Chapter 3 Drag 3-1

CHAPTER THREE

DRAG

100. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this assignment sheet is to aid the student in understanding the forces
and behaviors of drag as a fundamental force of flight.

101. LESSON TOPIC LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Terminal Objective: Partially supported by this lesson topic:

1.0 Upon completion of this unit of instruction, the student aviator will demonstrate
knowledge of basic aerodynamic factors that affect airplane performance.

Enabling Objectives: Completely supported by this lesson topic:

1.35 Define total drag.

1.36 Define parasite drag.

1.37 List the three major types of parasite drag.

1.38 State the cause of each major type of parasite drag.

1.39 State the aircraft design features that reduce each major type of
parasite drag.

1.40 Describe the effects of changes in density, velocity, and equivalent
parasite area on parasite drag, using the parasite drag equation.

1.41 Define induced drag.

1.42 State the cause of induced drag.

1.43 State the cause of wingtip vortices.

1.44 Describe the effects of upwash and downwash on the lift generated
by an infinite wing.

1.45 Describe the effects of upwash and downwash on the lift generated
by a finite wing.

1.46 State the aircraft design features that reduce induced drag.
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1.47 Describe the effects of changes in lift, weight, density, and velocity
on induced drag, using the induced drag equation.

1.48 State the airplane configuration when vortex strength is greatest.

1.49 Identify the hazards of encountering another aircrafts wake turbulence.

1.50 Describe the effects of changes in velocity on total drag.

1.51 Define and state the purpose of the lift to drag ratio.

1.52 State the importance of L/D
MAX
.

102. REFERENCES

1. Aerodynamics for Naval Aviators
2. Aerodynamics for Pilots, Chapter 2, Chapter 20 (Pages 147-148)
3. T-34C NATOPS Flight Manual

103. STUDY ASSIGNMENT

Review Information Sheet 1.3.1I and answer the Study Questions.

104. DRAG

Drag is defined as the component of the aerodynamic force that is parallel to the
relative wind, and acts in the same direction (Figure 3-1).



Figure 3-1 DRAG


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Chapter 3 Drag 3-3
Physically, drag is caused by friction and pressure differentials in the same direction as
the relative wind. It is the unfortunate side effect of the same airflow used to create lift.

The equation for drag is the same as the aerodynamic force equation, except that the
coefficient of drag (C
D
) is used.

Just as in lift, the most readily apparent effects are due to dynamic pressure and
surface area. An increase in q or S results in more interactions between air particles
and wing surfaces which results in greater overall drag. The many other factors
effecting the creation of drag are represented by C
D
.

C
D
may be plotted against angle of attack for a given aircraft with a constant
configuration. Note that the C
D
is low and nearly constant at very low angles of attack.
As angle of attack increases, the C
D
rapidly increases and continues to increase. Since
there is always some resistance to airflow, drag will never be zero; therefore, C
D
will
never be zero (Figure 3-2).



Figure 3-2 CD vs AOA


Total drag has two major sub-forms: parasite drag and induced drag.

By independently studying the factors that affect each type, we can better understand
how they act when combined.

105. PARASITE DRAG

Parasite drag (D
P
) is defined as all drag that is not associated with the production of lift.
It is composed of form drag, friction drag and interference drag (Figure 3-3).

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Figure 3-3 Parasite drag


Form Drag

Form drag, also known as pressure or profile drag, is caused by the separation of the
boundary layer from a surface (Figure 3-5) and the wake created by that separation. It is
primarily dependent upon the shape of the object. In Figure 3-4, the flat plate has a
leading edge stagnation point at the front that contains very high static pressure. Air
attempts to follow the surface of the plate, but the streamlines are unable to make the
sharp angles necessary to fill in behind the plate. Consequently, they separate at the
trailing edge leaving a low static pressure wake area behind the plate. This pressure
differential pushes against the plate in the direction of the relative wind and retards
forward motion.


