also contain
odd-form and temperature sen-
sitive components such as bat-
teries, switches, connectors, or
unsealed parts that will have to
be manually inserted and hand
soldered after the wave solder-
ing operation.
Soldering iron selection, tip size
and desired heat range should
be considered for the work at
hand. An important factor in
hand soldering is solder wire
selection.
Training References:
IPC-VT-42/43 Hand Soldering
IPC-VT-49 The Seven Sins of
Hand Soldering
IPC-VT-36 Hand Soldering With
Low Residue Fluxes (Videos)
Technical References:
IPC-7711 Rework of
Electronic Assemblies
IPC/EIA J-STD-001 Requirements
for Soldered Electrical and
Electronic Assemblies
IPC-A-610 Acceptability Of
Electronic Assemblies
Surface Mount Assembly
Surface mount technology is
newer than through-hole tech-
nology. Rather than being
inserted through holes in the
circuit board, surface mount
component leads sit on lands
on the surface of the board.
Surface mount assembly con-
sists of three basic processes -
solder paste application, com-
ponent placement and reflow
soldering.
Operator at hand soldering
workstation.
Chip component soldered to a
surface mount land.
Hand soldering up close.
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
16
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
17
Other features of placement
machines are a conveyor sys-
tem to transfer circuit boards
into and out of the machine; a
table that keeps the board sta-
tionary using vacuum or clamp-
ing; pins or fixtures used to sup-
port the board on the table; a
vision system used to verify cor-
rect board and component ori-
entation; and a computer pro-
gram which contains the
description of the board to be
assembled. The program also
specifies the components
required, their location on the
board in X/Y coordinates, their
orientation and the order in
which they will be placed.
Sometimes, as with through-
hole components, surface
mount components are mount-
ed by hand to a board in order
to realize cost benefits when
the quantity of boards being
assembled is low.
Training References:
IPC-VT-39 Surface Mount
Component Placement (Video)
Technical References:
IPC-EIA J-STD-001 Requirements
For Soldered Electrical And
Electronic Assemblies
IPC-A-610 Acceptability Of
Electronic Assemblies
Reflow Soldering
After component placement,
the surface mount assemblies
are ready for reflow soldering.
The two most common heating
methods to reflow the solder
are forced convection and
infrared.
A high speed chip shooter at work.
Convection ovens are used to
reflow solder paste.
Another type of
placement machine.
Component Placement
Once solder paste is properly
applied to the lands, the circuit
board is typically moved to one
or more automatic placement
machines for component place-
ment.
Surface mount components are
usually supplied in three differ-
ent ways - on tape and reel, in
tubes or in matrix trays.
Surface mount chip compo-
nents, such as resistors and
capacitors, are usually supplied
on perforated tape wound
around a reel. The reel is loaded
onto a feeder. The feeder is
then connected to a placement
machine. The high speed place-
ment machines for these types
of components are called chip
shooters. Chip shooters have
rotating turrets with many noz-
zles. The turret rotates around
to the feeder, picks up the com-
ponent, orients it correctly and
places it onto the solder paste
coated lands at 60,000 or more
components per hour.
Medium sized surface mount
components are usually sup-
plied in tubes or on tape and
reel. The larger components are
generally in matrix trays. Slower
pick and place machines have
heads that may be fitted with
nozzles of different sizes. The
nozzles pick up the component
from the trays, tubes or reels,
and accurately place them into
the solder paste on the lands of
the circuit board.
Inspecting components in a tray.
The pick and place machine.
An operator loading a reel
of components on tape
onto the feeder.
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
18
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
19
Adhesive Application
There is an additional surface
mount operation that may be
used for certain types of assem-
blies. In many of todays dou-
ble sided circuit board designs,
surface mount chip compo-
nents are attached to the sec-
ondary, or bottom side of the
board, and a combination of
large surface mount compo-
nents and some through-hole
components are attached to the
primary, or top side. This com-
bination of surface mount and
through-hole components on
the same circuit board is called
a mixed technology assembly.
The purpose of adhesive appli-
cation is to keep the surface
mount components that are
placed on the secondary side of
the board from falling off before
theyre securely soldered during
wave soldering.
In this case, the assembly oper-
ation would begin with the sur-
face mount process from the
primary side of the board. After
solder paste printing, the larger
surface mount components are
placed in their proper locations
on the board. This is followed
by reflow soldering.
Next, the board is flipped over
and adhesive is applied so that
the chip components can be
placed and glued onto the sec-
ondary side of the circuit board.
Adhesive may be applied using
an adhesive dispenser or stencil
Chip components on the secondary
side of the circuit board.
