1210 INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY

Vol. 21, No. 12

of 1000 pounds per hour on the dry basis. The air leaves at
130 F. Calculate (a) humidity of entering air, ( b) humidity of
exit air, (c) evaporation of water from stock in pounds per hour,
( d) volume of entering air, ( e) volume of exit air.
(a) Connect wet- and dry-bulb
temperatures of entering air with a straight line and read the
humidity of the entering air on the scale at the right-hand edge
as 0.0538 pound water per pound dry air.
Since wet-bulb temperature is constant throughout drier,
draw a straight line through the intersection of the line drawn
to solve part (a) with the wet-bulb temperature scale and through
130 F. on the dry-bulb scale. Read the humidity of the exit
air on the right-hand humidity scale as 0.0645 pound water per
pound dry air.
(c) Water evaporated = lOOO(0.0645 - 0.0538) = 10.7
Solution (shown on chart).
( b)
pounds per hour.
Connect 170 F. on the dry-bulb temperature scale with
0.0538 on the left-hand humidity scale and read the humid volume
( d)
as 17.25 cubic feet wet air per pound dry air.
ing air is therefore 17,250 cubic feet per hour,
(e)
per hour.
Volume of enter-
By similar method, volume of exit air is 16,380 cubic feet
Conclusion
There is a similarity between line coordinate charts and
the more familiar nomographic charts. The two should not
be confused, however. The five charts described in this
article are examples of the wide adaptability of line coordi-
nates to chemical engineering data. The reader may adopt
this method to construct other charts to suit his particular
needs.
Literature Cited
(1) Brodetsky, A First Course in Nomography, G. Bell & Sons, Ltd.,
(2) Carr and Murphy, J . Am. Chem. Soc.. 51, 116 (1929).
(3) dOcagne, Traite de Nomographie, p. 158, Gauthier-Villars, Paris,
(4) Grosvenor, Tram. 4m. Znst. Chem. Eng., 1, 184 (1912).
( 5) International Critical Tables, Vol. V, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.
(6) Leslie and Carr, I ND. ENG. CHEM., 17, 810 (1925).
(7) Monrad and Badger, Zbi d. , 21, 40 (1929).
(8) Partington and Schilling. Specific Heats of Gases. E. Benn, ttd.,
(9) Rechenberg, Distillation, Selbstverlag von Schimmel & Co., 1923.
(10) Runge, Graphical Methods, Columbia University Press, 1912.
(11) Walker, Lewis, and McAdams, Principles of Chemical Engineering,
(12) Young, Sci. Proc. Roy . Dublin Soc., 12, 374 (1910).
London, 1920.
1921.
1924.
p. 458, RIcGraw-Hill Book Co.. Inc., 1927.
Effects of Temperature and Pressure on the Upper
Explosive Limit of Methane-Oxygen Mixtures
C. M. Cooper and P. J . Wiezevich
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL EKOINEERING, MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY. CAMBRIDGE, MASS.
1 THE past much experi-
mentation has been done
I by various investigators
on the expl osi ve limits of
methane-air mixtures at ordi-
nary temperatures and pres-
sures. Recently ($) higher
pressures have been used with
the same materials, but few
data are available for meth-
ane-oxygen mixtures. This
work was undertaken i n
order to obtain information
concerning the effects of tem-
perature and pressure on
the upper explosive limit of
methane-oxygen mixtures.
A new apparatus of the make-and-break type has
been developed for the ignition of gaseous mixtures at
high temperatures and pressures. With this apparatus
the explosive limits of methane-oxygen mixtures have
been investigated at pressures up to 230 atmospheres
and temperatures up to 480 C.
It has been found that the lower the oxygen concen-
tration or the temperature, the higher the pressure re-
quired for the successful ignition of the mixture; and
conversely, as either pressure or temperature is in-
creased, the amount of oxygen necessary to form a
combustible mixture is decreased. A t temperatures
above 400 C. spontaneous reaction begins to occur.
Complete consumption of the oxygen does not take
place on the explosion of the mixtures at high pressure.
surprising to find that any-
thing which alters the heat
losses to the surroundi ngs
affects the explosive limits.
Thus, by gradually decreas-
ing the diameter of the tube
used for the determinations,
the explosive l i mi ts come
closer and closer together un-
til finally, for very narrow
tubes, it appears that there
is no gas composition which
will ignite and propagate
flame.