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Chapter 3 Drag 3-5

Figure 3-4 Flat plate


Because streamlines are able to flow more easily over smooth shapes (Figures 3-5,3-6)
boundary layer separation is delayed and the size and intensity of the low-pressure
wake is greatly reduced. The reduction of the pressure differential decreases form drag
over shapes such as this.



Figure 3-5 Sphere
Figure 3-6 Streamling


To reduce form drag, the fuselage, bombs, and other surfaces exposed to the airstream
are streamlined (shaped like a teardrop). Streamlining optimizes the size reduction of
the high pressure leading edge stagnation point and low pressure wake.

It is no coincidence that airfoils are highly streamlined shapes. They are designed to
maintain boundary layer contact over as much of their surface as possible and minimize
drag. However, when an airfoil is raised to some high angle of attack, it exposes a
larger surface area to the relative wind. The airflow from the leading edge must follow a
more torturous path, with a more severe change in direction required to follow the wing
surface. Consequently, airflow separation occurs much closer to the leading edge
leaving a much larger low-pressure wake. Form drag temporarily increases significantly
until the aircraft velocity decreases to match the higher angle of attack.

Friction Drag

Due to friction and the viscosity of the air, a retarding force called friction drag is
created in the boundary layer. As molecules attempt to flow past the wing surface and
past each other in the boundary layer, the viscous resistance to that flow becomes a
force retarding forward motion. The amount of friction drag per square foot is usually
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3-6 Chapter 3 Drag
small, but because the boundary layer covers much of the surface of the airplane,
friction drag can become quite significant in larger airplanes (Figure 3-7).



Figure 3-7 Total surface area


Turbulent flow creates more friction drag than laminar flow due to its greater interaction
with the surface of the airplane. Rough surfaces quickly trip boundary layer airflow from
laminar into turbulent and increase its thickness, causing more airflow to generate
resistance (Figure 3-8).



Figure 3-8 Dirty and Clean surfaces

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Chapter 3 Drag 3-7

Friction drag can be reduced by smoothing the exposed surfaces of the airplane
through painting, cleaning, waxing, or polishing (Figure 3-9). Since any irregularity of the
wing surface causes the boundary layer to become turbulent, using flush rivets on the
leading edges also reduces friction.



Figure 3-9 Aircraft cleaning


Because friction drag is much greater in the turbulent boundary layer, it might appear
that preventing the laminar flow from becoming turbulent would decrease drag.
However, if the boundary layer were all laminar airflow, it would easily separate from the
surface, creating a large wake behind the airfoil and increasing form drag. Since
turbulent airflow adheres to the surface better than laminar flow, maintaining turbulent
airflow on an airfoil will significantly reduce form drag with a relatively small increase in
friction.

Interference Drag

Interference drag is generated by the mixing of streamlines between airframe
components or the airframe and attached stores. Areas of streamline mixing take on the
attributes of turbulent wind, thickening the boundary layer and causing it to separate
early. One example of an area effected by this phenomenon is the air flowing around
the fuselage mixing with air flowing around an external store. The drag of the fuselage
and the drag of the external store are known. The total drag after the external store is
attached to the airplane will be greater than the sum of the fuselage and the external
store separately (Figure 3-10).

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Figure 3-10 Interference drag


Another example is the flow around the fuselage mixing with the flow around the wing at
the root. Roughly, five to ten percent of the total drag on an airplane can be attributed to
interference drag. Interference drag can be minimized by proper fairing and filleting,
(Figure 3-11) which eases the transition between elements, allowing the streamlines
over each component to meet gradually rather than abruptly.



Figure 3-11 Filleting


Parasite Drag Equation

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Chapter 3 Drag 3-9
Total parasite drag (D
P
) can be found by multiplying dynamic pressure by an area.
Equivalent parasite area (f) is a mathematically computed value equal to the area of a
flat plate perpendicular to the relative wind that would produce the same amount of drag
as form drag, friction drag and interference drag combined. It is not the cross-sectional
area of the airplane. The equation for D
P
is:


As you can see, parasite drag varies directly with velocity squared (V
2
). This means that
if you double your speed, you will create four times as much parasite drag. Figure 3-12
graphically depicts parasite drag versus velocity.



