High Temperature Ultrasonic Thickness

HIGH TEMPERATURE THICKNESS MONITORING
USING ULTRASONIC WAVES

A Thesis
Presented to
The Academic Faculty
by
Joannes C. Pezant
In Partial Fulllment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Science in Electrical and Computer Engineering in the
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Georgia Institute of Technology
December 2008
HIGH TEMPERATURE THICKNESS MONITORING
USING ULTRASONIC WAVES
Approved by:
Professor Jennifer E. Michaels, Advisor
School of Electrical and Computer
Engineering
Professor Thomas E. Michaels
School of Electrical and Computer
Engineering
Professor Laurence J. Jacobs
School of Civil and Environmental
Engineering
Date Approved: 13 November 2008
To the girl next door...
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Jennifer Michaels, and her
husband and colleague, Dr. Thomas Michaels, who gave me the opportunity to work
on this project. The quality of their advice greatly improved my technical as well as
organizational skills. Ill never thank them enough for the experience they gave me
and also for their forbearance towards my linguistical skills at my arrival.
Dr. Laurence Jacobs, third member of my commitee, is an amazing teacher and
I really appreciated the conversations I had with him.
I also enjoyed the collaboration with Mechanical Integrity, Inc., and more partic-
ularly with Donald McNicol.
I want to thank my labmates for the quiet working environment they provided,
and the nice discussions I had with them. I particularly thank James Hall who
contributed to improve my English skills as an interactive dictionary.
I am grateful to Mr. Maheo, the best English teacher I ever had in France, who
gave me condence in my ability to study abroad, even if I had to wait for a complete
immersion to make real progress.
I would like to thank my family and friends for their continuous support in my
life, and particularly my parents for the wonderful environment in which I grew up.
I also would like to thank the numerous individuals who made my stay in Atlanta
more pleasant, particularly Steve, Bryan, Nicolas, Laurent, James, Greg, Helene,
Pierrick, Yann, Patrick and Adan.
In addition, my everyday life was greatly improved by my roomates Romain and
Sheena, with whom I shared many nice times.
Finally, this work was sponsored by the National Science Foundation under grant
iv
number IIP-0740663 to Mechanical Integrity, Inc., as a part of the NSF STTR pro-
gram.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
I INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
II BACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1 Ultrasonic Thickness Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.1 Pulse-Echo Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.2 Pitch-Catch Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Trailing Echo Generation in Waveguides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Thickness Measurements with a Waveguide . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3.1 Attenuation of Trailing Echoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
III STUDY OF WAVE PROPAGATION IN RODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2 Experimental Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3 Simulation Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3.1 Finite Dierence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3.2 Ray Tracing Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
IV WAVEGUIDE OPTIMIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.1 Rod Dimensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.1.1 External Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.1.2 Inuence of Rod Diameter on Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.1.3 Inuence of Rod Length on Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.1.4 Discussion and Choice of the Final Dimensions . . . . . . . 24
vi
4.2 Impact of the Source on Trailing Echoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.3 Inuence of Boundary Modications on Trailing Echoes . . . . . . 28
4.3.1 Experimental Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.3.2 Results of Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.3.3 Qualitative Analysis of the Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.3.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.4 Imperfect Machining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
V WAVEGUIDE IMPLEMENTATION FOR THICKNESS MONITORING 45
5.1 Waveguides and Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.1.1 Calibration Need . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.1.2 Dynamic Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.2 Measurement Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.2.1 Pulse-Echo Conguration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.2.2 Pitch-Catch Conguration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.3 Final Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.3.1 Discussion and Choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.3.2 Concept Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
VI CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.1 Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.2 Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
vii
LIST OF TABLES
1 Comparison of the dierent solutions proposed for trailing echoes at-
tenuation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2 Numerical values associated with the propagation of ray 1. . . . . . . 20
3 Comparison of the experimental and theoretical data available for the
time delay between the rst arrival and the rst trailing echo. . . . . 24
4 Error introduced by temperature changes in the measured thickness of
a 12.7 mm (1/2) plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5 Impact of the temperature on the measured thickness of a 12.7 mm
(1/2) plate after online calibration with the notch echo. . . . . . . . 49
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
1 Principle of Pulse-echo measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Illustration of the time of ight determination for the three modes of
ultrasonic thickness measurements (a) Mode 1. (b) Mode 2. (c) Mode 3. 4
3 Principle of pitch-catch measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4 Generation of trailing echoes in a cylindrical waveguide. . . . . . . . . 8
5 Thickness measurements with a waveguide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6 Waveguide modications for reducing trailing echoes. (a) Grooved rod.
(b) Tapered Rod. (c) Clad Rod. (d) Bundle Waveguide. . . . . . . . 10
7 Waveform obtained with a cylindrical waveguide of length 152.4 mm
(6) and diameter 9.54 mm (3/8) (a) Pulse-Echo Mode. (b) Through-
Transmission Mode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
8 (a) Geometry used for nite dierence simulation of a 0.5 degree ta-
pered rod. (b) Transducer source function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
9 Waveform obtained for through-transmission propagation in a cylindri-
cal waveguide of length 152.4 mm (6) and diameter 9.53 mm (3/8).
(a) Simulated with Wave2000. (b) Experimental. . . . . . . . . . . . 16
10 Wavelet used to model the source emission in the ray tracing model. . 17
11 Propagation of a ray in a straight rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
12 Contribution of ray 1 to the nal waveform. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
13 Waveforms obtained for the through-transmission in a cylindrical wave-
guide of length 152.4 mm (6) and diameter 9.53 mm (3/8), (a) Ex-
perimental. (b) Simulated with nite dierence. (c) Simulated with
ray tracing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
14 Comparison of pulse-echo waveforms for rods of same length 101.6
mm (4) and dierent diameters (a) diameter 9.47 mm ( 3/8). (b)
diameter 12.64 mm ( 1/2). (c) diameter 18.98 mm ( 3/4). . . . . . 23
15 Comparison of pulse-echo waveforms for rods of same diameter (3/8)
and dierent lengths (a) length 101.6 mm (4). (b) length 152.4 mm
(6). (c) length 203.2 mm (8). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
16 Model of transducer emission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
ix
17 Through-transmission waveforms in a cylindrical rod of length 152.4
mm (6) and diameter 9.54 mm (3/8) for several transducer diame-
ters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
18 Relative attenuation of the trailing echoes with transducers diameter. 30
19 Waveforms recorded in dierent measurement congurations on a 0.75
tapered rod of length 152.4 mm (6) and larger diameter 9.54 mm

(3/8). (a) Through-transmission conguration with source at the
small end. (b) Through-transmission conguration with source at the
large end. (c) Pulse-echo conguration with source at the small end.
(d) Pulse-echo conguration with source at the large end. . . . . . . . 31
20 Experimental waveforms for dierent taper angles on a waveguide of
length 152.4 mm (6) and diameter 9.54mm (a) straight rod. (b) 0.25
taper angle. (c) 0.50
taper angle. (d) 0.75
taper angle. (e) 1
taper
angle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
21 Amplitude of the rst trailing echo relative to the rst arrival versus
taper angle. Each data point represents a separate waveform acquisition. 33
22 Waveforms resulting from nite dierence simulations for dierent ta-
per angles on a waveguide of length 152.4 mm (6) and diameter 9.54
mm (3/8) (a) straight rod. (b) 0.25
taper
angle. (d) 0.75
taper angle. (e) 1
taper angle. . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
23 Impact of the taper angle on the trailing echo attenuation with the
nite dierence model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
24 Waveforms resulting from ray tracing simulations for dierent taper
angles on a waveguide of length 152.4 mm (6) and diameter 9.54mm
(3/8) (a) straight rod. (b) 0.25
taper angle.
(d) 0.75
taper angle. (e) 1
taper angle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
25 Same as Figure 24 after zooming on the trailing echoes (a) straight
rod. (b) 0.25
taper
angle. (e) 1
taper angle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
26 Impact of the taper angle on the trailing echo attenuation with the ray
tracing model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
27 Comparison of trailing echo amplitude ratios from experiments and
both simulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
28 Change in arrival times of trailing echo rays after introduction of a
taper angle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
29 Variability of the widening eect with the trailing echo order. (a)
First order trailing echo order. (b) Second order trailing echo. . . . . 41
x
30 Example of imperfect machining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
31 Comparison of two tapered rods with dierent quality of machining.
(a) Bad machining. (b) Good machining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
32 Comparison of the wave paths corresponding to the backwall echo for
the pulse-echo and pitch-catch congurations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
33 Replacement of the calibration echo through notch digging. (a) Waveg-
uide with a notch. (b) Impact of the notch on the pulse-echo waveform. 49
34 Pulse-echo waveforms in cylindrical waveguides of length 152.4 mm
(6) (a) Rod of diameter 9.54 mm (3/8) with a notch of reective
area of 56% (d
n
=3.21 mm). (b) Rod of diameter 12.7 mm (1/2) with
a notch of reective area of 33% (d
n
=1.73 mm). . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
35 Pulse-echo measurements with a tapered rod. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
36 Design of a cylindrical waveguide enabling pulse-echo thickness mea-
surements. (a) Random waveguide and its pulse-echo waveform. (b)
Optimization of the rod dimensions for the rst arrival to be more im-
portant than it trailing echoes. (c) Notch dimensioning to minimize the
trailing echoes associated with the the calibration echo while increasing
the amplitude of the backwall echo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
37 Thickness measurement in a pitch-catch conguration with waveguides. 54
38 Experimental setup for concept verication of the pitch-catch measure-
ments (a) Picture of the actual setup. (b) Parameters of the experiment. 56
39 Experimental waveforms for pitch-catch measurements. (a) Pulse-echo
waveform. (b) Through-transmission waveform. . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
40 Generation of trailing echoes in a cylindrical waveguide. . . . . . . . . 58
41 Thickness measurements at room temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
42 Results of thickness measurements at elevated temperatures. The ini-
tial calibration was performed at 22.5
C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
xi
SUMMARY
The time required for inspection and maintenance of piping systems and vessels
needs to be reduced to both minimize down time and decrease operational costs of
petrochemical plants. Current ultrasonic inspection systems are not suited for on-
line monitoring, with the main issues being the resistance of transducers and their
coupling to high temperatures and the removal of insulation to access structures.
The use of welded cylindrical rods is thus proposed to transfer transducers and
their coupling to a lower temperature environment. However, when traveling through
waveguides, waves are subjected to numerous mode conversions that result in the
creation of new delayed echoes called trailing echoes. These echoes can impede
measurements and their attenuation needs to be investigated to enable use of wave-
guides. Among other solutions proposed in the literature, tapered rods are chosen
for their good results and their independence from material properties, which makes
them good candidates for welding. The impact of the taper angle on trailing echoes
is studied through both simulations and experiments. While clean signals can always
be obtained by increasing the taper angle in long rods, that is not always the case for
short rods, which are considered here.
In addition, temperature variations have a non-negligible impact on the arrival
time of the backwall echo when performing measurements with a waveguide, and on-
line compensation is essential. Since the interface echo between the rod and the pipe
wall may be suppressed after the welding operation, a notch is machined at the end
of the rod to create a reected echo, which can be used for on-line compensation.
Finally, the implementation of waveguides is considered for both pulse-echo and
xii
pitch-catch modes. In the pitch-catch mode, the backwall echo and the notch echo
are received by dierent transducers and signals of interst are both rst arrivals. As
a result, trailing echoes do not impede measurements and their attenuation becomes
unnecessary. In contrast, pulse-echo measurements are sensitive to trailing echoes
and the waveguides design plays an essential role in the feasibility of measurements.
However, the environment also imposes a set of constraints on waveguide dimensions
that complicates the implementation of pulse-echo measurements. Being more exi-
ble, the pitch-catch conguration is chosen for nal implementation. Experiments are
performed to verify the concept feasibility, and the accuracy of measurements with
thickness and temperature changes is also conrmed.
The major contributions of this thesis are the development of a 2D ray tracing
model to enable a better understanding of wave propagation in short tapered rods,
the understanding of the taper angle inuence on trailing echoes in short rods, and
the development and comparison of potential solutions for high temperature thickness
monitoring.
xiii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The American Petroleum Institute has reported that almost every unplanned renery
shutdown is linked to failures of piping systems [1]. The negative eects of such
incidents are amplied by the diculty of maintenance personnel to anticipate needed
repairs. The development of on-line monitoring systems for pressure vessels and piping
systems could thus play a critical role in the minimization of both plant down time
and maintenance expenses.
Existing nondestructive inspection methods based on wave propagation are in
common usage for measuring the wall thickness of pipes and pressure vessels [2, 3].
These methods are suitable for periodic inspection, either manually or with auto-
mated scanning equipment. More recently, the trend is towards the implementation
of permanently mounted monitoring systems able to provide near real-time data [4].
The failure of piping systems is caused by corrosion and erosion that result in wall
thinning. As of today, the integrity of pipelines is veried through a time and cost
intensive inspection process. Production is stopped, the insulation is removed, and
transducers are mounted directly on pipe walls for thickness measurements [5].
Each time an inspection is performed, the productivity of the plant is reduced,
resulting in a signicant loss of money. The use of an on-line monitoring system could
minimize these losses by allowing measurements with minimal eect on production.
Additionally, it would reduce the testing personnel since the insulation would not
need to be removed, and it would give faster results. However, the average operating
temperature of pipe walls is around 500
C, which introduces issues of transducer

