Application of Shapero'S Model in Explaining Entrepreneurial Intentions Among University Students in Kenya

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APPLICATION OF SHAPEROS MODEL IN EXPLAINING ENTREPRENEURIAL

INTENTIONS AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN KENYA

JOHN KARANJA NGUGI
Lecturer, Jomo Kenyatta University of Science and Technology,
P.O BOX 620000 00200

PROF. R. W. GAKURE
Lecturer, Jomo Kenyatta University of Science and Technology,
P.O BOX 620000 0020

SIMON MAINA WAITHAKA
Ph.D STUDENT, Jomo Kenyatta University of Science and Technology,
P.O BOX 620000 0020

AGNES NYAMBURA KIWARA
MSC (ENTRE STUDENT), Jomo Kenyatta University of Science and Technology,
P.O BOX 620000 0020

ABSTRACT
Entrepreneurship is considered as an engine of economic growth. Entrepreneurial process starts from
development of entrepreneurial intentions. A large number of scholars have focused on the internal
and psychological aspects regarding entrepreneur. However, little is known about how external
factors can influence the development of entrepreneurial intentions. Entrepreneurial intentions is
influenced by three key latent variables; perceived desirability, propensity to act and perceived
feasibility. The researcher planned to use an entrepreneurial intention model developed theoretically
based on the Shaperos Model.
The sample size was 133 respondents. The data collection instruments were questionnaire. The
questionnaires were delivered to the selected respondents by visiting them in the organization during
which observation was done. Quantitative data collected was analyzed by descriptive statistics using
SPSS and presented through percentages, means, standard deviations and frequencies. Content
analysis was used on data that is qualitative nature or aspect of the data collected from the open
ended questions.

The results of this study were compared to other similar studies of the same correspondent in other
universities to enable general conclusions on the applicability of the model and the authenticity of the
results. While this study was mainly focusing on university students, its conclusions was to be
instrumental in answering most questions regarding the status of entrepreneurship among the youth
in Kenya, especially in other tertiary institutions.
The study concludes that it was very possible to offer entrepreneurship courses since they develop the
intention and the necessary abilities to be an entrepreneur and that being an entrepreneur would
entail great satisfactions .The study further concludes that the respondents had complete knowledge
on both readily available opportunity to start the businesses and business centres/networks. Economic
opportunity and autonomy are very important in making a choice whether to become an entrepreneur
and that carrying out the kind of job one really likes corresponds to entrepreneurial success.

International Journal of Business and Social Research (IJBSR), Volume -2, No.-4, August 2012
126 | P a g e

The study recommends that learning institutions should offer entrepreneurship courses. This will
enable the learners to have the knowledge about the entrepreneurial environment and realize the
necessary abilities needed to be entrepreneurs. The study further recommends that the government
should develop research and development projects that will help in giving more information on the
field of entrepreneurship. Moreover, specialized training should be offered to upcoming entrepreneurs
so as to increase the efficiency of the products/services offered to the customers.

Keywords: Entrepreneurship, Entrepreneurial Intentions, Shaperos Model, Entrepreneurial
Environment

Introduction
Entrepreneurship is an important vocational option. Individual work preferences are increasingly
favoring self-reliance and self-direction (Baruch, 2004; Hall, 2002). At the same time, changes in the
political and socio-economical environment have resulted in fewer opportunities for continuous
organizational employment. On the macro-level, econometric research shows that new and small
businesses contribute significantly to job creation, innovation and economic growth (Carree&Thurik,
2003).

A number of researchers including Shapero (1975), Bird (1988), Krueger et al. (2000) and Kolvereid
(1996), among others, have recognized the important role played by entrepreneurial intent. In their
respective studies these researchers argued that, the decision to start a business can be triggered by a
particular situation, but it can also be the result of cumulative events over time. All these studies have
concentrated on factors influencing decision for entrepreneurial intentions but none is known to link
the application of Shaperos model to these decisions. This study presents a unique opportunity to
investigate the application of Shaperos model in explaining entrepreneurial intentions among
students in public and private university in Kenya.

Purpose of the study
Traditionally, university graduates and graduates of other tertiary educational institutions in Kenya
have in the past had a guarantee of employment either in the public sector or in multinational firms.
Kenyan college graduates are trained to be employment seekers instead of employment creators. In
spite of the paradox, entrepreneurship studies have paid little attention to entrepreneurial attitudes,
beliefs and values of the youth In Kenya. Stimulating entrepreneurship interest among students in
institutions of higher learning is one way of curbing youth unemployment in Kenya (Maina, 2006).
Studies have also tried to link entrepreneurial intentions to venture creation (Carter et al, 2003;
Kolvereid, 1996; Krueger et al., 2000). This study seeks to apply the generally accepted model of
entrepreneurial intentions, by Shapero in the Kenya context, focusing on the students in both the
public and Private Chartered Universities in Kenya. The study will aim to elucidate on the specific
circumstances in the students environment, as well as personal disposition which may have significant
influence on their choice to create new ventures. There is hardly any study that has an actual
Shaperos Model in explaining significance of entrepreneurial behavior amongst the university
students in Kenya. Thus this study intends to fill the existing knowledge gap by investigating the
application of Shaperos model in explaining the determinants of entrepreneurial intentions among
university students in Kenya. This study answers a number of research questions that is; 1) How does
the perceived desirability influences entrepreneurial intention amongst university students in Kenya?
2) Does the propensity to act influence entrepreneurial intention amongst university students in
Application of Shaperos Model in Explaining Entrepreneurial
JOHN KARANJA NGUGI/PROF. R. W. GAKURE /SIMON MAINA WAITHAKA/AGNES NYAMBURA KIWARA
127 | P a g e

Kenya? 3) How does the perceived feasibility influence entrepreneurial intention amongst university
students in Kenya?