Adhesive dispensing process prior
to component placement.
Larger surface mount and some
through-hole components on the
primary side of the circuit board.
In convection systems, air or
nitrogen is heated and blown
onto the circuit board to melt or
reflow the solder. Infrared uses
heat panels that radiate the
heat to reflow the solder. Most
modern reflow soldering
machines use a combination of
these two heating systems.
The first area inside a reflow sol-
dering machine is a preheat
zone. Preheating allows the cir-
cuit board to be exposed to a
controlled temperature rise. If
all the required heat were
applied immediately, the circuit
board and some of the compo-
nents might be damaged from
heating up too quickly. The pre-
heat operation also causes the
flux in the solder paste to acti-
vate. As in wave soldering, this
activation allows the oxides to
be removed from the metal sur-
faces. If the assembly is in the
preheat area too long, the flux
may burn out and oxidation
will recur before solder reflow.
When this happens proper wet-
ting may not occur.
The assembly proceeds by con-
veyor to the next heating zones
where higher temperatures
cause reflow and solder wetting
to take place. The final step is a
cool down zone which may or
may not be augmented by cool-
ing fans. Reflow soldering com-
pletes the surface mount
assembly process.
Training References:
IPC-VT-15/16 Reflow Soldering
(Video)
Infrared ovens are also used
to reflow solder paste.
The end result, a surface mounted
lead soldered onto a land.
A board moves through a pre-
heat zone before solder reflow.
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
20
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
21
Cleaning
Some companies use no-clean
soldering operations that do not
require any cleaning process to
follow assembly and soldering.
Others require a cleaning oper-
ation that removes undesirable
contaminants including any flux
residues that may be left over
from the soldering operation.
Depending on the type of flux
used, cleaning may be accom-
plished using water or a more
active cleaning agent. If certain
types of flux residues are not
removed, corrosion and ulti-
mately assembly operating
problems can occur.
Training References:
IPC-VT-47 Wave Soldering (Video)
IPC-VT-36 Hand Soldering With
Low Residue Fluxes (Video)
Technical References:
IPC-TP-1115 Selection and
Implementation Strategy for a
Low-Resdiue,No-Clean Process
IPC-SC-60 Post Solder Solvent
Cleaning Handbook
IPC-SA-61 Post-Solder
Semiaqueous Cleaning
Handbook
IPC-AC-62 Post-Solder Aqueous
Cleaning Handbook
IPC-CH-65 Guidelines for
Cleaning of Printed Boards and
Assemblies
IPC-9201 Surface Insulation
Resistance Handbook
Hand soldering with a
low-residue flux.
A No Clean flux label.
The cleaning operation.
printer. The glue dots are
applied between the chip com-
ponent lands, rather than on
the lands themselves. If the
adhesive were placed on the
lands, the components would-
nt be able to be reliably sol-
dered to the lands. In other
words, the adhesive would
block the solder.
After adhesive application, the
components are positioned
using automated placement
equipment. The adhesive is
then cured. Curing allows the
glue to achieve its full strength.
Next, the required through-hole
components are inserted from
the primary side of the board.
The fully assembled circuit
board is then passed through a
wave solder machine. The sol-
der wicks up the holes to solder
the through-hole leads. The sur-
face mount chip components
glued to the bottom side of the
board are also soldered at this
time. This completes the mixed
technology assembly process.
Training References:
IPC-VT-51 Adhesive Application
for Surface Mount (Video)
Technical References:
IPC-CA-821 General
Requirements for Thermally
Conductive Adhesives
Applying adhesive using the
stencil printing method.
An assembly surfs the solder wave
to complete the process.
Placing chip components on
top of adhesive temporarily
holds them in place.
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
22
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
23
test electronics are designed to
create an operational environ-
ment for the assembly thats
similar to the finished product.
For example, a modem assem-
bly might be tested to dial up
and establish a connection.
Functional test can be per-
formed on both the circuit
board assembly and on the fin-
ished product. ICT is only done
on the assembly.
When an assembly fails ICT or
functional test, the error mes-
sage is examined and the prob-
lem can usually be identified.
Sometimes troubleshooting is
used to determine which com-
ponent or components are fail-
ing. Once the problem is identi-
fied, the assembly can be
reworked and/or repaired.
Training References:
IPC-VT-17 Electrical Test in
Electronics Assembly (Video)
Technical References:
IPC-7711 Rework of Electronic
Assemblies
IPC-7721 Repair and
Modification of Printed Boards
and Electronic Assemblies
Rework and Repair
Rework involves removing and
replacing defective components
or correcting defective solder
connections. Repair is done
when the circuit board lami-
nate, conductors or lands are
damaged during the assembly
or rework operations. Rework
and repair methodology may
An assembly passes in-circuit test.