survivability and coupling longevity.
1
As a result, traditional inspection methods have to be adapted to enable thickness
measurements at high temperature. After a review of existing literature on high tem-
perature thickness measurements, this thesis proposes new solutions to enable on-line
monitoring of pipe walls based upon the use of welded waveguides to solve the issue of
transducer coupling and survivability at high temperature. Several congurations for
the implementation of welded waveguides are presented, and the most appropriate
are selected for the specic application of pipeline monitoring. Finally, results are
provided to prove the concept feasibility.
2
CHAPTER II
BACKGROUND
This background summary presents prior technical knowledge relevant to this study.
After a review of the basics of ultrasonic thickness measurements, the generation
of trailing echoes in waveguides is presented and means of minimizing them are
explained.
2.1 Ultrasonic Thickness Measurements
Ultrasonic thickness measurements are performed by transducers emitting waves in
the tested structure. There are dierent methods for measurements, but they are all
based on the waves time-of-ight through the structure. The rst method is called
pulse-echo and requires only one transducer. The second method, called pitch-
catch, requires two transducers located in close proximity. In this study, the material
is considered to be homogeneous as is the customary assumption.
2.1.1 Pulse-Echo Method
In pulse-echo measurements, a transducer emits waves through the measured speci-
men and the echoes reected back are analyzed for thickness determination [6]. The
experimental setup for measuring the thickness of a plate is presented in Figure 1.
The waves time-of-ight for a round-trip through the plate is proportional to the
thickness of the plate,
d = c
t
2
, (1)
where d is the thickness of the plate, c the wave velocity through the plate, and t
the time needed for a round-trip through the plate.
3
d
Transducer
Figure 1: Principle of Pulse-echo measurements.
t t
t
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2: Illustration of the time of ight determination for the three modes of
ultrasonic thickness measurements (a) Mode 1. (b) Mode 2. (c) Mode 3.
There are three dierent measurement modes depending on the echoes considered
for the time-of-ight determination as shown in Figure 2 [6]. If calculation is based
on the rst backwall echo only, the measurement is said to be a mode 1. It may
not be the most accurate mode due to variability in the coupling layer, and is used
when a front echo is not available, such as is the case for contact transducers.
For immersion or delay line transducers, the time-of-ight corresponds to the time
delay between the echo resulting from reection on the front surface of the plate and
the echo reected from the back surface. This measurement is called a mode 2 and
is generally more precise than a mode 1.
Finally, a third mode exists that can apply to any kind of transducer. Once inside
the plate, waves bounce between the two boundaries, creating a series of echoes with
a constant time interval corresponding to a round-trip in the plate. Thus, the time-of-
ight can be measured as the time delay between two sequential echoes. This method,
4
referred to as mode 3, is the most accurate since it uses two echoes subjected to
the same uncertainties and many errors are cancelled. However, it requires at least
two echoes of sucient amplitude, which are not always available.
As a result, measurements are performed in mode 3 as long as suitable echoes are
available. Otherwise, mode 1 or mode 2 is considered depending on the experimental
setup.
Regardless of the mode type, the velocity in Eq.(1) is typically determined via a
calibration process whereby times are measured from samples of known thicknesses
and material of interest. A time oset is usually required, particularly if there is a
phase reversal between echoes; i.e.
d = c
(t t
off
)
2
(2)
where t
off
is the time oset. The unknown parameters c and t
off
are determined via
linear regression.
In more complex structures, additional echoes might appear, making the echo
identication more dicult. However, the principles are still the same.
2.1.2 Pitch-Catch Method
Though many thickness measurements are performed in a pulse-echo conguration,
there exists an alternative method called pitch-catch that uses a separate transmit-
ter and receiver. Measurements can be performed either with a dual element trans-
ducer [7] or with two separate transducers. This method presents several advantages
depending on the context. For example, it is a very interesting solution in curved
plates where waves are not necessarily reected directly back to the transmitter.
In this conguration, the time-of-ight of the waves traveling between the trans-
mitter and the receiver does not exactly correspond to a round-trip through the plate
because the waves are not propagating at normal incidence. Calibration is needed
5
and the thickness can be determined by,
d = a
0
+ a
1
t, (3)
where d is the thickness of the plate, t is the time needed for the wave to travel
between the transmitter and the receiver, and a
0
and a
1
are calibration constants
obtained experimentally with several measurements at dierent known thicknesses.
This calibration is essentially the same as that of Eq.(2), although the interpretation
of the constants is somewhat dierent.
There is only one measurement mode for the pitch-catch method, mode1, which
is based on the arrival time of the rst echo reaching the receiver. Figure 3 illustrates
pitch-catch measurements.
d
Emitter
Receiver
Figure 3: Principle of pitch-catch measurements.
2.2 Trailing Echo Generation in Waveguides
In the context of high temperature measurements, the use of cylindrical waveguides
with the transducer mounted to one end and the other end contacting the part is of-
ten considered. The primary purpose of the wavewguide is to prevent the transducer
from directly contacting the hot part. Use of a cylindrical waveguide requires under-
standing of waves propagation in circular rods. The rst study of wave propagation
in circular rods dates from 1876 and was proposed by Pochhammer as mentioned in
the classic book by [8]. However, this study was limited to longitudinal waves. The
6
extension to shear waves was proposed in 1956 by McSkimin [9]. In between, Mason
observed in 1947 that the reduction of the rod diameter brought new undesired echoes
that are now commonly referred to as trailing echoes [10]. Since then, waveguides
have been extensively used for high-temperature measurements [11] [12]. However,
trailing echoes can have a signicant impact on measurements, and it is necessary
to understand their origin to manage them and avoid problems when performing
thickness measurements.
Here we are interested in the regime where the wavelength is much less than the
diameter of the rod, meaning that the wave propagation can be thought of in terms of
bulk waves interacting with boundaries. Each time a wave reects from a boundary,
there can be two reected waves, one longitudinal and one shear, of dierent ampli-
tudes, angles and wave speeds. In a waveguide, the proximity of boundaries increases
the number of mode conversions. As a result, a wave emitted by the transducer splits
into several sub-waves propagating independently.
The dierence between the arrival times of two sub-waves is essentially related to
distances traveled as longitudinal and shear waves. In a cylindrical waveguide, the
possible distances traveled as a shear wave are quantied and are roughly proportional
to the number of mode conversions to which the wave is subjected. As a result, the
arrival times of the sub-waves are grouped around specic times related to the number
of mode conversions. The sub-waves constructively interfere and create undesired
echoes called trailing echoes.
Figure 4 illustrates the trailing echoes generated for one-way propagation in a
cylindrical rod. Points 1 and 2 are typical points of the transmitter.
In reality, waves have a grazing incidence on boundaries and the angle is much
smaller than the representation given in Figure 4. As a result, variations in have a
very impact on the arrival times of the sub-waves, which just depend on the number
7
1 2
Purely longitudinal
paths
Longitudinal Wave
Shear Wave
t
Paths with one shear
segment
Figure 4: Generation of trailing echoes in a cylindrical waveguide.
of mode conversions they are subjected to. This results in the creation of new delayed
echoes corresponding to dierent numbers of mode conversions, called trailing echoes.
The time delay between the rst arrival and the rst trailing echo is the same
as the time delay between two consecutive trailing echoes, and can be calculated
theoretically by the limiting case when equals zero [13],
t =
d
c
T
cos(90 )
d
tan(90 )
c
L
=
d
tan()