Background of the Study
Models based on Ajzen theoretical framework continue to dominate social psychological research
into intentions. Intentions represent the degree of commitment toward some future target behavior.
Intentions robustly predict and explain that behavior. In turn, attitudes toward a behavior will affect
intentions. Exogenous factors influence intentions and behavior through these attitudes. In their
theory of reasoned action, attitudes toward a behavior consist of two components: an attitude based
on expectancies and an attitude based on social norms (Ajzen, 1987). Ajzen's theory of planned
behavior takes these attitudes representing the attractiveness of a behavior and adds another
attitude, perceived behavioral control. This represents perceptions that the behavior is within the
decision maker's control, a necessary precondition for the behavior to be personally feasible (Ajzen,
1987). "Intentions" here refers to the specific target behavior of starting a business. This goal
behavior is, by definition, planned. Usually, though, the plan or vision of how to achieve the goal and
the specific details of the goal are formulated after identifying the intended goal, since starting a
business constitutes a complex, distal behavior, intentions (end) and the plan (means) will likely co-
evolve.

Entrepreneurial Intent
Entrepreneurial intent refers to the intention of an individual to start a new business. A number of
researchers including Shapero and Sokol (1982), Bird (1988), Krueger et al. (2000), and Kolvereid
(1996), among others, have recognized the important role played by entrepreneurial intent. In
examining the entrepreneurial event, researchers have also suggested that: the existence of an
entrepreneurial opportunity; its identification by the entrepreneur; and the conscious decision of the
entrepreneur to exploit that opportunity, are among the requisite steps necessary in the
entrepreneurial process (Shane, 2003). However, Krueger et al. (2000, p. 411) argue that an
entrepreneurial process tends to be thoughtful on the part of the individual, and that opportunity
identification is based upon individual intention
Krueger et al. (2000) summarized the importance of the relationship between cognitive theory and
entrepreneurial behavior. He sees the more rigorous and theory-based research into entrepreneurial
intentions as a major step forward in research today, and suggests The potential for continued
progress lies not just in cognitive theory, but cognitive research offers more than its fair share of
potential for exciting, and productive research in entrepreneurship.

The Shapiro Model
Shapero's model of new-venture initiation posits that the decision to initiate a new venture requires
two things. First, founders should perceive that starting a new venture is "credible" (i.e., they have
intentions toward entrepreneurship). Starting a new venture must be a believable opportunity.
Second, new-venture initiation requires some kind of precipitating (or "displacing") event. In turn,
credibility requires at least a threshold level of perceptions of feasibility and desirability plus some
propensity to act upon the opportunity. Figure 3.1 graphically depicts Shapero's model as applied to
intentions. Each arrow represents a testable hypothesis.
128 | P a g e

Shapero suggests that the process of forming intentions may prove complex. Propensity to act is likely
to also have indirect influences on relationships in the model, thus we should test for moderating
effects by propensity to act. Shapero also suggests that intentions may depend on only a threshold
level of feasibility and desirability perceptions, thus we may also want to attempt identification of
threshold effects.

Shaperos Model of Entrepreneurial Intentions

Shapero (1982) has developed a model on what influences entrepreneurial intentions. He claims that
desirability, feasibility and a propensity to act are the most crucial factors influencing an individuals
intention to start a venture. Moreover, specific desirability and perceived self-efficacy are described
as important foundations for the perceptions of desirability respectively feasibility.

Shapero identified three classes of important variables in this relationship; (a) One dependant
variable, entrepreneurial intentions (EI), this represents the expected entrepreneurial behavior of the
university students who are the respondents in this study. (b) Three Independent variables which
represent personal attitude of the respondent; university students. These variables include; perceived
desirability; perceived feasibility and propensity to act.

Figure 3. 1: Shaperos Model of Entrepreneurial Intentions
Independent Dependent variable

Source:

Van Auken, Fry and Stephens (2006).
Measurement Issues
Perhaps the most important consideration is that this class of parsimonious models exhibits a
remarkable robustness in practice. These models are particularly valuable for planned, purposive
behaviors (e.g., starting a business), even more so if the model uses measures of comparable
specificity, preferably of moderate specificity (Krueger et al. (2000). In practice, these models capture
the motives underlying intentional behavior far better than models using more retrospective methods
(which are subject to contaminants such as hindsight bias). Intentional processes such as
entrepreneurship are best understood by tracing subjects through the process regardless of their
Perceived Desirability

ENTREPRENEURIAL
INTENTIONS

Perceived
Propensity

Perceived
Feasibility
129 | P a g e

attitudes, intentions, or behavior. In the case of entrepreneurial career choice, this suggests
identifying samples of subjects currently facing actual major career decisions.

Entrepreneurship in Kenya

In Kenyan, the informal sector has rapidly expanded and now provides numerous opportunities for
self-employment. In 1997-2002 for example, the formal sector grew by only 1.8% compared to 3.5%
growth for the informal sector. Unfortunately, the sector continues to be unattractive to the more
educated youth creating a skills gap that curtails its growth, CBK Annual Economic Review, (2002).

Methodology

The aim of the study was to explore Shaperos model in explaining entrepreneurial intentions among
university students in Kenya. The entrepreneurial process focuses on an individual as the central
object of study. Shaperos model was applied in explaining these intentions by investigating the effect
of perceived desirability; feasibility and propensity to act among individual students. The population
was limited to all public universities and private chattered universities in Kenya. The identified
respondents were those at their critical decision making points in their careers, these included only
those students in the final and second last year of their course, this helped to ensure that
entrepreneurial intentions or lack of any were genuinely expressed. The method used to carry out the
research is as described in the section that follows.