Figure 3-12 Parasite drag


106. INDUCED DRAG

Infinite Wing

Airfoils have, until this point, been considered as 2-D objects with flow only able to
follow two paths, over the wing and under it. An actual wing with this flow condition
would have to have an infinite span. The relative wind on this infinite wing can flow
only in a chord wise direction, and therefore produce lift. This is an acceptable
consideration for what has been discussed so far.

As the relative wind flows around the infinite wing, the high-pressure air under the
leading edge attempts to equalize with the low-pressure air above the wing. The
shortestand the onlyroute this flow can take is around the leading edge. The result
is some of the air that would have passed under the wing, will flow up and over the
leading edge. This flow, in addition to all the flow that normally would have flowed
upward from the leading edge stagnation point, is called upwash (Figure 3-13). Upwash
increases lift because it effectively shifts the average relative wind downward,
increasing the average AOA on the wing.

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Figure 3-13 Upwash


Some of the air on top of the wing also flows down and under the trailing edge,
attempting to equalize the high trailing edge stagnation pressure with the lower pressure
under the wing. This flow, in addition to all the flow moving downward over the trailing
edge of the wing, is called downwash (Figure 3-14). Downwash decreases lift by
effectively shifting the average relative wind upward, reducing the average AOA on the
wing. For an infinite wing, the upwash exactly balances the downwash resulting in no
net change in AOA or lift. Upwash and downwash exist any time an airfoil produces lift.



Figure 3-14 Downwash


Finite Wing

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Chapter 3 Drag 3-11
In reality, because infinite wings are not possible (or at least not funded), a 2-D flow
model does not accurately describe all the flow over an actual wing. The actual wing
has one feature that an infinite wing does notwingtips. Wingtips provide another path
for air to flow, making upwash and downwash unequal on a finite wing.

The high-pressure air from beneath the wing, along with some of the spanwise flow of
high-pressure air from the leading edge stagnation point, will flow up around the
wingtips in an attempt to reach the low-pressure air above the wing (Figure 3-15). This
flow around the wingtips is not accelerated by the shape of the wing and so does not
add to the lift generated by the normal chordwise flow. However, it is caught up in the
chordwise flow and adds to the downwash. Downwash is approximately double by this
process.



Figure 3-15 Upwash and Downwash


As a result, the average shift in relative wind is not balanced as it is in the infinite wing.
The increased downwash causes a net upward shift in average relative wind at the
wingtip, which decreases lift.

Furthermore, this outward motion of air along the front and bottom of the wing coupled
with the inward motion of air as it passes around the wingtips results in a powerful
circular motion to the air as it passes over the trailing edge of the wing. This swirling
mass of air is called a wingtip vortex. It can be said, then, that the process of wingtip
vortex formation is the root cause of induced drag Figure 3-16).

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Figure 3-16 Wingtip vortex


Induced drag (D
i
) is that portion of total drag associated with the production of lift.
Since there is twice as much downwash as upwash on a finite wing, there is a
downward slant of the average relative wind at the wingtip compared to the free
airstream relative wind. The downward slant not only decreases the AOA and so
decreases the magnitude of the total lift vector; it also causes it to rotate aft remaining
perpendicular to the average relative wind.