c
2
L
c
2
T
c
L
c
2
T
. (4)
Here d is the thickness of the plate, t is the time delay between two trailing echoes,
c
L
and c
T
are the respective longitudinal and shear wave velocities, and is the
complement of the refracted angle of the shear wave shown in Figure 4 and obtained
via,
= 90 sin
1
(
c
T
c
L
). (5)
8
Note that in the case when an echo arriving after the rst arrival is needed for a
thickness measurement, it can be obscured by the trailing echoes, making thickness
measurements inaccurate or impossible. In addition, the time delay between each
echo is proportional to the diameter of the rod. As a result, the smaller the diameter
of the rod, the greater the aect on thickness measurements.
2.3 Thickness Measurements with a Waveguide
Even though several methods exist for thickness measurements, they are all based on
the same idea. The time-of-ight through the inspected specimen is measured and
the wave velocity is then used to calculate the thickness. When a waveguide is used,
waves propagate through it before entering the specimen and every echo is delayed.
In the context of high temperature measurements, a temperature gradient is ex-
pected in the rods. This gradient may vary because the temperatures at its ends can
change. If there is no interface echo between the rod and the part, such as might be
the case when there is excellent coupling and no impedance mismatch, only a mode
1 measurement is possible. However, the temperature-induced velocity changes are
generally too large for this approach to have the needed accuracy. The common ap-
proach consists in requiring that an echo exists from the interface between the rod and
the specimen so that a mode 2 measurement can be made. Specically, the arrival
time of the reected echo is subtracted from the arrival time of the backwall echo to
deduce the time-of-ight through the specimen, and the assumption is made that the
velocity in the specimen is constant.
2.3.1 Attenuation of Trailing Echoes
The interface echo and the backwall echo are both followed by their trailing echoes. As
a result, the trailing echoes associated with the interface echo can hide the backwall
echo, making any thickness measurement impossible. To avoid this situation, several
methods have been proposed to attenuate the trailing echoes. These are illustrated
9
1 2
1 2
t
1
t
2
t=t
2
-t
1
Figure 5: Thickness measurements with a waveguide.
in Figure 6.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 6: Waveguide modications for reducing trailing echoes. (a) Grooved rod.
(b) Tapered Rod. (c) Clad Rod. (d) Bundle Waveguide.
Most of the solutions lie in the modication of the boundaries since trailing echoes
are generated via mode conversions at the rod boundaries. The rst one consists in
using grooved rods and was rst considered in 1959 by McSkimin [14]. This proved
to attenuate trailing echoes, but it did not suppress them completely. The use of
tapered rods was rst considered in 1990 [15]. They were shown to attenuate trailing
10
echoes, but reduced the energy transmitted to the specimen. In parallel, clad rods
were investigated and proved to provide very good attenutation of trailing echoes
[16]. They are widely used today for measurements and sometimes combined with
rod tapering for optimal results [17] [18].
Besides boundary modications, the use of bundle waveguides was considered [19].
The underlying idea is that trailing echoes are not generated in waveguides of diam-
eter smaller than a wavelength. However, tiny waveguides do not provide a sucient
signal-to-noise ratio for thickness measurements. It is thus necessary to use several of
them packed tightly together to perform measurements. This solution is potentially
interesting, but the attachment of the bundle waveguides to both the transducer and
part is problematic, which reduces its practicality.
Table 1: Comparison of the dierent solutions proposed for trailing echoes attenu-
ation.
Solution Strengths Weaknesses
Grooved Rod Inexpensive and easy to ma-
chine
Limited signal improvements
Tapered Rod Good results in any material Reduction in signal-to-noise ra-
tio
Clad Rod Best signal improvement Expensive and material depen-
dant
Bundle Waveguide No trailing echoes Dicult attachment
11
CHAPTER III
STUDY OF WAVE PROPAGATION IN RODS
This chapter proposes an approach for the study of high temperature measurements
and presents the tools used to accomplish it.
3.1 Overview
Though robust methods exist for ultrasonic thickness measurements, they are not
designed for continuous monitoring in high temperature environments. The survival
of the transducer and its coupling become major issues when the temperature in-
creases. As a result, methods have to be adapted to support the high temperature
environment.
The transducer can be protected from high-temperatures in dierent ways, but
the solution chosen has to allow for reliable coupling. The rst option consists in
using high temperature transducers, which have a resistance to temperature up to
482
C [20]. Another solution consists in cooling the transducer with a cooling system
[21]. Finally, the background section suggested the use of waveguides as a solution to
keep transducers at a reasonable temperature.
Experiments performed by Mechanical Integrity, Inc. showed that a wide variety
of coupling methods did not last longer than a few months at high temperatures [22].
Lowering the operational temperature of the couplant is thus necessary to enable
long-term measurements. Given the thermal inertia of pipes, it is not possible to cool
their walls locally and the only solution consists in transferring the coupling area to a
cooler environment. In this perspective, the use of waveguides appears to be the best
solution since they can be welded on pipe walls. Then, the transducer and its coupling
can be transferred through the insulation to a lower temperature environment (i.e.
12
the opposite end of the buer rod) and both issues are addressed simultaneously.
As a result, the decision was made to study the implementation of welded wave-
guides as a solution to the problem of high temperature measurements. The issue then
becomes the management of trailing echoes, which can interfere with echoes of inter-
est and make thickness measurements impossible, as mentioned in the background
chapter.
It is thus necessary to address the generation of trailing echoes and their man-
agement to allow thickness measurements with buer rods. In this perspective, both
experiments and simulations are performed.
3.2 Experimental Methods
For experiments, plate sections are used instead of pipes, which are a good approxima-
tion since the radius of pipes is much bigger than the dimensions of the measurement
area. Three steel plates of respective thickness 9.54 mm (3/8), 12.7 mm (1/2) and
19.05 mm (3/4) were used for the measurements. The waveguides were machined
from steel rods of diameter 9.54 mm (3/8), 12.7 mm (1/2) and 19.05 mm (3/4).
Rods of dierent lengths and taper angle were machined for experiments in this study.
Testing itself was performed with 10 MHz Panametrics transducers, model V552-
SM and diameter 9.54mm (3/8), excited by a Panametrics pulser-receiver, model
5072 PR. Transducers were coupled to the tested parts with Panametrics couplant A
or C. Waveforms were acquired by a Tektronix TDS5034B digital oscilloscope with a
sampling frequency of either 125 MHz or 250MHz, and were saved for further analysis.
The pulser-receiver has two measurement modes. In pulse-echo mode, only one
transducer is used and it serves as both transmitter and receiver. In through-
transmission mode, the transmitter and the receiver are distinct transducers. Figure
7 presents signals obtained in each of these two modes. For pulse-echo mode, a single
transducer was mounted on one end of the rod, and for through-transmission mode,
13
the two transducers were mounted on opposite ends of the rod.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
Time (s)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
Time (s)
(a)
(b)
Figure 7: Waveform obtained with a cylindrical waveguide of length 152.4 mm
(6) and diameter 9.54 mm (3/8) (a) Pulse-Echo Mode. (b) Through-Transmission
Mode.
For better coupling, threaded holders were fabricated to hold the transducers to
rods of diameter 9.54 mm (3/8) and 12.7 mm (1/2). Plastic holders were also
fabricated to hold rods at a xed angle to the plate surface.
3.3 Simulation Tools
Simulation tools enable a deeper exploration of wave propagation phenomena while
providing more repeatable results than experiments. In addition they reduce the
cost of experiments by enabling pre-selection of relevant designs. However, it is
important to keep in mind that simulations are approximations and they need to be
conrmed by experiments. The simulations reported here are limited to 2D models
for simplication and reduction of the computational time. This approximation has
to be kept in mind when interpreting the simulation results.
14
3.3.1 Finite Dierence Model
The rst model considered for simulations is based on the nite dierence method.
A commercial software package, Wave2000 [23], was purchased. To permit use of this
software, the geometry of the waveguide was represented using a two-dimensional
shape. An example is shown in Figure 8, which is the radial-axial cross-section of
a tapered waveguide. The source for all Wave2000 simulations was modeled as a
10 MHz sinusoid over two cycles with the built-in source modeling tool. Although
it is slightly dierent from a real tone burst, the main goal of this tool is not to
produce a perfect match with the experimental waveforms, but rather to understand
the propagation in waveguides to better design them.
(a)
(b)
Figure 8: (a) Geometry used for nite dierence simulation of a 0.5 degree tapered
rod. (b) Transducer source function.
Once the source and the geometry are dened, the software performs nite dier-
ence calculations from the transmitter to the receiver to generate the output wave-
form. The waveform obtained after propagation in a cylindrical waveguide in a
through-transmission conguration is provided in Figure 9 as an example. The echo
amplitudes do not match the experimental waveform, but the model does capture
the trailing echoes. Also the eect of a nite grid appears to introduce noise in the
15
simulated waveform, as is evident in Figure 9(a).
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
-1
0
1
Time(s)
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Time (s)
(a)
(b)
Figure 9: Waveform obtained for through-transmission propagation in a cylindrical
waveguide of length 152.4 mm (6) and diameter 9.53 mm (3/8). (a) Simulated with
Wave2000. (b) Experimental.
3.3.2 Ray Tracing Model
Ray tracing is a geometrical method based on paths of rays emanating from the source
[24]. Specically, the transmitter is modeled as an array of point sources distributed
uniformly across its surface, with each point source emitting energy distributed uni-
formly in angle. Then the path of each ray is computed between the source and
the receiver, and the output waveform is generated by adding the contribution of all
the rays reaching the receiver. In this approach, there is grid for computation; the
points of reection on the boundaries are determined mathematically without any
grid eect at the edges. Thus, there is no numerical noise as was the case for nite
dierence simulations. The mode conversions on boundaries are taken into account
to reproduce the trailing echoes.
The same 2D cross section as the one used for nite dierences was used for the 2D
representation of the rod. A 3D correction was made by weighting the contribution
16
from each point source by the annular area corresponding to its radius.
Each point source radiates isotropically in all directions within the 2D cross-
sectional plane, and rays were generated every 0.05 degree for the subsequent cal-
culations. Note that rod curvature eects are not taken into account in this model
because point sources only emit in the 2D cross-section considered.
Since all the rays emit simultaneously in time at the source, and because material
dispersion and attenuation are neglected, the source waveform can be scaled, shifted
and added at the receiver based upon the computed arrival time and amplitude of
each ray. The arrival time is determined from the path calculation by using the
appropriate wave velocity for each propagating mode. The amplitude is updated
at each mode conversion using theoretical coecients for plane wave reection at a
planar boundary [25]. Once this information is gathered for each ray, the received
waveform can be generated. For the model to be consistent with experiments, the
source waveform was chosen to be a 10 MHz sinusoid multiplied by a Hanning window
over three cycles, and is illustrated in Figure 10.
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Time (s)
Figure 10: Wavelet used to model the source emission in the ray tracing model.
As an example, the evolution of a ray from its emission to its arrival at the receiver
is detailed here and illustrated in Figure 11. Ray 1 is subjected to a mode conversion
and splits into rays 2 and 3. Then, ray 2 directly reaches the receiver while ray 3
17
is subjected to another mode conversion, resulting in rays 4 and 5, both hitting the
receiver.
1
3
4
2
Longitudinal Wave
Shear Wave
5
Transmitter
Receiver
Figure 11: Propagation of a ray in a straight rod
As a result, ray 1 produces three arrivals at the receiver. However, ray 5 reaches
the receiver as a shear wave and is thus discarded; the assumption is made that the
receiver is only sensitive to longitudinal waves. To create the waveform at the receiver,
it is then needed to determine the arrival times and amplitudes of rays 2 and 4.
According to Snells law, rays 1 and 4 propagate with the same angle , ray 2
propagates at an angle of ( ), ray 3 propagates at an angle of , and ray 5
propagates at an angle of ( ). All angles are measured counterclockwise from a
vertical line, and and are related by,
= sin
1
(
c
T
c
L
sin), (6)
where c
L
and c
T
are the longitudinal and shear wave respective velocities. The arrival
18
times are calculated from the ray paths. The rst arrival corresponds to the combi-
nation of ray 1 and ray 2. The propagation is longitudinal along the entire path, and
the arrival time is given by,
t
2
=
l
1
+ l
2
c
L
, (7)
where l
1
is the length of ray 1, l
2
is the length of ray 2, and c
L
is the longitudinal
speed of waves in steel. Concerning its amplitude, ray 2 results from the reection of
ray 1 on the boundary. The reection coecient is,
A
2
= A
1
sin(2)sin(2)
2
cos
2
(2)
sin(2)sin(2) +
2
cos
2
(2)
(8)
where is Poissons ratio, A
1
is the amplitude of ray 1, and A
2
the amplitude of
ray 2. The second arrival corresponds to the combination of rays 1, 3 and 4. The
propagation is longitudinal for rays 1 and 4, and shear for ray 3. Consequently, the
arrival time of ray 4 is
t
4
=
l
1
+ l
4
c
L
+
l
3
c
T
, (9)
where l
1
3
4
is the length of ray 4, c
L
is the longitudinal wave velocity in steel, and c
T
is the shear wave velocity in steel.
Finally, the amplitude of ray 4 is determined by considering the amplitude partition
resulting from the two mode conversions along its path. The relation between the
amplitude of ray 1 and the amplitude of ray 4 is given by,
A
4
= A
1
2
2
sin(4)sin(2)cos(2)
(sin(2)sin(2) +
2
cos
2
(2))
2
, (10)
where is Poissons ratio, A
1
is the amplitude of ray 1, and A
4
the amplitude of ray 4.
The contributions of ray 1 to the nal waveform can then be plotted by adding
19
scaled wavelets at the corresponding arrival times. Figure 12 presents the contribution
of ray 1, while Figure 13 gives the nal waveform obtained via the entire ray tracing
simulation. Both gures are for the through transmission in a cylindrical waveguide
of length 152.4 mm (6) and diameter 9.54 mm (3/8).
As it was the case for the Wave 2000 simulations, the amplitude partition between
the initial and trailing echoes for ray tracing does not match the experiments. How-
ever, ray tracing does not have simulation noise resulting from the nite dierence
grid.
Table 2: Numerical values associated with the propagation of ray 1.
Rod Length Rod Diameter A
1
A
2
A
4
2
56.54
152.4 mm 9.54 mm 1 -0.79 -0.38

