Pumps

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6.0 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS BEARINGS:

A bearing is a device which supports a shaft to enable it to rotate or slide
axially with the least possible frictional resistance.

Almost all machines contain components which need to rotate or slide and
therefore have some type of bearing fitted.

Bearing may be broadly grouped into two main categories:

Plain Bearings in which the surface of one component slides over
the surface of another. The materials for the bearings are carefully
selected and the surfaces specially prepared in order to minimize
friction and wear. (Refer to Figure 6.1).

Rolling Element Bearings in which a series of ball, rollers or
needles are interposed between the two surfaces in order to reduce
friction to a low level.
Rolling element bearing are sometimes called anti-friction bearings
because rolling friction is much less than sliding friction. (Refer to
Figure 6.2).

Bearings are also classified according to the type of function they perform,
as indicated below.

Journal Bearings which constrain radial movement of the shaft, as in
Figures 6.2 (a) & 6.2 (a).

Thrust Bearings which constrain axial movement of the shaft, as in
Figures 6.1 (b) & 6.2 (b).


















Figure 6.2: Examples of Rolling Element Bearings

Figure 6.1: Examples of Plain Bearings
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When selection a bearing, the type chosen will largely depend upon the
type of load it has to carry. Loads may be radial, axial or a combination of
radial and axial acting together.





















Figure 6.3: Types of Bearings Loads.


Plain Bearings:

Principles of Operation:
In order that the relative motion between the two sliding surfaces
shall be resisted as little as possible, the amount of friction must be
kept at the smallest level possible.
This is done by choosing suitable materials for the bearing surfaces,
ensuring that the surfaces are smooth and by introducing a film of
lubricant between them.

In some applications, materials having self-lubricating properties
may be used, otherwise a separate supply of oil or grease must be
provided.

The successful operation of a plain bearing depends upon
maintaining a correct film of lubricant between the sliding surfaces.
This is often assisted by machined grooves in the bearing surface
which act as reservoirs and allow even distribution of lubricant across
the bearing surface.

One of the most important aspects of bearing operation is the
control of temperature. This may be achieved either by providing a
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sufficient supply of lubricant which acts as a coolant or by passing
cooling water around a jacket which encloses the bearing.

Materials for Plain Bearings:
The requirements for materials used for plain bearings are complex
and in some senses, conflicting. For example, a bearing material must
be hard enough to resist wear and yet soft enough to conform to the
contours of the journal during the running-in process.

A plain bearing material must possess the following important
properties:

Compressive Strength To resist shaft loading without
deforming or collapsing.

Fatigue Strength To resist fluctuating dynamic loads.

Embeddability To embed foreign matter and so protect the
journal from wear and scoring.

Conformability To tolerate misalignment and deflection
under load.

Compatibility To tolerate momentary metal-to-metal contact
without seizure occurring.

Corrosion Resistance To resist attack by water or oxidized
lubrication products.

In order to meet these complex requirements, a range of special
materials has been developed specially for bearing applications.
Some of the more commonly used bearing materials are described
below.

Whitemetals:
The Whitemetals or Babbitt alloys are the best known of all
the bearing materials. They are either tin-based or lead-based
alloys and contain a significant percentage of antimony.
Whitemetals are usually applied as a coating deposited on to a
shell made of either steel, cast-iron or bronze.
Whitemetals have excellent properties in all respects, except
that their compressive and fatigue strength declines rapidly as
temperature increases.

Copper-lead Alloys:
These provide strength and fatigue resistance up to four
times greater than Whitemetals. However, conformability and
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Embeddability are not as good, but may be improved by coating
with a thin layer of whitemental.

Bronze:
Bronzes can be produced with a wide range of properties and
are probably the most economical of all bearing materials, of
which four types are normally used:

Lead-bronze Can be used without a steel backing, but
has low conformability and must be accurately aligned. It
is easily cast and machined, and is used for moderate
speed and loading applications.

Tin-bronze Has relatively high hardness and used in
applications where loads are high but speeds are low.
Tin-bronzes require reliable lubrication and a hardened
journal.

