1

LOCOMOTION AND SUPPORT

[CHAPTER 2 BIOLOGY FORM 5]

















































2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans and Animals

1. Support and locomotion in humans and animals
2. Appreciating a healthy musculoskeletal system
3. Support in plants
1.

2
a) Locomotion the ability of an organism to move from one place to another
b) Movement a change in position in any part of an organisms body




















































consists of
Human Skeletal System
Types of skeleton in animals
Hydrostatic skeleton

Found in soft-bodied
invertebrates
The skeleton contains
fluid within the body
cavity
The fluid is kept under
pressure to maintain
the shape of the body








Earthworm
Exoskeleton

Found in bodies of
arthropods (insects and
crabs)
It is made up of chitin
Supports and protects
internal organs









Crab
Endoskeleton

Found in all vertebrates
It consists of hard and
tough skeleton of bones
It is made up of calcium
and phosphate
Important for support,
protection, locomotion
and formation of
erythrocytes







Elephant





Necessity of
locomotion
To search the food
To search for shelter
To search for the mate
To run away from predators
ii) In search of
shelter
iii) To run away from
predators
iv) Carry out daily
activities

1. State 5 main
functions of
skeleton.
i) Enable movements
ii) Provide shape and
support
iii) Protects internal
organs
iv) Produces blood
cells
v) Stores calcium
and phosphate

Axial skeleton
Appendicular skeleton
Function of skeletal
system
For muscle attachment
Stores calcium and phosphate
Produces blood cells
Protects internal organs
Provide shape and support
3














Axial skeleton

4






















































Vertebrae




Vertebral column
Ribcage


Has a pair of transverse
foramen through which blood
vessels and nerve pass
5






















































Appendicular skeleton






Spinous process
For attachment of muscle
and ligament

Facets
To articulate or join with
another vertebra

Vertebral foramen
To contain spinal cord

Vertebral arch
Protects the spinal cord

Transverse process
For attachment of muscle and
ligament

Centrum
Gives support and bear the
weight of lower back

Lumbar vertebra
Spinous process are
long and directed
downwards
Large centrum to
bear the weight of
the lower back
6
Pectoral girdle Pelvic girdle



















Forelimb bones Hindlimb bones

































Exercises
1. Diagram below shows the human skeleton. Label the structure in the diagram.




7


























2. Diagram 2 shows a human vertebral column. Label the structures and state the number of P, Q, R,
S and T.


























Tendons and ligaments


8
Joint - the place where two or more bones meet
Tendons connect muscles to bones
Tendons are tough, strong, flexible but not elastic
Tendons ensure that the pulling force exerted by the muscular contraction is transmitted to the
bone, to pull the bone and cause movement
Ligaments are flexible, strong and elastic connective tissues that join bone to other bone at a
joint
Ligaments allow bone to move and prevent disclocation of the joints during movement


A typical synovial joint
A joint which has a cavity filled with fluid
Freely movable



































Types of joints

Cartilage is a soft tissue that
reduces friction and absorbs
mechanical shock during movement.

Synovial fluid is secreted
by synovial membrane
acts as a lubricant and
reduces friction between
bones during movement.

Triceps muscles
9



Skeletal muscles

Type of joints Function Examples
Ball and socket joints

Allows rotational
movement of bones in all
directions
Allow the swinging of
arms and legs in a
circular motion
Shoulder joints
(between the humerus
and the pectoral
girdle)
Hip joint
(between the femur
and the pelvic girdle)
Hinge joints

Allows the movement of
bones in one plane only
Knee
Elbow
Finger bones
Toe bones

Immovable joints

Not allowed any movement
of the bones
Skull



10
Skeletal muscles are tissues which can contract and relax to allow movement of the bones
Produce movements by exerting the pulling force on the tendons that are attached to the bones
Skeletal muscles must work in pairs antagonistic pairs
When one muscle contracts, the other muscle relaxes
















































Consequences of impaired musculoskeletal system on support and locomotion




When the arm is bent A straightened arm
When the biceps contracts, the
tendons transmits the pulling
force produced by the contraction
to the forearm
At the same time, the triceps
relaxes
The elbow joint bends and the
radius and ulna are pulled
upwards
The forearm moves upwards

When the triceps contracts and the
biceps relaxes, the radius and ulna
are pulled downwards
The forearm is straightened
11
Muscle cramps An involuntary, forcibly contracted muscle that does not relax
When a cramp begins, the spinal cord stimulates the muscle to
keep contracting
Causes: inadequate stretching, muscle fatigue
Muscular dystrophy Caused by the progressive degeneration and weakness of the
skeletal muscles which control movement
Caused by a mutated gene which is found on X chromosome
The mutated gene causes the body unable to produce the
proteins needed to build and maintain healthy muscles
Mainly affected boys
There is no cure for muscular dystrophy
Osteoporosis