26 27 28 29
-1
0
1
Time (s)
Figure 12: Contribution of ray 1 to the nal waveform.
20
26 27 28 29
-2
0
2
Time (s)
26 27 28 29
-1
0
1
26 27 28 29
-0.1
0
0.1
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 13: Waveforms obtained for the through-transmission in a cylindrical wave-
guide of length 152.4 mm (6) and diameter 9.53 mm (3/8), (a) Experimental. (b)
Simulated with nite dierence. (c) Simulated with ray tracing.
21
CHAPTER IV
WAVEGUIDE OPTIMIZATION
This chapter considers the design of waveguides that provide attenuation of trail-
ing echoes while satisfying the constraints associated with the specic application of
pipeline monitoring.
4.1 Rod Dimensioning
The rst step in the design of the waveguide is the choice of its dimensions. The
diameter and length of the rod have a direct impact on the amount of mode conver-
sions, and thus on the energy partition between the echoes. However, the choice of
the dimensions cannot be based exclusively on the minimization of trailing echoes.
For example, thermal issues also need to be taken into account.
4.1.1 External Constraints
In the context of pipeline inspection, a set of constraints apply on rod dimensions.
First, the curvature of pipe walls requires small rod diameters to allow attachment.
However, the diameter has to be large enough to achieve a good signal-to-noise ratio.
Additionally, the rod should not be too long to avoid signal loss. Finally, waveguides
are used to keep transducers away from high temperature areas. As a result, the heat
transfer through the waveguide has to be limited. From this perspective, the rod
should be as long as possible and its diameter as small as possible.
4.1.2 Inuence of Rod Diameter on Signals
The diameter has several impacts on the waveform. First, the smaller the diameter,
the more mode conversions there are, and the more energy is transferred from the
22
rst arrival to trailing echoes. The diameter also inuences the echo spacing. This
is an important eect as insucient echo spacing can result in echoes overlapping,
making thickness measurement impossible.
Three rods of length 101.6 mm (4) and respective diameters of 9.54 mm (3/8),
12.7 mm (1/2) and 19.05 mm (3/4) were tested in pulse-echo mode to illustrate
these eects. Results are presented in Figure 14 and conrm the two eects cited
above.
35 40 45 50 55 60 65
-2
-1
0
1
2
Time (s)
35 40 45 50 55 60 65
-2
-1
0
1
2
Time (s)
35 40 45 50 55 60 65
-2
-1
0
1
2
Time (s)
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 14: Comparison of pulse-echo waveforms for rods of same length 101.6 mm
(4) and dierent diameters (a) diameter 9.47 mm ( 3/8). (b) diameter 12.64 mm
( 1/2). (c) diameter 18.98 mm ( 3/4).
Table 3 compares the experimental and theoretical time delays between the rst
arrival and the rst trailing echo for the three rod diameters considered here; the
23
agreement is excellent.
Table 3: Comparison of the experimental and theoretical data available for the time
delay between the rst arrival and the rst trailing echo.
Rod Diameter (mm) Theoretical t (s) Experimental t (s)
9.47 2.47 2.47
12.64 3.29 3.32
18.98 4.95 4.97
4.1.3 Inuence of Rod Length on Signals
The impact of the rod length is also twofold. The longer the rod, the more energy
is transferred to trailing echoes since more mode conversions occur. Also, the arrival
time of the entire train is delayed when the length of the rod increases. However, every
echo is shifted by the same amount and this does not impact thickness measurements.
Experimental waveforms were acquired in pulse-echo mode for three waveguides
of diameter 9.54 mm (3/8) and respective lengths of 101.6 mm (4), 152.4 mm (6),
and 203.2 mm (8). Results are presented in Figure 15 and conrm the eects listed
above.
4.1.4 Discussion and Choice of the Final Dimensions
From a signal point of view, it is better to use a short rod with a big diameter to
maximize the spacing between trailing echoes and achieve a large amplitude for the
rst arrival. However, according to constraints, the diameter should be just large
enough to get a good signal-to-noise ratio, and the rod must be long enough for
thermal protection of the transducer.
The thickness of pipe walls ranges between 9.54 mm (3/8) and 25.11 mm (1),
which results in times-of-ight through the specimen between 3.1 s and 6.9 s.
Consequently, there is at least one trailing echo in the range of arrival times of the
24
35 40 45 50 55 60 65
-1
0
1
Time (s)
70 75 80 85 90 95 100
-1
0
1
Time (s)
50 55 60 65 70 75 80
-1
0
1
Time (s)
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 15: Comparison of pulse-echo waveforms for rods of same diameter (3/8)
and dierent lengths (a) length 101.6 mm (4). (b) length 152.4 mm (6). (c) length
203.2 mm (8).
25
backwall echo for every tested diameter. Rods without trailing echoes in this range
would have a diameter larger than 26.5 mm, which is too large from both attachment
and thermal points of view. The intervening trailing echo needs to have a negligible
amplitude in comparison with the backwall echo to enable thickness measurements.
Figures 14 and 15 showed that in the range allowed by the application, the modica-
tion of the dimensions of the rod was not sucient to attenuate the trailing echoes.
Other more eective methods were presented in chapter II for trailing echo attenua-
tion. Consequently, the dimensions of the waveguide are chosen in accordance with
the external constraints. Note that the chosen diameter needs to be large enough
give a sucient signal-to-noise ratio and a sucient echo spacing. Concerning the
length, it needs to be large enough to create a temperature gradient and penetrate
the insulation. However, it should not be too long or the signal-to-noise ratio will
decrease and the rod will escessively protrude from the pipe. It was thus decided to
use a 152.4 mm (6) long rod with a diameter of 9.54 mm (3/8). The corresponding
pulse-echo waveform is that of Figure 15(b). It is anticipated that a means of coating
the rod will be required, although that is outside of the scope of this thesis.
4.2 Impact of the Source on Trailing Echoes
Mode conversions are based on Snells law, and any modications of the angle of
incidence modify them. Usually, transducers are modeled as emitting with a straight
beam, which is not an acceptable approximation for the propagation in waveguides. In
reality, the transducer has beam spread as illustrated in Figure 16. The corresponding
emitted wave is thus subjected to numerous mode conversions on waveguide bound-
aries, resulting in the generation of trailing echoes.
The beam spread angle for the Olympus transducers used in this study can be
estimated in the far eld as [26],
26
= 0.514
c
fD
, (11)
N =
D
2
f
4c
, (12)
where f is the frequency, D is the transducer diameter, c is the wave velocity, and N
is the near eld distance.
D
N
Figure 16: Model of transducer emission.
The velocity of waves depends upon the material, which has to be the same as the
pipe walls to enable the welding operation. However, the diameter and the frequency
of the transducer can be tuned to change the angle of the beam. Their impacts are
similar and thus there is no need to study both. It is thus decided to limit the study
to the inuence of the transducer diameter on trailing echoes.
The formula being valid in the far eld only, the average near eld distance needs
to be estimated. It is 40 mm for the transducer used here, which is not negligible in
the rods considered for experiments. In the near eld, waves travel in every direction
and many mode conversions can occur, thus contributing to trailing echo generation.
Theoretical studies based on the formula 11 are not sucient to study the im-
pact of the transducer diameter on trailing echoes. Besides, the limited number of
transducers in the diameter range studied does not allow precise experimental stud-
ies. As a result, it is decided to study the impact of the transducer diameter on
trailing echoes through simulations. Experimental measurements are then made for
verication purposes.
27
Through-transmission waveforms were simulated through ray tracing for cylindri-
cal waveguides of length 152.4 mm (6) and diameter 9.54 mm (3/8), with trans-
ducer diameters ranging between 0.5 mm and 9.5 mm. The distance between two
point sources used to model the transducers is set constant and equal to 0.2 mm.
Diameter variations were then implemented by adding or removing point sources. To
compensate for the variation in transmitted energy from one transducer to the other,
waveforms were normalized before comparison. In a through-transmission congura-
tion with the waveguide dimensions chosen here, most of the energy is split between
the rst arrival and the rst trailing echo. Thus, the attenuation of trailing echoes can
reasonably be quantied through the amplitude ratio between the rst trailing echo
and the rst arrival. The other trailing echoes experimentally proved to be smaller
than the rst one for every transducer diameter.
The results of simulations are presented in Figures 17 and 18. It appears that there
exists an optimal transmitter diameter such that the cleanest waveform is obtained
for through transmission in the waveguide considered. However, the improvement
brought by the choice of the optimal diameter is not that signicant and denitely
not sucient to signicantly improve measurements with waveguides. Experiments
were made with three transducers of diameters 3.175 mm (0.125), 6.4 mm (0.25),
and 9.5 mm (0.375), but the variation of the attenuation was too small to be detected.
It is thus concluded that the inuence of the transducer diameter on trailing echoes
is negligible.
4.3 Inuence of Boundary Modications on Trailing Echoes
The background section discusses several solutions for the attenuation of trailing
echoes based on waveguide design. Although giving the best results, clad rods are
not considered here because they are judged to be incompatible with the welding
operation. In addition, their manufacturing is expensive, which reduces their appeal
28
25 26 27 28 29 30 31
-1
0
1
Time (s)
0.5 mm
-1
0
1
9.5 mm
-1
0
1
8.5 mm
-1
0
1
7.5 mm
-1
0
1
6.5 mm
-1
0
1
5.5 mm
-1
0
1
4.5 mm
-1
0
1
3.5 mm
-1
0
1
2.5 mm
-1
0
1
1.5 mm
Figure 17: Through-transmission waveforms in a cylindrical rod of length 152.4 mm
(6) and diameter 9.54 mm (3/8) for several transducer diameters.
29
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-16
-15.5
-15
-14.5
-14
-13.5
-13
-12.5
-12
-11.5
-11
Transducer Diameter (mm)
A
t
t
e
n
u
a
t
i
o
n