Because this effect is localized at the wingtip, the lift generated there is said to have
components that are perpendicular and parallel to the free airstream relative wind. The
perpendicular component of the wingtip total lift is called effective lift since it is in the
direction that lift is expected to act. Because the wingtip total lift is inclined aft, effective
lift at the wingtip will be less than the wingtip total lift. The total amount of lift produced in
the desired direction by the wing (effective lift) will be decreased

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Chapter 3 Drag 3-13


Figure 3-17 Effective Lift


The parallel component of total lift is called induced drag since it acts in the same
direction as drag and tends to retard the forward motion of the airplane

The D
i
equation below is derived from the aerodynamic force equation:


Assuming equilibrium level flight, the equation shows that increasing the weight of an
airplane will increase induced drag, since a heavier airplane requires more lift to
maintain level flight. Induced drag is reduced by increasing density ((), velocity (V), or
the wingspan (b). In level flight where lift is constant, induced drag varies inversely with
velocity, and directly with angle of attack. Another method to reduce induced drag is to
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install devices that impede the flow of air around the wingtip. These devices include
winglets, wingtip tanks, and wingtip ordnance (Figure 3-18).



Figure 3-18 Wingtip vortex


107. WAKE TURBULENCE

Wingtip vortices are often called "jetwash" or "wake turbulence". While the induced drag
associated with wingtip vortices is detrimental to the generating aircraft, vortices are far
more dangerous to other aircraft. Flying into another aircraft's vortices can lead to a
variety of dangerous situations. Vortices may instantly change the direction of the
relative wind and cause one or both wings of the trailing airplane to stall, or disrupt
airflow in the engine inlet inducing engine failure by compressor stall (Think Goose and
Maverick).

Since vortices are a by-product of lift, they are generated from the moment an airplane
rotates for takeoff until the airplane nosewheel touches down for landing. Tests show
that vortices cover an area about 2 wingspans in width and one in height. They sink at a
rate of 400 to 500 feet per minute and level off about 900 feet below the flight path of
the generating airplane. Vortices will lose strength and break up after a few minutes.
Atmospheric turbulence will accelerate this breakup. Once in contact with the ground,
vortices move laterally away from each other at about 5 knots.

The strength of a vortex depends on three main factors: airplane weight, airplane
speed, and the shape of the wing. To maintain level flight, a heavier airplane must
produce more lift, and will therefore have a greater pressure differential at the wingtip
where the vortex is created. A faster airplane will stretch the vortex out over a longer
distance. If the flaps are lowered, more lift is created at the wing root, which decreases
AERODYNAMICS CHAPTER THREE

Chapter 3 Drag 3-15
the pressure differential at the wingtip. The greatest vortex strength occurs when the
generating airplane is HEAVY, SLOW, and CLEAN.

The most common hazard to an airplane flying through wake turbulence is the rolling
moment generated by vortices, which can exceed its roll control capability. Counter
control is usually effective and induced roll is least in cases where the wingspan and
ailerons of the encountering airplane extend beyond the rotational flow of the vortex. It
is more difficult for airplanes with short wingspans (compared with the vortex generating
airplane) to counter the imposed roll. Pilots of short wingspan airplanes, even of the
high performance type, must be especially alert to vortex encounters. The most
significant factor affecting your ability to counteract the roll induced by the vortices is the
relative wingspan between the two airplanes. The most effective means of countering
wake turbulence is avoidance.

108. TOTAL DRAG

As discussed in the previous sections, parasite and induced drag behave very
differently with respect to velocity. By placing both drag curves on the same graph, and
adding the values of induced and parasite drag at each velocity, the form of the total
drag curve can be seen (Figure 3-19).




Figure 3-19 Total drag curves


To properly understand the use of the total drag curve, it must be first understood that
the airplane generating this curve is not using its wings to produce drag, but instead to
produce lift. Drag is being produced as described in this graph, but only as a by-product.
Using this knowledge and the aforementioned assumption that the airplane is in
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equilibrium flight, we assume that over the entire range of velocities, the airplane is
producing the same amount of lift.

Velocity and AOA are inversely related in equilibrium flight, so it follows that as velocity
increases from left to right on the graph, the AOA used to produce the required lift (say
4000 lbf) will be decreasing. The numbers 1, 9, and 28 depicted near the curve are the
AOA scale. You should realize that the drag curve depicted is not only particular to one
weight, but also to one altitude and one configuration. As weight, altitude and
configuration vary, the total drag curve will shift.