Common disease among elderly women
The bones become thinner, more brittle and more porous
Can be prevented by taking enough amount of calcium,
phosphorus and vitamin D
Regular exercise can reduce likelihood of bone fractures and
help to reduce bone mineral loss









Arthritis


A condition where the joints become swollen, stiff and painful
Osteoarthritis is caused by wear and tear of the cartilage inside
certain joints
The production of synovial fluid in the joints will decrease due
to ageing process
Cartilage between bones becomes thinner and ligaments
shorten and lose some of their elasticity










The mechanism of locomotion in animals



i) Animal with a hydrostatic skeleton : earthworm


12
























































1. When circular muscle
contract, the
longitudinal muscles
relax
2. The organism
becomes shorter and
thinner
3. When circular muscle
relax, the longitudinal
muscles contract
4. The organism
becomes shorter and
thicker
5. The circular and
longitudinal muscles
contract rhythmically
to produce waves
along the body
6. An earthworm has
bristle called chaetae
which anchor parts of
the body to the ground
so that the other parts
can be pulled towards
it
ii) Animal with an exoskeleton : grasshopper


1. A grasshopper has antagonistic muscles : flexor and extensor muscles
2. Flexor muscles bend a joint while extensor muscles straighten it
3. The rear legs are adapted for hopping; the legs are long and muscular
4. When the flexor muscles in the upper part of legs contract, the lower legs are
pulled towards the body the hind legs are folded in a Z shape and ready for
jump
5. When the extensor muscles contract, the legs jerk backwards, propelling the
grasshopper forwards and upwards into the air

iii) Animal with an endoskeleton : fish

Myotomes are W-shaped muscle
blocks that make up each side of the
body of a fish
When the muscles on one side
contract, those on other side relax
Alternating waves of contraction and
13






















































2.2 Appreciating a healthy musculoskeletal system



Dorsal fin: controls
rolling and yawing of fish
Pelvic fin:
Controls the pitch
of the fish
Control rolling of
fish
Pectoral fin:
Controls the pitch of
the fish, causing it to
swim upward and
downward
Helps in slowing
down stopping
Ventral fin: controls
rolling and yawing of
fish
To reduce water resistance:
Has sleek and streamlined body
shape
Overlapping scales on the body
face backwards
The body covered by a slimy
coating
Many bony fish have swim
bladder to maintain buoyancy in
ther water
Caudal fin/tail:
Provides thrust
and controls the
fishs direction
14

















2.3 Support in plants




































Support in aquatic and terrestrial plants

Aquatic plants Terrestrial plants
Ways to maintain healthy
musculoskeletal system
Good posture
Regular exercise

Proper attire for daily activities
Take a balanced diet consist of
calcium and phosphorus
Importance of support
in plants
To allow plant to grow towards
sunlight in order for
photosynthesis

To allow the plants to stay upright

To ensure the fruits are in strategic
position for effective dispersal of
seeds

To allow leaves in proper position
for maximum absorption of
sunlight
15
i. Submerged plants



i. Herbaceous plants




Supported by the turgidity of the parenchyma
and collenchymas cells
The thickening of the cell walls with cellulose
and pectin in collenchymas cells provide
additional mechanical strength




ii. Floating plants



Water hyacinth

Have broad leaves that are firm but flexible
to resist tearing by wave action
Have aerenchyma tissues in the stems and
leaves provide buoyancy so that plant can
float on the surface of the water

ii. Woody plant





Supported by sclerenchyma and xylem
tissues
Plants usually undergoes secondary growth to
form large amount of secondary xylem called
wood



Objective questions

1 Figure 1 shows part of human forelimb.
Have thin, narrow and flexible leaves
prevent from being damaged by water
current
There are air sacs inside the leaves and
stems which keep the plant floating
close to the surface to obtain maximum
sunlight
The stems have no woody tissues






16
Figure 1






































What are P, Q, R and S in Figure 1?

P Q R S
A Ulna Ligament Biceps Humerus
B Scapula Ligament Biceps Radius
C Humerus Tendon Triceps Ulna
D Scapula Tendon Triceps Radius
2 Figure 2 shows a human lumbar vertebra.











What is the function of X and Y in Figure 2?
A Protection for spinal cord
B Surfaces for muscle attachment
C Surfaces for vertebral joints
D Surfaces for rib articulation


Figure 2
17
3 Diagram below shows an elbow joint. Which of the following parts labelled A, B, C or D is tough
and elastic?