R
a
t
i
o

(
d
B
)
Figure 18: Relative attenuation of the trailing echoes with transducers diameter.
for large scale implementation. For the specic needs of the application considered
here, tapered rods provide a reasonable compromise. They can be machined from
any material, are inexpensive, and give reasonably good results for the attenuation
of trailing echoes.
According to the literature, cleaner signals are obtained when the taper angle
increases [15]. However, the link between the taper angle and the attenuation of the
trailing echoes has not been explicitly shown. In order to get the best design available,
it was thus decided to study the inuence of the taper angle on trailing echoes.
Preliminary measurements were performed by acquiring the signals resulting from
pulse-echo and through-transmission measurements for a 0.75 degree taper angle.
Figure 19 presents the corresponding results. As expected by reciprocity [27], the two
through-transmission signals are almost identical. In contrast, the two pulse-echo
signals are totally dierent. The waveform obtained with the source at the small end
is relatively clean, although lower in amplitude, while the signal obtained with the
source at the large end shows improvements on the rst trailing echo only. The other
trailing echoes are amplied. According to table 3, two trailing echoes fall in the
range of arrival times of the backwall echo for the rod of diameter 9.54 mm (3/8)
chosen. Additionally, the trailing echoes tend to have earlier arrival times when the
30
taper angle increases. Thickness measurements are not possible in this conguration
and they are not considered.
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-2
0
2
Time (s)
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-2
0
2
Time (s)
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-1
0
1
Time (s)
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-1
0
1
Time (s)
(a)
(b)
(d)
(c)
Figure 19: Waveforms recorded in dierent measurement congurations on a 0.75
tapered rod of length 152.4 mm (6) and larger diameter 9.54 mm (3/8). (a)
Through-transmission conguration with source at the small end. (b) Through-
transmission conguration with source at the large end. (c) Pulse-echo conguration
with source at the small end. (d) Pulse-echo conguration with source at the large
end.
Finally, the trends are the same for pulse-echo measurements from the small
end and for through-transmission. As a result, the study is carried out in through-
transmission mode for simplication of the simulations.
4.3.1 Experimental Observations
In order to capture the major trends linked with the introduction of a taper angle,
through-transmission signals were acquired for ve rods of respective taper angles
31
of 0
, 0.25
, 0.5
, 0.75
, and 1
. The transmitter was clamped to the large end

of constant diameter 9.53 mm (3/8), while the receiver was hand-coupled to the
small end. For more reliability, a total of six waveforms were acquired for each
taper angle. Only the rst two echoes were considered since the other trailing echoes
experimentally proved to be smaller than the rst one for the range of taper angles
considered. Sample waveforms are presented for each rod in Figure 20. Note that the
amplitude of the rst arrival decreases as the taper angle increases. This eect could
be deleterious if the noise level was too high, but as long as the signal-to-noise ratio
is sucient, it does not constitute a problem.
-0.5
0
0.5
-1.1
1.1
0
-0.2
0
0.2
0
0.3
-0.3
(a)
(b)
(c)
25 26 27 28 29 30
-0.1
0
0.1
Time (s)
(e)
(d)
Figure 20: Experimental waveforms for dierent taper angles on a waveguide of
length 152.4 mm (6) and diameter 9.54mm (a) straight rod. (b) 0.25
taper angle.
(c) 0.50
taper angle. (e) 1
taper angle.
As expected, the relative amplitude of the rst trailing echo decreases when a
32
taper angle is introduced. Once again, the attenuation was quantied through the
amplitude ratio between the rst trailing echo and the rst arrival. The resulting
data are presented in Figure 21.
The limited data shown here indicates that for larger taper angles, the increase
of the taper angle does not necessarily reduce the relative amplitude of the trailing
echoes. A close look at the waveforms shows that the trailing echoes tend to split and
spread out in time as the taper angle increases, which contributes to noise or clutter
behind the rst arrival. As a result, after a certain amount of taper, any increase
in the taper angle results in a deterioration of the waveform as the predominant
eect becomes echo spreading without a reduction in amplitude. For the specic rods
considered here, the optimal angle marking the limit between signal improvement and
signal deterioration is between 0.25
and 0.75
.
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
Taper Angle (degrees)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

R
a
t
i
o

(
d
B
)
Figure 21: Amplitude of the rst trailing echo relative to the rst arrival versus
taper angle. Each data point represents a separate waveform acquisition.
Experimental results are not precise enough for a ne study of the impact of the
taper angle. In addition, the cost of machining rods can be avoided by going to sim-
ulations. The 2D models introduced in chapter 3 are thus used to obtain a better
understanding of the taper angle inuence on trailing echoes and attempt to deter-
mine the bounds for the optimal angle. Note that models always have imperfections,
especially here where a 2D model is used to represent a 3D environment. Results
33
thus need to be analyzed keeping in mind the approximate nature of the simulations.
4.3.2 Results of Simulations
Simulations were performed for 21 taper angles from 0
to 1
with an increment of
0.05
. The attenuation of trailing echoes was quantied by the amplitude ratio be-
tween the rst trailing echo and the rst arrival. Results obtained for nite dierences
are presented in Figures 22 and 23.
-1
0
1
-1
0
1
-1
0
1
-1
0
1
25 26 27 28 29 30
-1
0
1
Time (s)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(e)
(d)
Figure 22: Waveforms resulting from nite dierence simulations for dierent taper
angles on a waveguide of length 152.4 mm (6) and diameter 9.54 mm (3/8) (a)
straight rod. (b) 0.25
taper angle. (e)