Research Design and Sample Size
The study used a descriptive survey design. Kothari (2000) refers to diagnostic and descriptive design
as concerned with providing characteristics of a particular phenomenon while determining the
frequency of level of association with something else. Therefore descriptive statistics was used to
inspect the data and identify any existing trends.

The type of university was used as a parameter for stratification to select the university to be included
in each stratum. With ideal stratification, each stratum is homogeneous internally and heterogeneous
with other strata. According to Cooper and Schindler (2003), stratified proportionate random
sampling technique produce estimates of overall population parameters with greater precision and
ensures a more representative sample is derived from a relatively homogeneous population.

The population of the study comprised of university students taking Entrepreneurship education in
both public and Private Chartered Universities. Krueger et al. (2000) argue the importance of studying
entrepreneurial phenomena before they occur, and in order to be able to differentiate between
groups, to include non-entrepreneurial intending subjects, target population of the study included
both post graduate and undergraduate students undertaking specialization in entrepreneurship in
both public and private chattered universities in Kenya. The researcher considered students in their
final year and second last years in their courses in all public and private universities in Kenya,
therefore the sample consisted of 133 students which were 30% of the total population. Stratified
random sampling technique was used to select the sample. According to Cooper and Schindler (2003)
the technique produce estimates of overall population parameters with greater precision and ensures
a more representative sample is derived from a relatively homogeneous population.

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Table 4. 1: Sampling Frame
University Population Sample Size Sample Ratio
Public 330 99 30%
113 Private Chartered 34 30%
Total 443 133 30%
Source: Author 2011

Data Analysis

The analysis involved different phases, phase one was frequency analysis of the background data to
determine the sample characteristics and profiles of the students interviewed. In phase two, the focus
was on correlation and descriptive analysis of the independent variables. This assisted in making
conclusions on the identified hypotheses. The analysis sought to answer all research questions that
have been identified in the study.
A structured questionnaire was used as the main data collection tool in the current study. The first
section on the questionnaire measured demographic characteristics of students such as gender, age,
faculty, race, employment status and income. The second section of the questionnaire measured the
main study variables that constructed the models tested here.

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to investigate the degree of relationship between the
variables in the study; indicated the strength and direction of association between the variables.

Results and Discussions
The study targeted 133 respondents in collecting data with regard to the determinants of
entrepreneurial intentions among university students in Kenya. According to the findings, 77% of the
respondents were male while 23% of the respondents were female.

Table 5. 1: Reasons to choose the Masters/PhD in entrepreneurship

N
o
t

a
t

a
l
l

i
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t

S
l
i
g
h
t
l
y

i
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t

N
e
u
t
r
a
l

I
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t

V
e
r
y

i
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t

M
e
a
n

S
t
d
e
v

Vocation 7 13 23 30 27 2.4 0.62
Career
opportunities
13 7 10 30 40 2.2 0.66
Advice from
family or
friends
3 7 23 30 37 2.1 0.68
The study sought to find the reasons why the respondents choose the Masters/PhD in
entrepreneurship. According to the findings, the respondents indicated that they choose the masters
degree since it was very important to them in terms of vocation as indicated by a mean of 2.4, the
respondents also indicated that the degree was important to them in terms of career opportunities as
indicated by a mean of 2.2, the respondents indicated that they choose the degree as a result of
advice from family and friends.
131 | P a g e

Figure 5. 1: Self-employed or the owner of a Small or Medium-sized Enterprise

The study sought to find out whether the respondents were self-employed or owned a Small or
Medium-sized Enterprise. According to the findings, 57% of the respondents indicated that they were
self-employed while 43% of the respondents indicated that they were not self-employed.

5.1 Perceived Desirability
Table 5. 2: Offering entrepreneurship courses which develop entrepreneurial aspects

The study sought to find out the possibility of offering entrepreneurship courses which develop the
stated entrepreneurial aspects. According to the findings, the respondents indicated that it was very
possible to offer entrepreneurship courses since they develop the intention to be an entrepreneur as
indicated by a mean of 3.4, the respondents indicated that it was very possible to offer
entrepreneurship courses since they develop the necessary abilities to be an entrepreneur as

i
m
p
o
s
s
i
b
l
e

s
l
i
g
h
t
l
y

p
o
s
s
i
b
l
e

n
e
u
t
r
a
l

p
o
s
s
i
b
l
e

v
e
r
y

p
o
s
s
i
b
l
e

m
e
a
n

s
t
d
e
v

Knowledge about
the entrepreneurial
environment
17 10 20 23 30 2.6 0.60
Greater recognition
of the
entrepreneurs
figure
10 20 16 27 27 2.6 0.60
The preference to
be an entrepreneur
20 13 13 17 37 2.6 0.60
The necessary
abilities to be an
entrepreneur
10 17 23 30 20 2.7 0.59
The intention to be
an entrepreneur
23 30 20 20 7 3.4 0.60
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indicated by a mean of 2.7, the respondents indicated that it was possible to offer entrepreneurship
courses since they develop the preference to be an entrepreneur, greater recognition of the
entrepreneurs figure and knowledge about the entrepreneurial environment as indicated by a mean
of 2.6. This is in line with studies done by Shaver and Scott in 1991 on how an individuals personal
capacity is sufficient to handle potential challenges. These results are also supported in the literature
where Krueger et. Al, (2000) says that specific desirability is connected to personal values and career
choice; a person who highly values independence will be more likely to choose to be an entrepreneur
if that person perceives entrepreneurship to be a career choice associated with an independent
lifestyle.