Aluminum-bronze Has good resistance to wear and
shock loads and is suitable for operating temperature of
260
o
C and above.
It is best used for heavy duty, low speed applications.

Phosphor-bronze Also useful for heavy load, high
temperature applications.

For more specific details regarding bearing materials,
manufacturer's information or appropriate standards should be
consulted.

Rolling Element Bearings:

Principles of Operation:
Rolling element bearings (sometimes called anti-friction bearings)
differ from plain bearings in that they incorporate rolling elements which
are either hardened steel balls, rollers or needles which are held
between two raceways as shown in (Figure 6.4) below.
A soft metal cage or retainer separates the rolling elements and
ensures that they are evenly spaced, but does not carry any load.

Because of the very small area of contact between the rolling
elements and their races, the frictional resistance to motion is much
less than that of plain bearings.





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Figure 6.4: Typical Ball and Roller Bearings.

Because the relative motion between the moving elements is one of
rolling rather than sliding, the material requirements are quite different
from plain bearings. Instead of the bearing materials needing to be
soft in comparison with the journal, both the rolling elements and their
raceways are made of specially hardened steel. This reduces the
rolling frication because of the smaller indentation produced by the
load, but friction can not be entirely eliminated and so lubrication must
still be provided.

Rolling element bearings are made to very precise standards of
accuracy, having tolerances of less than one thousandth part of a
millimeter. The choice of balls or rollers for the rotating elements
depends upon the following considerations:

Ball Bearing Can operate at higher speeds without
overheating, are less expensive for lighter loads and have
less frictional resistance at lighter loads.
Roller Bearings Can carry heavier loads, are superior
under shock or impact loading, provide greater rigidity
and less expensive for heavier loads.

(Figures 6.5 and 6.6) show details of typical rolling element bearings of
thrust journal types respectively.












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Figure 6.5: Types of Rolling Element Thrust Bearings.








































Figure 6.6: Types of Rolling Element Journal Bearings.
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Bearing Assembly Design:

Shaft and Housing Fits:
As a general rule, a rolling element bearing should be installed so that
its inner race is a tight fit on the rotating shaft and the outer race is an
interference fit in the stationary housing. The tolerances for shafts and
bearing housings should be established using the recommendations of
bearing manufacturers or ISO standards.

Thermal Expansion:
When a shaft is mounted on rolling element bearings, some provision
needs to be made to allow for thermal expansion of the shaft in the
axial direction so as to prevent overstressing of bearings or shaft.

In the common case where a shaft is supported on two bearings, it is
usual to have one bearing secured in the housing so that it cannot
move and the other bearing to be allowed to "float" so as to
accommodate axial shaft movement caused by thermal expansion.
A typical arrangement is shown in (Figure 6.7).















Figure 6.7: Typical Arrangement of Free and Fixed Bearings

Types of Mounting:
There are several standard arrangements that can be used to secure a
bearing to a shaft so that its axial position is maintained.

Shaft Nut and Locking Washer This is one of the most
common arrangements and can be used for both single and
double row radial bearings. After tightening the nut, the tab
washer is bent against one of the flats on the nut, so preventing
it turning. (Refer to Figure 6.8).




FREE
BEARING
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Figure 6.8: Shaft Nut and Locking Washer.

Slotted Nut and Pin A castle nut or slotted nut may be used
with a split pin or cotter pin in order to provide adjustment for
tapered roller bearings, as shown in (Figure 6.9) below.












Figure 6.9: Slotted Nut and Pin

End Plate and Locking Screws This arrangement may be
used as an alternative to the slotted nut and pin.
Each screw has a small hole drilled through the head, through
which a wire is passed and its ends twisted together. The wire
thus prevents the screws from becoming loose.












Figure 6.10: End Plate and Locking Screws
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End Cap and Shims This arrangement may be used for
tapered roller bearings or for angular contact bearings where
pre-load has to be set with adjusting shims.











Figure 6.11: End Cap and Shims

Snapring When it is not suitable for the housing to contain a
shoulder, then a snapring can be used to locate the bearing in
the housing, as shown in (Figure 6.11). This requires a special
bearing with a recess machined in the outer race to enable the
snapring to be fitted.