1
taper angle.
Though attenuation of trailing echoes is observed when the taper angle increases,
this model has several imperfections. First, it does not reect the amplitude decrease
of the rst arrival when the taper angle increases. At the same time, it underestimates
34
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

R
a
t
i
o

(
d
B
)
Figure 23: Impact of the taper angle on the trailing echo attenuation with the nite
dierence model.
the amplitude of trailing echoes. Finally, the nite dierence grid creates simulation
noise that precludes trailing echo analysis for taper angles larger than about 0.4
degree. Any determination of an optimal angle is thus impossible with this model.
However, the results obtained with nite dierences can be compared to the results
of ray tracing to determine if imperfections come from the lack of 3D considerations.
Ray tracing results are presented in Figures 24, 25 and 26. Figure 25 shows the
same signals as Figure 24 but with dierent vertical scales for each signal to better see
the trailing echoes. As expected, this model allows the exploration of angles larger
than 0.4 degrees since there is no simulation noise. In addition, it captures the echoes
shifting and spreading that could not be observed with nite dierences. However,
the respective amplitudes of each echo are still not in agreement with experiments.
To better understand the imperfection of models and thus learn about wave prop-
agation in tapered rods, all data are presented in Figure 27. Interestingly, the results
obtained for ray tracing and nite dierence are in reasonably close agreement for
taper angles smaller than 0.4 degree. After this amount of taper, results are not
comparable anymore due to the simulation noise introduced in the nite dierence
model. This observation indicates that the misrepresentation of amplitudes in simu-
lated waveforms is likely linked with the lack of 3D considerations.
35
-2
0
2
-2
0
2
25 26 27 28 29 30 31
-2
0
2
Time (s)
-2
0
2
-2
0
2
(a)
(b)
(c)
(e)
(d)
Figure 24: Waveforms resulting from ray tracing simulations for dierent taper
angles on a waveguide of length 152.4 mm (6) and diameter 9.54mm (3/8) (a)
straight rod. (b) 0.25
taper angle. (e)

1
taper angle.
36
-0.5
0.5
0
-1.1
0
1.1
-0.2
0
0.2
-0.3
0.3
0
25 26 27 28 29 30 31
-0.1
0
0.1
Time (s)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(e)
(d)
Figure 25: Same as Figure 24 after zooming on the trailing echoes (a) straight rod.
(b) 0.25
taper angle. (e) 1
taper
angle.
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
-45
-40
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

R
a
t
i
o

(
d
B
)
Figure 26: Impact of the taper angle on the trailing echo attenuation with the ray
tracing model.
37
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

R
a
t
i
o

(
d
B
)

Experiments
Ray Tracing
Finite Difference
Figure 27: Comparison of trailing echo amplitude ratios from experiments and both
simulations.
The representation of rods by their cross-sections limits the study to radial con-
tributions. However, in reality rays are emitted in every direction and o-axis rays
should be represented. These rays undergo more reections as they spiral down
the rod and they are subjected to curvature eects. As a result, their amplitudes are
primarily transferred to trailing echoes. The consideration of these rays in the ray
tracing model would be expected to give a more realistic amplitude partition between
the rst arrival and the trailing echoes.
To conclude, better results could be obtained with 3D models, but at the ex-
pense of a large increase in the computational time. The 2D models presented here,
particularly the ray tracing model, already allow a good understanding of the wave
propagation in tapered rods and are sucient to understand the impact of the taper
angle on trailing echoes.
4.3.3 Qualitative Analysis of the Results
Though precise quantication of results is not possible with the data reported here,
the simulations gave a better understanding of the taper angle impact on trailing
echoes. Specically, the modeling of waves through propagating rays greatly helps in
studying the evolution of waveforms. In this context, each echo is the result of the
38
constructive interference of multiple ray contributions. The study of how the echoes
evolve can then be understood by studying their components. The n
th
trailing echo
is subsequently referred as the trailing echo of order n to simplify the explanation.
In a straight rod, trailing echoes are composed of ray contributions with similar
arrival times that constructively interfere. When a taper angle is introduced, the
rod diameter is not constant and its variations result in a wider range of arrival
times for each contribution, which reduces the constructive interference eect and
thus reduces the amplitude of the trailing echoes. Figure 28 illustrates the inuence
of the diameter variations on the arrival times. The rst arrival is less impacted by
diameter variations since most of its contributions are provided by rays that never
hit boundaries.
Same arrival
time
Different
arrival times
Figure 28: Change in arrival times of trailing echo rays after introduction of a taper
angle.
Another eect of the taper angle is a variation in the number of mode conversions.
39
When traveling from the large end to the small end of the rod, the number of mode
conversions increases with respect to the straight rod case, while it decreases when
traveling in the opposite direction. Consequently, the amplitude of each contribution
as well as the energy partition between the echoes is modied. In addition, the
incidence angle on boundaries is modied by the taper angle, which also has an
impact on the energy partition.
The taper angle also interacts with the transducer beam angle. When traveling
from the small end to the large end, the beam tends to focus, while it spreads in the
opposite direction. As a result, when the transducer is at the larger end, waves are
subjected to more mode conversions on their round-trip than in the case when the
transducer is at the smaller end, and how the energy is partitioned is also aected.
To summarize, the introduction of a taper angle results in two primary eects.
First, the arrival times of the ray contributions to a single trailing echo split and
spread out, which reduces the amplitude of that echo. Second, the energy partition is
modied. Energy tends to be transferred to higher order trailing echoes when waves
propagate from the large end to the small end, while the opposite eect occurs in the
opposite direction. At the same time, more energy is transferred towards the trailing
echoes if the transducer is at the large end.
Signal improvements mainly result from the widening of the range of arrival times
for the ray contributions of each trailing echo. This eect is not as strong on every
trailing echo. The higher the trailing echo order, the smaller the impact of the taper
angle. In long rods, the impact is always important even on high order trailing echoes,
but in shorter rods, the widening eect only applies to low order trailing echoes.
This behaviour can be explained with geometrical considerations. Figure 29 presents
the paths of contributions to the two rst trailing echoes in a short tapered rod.
When considering the ray contributions to the rst trailing echo, there is a signicant
number of paths that are very dierent, and the introduction of the taper angle has
40
a real impact on the echo amplitude. Concerning the contributions to the second
trailing echo, the number of possible paths is reduced and the diameter variations
have similar impacts on multiple contributions. As a result, several contributions still
have very similar arrival times and they continue to interfere constructively.
1 3 4 2
Longitudinal Wave
Shear Wave
(a) (b)
Figure 29: Variability of the widening eect with the trailing echo order. (a) First
order trailing echo order. (b) Second order trailing echo.
With these considerations, it becomes possible to explain the lack of improvement
on the pulse-echo signal of Figure 19(d). The transducer was coupled to the large
end of a short tapered rod of angle 0.75
. The amount of mode conversions was thus

important and the energy was essentially transferred to high order trailing echoes on
which the widening eect was negligible. It can be seen that the rst trailing echo
is attenuated while the higher order tailing echoes have a large amplitude. The signal
41
of Figure 19(c) is nicer, because the transducer is at the small end and the reverse
eect occurs. The beam angle decreases, reducing the number of mode conversions,
and keeping energy in low order trailing echoes on which the widening eect is
eective. The dierence between the total energy of signals (c) and (d) is due to the
dierence in the area of the rod in contact with the transducer.
The case of long rods was studied in the literature, and results showed that every
trailing echo was attenuated when the taper angle increased, which conrms the
eciency of the widening eect on every trailing echo.
4.3.4 Summary
For the specic rods considered here, pulse-echo measurements from the large end
of tapered rods are not eective. For the other measurement congurations, signal
improvements can be obtained by the introduction of a taper angle. An optimal angle
can be determined as giving the best signals for the rod dimensions chosen. However,
improvements are limited due to the short length of the rods.
The determination of this optimal angle requires 3D modeling, which signicantly
increases the computational time and will be implemented later only if needed. Fur-
ther improvement can be obtained with longer rods as presented in the literature.
However, an increase in the length may require a diameter increase as well to allow
sucient tapering. In addition, the set of external constraints needs to be respected.
4.4 Imperfect Machining
The previous section showed that tapered rods could bring signicant improvements
to the signal when correctly dimensioned. However, if rods are not machined perfectly,
improvements are limited. Figure 30 illustrates the case where the taper does not
cover the full length of the rod. The resulting through-transmission waveform is
shown in Figure 31. The presence of a small straight part reinforces the constructive
interference of ray contributions, while the taper part keeps spreading the trailing
42
echoes.
Straight part
(~ 20 mm)
152.4 mm
9.54 mm
1
Figure 30: Example of imperfect machining.
43
25 26 27 28 29 30
-0.1
0
0.1
Time (s)
25 26 27 28 29 30
-0.1
0
0.1
Time (s)
(b)
(c)
25 26 27 28 29 30
-1.1
1.1
0
Time (s)
(a)
Figure 31: Comparison of two tapered rods with dierent quality of machining. (a)
Bad machining. (b) Good machining.
44
CHAPTER V
WAVEGUIDE IMPLEMENTATION FOR THICKNESS
MONITORING
Dierent waveguide designs have been studied to attenuate trailing echoes, but their
actual implementation still needs to be considered. According to Chapter II, thickness
measurements can be performed either in pulse-echo or in pitch-catch congurations.
These two methods can be adapted to enable measurements with waveguides and are
presented here to support the nal design choice.
5.1 Waveguides and Calibration
5.1.1 Calibration Need
Every experimental measurement is inherently prone to errors, and in some cases
calibration is essential to enable measurements of the required accuracy. Errors in-
troduced by imperfections in the experimental setup do not evolve over time and
can be compensated through initial calibration. However, dynamic errors depend on
experimental parameters that can change between two measurements and their com-
pensation is not as easy.
In the context of ultrasonic thickness measurements, the only measured data is
the time-of-ight through the specimen t. After initial calibration, the thickness is
determined by,
h =
c
2
(t t
0
), (13)
where h is the thickness of the specimen, c is the velocity of the longitudinal waves,
45
and t
0
is the time delay. The parameters c andt
0
are determined through initial cali-
bration.
When the temperature changes, the wave velocity changes and thickness errors
result. To evaluate the need for compensation, this error needs to be quantied. The
original value of the wave speed used for calculation is c
0
, which was determined via
calibration. The calculated thickness is then given by,
h
c
=
c
0
2
(t t
0
). (14)
The time t is actually that of Eq.(13) and the error in measured thickness is,
h = h
c
h = h(
c
0
c
1), (15)
where h is the actual thickness of the specimen, c
0
is the original wave speed deter-
mined during calibration, and c is the actual wave speed.
When using a waveguide, the backwall echo is delayed and its arrival time does
not correspond to the time-of-ight through the specimen. Note that the pitch-catch
and pulse-echo methods have dierent paths through the specimen as illustrated in
Figure 32. However, the initial calibration removes the eect of this dierence and
errors resulting from velocity changes are exactly the same for both methods. As a
result, no distinction is made between the two methods hereafter.
The arrival time of the backwall echo is given by
t = 2.(
h + l
c
) + t
0
, (16)
46
Transceiver
Receiver
Figure 32: Comparison of the wave paths corresponding to the backwall echo for
the pulse-echo and pitch-catch congurations.
where h is the actual thickness of the specimen, l is the actual length of the waveg-
uides, c is the actual wave speed, and t
0
is the initial calibration factor. The initial
(calibration) value of the wave speed is c
0
, and the thickness of the specimen is cal-
culated to be,
h
c
=
c
0
t
2
l =
c
0
c
(h + l) l. (17)
The error of the thickness measurement is given by,
h = h
c
h = (h + l)(
c
0
c
1), (18)
To assess the need for compensation, specic numerical values are considered.
The thickness of pipe walls generally ranges between 9.54 mm (3/8) and 25.4 mm
(1), and they are made of steel. The nominal longitudinal wave speed is 5.8 mm/s
at room temperature. In accordance with chapter IV, the length of the waveguides
is chosen to be 152.4 mm (6). The resulting errors on thickness measurements
are calculated for dierent temperature variations and are presented in Table 4, us-
ing the published values for the longitudinal velocity change with temperature of
0.0006m/s/
C [28].
47
Table 4: Error introduced by temperature changes in the measured thickness of a
12.7 mm (1/2) plate
Method T(