Reworking a bad solder joint.
Troubleshooting a problem.
Electrical Test
Testing usually follows in the
assembly process to guarantee
that assemblies work. There are
two basic categories of testing
that will be described here.
These are in-circuit test, or ICT,
and functional test.
ICT checks the assembly for
unwanted open and short cir-
cuits by testing components for
manufacturing defects. ICT is
performed on automatic test
equipment that uses a bed-of-
nails fixture consisting of a
series of spring loaded probes
to connect the tester to specific
solder connections and test
points.
Functional test checks the oper-
ation of the entire circuit board
assembly by applying power
and input signals, then checking
that the output signals are cor-
rect. The difference between
functional test and ICT is that
functional test doesnt check a
specific component. It is actual-
ly testing a group of compo-
nents by testing the different
functions, or electronic opera-
tions designed into the assem-
bly.
One method of functionally
testing the assembly is accom-
plished on automatic test
equipment. There is usually a
special connector fixture to gain
access to the circuitry on the
assembly.
The assembly can also be tested
on a technicians bench. Special
Close up view of bed-of-nails
test probes.
A functional bench test
workstation.
Using an automated
functional test machine.
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
24
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
25
Special kits may be required to
accomplish some repairs.
The assembly is re-tested fol-
lowing the rework and/or repair
operation.
Technical References:
IPC-7711 Rework of Electronic
Assemblies
IPC-7721 Repair and Modification
of Printed Boards & Electronic
Assemblies
IPC-EIA J-STD-001 Requirements
For Soldered Electrical &
Electronic Assemblies
IPC-A-610 Acceptability Of
Electronic Assemblies
Conformal Coating
Some finished assemblies are
destined for operational envi-
ronments that are very harsh
when compared to the environ-
ment a normal household
assembly will encounter. There
may be temperature extremes,
humidity, corrosive atmosphere,
and salt water. These environ-
ments may be encountered in
applications such as automotive
under the hood, aerospace,
medical and military. When this
occurs, there is a need for a pro-
tective barrier between the
assembly and the environment.
These protective barriers are
called conformal coatings.
Conformal coatings have also
become necessary on fine-pitch
high-density circuitry to retard
failures caused by electromigra-
tion.
There are a variety of conformal
coatings and each one has spe-
Repair in progress.
Spraying conformal coating.
A conformally-coated assembly.
also be used to incorporate
design changes for assemblies.
Rework on through-hole and
many surface mount compo-
nents may be done using hand
tools. For through-hole compo-
nents, the tools are often just a
soldering iron with the proper
tip installed and a vacuum
extractor.
The smaller and more densely
packed surface mount compo-
nents have made rework and
repair more difficult. To deal
with this challenge, specialized
hand tools have been devel-
oped to make surface mount
rework more manageable.
These hand tools are especially
effective in low volume rework
applications.
Today, there are component
package styles that make it vir-
tually impossible to perform
rework operations with hand
tools. A couple of examples
include ultra fine pitch leaded
parts and Ball Grid Arrays, or
BGAs. The rework requirements
for these types of components
have resulted in the develop-
ment of rework stations.
Rework stations are self-con-
tained systems that provide
controlled removal and replace-
ment of these types of surface
mount components. They are
also effective for high volume
rework applications.
Repair involves using special
tools and procedures to correct
damaged lands, conductors and
circuit board laminate material.
A rework hand tool
removes the component.
Training References:
IPC-VT-97A/B Land and Conductor Repair
for Electronic Assemblies
IPC-VT-97C Plated-Through Hole Repair
IPC-VT-41 Through-Hole Rework
IPC-VT-91 Intro to Surface Mount Rework
IPC-VT-92 Rework of Surface Mount Chip
Components
IPC-VT-93 Gull Wing Rework
IPC-VT-94 Rework of J-Lead Components
IPC-VT-95 Surface Mount Rework
Stations
IPC-VT-96 Ball Grid Array Rework
(All Videos)
Aligning component leads to
circuit board lands on a rework station.
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
26
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
27
A simple version of a stress test
is to turn a product on and off
many times, and to verify it still
operates properly. A more com-
prehensive reliability test is to
place the assemblies in a ther-
mal chamber for a period of
time. During this time, tempera-
tures are repeatedly raised and
lowered at a controlled rate.
We call this type of stress testing
environmental stress screen-
ing or ESS.
After the assemblies are
removed from the oven, they
are given a functional test.