4 Diagram below shows a human arm.


If tendon X was torn off, what happens to the arm?
A The elbow joint loosens up
B The fingers cannot grip
C The arm cannot be bent
D The lower arm cannot twist

5 Diagram below shows a knee joint.

Which of the following tissues joins X to Y?
A. Ligament
B. Tendon
C. Adipose
D. Cartilage

18
6


























Diagram below shows the structure of a human forearm.





What happens to the parts P, Q, R and S which cause the arm to be in the position as shown in the
diagram?

P Q R S
A. Relaxes Contracts Is pushed downwards Is pushed downwards
B. Contracts Relaxes Is pushed downwards Is pushed downwards
C. Relaxes Contracts Is pulled upwards Is pulled upwards
D. Contracts Relaxes Is pulled upwards Is pulled upwards
7 The diagram shows human bones.



Which bones are part of the axial skeleton?
A. P and S
B. Q and R
C. P, Q and R
D. Q, R and S


Q
P
S
R
19
8 P, Q, R and S in diagram below are vertebrae found along the spine.



Which of the following shows the correct arrangement of the vertebrae in the spine?
A. R, S, P, Q
B. P, Q, R, S
C. Q, R, S, P
D. S, P, R, Q

9 Diagram below shows part of the human skeletal system.



What is X?
A. Ulna
B. Scapula
C. Humerus
D. Clavicle


20
10 A man is complaining of frequent back pains due to an injury. Which of the following would help
reduce his problem?

I Eat plenty of protein
II Practice a good posture
III Do vigorous exercise
IV Avoid carrying heavy objects

A. I and II
B. I and III
C. II and IV
D. III and IV

11




























Diagram below shows a bending leg.



Which of the following muscle actions will straighten the leg?

Quadriceps femoris Biceps femoris
A. Contracts Contracts
B. Contracts Relaxes
C. Relaxes Relaxes
D. Relaxes Contracts
12 Which bones make up the pectoral girdle?
A Ulna and radius
B Humerus and radius
C Clavicle and humerus
D Clavicle and scapula

21
13 Diagram below shows the changes of posture in a womans skeleton as she grows older due to lack
of certain hormones and nutrients.

What are these hormones and nutrient?
A Progesterone and ferum
B Progesterone and calcium
C Oestrogen and ferum
D Oestrogen and calcium

14 The following are characteristics related to locomotion in animals.








Which animal is correctly matched to their characteristics?

15 Diagram below shows a vertebra P in human vertebral column Q.
P Has a hydrostatic skeleton
Q Has a streamlined body
R Has long rear legs
S Has antagonistic muscles
22


Which part of vertebral column A, B, C or D in Q contains vertebra P?

16 Diagram below shows an artificial joints in a knee.


Which disease relates to the usage of artificial joints?
A Gout C Osteoarthritis
B Osteoporosis D Muscular dystrophy


23
17 Diagram below shows the cross section of the thorax of a bird.



What happen if muscle P is injured?
A The bird will not be able to glide
B The bird will not be able to move forward
C The bird will not be able to move its wings upwards and forward
D The bird will not be able to move its wings downwards and backwards

18 Diagram below shows the human skeleton.


Which bone, A, , C or D forms part of the axial skeleton?






Subjective questions
24

1 Diagram 1.1 and Diagram 1.2 show different positions of a forearm during a movement.



Diagram 1.1 Diagram 1.2

(a) Complete Diagram 1.1 by drawing the triceps muscle which is involved in the movement of the
forearm.
[2 marks]

(b) State one adaptive characteristics of tissue P shown in Diagram 1.1 which helps in the
movement of the forearm.

.
[1 mark]

(c) Explain the action of the muscles which cause the movement of the forearm in Diagram 1.2.

..

..

..

..
[3 marks]

(d) Diagram 1.3 shows a joint at the knee.


Diagram 1.3


Explain the health problem normally faced by an old person when tissue X is impaired.

25
.

.

.

.
[3 marks]

(e) An athlete must do a warming up exercise before starting an event. Explain why.








[3 marks]

2 Diagram 2 shows human muscles and bones involved in bending the leg.


Diagram 2

(a)(i) Name X.

X :
[1 mark]

(ii) State one function of X.


[1 mark]

26
(b) Describe briefly how the characteristic of X is adapted for its function as stated in 2(a)(ii).

.






[2 marks]

(c)(i) State one function of ligament in Diagram 2.


[1 mark]

(ii) Ligament of a gymnast are more flexible compared to ordinary people. Explain the statement.

..

..

..

..
[2 marks]

(d) Some marathon runners experience muscle cramps at the end of a race.

(i) What is muscle cramps?

...
[1 mark]

(ii) State one cause of muscle cramps among athlete.

..
[1 mark]

(e) Suggest three ways in which a person can maintain a healthy musculoskeletal system.

1.

2.

3.
[3 marks]