Previous Work
The expl&ve limit or limit of inflammability of an
inflammable gas, vapor, or solid suspension with oxygen or
any medium capable of supporting combustion may be
defined as that composition which when ignited will just sup-
port its own combustion. Consider a typical case. If meth-
ane is mixed with air at room temperature and pressure,
it is found that mixtures containing less than about 5 per
cent methane will not burn. Compositions from 6 per cent
to 14 per cent burn when ignited, while those containing more
than 14 per cent will not ignite. The composition containing
6 per cent methane is known as the lower limit mixture.
Similarly the 14 per cent mixture is the upper limit mixture.
When a limit mixture burns, part of the heat liberated by
the burning of one layer of gas is used in heating the adjacent
layer to the ignition temperature. The remainder of the
heat is lost by radiation and conduction. It is therefore not
1 Received August 12, 1929.
The limits of inflammability for gases and vapors at or-
dinary conditions have been determined by various investi-
gators (9, 10, $0, 33). The effect of pressures up to 10
atmospheres has also been studied (2, 29, 24, $5, /to), and
results published after the completion of the present study ( 2)
give the effect of pressures up to 400 to 500 atmospheres
for various gas and vapor mixtures with air. At atmos-
pheric pressure and room temperature the upper and lower
limit mixtures of methane and air contain, respectively, 14.02
and 5.24 per cent oxygen. At pressures below atmospheric
the limits gradually narrow and meet at about 9 per cent
methane for a pressure of 140 mm. (20 (2.). At 10 atmos-
pheres pressure the upper limit becomes 14 and the lower 6.5
per cent, while at 100 atmospheres the corresponding limits
are 36 and 7 per cent.
Experiments on the effect of temperature at low pressures
have also been made (,9, 25, 38) with methane-air mixtures.
The limits widen continually as the temperature is increased,
December, 1929 ISDUSTRIAL Ah'D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY 1211
MOVPBLE ELECTRODE
FIXED ELECTRODE
STEU S M E T I 31%
EXPLOSION CHAMBER
AMMETER
Figure 1-Diagrammatic View of Apparatus
until beyond 700" C. the results begin to become uncertain,
possibly owing to surface reactions.
As already mentioned, it has been found that anything
which alters the rate at which heat is conducted away from
an advancing flame front alters the limit composition. Thus,
small tubes with a high coefficient of heat conductivity will
give entirely different results (24, 34) than larger heat-
insulated tubes. The effect of tube diameters above 50 mm.
was found to be slight, but below that value the range of
explosive compositions was narrowed. This fact is important
in designing apparatus for high-pressure determinations where
it is necessary to keep the apparatus as small as possible.
Other factors which influence the determination of the
limit mixtures are the method and point of ignition. TThen
the point of ignition lies near the top of the reaction space,
the range of explosive limit compositions is slightly narrower
than when located either at the bottom or the side. This
difference is probably due to convection effects which can
scarcely exist in the first case where flame is propagated
downwards. An electric spark has been the usual method
of ignition. As the gas pressure is reduced below one atmos-
phere, the energy necessary to ignite a limit mixture increases
rapidly (49). On the other hand, discharges pass with diffi-
culty through gases at high pressures. A more positive
method of ignition under these conditions has been the
electrical fusion of a fine silver wire in the reaction chamber
( 4) .
Apparatus
Figure 1 shows the apparatus used for the present experi-
ments. A mixture of methane and oxygen was made up in
the water-sealed gasometer, compressed by a minature two-
stage compressor, passed through an oil and water trap, and
admitted through a small needle valve to the explosion
chamber. The latter was provided with a make-and-break
electrical ignition system, thermocouple for temperature meas-
urement, and a steel safety disk of such a thickness that fail-
ure would occur before dangerous pressures could build up
in the apparatus.
EXPLOSION CHAMBER-The assembled reaction unit or
explosion chamber is shown in Figure 2. It was turned from
alloy-steel stock, and had a thickness sufficient to stand about
2000 atmospheres pressure at 350' C. The cold-rolled safety
disk had a thickness of about 1.2 mm., and failed satis-
factorily when severe explosions occurred,
although it withstodd static pressures of
340 atmospheres. The reaction space was
cylindrical, 3.18 cm. in diameter and
3.81 cm. long. The wall surfaces were
not protected in any way, and soon
formed a perceptible layer of oxides.
means of ignition has been an electrical
discharge across a gap in the reaction space
with some form of induction coil supply-
ing the necessary potential difference.