Figure 5. 2: Course or module that could be considered as entrepreneurship education

The study sought to find out whether the respondents had taken any course or module that could be
considered as entrepreneurship education. According to the findings, 60% of the respondents
indicated that they had taken a course or module that could be considered as entrepreneurship
education while 40% of the respondents indicated that they had not taken any course or module that
could be considered as entrepreneurship education. The study therefore agreed with studies by
Rushing conducted in 1990. It was found out that entrepreneurship education was important as it can
enhance and develop traits that are associated with entrepreneurial success and provide skills that
entrepreneurs will need later. This is in line with Rushings studies which indicate that
entrepreneurship education should be integrated and continued throughout all formal education.

133 | P a g e

Table 5. 3: Extent that has helped develop any of the aspects

V
e
r
y

g
r
e
a
t

e
x
t
e
n
t

G
r
e
a
t

e
x
t
e
n
t

M
o
d
e
r
a
t
e

e
x
t
e
n
t

L
i
t
t
l
e

e
x
t
e
n
t

N
o

e
x
t
e
n
t

M
e
a
n

S
t
d
e
v

Knowledge about
the
entrepreneurial
environment
10 13 20 40 17 2.6 0.60
Greater
recognition of the
entrepreneurs
figure
27 17 13 10 33 2.9 0.58
The preference to
be an
entrepreneur
40 23 10 17 10 3.7 0.64
The necessary
abilities to be an
entrepreneur
17 23 10 10 40 2.7 0.59
The intention to be
an entrepreneur
13 17 27 20 23 2.8 0.59
The study sought to find out the extent to which the course had helped the respondents develop any
of the named aspects. According to the findings, the respondents indicated that the course had
helped them develop the preference to be an entrepreneur to a very great extent as indicated by a
mean of 3.7, the respondents also indicated that the course had helped them develop greater
recognition of the entrepreneurs figure as indicated by a mean of 2.9, the respondents indicated that
the course had helped them develop the intention to be an entrepreneur to a very great extent as
indicated by a mean of 2.8, the respondents further indicated that the course had helped them
develop the necessary abilities to be an entrepreneur and develop Knowledge about the
entrepreneurial environment to a great extent as indicated by a mean of 2.7 and 2.6 respectively.

134 | P a g e

Table 5. 4: Level of agreement with the given sentences

S
t
r
o
n
g
l
y

a
g
r
e
e

A
g
r
e
e

N
e
u
t
r
a
l

D
i
s
a
g
r
e
e

S
t
r
o
n
g
l
y

d
i
s
a
g
r
e
e

M
e
a
n

S
t
d
e
v

Being an
entrepreneur
implies more
advantages than
disadvantages to
me
10 17 27 10 37 2.5 0.61
A career as
entrepreneur is
attractive to me
13 17 23 10 37 2.6 0.60
If I had the
opportunity and
resources, Id like
to start a firm
17 10 40 13 20 2.9 0.58
Being an
entrepreneur
would entail great
satisfactions for
me
40 23 10 17 10 3.7 0.64
Among various
options, Id rather
be an
entrepreneur
10 37 17 17 20 3.0 0.58
The study sought to find out the level of agreement of the respondents on the statements relating to
perceived desirability. According to the findings, the respondents strongly agreed that being an
entrepreneur would entail great satisfactions for them as indicated by a mean of 3.7, the respondents
strongly agreed that among various options, theyd rather be an entrepreneur as indicated by a mean
of 3.0, the respondents agreed that If they had the opportunity and resources, theyd like to start a
firm as indicated by a mean of 2.9, the respondents strongly agreed that a career as entrepreneur is
attractive to them and that being an entrepreneur implies more advantages than disadvantages to
them as indicated by a mean of 2.6 and 2.5 respectively.

135 | P a g e

5.2 Perceived Feasibility
Table 5. 5: Level of detailed knowledge on measures to support firm creation

A
b
s
o
l
u
t
e

i
g
n
o
r
a
n
c
e

L
i
t
t
l
e

i
g
n
o
r
a
n
t

N
e
u
t
r
a
l

K
n
o
w
l
e
d
g
e
a
b
l
e

C
o
m
p
l
e
t
e

k
n
o
w
l
e
d
g
e

M
e
a
n

S
t
d
e
v

Specific training for
young entrepreneurs
13 23 20 27 17 2.9 0.58
Loans in specially
favourable terms
20 10 13 20 37 2.6 0.60
Technical aid to start
the business
13 13 27 27 20 2.7 0.59
Business
centres/networks
13 30 23 23 10 3.1 0.58
Consulting services in
favourable terms
13 17 33 20 17 2.9 0.58
Market accessibility
in favourable terms
10 17 17 33 23 2.6 0.60
Favourable policies
to start businesses
23 17 17 13 30 2.9 0.58
Readily available
opportunity to start
the businesses
33 23 13 13 17 3.4 0.60
The study sought to find out the level of detailed knowledge of the respondents on measures to
support firm creation. According to the findings, the respondents indicated that they had complete
knowledge on both readily available opportunity to start the businesses and business
centres/networks as indicated by a mean of 3.4 and 3.1 respectively. The respondents indicated that
they were knowledgeable on specific training for young entrepreneurs, consulting services in
favourable terms and favourable policies to start businesses as indicated by a mean of 2.9, the
respondents indicated that they were knowledgeable on technical aid to start the business as
indicated by a mean of 2.7, the respondents indicated that they were knowledgeable on loans in
specially favourable terms and market accessibility in favourable terms as indicated by a mean of 2.6.
136 | P a g e