C) Thickness error (%)
contact transducer 10 0.11
waveguide 10 1.43
waveguide 100 14.04
waveguide 500 73.19
For the purpose of monitoring thickness changes caused by corrosion and erosion,
an error of 1% is acceptable. Thus, there is no need for calibration with contact
transducers for temperature changes up to 100
C. However, the introduction of a

waveguide can result in a signicant increase in the measurement error and on-line
compensation is necessary.
5.1.2 Dynamic Compensation
When using waveguides, the echo reected at the interface with the specimen is
usually present. The arrival time of this echo corresponds to the time necessary for
a round-trip through the waveguide. It can thus be subtracted from the arrival time
of the backwall echo to obtain the time-of-ight through the specimen. The dynamic
error is then reduced to the error obtained with a contact transducer and it can be
neglected.
In the context of high-temperature measurements, it was decided to use welded
waveguides to avoid coupling problems. As a result, the interface echo previously
used for calibration may disappear or be degraded, and a new solution is needed to
enable measurements. In this perspective, it was decided to machine a notch at the
welded end of the waveguide. This splits the incoming waves into a reected and
a transmitted wave, and the echo reected from the notch can be used in the same
48
Table 5: Impact of the temperature on the measured thickness of a 12.7 mm (1/2)
plate after online calibration with the notch echo.
T(

C) Thickness error (%)
10 0.13
100 1.25
500 6.52
manner as the interface echo to compensate for velocity changes in the waveguide.
Figure 33 presents this concept.
1
2 2
51 51.5 52 52.5 53
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Time (s)
2
1
(a) (b)
l
n
l
d
n
Figure 33: Replacement of the calibration echo through notch digging. (a) Waveg-
uide with a notch. (b) Impact of the notch on the pulse-echo waveform.
The error in measurements is then given by,
h = (h + l
n
)(
c
0
c
1), (19)
where h is the actual thickness of the specimen, l
n
is the length of the notch, c
0
is
the original wave speed, and c is the actual wave speed.
Table 5 gives values for the measurement error on a plate of thickness 12.7 mm
(1/2) for a notch of length 2 mm. Temperature variations are expected to be much
less than 100
C and the error is thus negligible.

49
The depth of the notch, d
n
can then be determined to control the partition between
transmitted and reected waves. Experiments with few notches showed that only a
small reective area is necessary for the notch echo to be detected. The waveforms
corresponding to the tested notches are presented on Figure 34.
50 50.5 51 51.5 52 52.5 53
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Time (s)
50 50.5 51 51.5 52 52.5 53
-1
0
1
Time (s)
(a)
(b)
Notch echo
Notch echo
Interface echo
Interface echo
Figure 34: Pulse-echo waveforms in cylindrical waveguides of length 152.4 mm (6)
(a) Rod of diameter 9.54 mm (3/8) with a notch of reective area of 56% (d
n
=3.21
mm). (b) Rod of diameter 12.7 mm (1/2) with a notch of reective area of 33%
(d
n
=1.73 mm).
5.2 Measurement Methods
Chapter II introduced trailing echoes and their associated negative impact on thick-
ness measurements. The implementation of waveguides thus needs to be studied
carefully to enable thickness measurements.
5.2.1 Pulse-Echo Conguration
After the notch introduction, pulse-echo measurements consist in calculating the time
delay between the notch echo and the backwall echo. Then the thickness is deduced
50
through
h
c
= c
0
(t t
0
)
2
, (20)
where c
0
is the originally calibrated longitudinal wave speed, t is the time delay
between the notch echo and the backwall echo, and t
0
is the initial calibration factor
that includes the notch compensation.
However, the access to the arrival time of the backwall echo can be impeded by
the trailing echoes associated with the calibration echo. Their attenuation is thus
necessary to avoid these situations.
As suggested in chapter IV, the use of tapered rods can be a solution as they
attenuate the trailing echoes. However, with the waveguide dimensions chosen, the
eciency of this solution is limited to the case when the transducer is in contact with
the smaller end of the rod as illustrated on Figure 35.
Transducer
Figure 35: Pulse-echo measurements with a tapered rod.
An alternative solution is made possible by the welding operation. Without the
notch, the reference echo and its associated trailing echoes would either not exist
or be reduced in amplitude. It is thus possible to scale these echoes through notch
51
dimensioning. In particular, the trailing echo amplitudes can be chosen to be small
in comparison with the amplitude of the backwall echo by reducing the notch depth.
However, the notch echo also needs to be detectable. As a result, this solution is
relevant only if the notch echo has a larger amplitude than its associated trailing
echoes. The energy partition between these echoes depends on the dimensions of the
rod. The adaptation of the waveguide to enable measurements is illustrated in Figure
36.
(a) (b) (c)
Backwall
Echo
Transducer Transducer
Transducer
Notch Echo
Figure 36: Design of a cylindrical waveguide enabling pulse-echo thickness measure-
ments. (a) Random waveguide and its pulse-echo waveform. (b) Optimization of the
rod dimensions for the rst arrival to be more important than it trailing echoes. (c)
Notch dimensioning to minimize the trailing echoes associated with the the calibration
echo while increasing the amplitude of the backwall echo.
However, with the waveguides chosen, the notch echo is not larger than its asso-
ciated rst trailing echo, and this solution is not implementable. In addition, mea-
surements performed with welded waveguides showed a reected echo coming back
52
from the weld, and this solution becomes irrelevant if the amplitude reected from
the weld is not small in comparison with that of the backwall echo.
To conclude, the implementation of pulse-echo measurements without modica-
tion of the waveguides dimensions is limited to the use of a tapered rod in the
conguration presented in Figure 35. If the rods dimensions could be changed, more
interesting solutions could be implemented.
5.2.2 Pitch-Catch Conguration
A pitch-catch conguration with a single waveguide is not a relevant option. Instead,
pitch-catch measurements are performed with two distinct transducers, each mounted
on a dierent waveguide as illustrated in Figure 37. The transmitter also operqtes in
pulse-echo mode to receive the echo resulting from the wave reection on the notch.
The backwall echo is obtained from the through-transmission waveform. If the two
waveguides are identical, the time-of-ight through the specimen can be determined
by subtracting the arrival time of the notch echo from the arrival time of the backwall
echo, which is essentially a mode 2 measurement. The angular path through the plate
is then compensated via initial calibration and the thickness is determined as per
Eq.(20).
This conguration presents a real advantage since it only uses rst arrivals. The
trailing echoes always arrive later than the rst arrivals and they will no longer impede
thickness measurements. The shape of the rods can thus be chosen arbitrarily as long
as the energy transmitted through them is sucient for the echoes of interest to be
detected.
53
Transmitter Receiver
Figure 37: Thickness measurement in a pitch-catch conguration with waveguides.
5.3 Final Design
5.3.1 Discussion and Choice
Both pulse-echo and pitch-catch congurations can be implemented for thickness mea-
surements with waveguides. However, they present dierent advantages and draw-
backs that have to be considered for the choice of the nal design.
Pulse-echo measurements are preferred as their welding is easier and because they
divide the hardware price by a factor two. However, they are strongly dependant
on the waveguide dimensions, which depend themselves on a set of external con-
straints. For the specic application considered here, the implementation of pulse-
echo measurements is restricted to the conguration presented in Figure 35, where
the trqnsducer is mounted on the smaller diameter end. The heat transfer from the
pipe to the transducer is then favored, which is not desired, and thus the pitch-catch
conguration is chosen.
In the case when the thermal gradient inside the rod is not sucient to guarantee
the safety of the transducer and its coupling, it is envisioned to add heat sinks on the
54
waveguides. In this perspective, the use of tapered rods makes this operation more
complex, and pitch-catch measurements with straight rods are preferred to pulse-echo
measurements with tapered rods.
A later step consists of studying the propagation of waves in pipe walls to enable
large area monitoring. In this perspective, the pitch-catch conguration may be more
eective for sending waves into pipe walls. Finally, pitch-catch measurements are
more robust to irregularities in the back surface of the pipe walls.
Depending on the dimensions of the monitored pipelines, it may be possible to
modify the rod dimensions to enable eective implementation of pulse-echo measure-
ments. However, the pitch-catch method is chosen for nal implementation.
5.3.2 Concept Validation
Though theoretical studies are encouraging, they need to be conrmed experimentally.
The pitch-catch conguration was thus implemented to prove the concept feasibility.
Special holders needed to be designed for the proper insertion of waveguides during
the welding operation. The time frame allocated to this thesis did not allow the
machining of such holders, and experiments were performed with traditional coupling.
In a pitch-catch conguration, measurements are based on rst arrivals only, and are
thus unaected by any echo as from the weld interfaces. As a result, the use of
traditional coupling is sucient for concept verication.
Two cylindrical rods of length 152.4 mm (6) and diameter 9.54 mm (3/8) were
machined with a notch of inner diameter 6.38 mm (1/4). Their end was cut at an
angle of 5 degrees to enable pitch-catch measurements. Then, a Plexiglas block was
used to hold the rods in their intended positions. Panametrics couplant A was used
to couple the rods to the plate and the transducers to the rods. The experimental
setup is shown in Figure 38.
The pulse-echo and pitch-catch waveforms were then acquired and are presented
55
(a) (b)
12.7mm
6.4mm 6.4mm
3.3mm
5
Figure 38: Experimental setup for concept verication of the pitch-catch measure-
ments (a) Picture of the actual setup. (b) Parameters of the experiment.
in Figure 39. The two echoes of interest appeared clearly and their arrival times were
determined for further analysis of the wave behavior.
45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
-0.5
0
0.5
Time (s)
45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
-0.5
0
0.5
Time (s)
(a)
(b)
Notch Echo
51.50s
Interface Echo
51.94s
56.48s
Figure 39: Experimental waveforms for pitch-catch measurements. (a) Pulse-echo
waveform. (b) Through-transmission waveform.
Theoretical ray calculations based on waves entering the plate with a 5 degrees
angle gives a W-path between the two waveguides, and the corresponding time of
ight can be calculated as,
t =
4d
cos()c
L
, (21)
56
where d is the thickness of the plate, c
L
is the longitudinal wave speed in steel, and
is the angle of incidence of the wave into the plate. The short path in the ends of
the rods is neglected. After replacement of each parameter by its value, a result of
8.79 s is obtained.
Experimentally, the time-of-ight can be determined with the interface echo since
the rods are not welded. The measured value is then 4.54 s. The dierence from
the calculation of Eq.(21) suggests the existence of a V-path through the plate rather
than a W-path. It can be explained by the diverging waves as the sound enters the
plate through the end of the rod.
Data were acquired from the experimental conguration of Figure 38, and time-
of-ights for thicknesses of 12.7 mm (1/2), 15.9 mm (5/8), 19.05 mm (3/4), and
25.4 mm (1) were measured and plotted against the corresponding thickness, along
with the linear t. The data conrms the validity of initial calibration in the range
of thicknesses considered. The thickness is thus related to the time-of-ight through,
h
c
= a
0
+ a
1
t, (22)
where a
0
and a
1
are calibration coecients obtained through linear regression on the
experimental data (a
0
=-2.11,a
1
=2.97).
Finally, the accuracy of measurements with temperature variations was veried
and compared to the results obtained without on-line mode 2 compnesation. The
experimental setup was placed in an industrial oven and warmed to 42
C. Then,
it was placed at room temperature, and measurements were performed as it cooled
down. The value of the highest temperature for which measurements were performed
was kept low, because the ecacy of waveguides in reducing the temperature still
needs to be veried and cooling solutions such as the addition of heat sinks might be
needed to avoid transducer damage.
Figure 41 compares the results of measurements with and without pulse-echo
57
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
5
6
7
8
9
Thickness (mm)
T
i
m
e