With this arrangement there appears to
be a definite minimum amount of energy
required in the spark in order to ignite a
mixture at the existing conditions of tem-
Derature and Dressure. Thus. Wheeler
~I ETHOD OF IGhmroN-The customary
t4S) required about 0.5 ampere in the
primary circuit of his induction coil to
4 iq ignite the mixture at 1 atmosphere while at
100 mm. pressure 7 amperes were required.
u 1 - The first series of experiments in the
present work were made with a high-
tension electrical discharge employing a
0.5-kilowatt transformer, allowing the current to flow
intermittently. When higher pressures than atmospheric
were encountered, results became uncertain, and at pressures
above 400 pounds per square inch (27.2 atmospheres) violent
explosions occurred with certain mixtures. An ammeter
inserted in the primary circuit of the transformer showed a
8
GUIDE
Figure 2-Apparatus for Determination of Pressure and
Temperature Effects on Limlts of Gas Mixtures
constant current of 2.2 amperes at pressures above 400 pounds
per square inch (27.2 atmospheres), while at lower pressures
over 15 amperes were drawn. Apparently no spark occurred
at the higher pressures, so the ignition must have taken
place from a silent discharge.
1212 INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY Vol. 21, No. 12
I n their high pressure work Berl and Werner ( 2) melted
fine silver wires by passing through them a heavy electric
current. The metallic vapor allowed an arc to form for an
instant. This method had the disadvantage of requiring
a new wire after every attempted ignition.
Another series of experiments in the present work attempted
the use of an incandescent platinum wire, quickly heated by
an electric current,
but no consistent data
could be obtai ned
with this method.
Evidently surface re-
action occurred dur-
ing the warming up
of the wire, causing
the formation of an
i nsul ati ng layer of
inert gas around the
wire. This conclusion
was also reached in
the work of Coward
and Guest ( I @, which
showed that when hot
metal bars were used
to ignite an inflamma-
ble gas mixture, good
1, -wc*F~+*R~ o xi d at i o n catalysts
Figure 3-Two-Stage Compressor
such as platinum had
to be much hotter
than relatively inert
surfaces.
The make- and-
break method finally
chosen for this work
(Fi gure 2) was the
only one to work satis-
factorily. Two con-
tacts in the center of
the reacti on space
were arranged to be
rapidly pulled apart
by means of an electromagnet, breaking the flow of a cur-
rent of 8 amperes in a circuit containing a large inductance.
This produced an intense spark which could be depended on
at any pressure. The energy in the spark was that stored
up in that magnetic field of the inductance, and hence was
independent of the pressure in the chamber. This method had
several advantages over any of the others so far considered.
I n the first place, ignition was positive since. if current flowed
in the circuit and ceased to flow when the contacts were
opened, a spark must have been produced. Moreover, the
spark worked equally well at low and high pressure and re-
leased a constant amount of energy. The size of the spark
depended on the speed with which the contacts were opened.
This is the reason for the steel hammer employed in the
igniting mechanism. The hammer was accelerated by the
electromagnet and had a high velocity at the time it hit the
top, lifting the movable contact. Furthermore, it was not
necessary to dismantle the apparatus after each sparking as
in the case of the silver-wire fusion.
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT-The initial temperature of
the gas was determined by means of a small copper-ideal
thermocouple (No. 36 B. and S. gage) placed in a steel well
projecting into the reaction space. This well was of about
1.6 mm. outside diameter with an 0.8-mm. bore, and because
of this small size and consequent low heat capacity tem-
perature fluctuations were registered very quickly. The
thermoelectric potential was measured by a Leeds 8: Korthrup
potentiometer which could be read to about 2" C. The ther-
mocouple was insulated by a coating of low-melting glass
applied by running the fine wires through a molten glass
prepared by fusing a mixture of borax and litharge.
PRESSURE MEAsuREJIENTs-Several ranges of calibrated
Bourdon tube gages were used for the pressure determinations.
The precision to be expected from these was about as follows:
RANGE PROBABLE ERROR
Lbs. fie7 so. in. Almos. Lbs. bet sa. i n. Al mos.
- - . -
Atmospheric t o 250 To 17 * 3 0.204
250 to 2000 17-136 *20 1.36
Above 2000 * 50 3.4 Above 136
TEMPEIt4TURE Co?mRoL-The reaction chamber extended
into the center of an electric heater made by winding alter-
nate layers of asbestos tape and chrome1 wire on a steel tube,
the whole being surrounded by a layer of kieselguhr 1 inch
(2.5 cm.) thick, for heat insulation. Since the tube leading
to the chamber was of small cross section, the heat flowing
along it was also slight. Consequently the temperature of
the chamber was quite uniform. The insulation and sparking
mechanism in the top of the apparatus were kept cool by
means of a water jacket.