Passing the test indicates the
assembly should work reliably
for many years under normal
operating conditions. The prod-
ucts are then shipped to cus-
tomers and distributors.
Training References:
IPC-VT-46 Mechanical
Assembly (Video)
IPC-VT-17 Electrical Test in
Electronics Assembly (Video)
The electronics assembly indus-
try has grown rapidly during the
past decade. New technologies
have allowed products to
become more functional, faster
and more compact, as well as
less expensive. Innovation and
quality keep electronics assem-
bly successful in an increasingly
competitive world market.
An operator loads assemblies
in a thermal chamber for a
burn-in reliability test.
Rapid growth of the
EMS industry.
One last functional test is done
to verify assembly reliability.
cific characteristics. Once the
proper coating is selected for
the intended use, it can be
applied by brush, spray, dip,
curtain coat, or vacuum deposi-
tion. It is important to make
sure that all other process steps
have been completed prior to
conformal coating. Once the
conformal coating has been
applied, it will prevent normal
in-circuit test using a bed of
nails tester, and will make it
much more difficult to modify
the assembly in any way.
Final System Assembly
Assemblies that pass ICT and
functional test can be installed
in the final system. This phase
of the overall assembly process
is called final system assembly,
or box build. During box build,
all of the hardware required for
the finished product is installed
into the equipment chassis. This
includes racks, wire harnesses,
power supplies, heat sinks, fans,
front panel switches and dis-
plays, connectors - and the elec-
tronic assemblies.
The assembled product is given
a final functional, or system test
to make sure it is operating
properly. Companies often use
reliability, or stress testing to
weed out components that may
fail after the first few hours of
operation. This type of testing is
sometimes part of a burn-in
process and usually guarantees
a higher level of reliability for
the product.
Technical References:
IPC-EIA J-STD-001 Requirements For
Soldered Electrical & Electronic
Assemblies
IPC-A-610 Acceptability Of Electronic
Assemblies
IPC-CC-830 Qualification and
Performance of Electrical Insulating
Compound for Printed Board Assemblies
IPC-TR-476A Electro-Chemical
Migration: Electrically Induced
Failures in Printed Wiring Assemblies
Performing final test on a
computerized telephone system.
Connecting a ribbon cable
during a box build.
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
28
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
29
FORCED CONVECTION: Reflow soldering using forced hot air or inert gas
(nitrogen) as the primary source of heat.
FUNCTIONAL TEST: A test that analyzes the unit under test as a complete
functional entity by applying inputs and sensing outputs.
HARDWARE: The components that go into the final system during box build.
Includes circuit board assemblies, card racks, power supplies, wire harness-
es, heat sinks. fans, switches, connectors - and the materials used to mount
them.
IN-CIRCUIT TEST: The application of test signals directly to a devices input
terminals and sensing the results directly from the devices output terminals.
INFRARED REFLOW: Reflow soldering using infrared heating as the primary
source of energy.
INSULATOR: A material with a high resistance to the flow of electrical cur-
rent.
INTEGRATED CIRCUIT: A combination of inseparable associated circuit ele-
ments that are formed in place and interconnected on or within a single base
material to perform a microcircuit function.
LAMINATE: The base material of a circuit board upon which a conductive
pattern is formed.
LANDS: The portion of conductive pattern on a circuit board designed for the
connection and/or attachment of components.
LEAD: A length of insulated or uninsulated metallic conductor that is used
for electrical interconnections.
LOW RESIDUE FLUX: Flux that uses different kinds of chemicals than in tradition-
al fluxes. This type of flux becomes inert in the reflow process and can be left on
an assembly after soldering without causing deterioration.
MICROPROCESSOR CHIP: A sophisticated integrated circuit that performs
almost all of the high speed functions in a computer.
MIXED TECHNOLOGY ASSEMBLY: An assembly that has both surface mount
and through-hole components.
NO-CLEAN: A soldering process that uses low residue fluxes so the assem-
bly will not need to be cleaned after soldering.
ACTIVE COMPONENT: An electronic component whose basic function is to
modify an applied signal. (This includes diodes, transistors and integrated cir-
cuits that are used for the rectification, amplification, switching, etc., of ana-
log or digital circuits in either monolithic or hybrid form.)
APERTURES: The openings in a stencil or screen that correspond to the land
patterns of a circuit board. Solder paste or adhesive is pushed through these
openings with a squeegee during printing.
AXIAL COMPONENTS: Through-hole components such as resistors and capaci-
tors that have lead wire extending from the component along its longitudinal axis.
BED-OF-NAILS FIXTURE: A test fixture consisting of a frame and a holder
containing a field of spring-loaded pins that make electrical contact with a
planar test object.