Table 5. 6: Level of agreement of the respondents on the given statements

s
t
r
o
n
g
l
y

a
g
r
e
e

a
g
r
e
e

n
e
u
t
r
a
l

d
i
s
a
g
r
e
e

s
t
r
o
n
g
l
y

d
i
a
s
g
r
e
e

M
e
a
n

S
t
d
e
v

Entrepreneurial activity
clashes with the culture
in my religion
10 23 10 20 37 2.5 0.61
The entrepreneurs role
in the economy is not
sufficiently recognized
20 13 17 20 30 2.7 0.59
Many people consider
hardly acceptable to be
an entrepreneur
7 17 17 20 40 2.3 0.64
Entrepreneurial activity
is considered too risky
to be worth while
3 17 20 17 43 2.2 0.66
It is commonly thought
that entrepreneurs
take advantage of
others
17 10 37 17 20 2.9 0.58
The study sought to find out the level of agreement of the respondents on the statements relating to
perceived feasibility. According to the findings, the respondents strongly agreed that it is commonly
thought that entrepreneurs take advantage of others as indicated by a mean of 2.9, the respondents
strongly agreed that the entrepreneurs role in the economy is not sufficiently recognized as indicated
by a mean of 2.7, the respondents agreed that entrepreneurial activity clashes with the culture in my
religion and that many people consider hardly acceptable to be an entrepreneur as indicated by a
mean of 2.5 and 2.3 respectively.The respondents agreed that entrepreneurial activity is considered
too risky to be worthwhile as indicated by a mean of 2.2.

Table 5.7: Importance of the factors in making a choice whether to become an entrepreneur

n
o
t

a
t

a
l
l

i
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t

s
l
i
g
h
t
l
y

i
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t

n
e
u
t
r
a
l

i
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t

v
e
r
y

i
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t

M
e
a
n

S
t
d
e
v

Economic
opportunity(Wealth)
33 20 13 17 17 3.4 0.60
Autonomy 20 20 10 17 33 2.8 0.59
Authority 13 13 27 23 23 2.7 0.59
Challenge 10 17 23 13 37 2.5 0.61
Self-realization and
participation in the
whole process
13 17 20 17 33 2.6 0.60

137 | P a g e

The study sought to find out the importance of the factors in making a choice whether to become an
entrepreneur. According to the findings, the respondents indicated that economic opportunity is very
important in making a choice whether to become an entrepreneur as indicated by a mean of 3.4, the
respondents indicated that autonomy is very important in making a choice whether to become an
entrepreneur as indicated by a mean of 2.8, the respondents indicated that authority is important in
making a choice whether to become an entrepreneur as indicated by a mean of 2.7, the respondents
indicated that self-realization and participation in the whole process is important in making a choice
whether to become an entrepreneur as indicated by a mean of 2.6 and that challenge is very
important in making a choice whether to become an entrepreneur as indicated by a mean of 2.5.

Table 5. 8: Extent to which factors named correspond to entrepreneurial success

v
e
r
y

g
r
e
a
t

e
x
t
e
n
t

g
r
e
a
t

e
x
t
e
n
t

m
o
d
e
r
a
t
e

e
x
t
e
n
t

l
i
t
t
l
e

e
x
t
e
n
t

n
o

e
x
t
e
n
t

m
e
a
n

s
t
d
e
v

Competing hard in
world markets
20 7 43 17 13 3.0 0.58
Reaching a high level
of income
23 17 13 20 27 2.9 0.58
Carrying out the kind
of job you really like
37 20 13 17 13 3.5 0.61
Achieving great social
recognition
17 3 23 27 30 2.5 0.61
Helping to solve the
problems of my
community
13 3 20 27 37 2.3 0.64
Keeping the business
alive
23 10 20 37 10 3.0 0.58
Keeping a path of
positive growth
17 17 20 23 23 2.8 0.58
The study sought to find out the extent to which the results were corresponding to entrepreneurial
success. According to the findings, the respondents indicated that carrying out the kind of job you
really like corresponds to entrepreneurial success to a very great extent as indicated by a mean of 3.5,
competing hard in world markets and keeping the business alive corresponds to entrepreneurial
success to a very great extent as indicated by a mean of 3.0, the respondents also indicated that
reaching a high level of income and keeping a path of positive growth corresponds to entrepreneurial
success as indicated by a mean of 2.9 and 2.8 respectively. Achieving great social recognition and
helping to solve the problems of my community corresponds to entrepreneurial success to a
moderate extent as indicated by a mean of 2.5 and 2.3 respectively. According to Gist (1987)
credibility, trustworthiness and expertise of the individual granting the feedback are important in
while valuing feedback. In this study, expertise of the individual was enhanced through performing
jobs that they really liked and ones that correspond to entrepreneurial success.