COMPRESSOR-The gas mixture was compressed in a small
two-stage compressor (Figure 3) having a capacity of about
200 liters per hour. With the exception of frequent valve
cleaning and grinding, the operation was satisfactory.
PIPINa-The gas mixture at high pressure was distributed
in brass and copper capillary tubing of approximately 4.75
mm. outside diameter with 1.6 mm. diameter bore.
Experimental Procedure
PREPARATION AND ANALYSIS OF Gas ?VIIxTuRE-The
mixture of methane and oxygen was made up in the 200-liter
water-sealed gasometer. The methane was of natural-gas
origin, subsequently purified by liquefaction and distillation,
and contained 0.5 per cent ethane (determined by fractiona-
tion at low temperature) and 5 per cent nitrogen (determined
as residual gas after combustion). The oxygen was obtained
by air liquefaction and
was better than 99 per
cent pure. A few runs
were made on an un-
purified natural gas
whi ch contained, be-
si des methane, 2 per
cent ethane and 5 per
cent nitrogen. How-
eyer, no appreci abl e
difference in the results
was noticed. The mix-
ture was al l owed to
stand about 12 hours in
the gasometer to insure
uniformity of composi-
tion. The mixture was
then analyzed for oxy-
gen in a Burrell gas-
analysis apparatus, and
similar analyses w ere
made from time to time
during the course of the
experiments to make
certain that the com-
position did not change.
action chamber was
brought up to the de-
PROCEDURE-The re-
December, 1929 INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY 1213
180-198 20
199-213 20
214-219 132
220-225 240
226-230 380
sired temperature by manipulation of the heater rheostat,
and carefully purged out with the gas mixture. The exit
valve of the chamber was then closed and the pressure allowed
to build up slowly. -4s the pressure rose, sparks were dis-
charged at intervals by means of the ignition apparatus
until ignition occurred. This point was checked by repeating
the procedure, except that no sparks were discharged until
the limit pressure as
shown by the first ex-
ll77ll periment was almost
Unpurified natural
gas
21. 2 75 0 3 . 8 415 28. 2
2 2 . 6 73. 5 3 9 270 1 8 . 3
22. 6 7 3 . 5 3 . 9 200 13 6
22. 6 7 3 . 5 3 9 135 9 . 2
22. 6 7 3 . 5 3 9 b b
I
FIGURE 5
00
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
;cached. By a suffi-
cient number of ex-
periments two pres-
sures were determined
for each condition of
temperature and gas
composition investi-
gated-(I ) a point
where reaction was
fi rst distinctly per-
cepti bl e, and (2) a
point as near as pos-
sible to (1) yet where
reaction could not be
Results and Discussion
The data obtained in this work are summarized in Table I.
Runs 1 to 5 were made at atmospheric pressure using a
jump spark for ignition. All other experiments at higher
pressures were made using the make-and-break device for
ignition.
RUNS 152 - l ea
GAS COMPOSITION:
5 0
c
z
$ 4 0
-
wm
; 30
L
J
i 2 0
z
I O
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
INITIAL TEMPE RATURE 'C.
Figure 4 shows graphically the effect of pressure at 20" C.
on the upper explosive limit of methane-oxygen mixtures.
The limit mixture at atmospheric pressure was found to be
38.5 per cent oxygen and 58.4 per cent methane, which check
Payman's (33) values of 40.8 per cent oxygen and 59.2 per
cent methane. It can be seen from the figure that pressure
has a marked effect on the upper limit. Starting with about
39 per cent oxygen in the limit mixture at atmospheric pres-
sure, the oxygen content necessary for combustion decreases
to about 17 per cent at 34 atmospheres and then to about
14 per cent at 68 atmospheres. At 170 atmospheres the
limit mixture contains only about 11 per cent oxygen.
Figures 5, 6, and 7 give the temperature-pressure data
for single gas compositions. These have been combined
in Figure 8 where, in order to condense the pressure scale,
logarithms of pressure have been plotted versus oxygen
concentrations. It will be observed that, in general, the
lower the oxygen concentration or the temperature, the
higher the pressure required for successful ignition of the
mixture.