BOX BUILD: Final assembly of a system. Includes attaching all the needed
hardware, along with the circuit board assemblies into a box or chassis.
CHIP COMPONENTS: Very small surface mount resistors and capacitors.
CHIP SHOOTER: A high-speed placement machine that mounts surface
mount chip components to a circuit board assembly.
CONDUCTOR: A metal, such as copper, or metallic based material, such as
conductive ink or tape that carries or conducts electrical signals.
DIP (Dual In-Line Package): A basically rectangular component package that
has a row of leads extending from each of the longer sides of its body that
are formed at right angles to a plane that is parallel to the base of its body.
EMSI (Electronics Manufacturing Services Industry): Companies that per-
form electronics assembly for Original Equipment Manufacturers.
ESD (Electrostatic Discharge): Occurs when static electricity from a body or
object comes in contact with and is discharged into an electronic component.
FLUX: A chemically and physically active compound that, when heated, pro-
motes the wetting of a base metal surface by molten solder by removing
minor surface oxidation and other surface films and by protecting the sur-
faces from reoxidation during a soldering operation.
GLOSSARY
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
30
Introduction to Electronics Assembly
31
REWORK: The act of reprocessing non-complying articles, through the use of
original or alternate equivalent processing, in a manner that assures compli-
ance of the article with applicable drawings or specifications.
SECONDARY SIDE: The side on an assembly that is opposite the primary side
(it is usually the same as the solder-source side on through-hole mounting
technology).
SEQUENCER: A machine that cuts and retapes axial or radial components in
a specific order for automatic insertion.
SOLDER: An alloy that melts at lower temperatures than any of the base
metals and is used to join or seal metals with higher melting points.
SOLDERABILITY: The ability of a metal to be wetted by molten solder.
SOLDER PASTE: Finely divided particles of solder, with additives to promote
wetting and to control viscosity, tackiness, slumping, drying rate, etc., that are
suspended in a cream flux.
STENCIL PRINTING: The act of pressing solder paste through openings in a
a stencil or screen onto corresponding lands on a circuit board. The pressing
is done with a squeegee.
STRESS TESTING: Exposing an assembly to controlled extreme operating
conditions to ensure reliability before shipping the product.
SURFACE MOUNT: A technology that uses components having leads or ter-
minations that attach directly onto lands on the surface of the PWB.
THROUGH-HOLE: A technology that uses components having leads that are
inserted through holes in the PWB.
WAVE SOLDERING: A process wherein an assembled printed board is
brought in contact with the surface of a continuously flowing and circulating
fountain of solder.
WETTING: The formation of a relatively uniform, smooth, unbroken and
adherent film of solder to a basis metal.
WICKING: The capillary movement of solder between metal surfaces, such
as strands of a wire.
OPEN CIRCUIT: A fault that occurs when two electrically connected points
become separated.
OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer): A company that designs and
manufactures its own electronic products.
OXIDES: The contamination that forms on component leads and circuit board
lands whenever these metals come in contact with the oxygen in the air.
PASSIVE COMPONENT: A discrete electronic device whose basic function
does not change while it processes an applied signal. (Includes components
such as resistors and capacitors.)
PATHWAY: A single conductive path in a conductor pattern.
PREFORMING LEADS: Bending the leads of a component to fit into the
holes in a circuit board.
PREHEATING: The raising of the temperature of a material(s) above the
ambient temperature in order to reduce the thermal shock and to influence
the dwell time during subsequent elevated temperature processing.
PRIMARY SIDE: The side of an assembly that usually contains the most
complex or the most number of components.
PCB (Printed Circuit Board): A printed wiring board that provides point-to-
point connections in a predetermined arrangement on a common base and
that has embedded components.
PWB (Printed Wiring Board): A printed board that provides point-to-point
connections in a predetermined arrangement on a common base and does
not have any embedded components.
RADIAL COMPONENTS: Components that have two or more leads extend-
ing from the same face of the component, as opposed to axial components
which have them coming out opposite sides.
REFLOW SOLDERING: The joining of surfaces that have been tinned and/or
have solder between them, placing them together, heating them until the sol-
der flows, and allowing the surface and the solder to cool in the joined position.
REPAIR: The act of restoring the functional capability of a defective article in
a manner that precludes compliance of the article with original drawings or
specifications.
RESISTANCE: The restriction of the flow of electricity.
Technical References: IPC-T-50 Terms and Definitions for Interconnecting and
Packaging Electronic Circuits
IPC-DRM-18 Component Identification Desk Reference Manual