o
f

f
l
i
g
h
t

(
s
)
Linear Regression curve
: Experimental data
Figure 40: Generation of trailing echoes in a cylindrical waveguide.
compensation at room temperature (i.e. mode 2 vs mode 1). As expected, accurate
results are obtained through both methods since the initial calibration was performed
at room temperature.
16
18
20
22
24
26
T
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s

(
m
m
)

5 10 15 20 25
12
14
16
Measurement Number

Actual Thickness
Measured Thickness without Online Calibration
Measured Thickness with Online Calibration
Actual Thickness
Thickness without Pulse-Echo Compensation
Thickness with Pulse-Echo Compensation
Figure 41: Thickness measurements at room temperature.
Figure 42 presents the evolution of the measured thickness at elevated tempera-
tures. With pulse-echo compensation, the measurement error is small. Some errors
58
are caused by the hand coupling of the waveguides. However, as expected, a larger
error is introduced without the pulse-echo compensation, which demonstrates the
usefulness and ecacy of the proposed method.
16
18
20
22
24
26
T
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s

(
m
m
)

40C 35.9C 28.2C
32.1C
26 28 30 32 34 36 38
12
14
16
Measurement Number

Actual Thickness
Measured Thickness without Online Calibration
Measured Thickness with Online Calibration
42C
Actual Thickness
Thickness without Pulse-Echo Compensation
Thickness with Pulse-Echo Compensation
Figure 42: Results of thickness measurements at elevated temperatures. The initial
calibration was performed at 22.5
C.
59
CHAPTER VI
CONCLUSION
6.1 Summary and Conclusions
The objective of this thesis has been the development and verication of methods for
on-line thickness monitoring of piping systems and pressure vessels at high tempera-
ture. The decision to use welded waveguides had already been made based upon prior
work where multiple coupling methods were investigated [22], and thus the focus of
this thesis has been the determination of the precise conguration to employ.
A study was performed to understand both pulse-echo and through-transmission
wave propagation in straight and tapered buer rods. The primary issue was gener-
ation of trailing echoes in such rods and their impact on thickness measurements. A
prior literature search indicated that increasing the taper angle would reduce trailing
echoes in long buer rods. Experiments were performed, nite dierence simulations
were made, and a ray tracing model was developed to enable understanding of wave
propagation in tapered buer rods. It was found that the results for long buer rods
do not apply to shorter rods. Unlike reported results for longer rods, signals obtained
with the transducer mounted on the larger end of a short tapered rod are signicantly
noisier in terms of trailing echoes than signals obtained with the transducer mounted
on the other end. Although a modest taper angle does reduce the trailing echoes,
further increases in taper angle do not provide additional improvement because the
shorter length of the rod limits the number of mode conversions that can occur and
thus limits the variability in the arrival times of dierent beam paths. The conclusion
reached was that reasonable combinations of the diameter, length and taper angle of
the buer rod would not be adequate to reduce trailing echoes enough to permit
60
pulse-echo thickness measurements of pipe walls at high temperature.
A pitch-catch conguration was then considered using two adjacent buer rods
mounted at a small angle to the exposed surface. For this conguration, the backwall
echo is the rst arrival and is thus not aected by trailing echoes. The problem is
that temperature-induced velocity changes cause time shifts in this arrival that could
be mistaken for thickness changes. The proposed solution is to machine a notch
in the rods close to their attachment points on the surface and to simultaneously
record the pulse-echo signal. The arrival time of the echo reected from the notch
can then be used to compensate the error introduced by waveguides in the pitch-
catch arrival time, thereby reducing the sensitivity of the thickness measurements to
velocity perturbations. Measurements were performed to verify the ecacy of this
proposed solution.
6.2 Future Work
It is critical that the proposed pitch-catch method be veried using welded rods at
high-temperatures, and future work must include such experiments. The verication
should include the accuracy and robustness of the ultrasonic method as well as thermal
considerations. If the temperature at the transducer is too high to ensure survivability,
then the waveguide will need to be cooled. The preferred method would be installation
of passive heat sinks on the rods.
Once point thickness measurements are implemented, the ability to use the same
rods and transducers to generate guided waves in the pipe walls should be investigated.
The objective would be to enable large area monitoring between locations of point
measurements.
Finally, further investigation of a pulse-echo solution should be considered. If
the rod is made longer and the taper angle is increased, it may be possible to make
thickness measurements. The primary issue would be whether the signal-to-noise
61
ratio of the backwall echo is suciently large.
62
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[15] C.-K. Jen, L. Piche, and J. F. Bussiere. Long isotropic buer rods. J. Acoust.
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64

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HIGH TEMPERATURE THICKNESS MONITORING

USING ULTRASONIC WAVES

tapered rod of length 152.4 mm (6) and larger diameter 9.54 mm

taper angle. (c) 0.50

taper angle. (d) 0.75

taper angle. (e) 1

taper angle. (c) 0.50

taper angle. (e) 1

taper angle. (c) 0.50

taper angle. (e) 1

taper angle. (c) 0.50

taper angle. (d) 0.75

C, which introduces issues of transducer

152.4 mm 9.54 mm 1 -0.79 -0.38

. The transmitter was clamped to the large end

taper angle. (d) 0.75

taper angle. (e) 1

taper angle. (c) 0.50

taper angle. (d) 0.75

taper angle. (e)

taper angle. (c) 0.50

taper angle. (d) 0.75

taper angle. (e)

taper angle. (c) 0.50

taper angle. (d) 0.75

taper angle. (e) 1

. The amount of mode conversions was thus

C. However, the introduction of a

C and the error is thus negligible.

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