138 | P a g e

5.3 Propensity to Act
Table 5. 9: Behaviours to develop your enterprise

V
e
r
y

g
r
e
a
t

e
x
t
e
n
t

G
r
e
a
t

e
x
t
e
n
t

m
o
d
e
r
a
t
e

e
x
t
e
n
t

l
i
t
t
l
e

e
x
t
e
n
t

n
o

e
x
t
e
n
t

M
e
a
n

S
t
d
e
v

Exporting a significant
share of production
- 13 47 23 17 2.6 0.60
Introducing regularly
new
products/services for
your costumers
17 33 30 10 10 3.4 0.60
Introducing regularly
new processes or
systems of
production
33 20 27 10 10 3.6 0.62
Developing Research
and development
projects
13 3 27 33 23 2.5 0.61
Planning the different
areas of the firm with
detail
13 3 27 33 23 2.5 0.61
Reaching cooperation
agreements or
partnerships with
other firms
3 3 27 27 40 2.0 0.70
Offer specialized
training for
employees
17 20 27 33 3 3.1 0.58
Enlarging your firm
(personnel, premises,
etc.)
17 10 23 23 27 2.7 0.59
The study sought to find out the extent to which the respondents would perform the stated
behaviours to develop their enterprise. According to the findings, the respondents indicated that
introducing regularly new processes or systems of production developed their enterprise to a very
great extent as indicated by a mean of 3.6, the respondents indicated that introducing regularly new
products/services for the costumers developed the enterprise to a very great extent as indicated by
a mean of 3.4 ,the respondents indicated that introducing an offer specialized training for employees
developed the enterprise to a very great extent as indicated by a mean of 3.1 ,the respondents
indicated that enlarging the firm developed the enterprise to a great extent as indicated by a mean of
2.7 ,the respondents indicated that exporting a significant share of production developed the
enterprise to a great extent by a mean of 2.6, the respondents indicated that developing research and
development projects and planning the different areas of the firm with detail developed their
enterprise to a great extent as indicated by a mean of 2.5 and reaching cooperation agreements or
partnerships with other firms developed the enterprise to a little extent by 2.0. This was in line with
studies done by Krueger in 1993. The study found out that when propensity to act was low,
entrepreneurial intentions were unlikely to develop, and perceptions of desirability become sole
predictors of intentions.
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5.4 Regression Analysis
The researcher conducted a multiple regression analysis. This was done to test relationship among
variables (independent) on the entrepreneurial intentions among university students in Kenya. The
statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) was applied to code, enter and compute the
measurements of the multiple regressions for the study.

Table 5. 10: Model Summary

Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate
1 0.796(a) 0.633 0.591 0.92945

Source: Research, 2011

Coefficient of determination explains the extent to which changes in the dependent variable can be
explained by the change in the independent variables or the percentage of variation in the dependent
variable (Entrepreneurial Intentions) that is explained by all the three independent variables
(Perceived Desirability, propensity to Act, Perceived Feasibility).
The three independent variables that were studied, explain only 63.3% of the factors affecting
entrepreneurial intentions among university students in Kenya as represented by the R
2
Table 5. 11: ANOVA (b)

. This
therefore means that other factors not studied in this research contribute 36.7% of the
entrepreneurial intentions among university students in Kenya. Therefore, further research should be
conducted to investigate the other factors (17.5%) that affect entrepreneurial intentions among
university students in Kenya.

Model
Sum of
Squares
df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 38.739 3 12.913 14.948 0.000(a)
Residual 22.461 26 0.864
Total 61.200 29
a Predictors: (Constant), perceived desirability, propensity to act, perceived feasibility
b Dependent Variable: entrepreneurial
The significance value is 0.000

which is less that 0.05 thus the model is statistically significance in
predicting how perceived desirability, propensity to act, perceived feasibility affect the
entrepreneurial intentions among university students in Kenya. The F critical at 5% level of
significance was 1.32. Since F calculated is greater than the F critical (value = 14.948), this shows that
the overall model was significant.
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Table 5. 12: Coefficients (a)
Model
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Standardized
Coefficients
t Sig.
B Std. Error Beta
1 (Constant) 0.223 0.769 0.290 0.004

Perceived
desirability
0.867 0.148 0.757 5.869 0.000

Propensity to
act
0.115 0.123 0.115 0.935 0.008

Perceived
feasibility
0.095 0.138 0.092 0.688 0.007
a) Dependent Variable: Knowledge about the entrepreneurial environment
Source: Researcher, 2011.

The researcher conducted a multiple regression analysis so as to explaining entrepreneurial intentions
among university students in Kenya. And the three variables. As per the SPSS generated table 4.11,
the equation (Y =
0
+
1
X
1
+
2
X
2
+
3
X
3
+

) becomes:
Y= 0. 867X
1
+ 0. 115X
2
+ 0. 095 X
3
+ 0.223

Where Y is the dependent variable (entrepreneurial intentions), X
1
is the perceived desirability
variable, X
2
is propensity to act and X3

5.5 Hypotheses Testing
is perceived feasibility.

According to the regression equation established, taking all factors into account (perceived
desirability, propensity to act, perceived feasibility) constant at zero, entrepreneurial intentions will
be 0.223. The data findings analyzed also showed that taking all other independent variables at zero,
a unit increase in perceived desirability will lead to a 0.867 increase in entrepreneurial intentions; a
unit increase in propensity to act will lead to a 0.115 increase in entrepreneurial intentions, a unit
increase in perceived feasibility will lead to a 0.095 increase in entrepreneurial intentions. This infers
that perceived desirability contribute more to entrepreneurial intentions among university students
in Kenya followed by the propensity to act strategies.
At 5% level of significance and 95% level of confidence, perceived desirability had a 0.000 level of
significance, propensity to act showed a 0.008 level of significant, perceived feasibility showed a 0.007
level of significant hence the most significant factor is perceived desirability.
Hypothesis 1: perception of the desirability
Null: Individual perception of the desirability of a venture does not affect the entrepreneurial
intentions of university students in Kenya.

Alternate: Individual perception of the desirability of a venture affects the entrepreneurial intentions
of university students in Kenya

The null hypotheses imply that the variable- perception of the desirability of a venture and
entrepreneurial intentions are independent of each other. The researcher wanted to find out whether
141 | P a g e

there was any notable relationship between desirability of a venture and entrepreneurial intentions
of university students in Kenya. The frequency table below shows how the responses on the
relationship between Individual perception of the desirability of a venture and the entrepreneurial
intentions of university students in Kenya.

Table 5. 13: Individual perception of the desirability of a venture and the entrepreneurial intentions
(n=133)

Frequency Percentage
very great extent 33 25.0
great extent 63 47.2
moderate extent 22 16.7
little extent 5 11.1
The contingency table above show that 33 out of 133 respondents indicated that Individual
perception of the desirability of a venture affect the entrepreneurial intentions to a great extent, 63
said to a very great extent, 22said to a moderate extent while 5 said to a little extent.