Figure 6.11: Snapring

Adaptor Sleeve Some types of bearing are made with a
tapered bore and are mounted as "floating" bearings on an
adaptor sleeve as shown in (Figure 6.12).









Figure 6.12: Adaptor Sleeve.
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Typical Pump Bearing Arrangements:

Ball Radial and Ball Thrust (Figure 6.13):
For shaft diameters up to about 55 mm and speeds up to 3600 rpm,
anti-friction double-row angular-contact bearings may be used for both
radial loads and thrust loads in either direction.

Because of the rolling action of the balls between the races, the heat
generated is not as great as a plain bearing. Most of the heat which is
produced is due to the sliding action of the balls against their retaining
cage which maintains equal ball spacing.

Lubrication is usually provided by an oil ring which hangs from the shaft
with its lower part dipped into an oil reservoir in the bearing housing.
As the shaft rotates, the oil ring splashes oil to the bearings.
































Figure 6.13: Ball Radial and Thrust Bearings

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Sleeve Radial and Ball Thrust (Figure 6.14):
For shaft diameters and speeds which are above the limits for ball
radial and ball thrust construction, cylindrical sleeve bearings are used
to carry the radial loads.
Axial loads in either direction are taken by two ball bearings mounted
back-to-back.

The sleeve bearings are steel or bronze lined with Babbitt and are split
parallel to the shaft. Lubrication may be by oil rings and cooling coils
may be built in to the oil reservoirs through which either cold water or
the pumped product may be circulated to remove excess heat from the
oil.

For shaft peripheral speeds above 16 meters per second, forced feed
lubrication will be required and can be provided by a shaft driven lube
pump.































Figure 6.14: Sleeve Radial and Ball Thrust Bearings.

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Bearing Lubrication:
The choice of lubricant is determined by the following factors:

Load - The load on the bearing will determine the pressure
against which the lubricant must work.

Speed - The lubricated surfaces will wear faster at higher
speeds.

Temperature - The properties of the lubricant may be
affected by the operating temperature.

Environment - The lubricant may have to cope with the
presence of water or corrosive substances.

Lubricant selection should normally be in accordance with the
recommendations of the equipment manufacturer. However, as a
general rule, the following guide is useful to remember:

For light loads and high speeds, use a lubricant of low
viscosity.

For heavy loads and low speeds, use a lubricant of high
viscosity.

The decision whether to use oil or grease as the lubricant will depend
upon operating conditions. The following comparative advantages may
be useful to consider when making a choice.

Oil:
Assists cooling.
Absorbs less torque.
Feeds more easily and from a central supply.
Washes away dirt.
Can also lubricate other elements such as gears.

Grease:
Permits simpler bearing designs.
Provides better sealing against foreign matter.
Is easier to contain and seal.
Allows longer periods without attention.

The following basic principles govern the application of lubricants:

Cleanliness is vital. Lubricating equipment must be kept free
from dirt and other foreign matter.

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Lubricants of different brand or grade should never be mixed.
If it is necessary to change the type of lubricant, then the
equipment should first be drained and cleaned out.

An excess of lubricant, especially grease, will cause heat to
build up. This will eventually break down the lubricant and
bearing failure will result.

Lubricant filters and strainers should always be changed at
the recommended time intervals.

The selection of lubricant for a given application should be as
recommended by the equipment manufacturer.

Inadequate lubrication can often be identified by the
operating condition of the bearing, such as excessive noise or
temperature. In general, if a bearing feels too hot to touch with
a hand, then its lubrication may not be correct and should be
checked.

Lubricants are potentially hazardous materials and should be
properly stored with regard to safely and effect on the
environment.

Oil lubrication is often used for light to moderate duty in high-speed
applications.
The oil should be changed at regular specified intervals and this should
be done sooner if the oil has become dirty or contaminated.
When changing oil, it is good practice to thoroughly clean the bearing
housing or sump with flushing oil before adding the new lubricant. This
ensures that all foreign matter is removed.