109. LIFT TO DRAG RATIO

Because drag is the necessary by-product of lift production, it also plays a part in
determining the usefulness of an airfoil. An airfoil that produces too much drag for the
desired lift would not be very useful. The lift to drag ratio (L/D) is used to determine the
efficiency of an airfoil, with larger ratios indicating more efficient airfoils.

Because the amounts of lift and drag generated by a wing change independently with
changes in AOA, an airfoils L/D will also vary with AOA. This can be modeled by using
the lift and drag equations.

Dividing lift by drag to calculate L/D, all terms except C
L
and C
D
cancel out.


A ratio of the coefficients at a certain AOA determines the L/D ratio at that AOA. The
L/D ratio can be plotted against angle of attack along with C
L
and C
D
(Figure 3-17). The
maximum L/D ratio is called L/D
MAX
. For the airplane in Figure 3-20, L/D
MAX
AOA is 9
units. Since angle of attack indicators are far less precise than airspeed indicators,
pilots will usually fly an airspeed that corresponds to L/D
MAX
AOA.



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Chapter 3 Drag 3-17
Figure 3-20 Lift to Drag ratio


There are four things to consider when discussing L/D
MAX
:

1. L/D
MAX
AOA produces the minimum total drag. Since the lift produced for
every velocity and AOA on the total drag curve is the same, it makes
sense that the maximum L/D will occur at the minimum total drag. L/D
MAX

is located at the bottom of the total drag curve. Any change in AOA away
from L/D
MAX
AOA will increase drag.

2. At L/D
MAX
AOA, parasite drag and induced drag are equal. At velocities
below L/D
MAX
, the airplane is affected primarily by induced drag, while at
velocities above L/D
MAX
, the airplane is affected primarily by parasite drag.

3. L/D
MAX
AOA produces the greatest ratio of lift to drag. Note that this is not
the maximum amount of lift.

4. L/D
MAX
AOA is the most efficient angle of attack. Note that L/D is the
efficiency of the wing, not the engine.

An increase in weight or altitude will increase L/D
MAX
airspeed, but not affect L/D
MAX
or
L/D
MAX
AOA. A change in configuration may have a large effect on L/D
MAX
and L/D
MAX

airspeed. The effect of configuration on L/D
MAX
AOA will depend on what causes the
change (lowering landing gear or flaps, dropping external stores, speed brakes, etc.),
and how much change is produced. These changes in L/D
MAX
will be discussed in
Chapter 6, Thrust and Power.
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STUDY QUESTIONS

Basic Aerodynamic Principles

1. State the continuity equation. What are the variables in the equation? When may
the density variable be cancelled?




2. The continuity equation tells us that to double the velocity in an incompressible
flow, the crosssectional area must be ____________________.




3. State Bernoulli's equation. Under what conditions does total pressure remain
constant? If P
T
is constant, how do q and P
S
relate?




4. Describe how the Pitotstatic system works using Bernoulli's equation.




5. For a given altitude, what is true about the pressure in the static pressure port of
the airspeed indicator?




6. Define IAS and TAS. What is the equation relating the two?




7. When will IAS equal TAS? How do IAS and TAS vary with increases in altitude?
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Chapter 3 Drag 3-19
8. What must a pilot do to maintain a constant true airspeed during a climb?




9. An airplane is flying at a six nautical mile per minute ground speed. If it has a
100knot tailwind, what is its TAS?




10. An F-14 is flying at an eight nautical mile per minute ground speed. If it has a
TAS of 600 knots, does it have a headwind or tailwind and how much of one?




11. Define Mach number and critical Mach Number (M
CRIT
).




12. An F117 is climbing at a constant 350 KIAS. What would be the effect on Mach
Number as it climbs? Why?
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