Table 5. 14: Chi-Square Tests
Value DF (degree of freedom) P-Value
Chi-square 2.734 133 0.023

The calculated Pearson Chi-Square value is 2.73. The associated P-Value (Asymptotic significance) is
0.023. This value is less than 0.05 (5% level of significance) indicating that there is evidence against
the null hypotheses and therefore we reject it. A conclusion can be drawn from the study that
Individual perception of the desirability of a venture affects the entrepreneurial intentions of
university students in Kenya

Hypothesis 2: Product innovations

Null hypothesis: The propensity to act has no greater influence on the entrepreneurial intentions of
university students in Kenya

Alternative hypothesis: The propensity to act has a great influence on the entrepreneurial intentions
of university students in Kenya

The null hypothesis indicates that both variables propensity to act and entrepreneurial intentions of
university students in Kenya are independent of each other.

The contingency table below shows that 48 out of 133 respondents reported that propensity to act
affect the entrepreneurial intentions of university students in Kenya to a great extent, 52 said to a
very great extent, 26 said to a moderate extent while 7 said to a little extent. These results were
tabulated in the contingency table below.

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Table 5.15: Cross Tabulation on propensity and the entrepreneurial intentions of university
students in Kenya (n=133)
Very great extent 48 36.1
Great extent 52 38.9
Moderate extent 26 19.4
Little extent 7 5.6

Table 5. 16: Chi-Square Tests propensity and the entrepreneurial intentions of university students in
Kenya
Value Df p-Value
Chi-Square 6.536 133 0.0373

The Pearson Chi-square Value was 6.5 and the associated P- value (Asymptote Significant Value) was
0.0373. This value is less than 0.05 indicating that there is evidence against the null hypotheses and
therefore we reject it. A conclusion can therefore be drawn that the propensity to act has a great
influence on the entrepreneurial intentions of university students in Kenya.

Hypothesis 3: Market innovations

Null hypothesis: Individual perception of the feasibility of a given venture does not influence the
entrepreneurial intentions of university students in Kenya

Alternative hypothesis: Individual perception of the feasibility of a given venture influences the
entrepreneurial intentions of university students in Kenya

The null hypotheses indicate that both variables Individual perception of the feasibility of a given
venture and the entrepreneurial intentions of university students in Kenya are independent of each
other.

The frequency table below shows that out of 133 respondents, 70 said perception of the feasibility
affect the entrepreneurial intentions to a very great extent, 44 said to a great extent, those who said
to a moderate extent were represented by 18. These results were tabulated in the contingency table
below.

Table 5. 17: Cross Tabulation individual perception of the feasibility and venture and the
entrepreneurial intentions (n=133)

Very great extent 70 52.8
Great extent 44 33.3
Moderate extent 18 13.9

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Table 5. 18: Chi-Square Tests for individual perception of the feasibility of a given venture and the
entrepreneurial intentions
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 7.845(a) 133 .044
The Pearson Chi-square Value was 7.8 and the associated P- value (Asymptote Significant Value) was
0.044. This value is less than 0.05 indicating that there is evidence against the null hypotheses and
therefore we reject it. A conclusion can therefore be drawn that Individual perception of the
feasibility of a given venture influences the entrepreneurial intentions of university students in Kenya.

Conclusion
The study concludes that it was very possible to offer entrepreneurship courses since they develop
the intention and the necessary abilities to be an entrepreneur and that being an entrepreneur would
entail great satisfactions. Introducing regularly new processes or systems of production and new
products/services for ones costumers developed their enterprise. Finally the study concludes that the
respondents had complete knowledge on both readily available opportunity to start the businesses
and business centres/networks. Economic opportunity and autonomy are very important in making a
choice whether to become an entrepreneur and that carrying out the kind of job one really likes
corresponds to entrepreneurial success.

Recommendations

The study recommends that learning institutions should offer entrepreneurship courses. This will
enable the learners to have the knowledge about the entrepreneurial environment and realize the
necessary abilities needed to be entrepreneurs.

The study further recommends that the government should provide funds as capital for those who
want to venture in entrepreneurship. In addition, the study recommends that the government should
develop research and development projects that will help in giving more information on the field of
entrepreneurship. Moreover, specialized training should be offered to upcoming entrepreneurs so as
to increase the efficiency of the products/services offered to the customers.
Finally the study recommends that entrepreneurship based organizations should hold trade fairs and
seminars as this will ensure that the entrepreneurs role in the economy is sufficiently recognized.

Recommendations for further studies

This study has assessed the determinants of entrepreneurial intentions among university students in
Kenya applying Shaperos model. To this end therefore, a further research may be useful to
specifically examine which entrepreneurial experiences build self efficacy in a university set up. The
prevalence of entrepreneurial intentions among university graduates and the relationship between
private middle level institutions and entrepreneurship is very significant for education policy and
practice in Kenya. Further study should be carried out to assess the determinants of entrepreneurial
intentions among university students in Kenya applying other models since the study focused on the
Shaperos model.
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REFERENCES
Ajzen, I. (1987). Attitudes, traits and actions: Dispositional prediction of behavior in social psychology.
Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 20, 1-63.

Baruch, Y. (2004), Managing Careers, Pearson, Harlow,
Bird, B. (1988). Implementing entrepreneurial ideas: The case for intentions. Academy of Management
Review, 13, 442-454. (1987).

Carree, M.A., Thurik, A.R. (2003), "The impact of entrepreneurship on economic growth", in
Audretsch, D.B., Acs, Z.J. (Eds),Handbook of Entrepreneurship Research, Kluwer Academic,
Boston, MA/Dordrecht, pp.437-71.

Carter, N., Gartner W., Shaver K. & Gatewood E. (2003). The career reasons of nascent entrepreneurs.
Journal of Business Venturing, 18: 13-39.

CBK Annual Economic Review, (2002).
Cooper, D.R and Schindler, P.S. (2003), Business Research Methods (8th edn) McGraw-Hill: New York.