As either pressure or temperature was increased, the
amount of oxygen necessary to form a combustible mixture
decreased, and at temperatures above 400" C. spon-
taneous reaction began
to occur. Under this
condition the oxygen -
content of the gas de- 4 0
creased on standing to
such an extent that no 2 30
combustion could be E
obtained on sparking. -I
For instance, when a E 2o
mixture originally ana- '
l yzi ng 22.6 per cent 10
oxygen was allowed to
stand in the chamber 1 o
minute without spark- loo ' 0 400
ing at a temperature of
371" C. and a pressure of 215 pounds per square inch (14.62
atmospheres), the exit gas analyzed 1.6 per cent carbon di-
oxide and 21.4 per cent oxygen with no carbon monoxide.
Figure 9 shows the variations of the gas composition re-
sulting when a gas mixture, at constant initial temperature, is
ignited at various initial pressures. This again emphasizes
the incompleteness of reaction. No attempt has been made
to account for the shapes of these curves.
TCMPERATURE 'C.
Table I-Summarized Data
GAS
INITIAL PRESSURE LIMIT
RUN INITIAL
TEMP.
1-5
80-54
85-95
96-106
107-11;
118-123
124-127
127-132
132-135
136-142
143-147
148-151
152-164
165-168
169-172
173- 176
177-186
187-188
c.
20
10
10
19
19
173
256
385
530
20
20
20
100
228
288
332
410
480
% % %
38. 5 58. 4 3. 1
38. 0 5 9 . 0 3 . 0
2 0 . 3 67. 0 3 7
26. 7 6 9 . 6 3 . 7
17. 2 78. 6 4 . 2
17. 2 7 8 . 6 4 . 2
17. 2 78. 6 4 . 2
17. 2 7 8 . 6 4 . 2
17. 2 78. 6 4 . 2
11. 5 84. 0 4 . 5
9 . 0 56. 4 4 . 6
14. 0 8 1 . 7 4 . 3
14. 0 81. 7 4 . 3
1 4 . 0 81. 7 4 . 3
14. 0 81. 7 4 . 3
14. 0 81. 7 4 . 3
14. 0 81. 7 4 . 3
14. 0 81. 7 4 . 3
I.bs,/
sq. In.
15
30
t ; O
120
615
435
436
2z5
2220
3365
895
550
505
875
345
. . . .
0
At mos
1 . 0
2 . 0
5 . 4
8 . 2
4 7 . 8
2 9 . 0
29. 6
2;. 1
151
229
60. 8
37. 4
3 4 . 3
25. 5
2 3 . 4
. . .
a
4 Would not ignite.
b Would not ignite after standing 1 minute.
N O
reaction
Lbs./
. q. i n. Almos
15 1 . 0
15 1 . 0
55 3 . 7
115 8 . 2
500 8 4 . 0
395 26. 9
iii i p:o
2000 136
865 58. 8
495 33. 7
410 27. 9
345 23. 4
285 19. 4
2z5
l i . 9
315 21. 4
215 14. 6
190 12. 9
145 9 . 9
b b
INITIAL
'RRSSURE
LIMIT
METHOD
bs./
sq.
i n. :Almos.
rRAPHICAL
400- 27. 2
380 A 25. 9
248- 16. 7
350 2 3 . 8
260 17. 7
1214 INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERI,VG CHEMISTRY
Vol. 21, Yo, 12
FIGURE 8
EFFECT O f TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE
ON THE UPPER EXPLOSIVE LIMIT Of
METHANE- OXYGEN MIXTURES
V-REACTION A-NO REACTION
100
w 8 0 0 WlNTS OBTAINED BY EXTRAWLATION
h
3
6 eo
a
i
e
s40
$ 30
g 20
2
!
10
2 8
6
4
3
2
I
IO 12 14 I 6 18 20 24 2a 32 36 40 45
PERCENT OXYGEN I N MIXTURE
FIGURE 9
5 2 4 ! !
COMWSITION Of CAS AFTER IGMTION
RUNS 109-213 AT 2O.C.
INITIAL GAS COMPOSITION
L Oi 2 2 . SX CH,-73.5% Nt-3.S*/,
E
5 l2
8 *
5
t-l
I-
W
8 4
0
0 2 0 40 60 80 100
INITIAL PRESSURE (ATM.)
Conclusions
Both temperature and pressure markedly affect the upper
explosive limit of methane-oxygen mixtures. The greater
either variable, the smaller the amount of oxygen necessary
for reaction. Spontaneous reaction occurs above 400" C.
for the pressure range investigated. Complete consumption
of the oxygen does not take place on the explosion of methane-
oxygen mixtures at high pressure.