Grease lubrication is generally used for heavy loads at low to moderate
speeds. When grease is used in pump bearings, make sure it is of the
type specified by the pump manufacturer.
Usually, soda-soap-compounded grease that has a mineral oil base is
acceptable.
All greases used for bearings should be free from fillers such as clay,
mica or talc. These mineral fillers are highly abrasive, even when finely
ground and mixed with oil or grease.

Most industrial plants maintain a lubrication schedule for the pumps
and other machines that are operated. This schedule is based on
operating time and load, as well as pump age and condition. The
pump manufacturer may also give his own recommendations, which
may be used as a guideline when preparing a lubrication schedule.

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Pumps are greased at around 3 monthly intervals and this may be
extended to 6 months if the pump is not operated frequently.
When the pump is running, however, the bearings should be checked
daily for noise, cleanliness and operating temperature.

Methods of Lubrication:
There are several different ways to ensure the proper lubrication of
pump bearings. Lubrication methods include oil reservoirs, constant-
level oilers, drip-feed or ring type oilers and pressurized systems. Two
of these methods are shown in (Figure 6.15). Whatever method is
used, daily checks should be made to ensure that the correct amount
of lubricant reaches the bearings.
















Figure 6.15: Typical Oil Lubricating Systems.

The constant-level oiler shown above in (Figure 6.15) is a combination
drip feed and ring type oiler. The ring used to distribute the oil is the
same as any other ring oiler. Its purpose is to maintain a constant oil
level in the sump by replacing the oil that leaks out.

Similar to oil lubrication, too much greasing of a bearing can generate
excessive amounts of heat and also cause seals to rupture. This may
allow dirt or moisture to enter the bearing and so cause damage.

Some pumps are fitted with grease cups similar to those shown in
(Figure 6.16). Lubrication is carried out by turning the cap or handle
one or two turns at regular intervals.







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Figure 6.16: Grease Cup Lubricators.

Bearing Seals:
There are two main types of bearing seals:

Contacting type seals (rubbing).

Clearance type seals (no rubbing).

One type of rubbing contact seal is a felt ring which is soaked in oil
then pressed into a groove in the bearing cover, as shown in (Figure
6.17A).

Other types of rubbing contact seals are called "unit seals". These
consist of a moulded element of rubber or leather, which is shaped and
sized to form a contact lip with the shaft.
The element is usually bonded to a metal case and is a press fit into
the bearing cover bore.

The seal may be fitted with its lip facing either to the outside or the
inside, depending upon whether the sealing is against leakage of
lubricant or against the entry of dirt or moisture.

Dual seals of the type shown in (Figure 6.17E) may be sometimes
used where internal and external sealing are both required.

Unit seals must be carefully installed using the correct tools and
particular care must be taken to avoid damage to the seal lip. Seals
should be pre-lubricated before fitting to prevent initial wear. During
operation, lubrication is provided by the small amount of normal
leakage.

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Figure 6.17: Rubbing Contact Seals.

Many unit seals are provided with springs to maintain contact pressure.
(Figure 6.17 E) shows a design of seal, which uses finger springs, and
(Figure 6.17 F) illustrates the use of a garter spring.

The simplest type of clearance seal is obtained by providing a relatively
long close-clearance fit between the shaft and housing, as shown in
(Figure 6.18A). One or more grooves may be arranged in the housing
to help prevent the escape lubricant.

Another type of clearance seal is the labyrinth type shown in (Figure
6.18B). In a labyrinth seal, the long and staggered close-clearance
path is filled with lubricant and offers a high resistance to flow in either
direction.


















Figure 6.18: Clearance Seals.

A
D
G
F
B
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Slingers are often fitted to clearance seals when they are used for oil-
lubricated bearings. The slingers help to prevent the escape of any oil
which may have passed the seal by flinging it into a groove in the seal
housing, from where it can drain back into the bearing housing (Refer
to Figure 6.18A).

Clearance type seals can operate without any restrictions regarding
speed or operating temperature, but they do permit more leakage of
lubricant than rubbing contact seals and also are not as effective in
keeping out dirt and other foreign matter.