Hall, D.T. (2002), Careers in and out of Organizations, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA, Journal
of Small Business Management, vol. 24:4, pp. 45-54.

Kolvereid, L. (1996) Prediction of employment status choice intentions. Entrepreneurship Theory and
Practice, 21(1), 47-57.
Kothari, C. R. (2000), Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New Delhi: Wiley,.

Krueger N.F.J., Reillly, M.D. & Carsrud A.L. (2000). Competing models of entrepreneurial intentions.
Journal of Business Venturing, 15(5): 411-432
Maina, P W.(2006) Integrated Entrepreneurship Education, Botswana; Uganda and Kenya. Review
Commissioned by World Bank.

Shapero, A. & Sokol, L. (1982). The social dimensions of entrepreneurship. In The Encyclopedia of
entrepreneurship (pp. 72-90). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Shapero, A. (1975). The displaced, uncomfortable entrepreneur. Psychology Today, 9 (November), 83-
88, 133.
Van Auken, H., Fry, F., Stephens, P. (2006), "The influence of role models on entrepreneurial
intentions", Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, Vol. 11 No.2, pp.157-67.

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APPENDIX: Entrepreneurial Intentions Questionnaire (EIQ)
A) PERSONAL DATA
1. Age: __________
2. Gender: Male Female
3. Marital status: married; Yes No (if yes, go to question 32)
4. What is your average GPA/Grade so far? ________________________ (Optional)
EDUCATION BACKGROUND AND EMPLOYMENT EXPERIENCE
5. What level are you studying?
PhD Master Degree Diploma
6. What is your area of specialization? Marketing Accounting Entrepreneurship
Economics Others:_______________________
7. Indicate the importance of the following reasons to choose this degree/diploma, from: 1
Not at all important, 2 Slightly important, 3 Neutral, 4 important, 5 Very important
1 2 3 4 5
- Vocation
- Career opportunities
- Advise from family or friends
8. Have you ever been self-employed or the owner of a Small or Medium-sized Enterprise?
Yes No
If yes:
a. How long? (Number of years) __________

B) Perceived Desirability
9. To what extent do you think is the possibility of offering entrepreneurship courses which
develop the following entrepreneurial aspects? Indicate from: 1 impossible, 2 Slightly possible, 3
Neutral, 4 possible, 5 Very possible.
1 2 3 4 5
- Knowledge about the entrepreneurial environment
- Greater recognition of the entrepreneurs figure
- The preference to be an entrepreneur
- The necessary abilities to be an entrepreneur
- The intention to be an entrepreneur

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10. Have you taken any course or module that could be considered as entrepreneurship
education?
Yes No
If yes:
a. Indicate which one(s): ______________________________________________________
b. To what extent has it helped you develop any of the following aspects? Indicate from;
1 Very great extent, 2 great extent, 3 moderate extent, 4-little extent, 5 No extent
1 2 3 4 5
- Knowledge about the entrepreneurial environment
- Greater recognition of the entrepreneurs figure
- The preference to be an entrepreneur
- The necessary abilities to be an entrepreneur
- The intention to be an entrepreneur

11. Indicate your level of agreement with the following sentences from; 1- strongly disagree, 2-
disagree, 3- neutral, 4-agree, 5-strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
- Being an entrepreneur implies more advantages than disadvantages to
me

- A career as entrepreneur is attractive to me
- If I had the opportunity and resources, Id like to start a firm
- Being an entrepreneur would entail great satisfactions for me
- Among various options, Id rather be an entrepreneur

147 | P a g e

Perceived Feasibility

12. For each of the following measures to support firm creation, indicate your level of detailed
knowledge on: 1 (absolute ignorance) to 5 (complete knowledge).
1 2 3 4 5
- Specific training for young entrepreneurs
- Loans in specially favourable terms
- Technical aid to start the business
- Business centres/networks
- Consulting services in favourable terms
-Market accessibility in favourable terms
- Favourable policies to start businesses
-Readily available opportunity to start the businesses

13. Indicate your level of agreement with the following sentences from; 1- strongly disagree, 2-
disagree, 3- neutral, 4-agree, 5-strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
- Entrepreneurial activity clashes with the culture in my religion
- The entrepreneurs role in the economy is not sufficiently
recognized

- Many people consider hardly acceptable to be an entrepreneur
- Entrepreneurial activity is considered too risky to be worth while
- It is commonly thought that entrepreneurs take advantage of
others

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14. How important is the following factors in making a choice whether to become an
entrepreneur? Use the following scale: 1 Not at all important, 2 Slightly important, 3 Neutral, 4
important, 5 Very important
Economic opportunity(Wealth) 1 2 3 4 5
Autonomy
Authority
Challenge
Self-realization and participation in the whole process

15. To what extent do you consider the following results as corresponding to entrepreneurial
success? Indicate from; 1 Very great extent, 2 great extent, 3 moderate extent, 4-little extent, 5
No extent

Propensity to Act

16. To what extent would you perform the following behaviours to develop your enterprise? Indicate
from: 1 Very great extent, 2 great extent, 3 moderate extent, 4-little extent, 5 No extent

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
- Competing hard in world markets
- Reaching a high level of income
- Carrying out the kind of job you really like
- Achieving great social recognition
- Helping to solve the problems of my community
- Keeping the business alive
- Keeping a path of positive growth
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
- Exporting a significant share of production
- Introducing regularly new products/services for your
costumers

- Introducing regularly new processes or systems of
production

- Developing Research and development projects
- Planning the different areas of the firm with detail
- Reaching cooperation agreements or partnerships with
other firms

- Offer specialized training for employees
- Enlarging your firm (personnel, premises, etc.)

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APPLICATION OF SHAPEROS MODEL IN EXPLAINING ENTREPRENEURIAL

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