Acknowledgment
The writers are indebted to Per K. Frolich, who suggested
and supervised the work, and to the Research Laboratory of
Applied Chemistry of Massachusetts Institute of Technology
for placing its facilities at t'heir disposal.
Bibliography
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(2) Berl and Werner, Z . angew. Chem., 42, 245 (1929).
(3) Bone, Phil. Trans., A216, 275 (1915).
(4) Bone and Others, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), llOA, 615, 634 (1926).
(5) Bone, Townend, and Piewit, Ibid., 108, 393 (1925).
(6) Brown, Leslie, and Hunn, IND. ENG. CHEM., 17, 397 (1925).
(7) Brown and Watkins, I bi d. , 19, 366 (1927).
( S) Burgess and Wheeler, Safety in Mines Research Board, Paper 16.
(9) Burrell and Robertson, Bur. Mines, Tech. Paper 121 (1916).
(10) Clark and Thiele, IND. ENG. CHEM., 17, 1219 (1925).
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(13) Coward and Meiter, Ibid., 49, 386 (1927).
(14) Coward and Wheeler, B7ennsto.f- Wdrmevirt., 9, 431 (1927).
(15) Cowen and Finch, Proc. Roy. SOC. (London), 111A, 257 (1926).
(16) Crouch and Carver, IND. END. CHEM., 17, 641 (1925).
(17) Dodge, Chem. Met. Eng., 26, 416 (1922).
(18) Egerton and Gates, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), 116A, 516 (1927).
(19) Ellis, J. Chem. Soc., 123, 1450 (1923).
(20) Fischer and Werner, Z. Elektrochem. , 30, 29 (1924).
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(23) Lovell, Coleman, and Boyd, IND. ENG. CHEM., 19, 389 (1927).
(24) Mallard and LeChatelier, Ann mines, 4, 274 (1885).
(25) Mason and Wheeler, J . Chem. Soc., 113, 47 (1918).
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(27) Morgan, "Electric Spark Ignition," Crosby, Lockwood and Son, Lon-
(28) Morgan, Phil. Ma g . , 45, 968 (1923).
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(34) Payman and Wheeler, Ibid., 112, 664 (1918).
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(38) Taffanel, Compl. rend., 167, 593 (1913).
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(40) Terres and Plenz, J . Gasbel., 67, 990 (1914).
(41) Thornton, Phil. Mag., 6, 28, 734 (1914); PYOC. Roy. SOL. (London),
(42) Townend, Ibid. , 1168, 637 (1927).
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(44) Wheeler, Ibid., 126, 1859 (1924); 121, 2079 (1922).
(45) White, Ibid., 127, 672 (1925).
don, 1922.
91A, 17 (1914).
Wood Flour Opens New Field for Industry
Industrial plants in the United States are developing overnight European lumber manufacturers are converting these materials
new uses for wood flour, according to the National Committee into wood flour, exporting it to this country, paying duty,
on Wood Utilization of the Department of Commerce. Wood and evidently selling it at a profit. European wood flour has
plastics of the type that can be pressed or molded are now been claimed to have certain advantages over the domestic prod-
working into specialized fields, where apparently their use is uct, but the validity of the claim has been disproved, it was stated.
meeting an economical approval. Only recently have wood Increased experience and care in the selection of raw material by
plastics entered the furniture and other industries. American manufacturers have resulted in a product equal in every
The committee stated that it is impossible to tell exactly the way to that produced by foreign mills, according to the com-
amounts of wood flour consumed by various industries. Phenol- mittee.
resin products, linoleum and its use in dynamite cartridges as The wood substance of various species of trees differs very little
filler consume many thousands of pounds yearly. The increasing in composition, it was explained. However, there are certain
demand for wood flour in the manufacture of various articles has infiltrations of gums and resins in some woods, and in others cer-
resulted in an increased consumption of the product from 7000 tain coloring, that preclude their use as wood flour for some
tons in 1924 to 24,000 tons in 1927, and approximately 40,000 products.
tons in 1928. During 1928 imports of wood flour into the United Spruce, fir, and pine are the chief woods used in Europe to
States totaled 14,490,401 pounds, valued at $94,723, it was stated. produce the highest grades of wood flour. Similar species are
It was pointed out by the committee that whereas American represented in the United States by true firs, white pines, and
operators are spending money to dispose of sawdust and shavings, spruces.