CHAPTER

Receivers
It is the receiver that ultimately determines the performance of the
wireless link. Given a particular transmitter power, which is limited by the
regulations, the range of the link will depend on the sensitivity of the receiver, which is not legally constrained. Of course, not all applications
require optimization of range, as some are meant to operate at short distances of several meters or even centimeters. In these cases simplicity, size,
and cost are the primary considerations. By far most short-range receiver
designs today use the superheterodyne topology, which was invented in the
1920s. However, anyone who starts designing a short-range wireless system
should be aware of the other possibilities so that an optimum choice can be
made for a particular application.

6.1 Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF)

The tuned radio frequency receiver is the simplest type conceptually. A
diagram of it is shown in Figure 6-1. The antenna is followed by a bandpass filter or turning circuit for the input RF frequency. The signal is
amplified by a high-gain RF amplifier and then detected, typically by a
diode detector. The digital baseband signal is reconstructed by a comparator circuit.
The gain of the RF amplifier is restricted because very high gain in a
UHF amplifier would be subject to positive feedback and oscillation due
to the relatively low impedance of parasitic capacitances at RF frequencies. An advantage of this type of receiver is that it doesn't have a local
oscillator or any other radiating source so it causes no interference and
doesn't require FCC or European-type approval.
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ChapterS&
A clever variation of the TRF receiver is the ASH receiver developed
by RFM. A basic block diagram is shown in Figure 6-2.

RF AMPLIFIERS
TUNING CIRCUIT
OR BPF

Figure 6-1" Tuned Radio Frequency Amplifier

I SAW

i FILTER--~

>_s,w
DELAY
LINE

DETECTOR

} ~COMPARATOR! o,,, oo,=

'

,,I
-

~SWlTCHERt

,I

,,,

t ---------~

Figure 6-2:

ASH Receiver

In the ASH (Amplifier-Sequenced Hybrid) receiver, two separate RF

gain stages are used, each of them switched on at a different time. The
gain of each stage is restricted to prevent positive feedback as mentioned
above, but since the incoming signal goes through both stages, the total
effective gain is the sum of the gains (in decibels) of each stage. While
one stage is on the other is off, and the signal that was amplified in the
first stage has to be retained in a delay or temporary storage element until
the first stage is turned off and the second stage is turned on. The delay
element is a SAW filter with a delay of approximately .5 Its.
The selectivity of the ASH receiver is determined principally by the
SAW bandpass filter that precedes the first RF amplifier and to a lesser
degree by the SAW delay line.
The TRF receiver is a good choice for wireless communication using
ASK at distances of several meters, which is adequate for a wireless
computer mouse or other very short-range control device. Longer ranges
are achieved by the ASH design, whose sensitivity is as good as the best
superregenerative receivers and approaches that of superhet receivers

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Receivers

using SAW-controlled local oscillators. The TRF and ASH receivers have
low current consumption, on the order of 3 to 5 mA, and are used in
battery operated transceivers where the average supply current can be
reduced even more using a very low-current sleep mode and periodic
wake up to check if a signal is being received.

6.2 Superregenerative Receiver

For many years the most widely used receiver type for garage door openers
and security systems was the superregenerative receiver. It has relatively
high sensitivity, is very inexpensive and has a minimum number of components. Figure 6-3 is a schematic diagram of such a receiver.
The high sensitivity of the superregenerative receiver is obtained by
creating a negative resistance to cancel the losses in the input tuned circuit
and thereby increasing its Q factor. This is done by introducing positive
feedback around the input stage and bringing it to the verge of oscillation.
Then the oscillation is quenched, and the cycle of oscillation buildup and
quenching starts again. The process of introducing positive feedback and
then quenching it is controlled by periodically altering the bias voltage on
the transistor input stage, either by using a separate low-frequency oscillator or by dynamic effects within the input stage itself (self-quenched).

+V

?o

iI

DATA OUT

Figure 6-3: Superregenerative Receiver

139

ChapterSix
Figure 6-4 shows the principle of operation of the superregenerative
receiver. The two curves refer to points A and B on the schematic in
Figure 6-3. Like any oscillator when it is turned on, random noise starts
the build-up of oscillations when there is no signal, shown as "0" in the
diagram. After the oscillations have been established, the circuit reaches
cutoff bias and the oscillations stop, until the conditions for positive feedback are reinstated. This build-up and cut-off cycling continues at a rate of
between 100 and 500 kHz. When a signal is present, the build-up starts a
little bit early, as shown as "1" in the diagram. In the self-quenched
circuit, the area under each pulse is the same when a signal is present and
when it is not, but the earlier starting of the oscillations raises the pulse
rate. Averaging the oscillation pulse train by passing it through an integrator or low-pass filter results in a higher DC level when a "1" is received,
because there is more area under the envelope per unit time than when no
signal is present. This signal is amplified by a high-gain baseband amplifier and the output is the transmitted data.
In spite of its simplicity and good sensitivity, the superregenerative
receiver has been largely replaced because of the availability of inexpensive superheterodyne receiver chips. Its disadvantages are
it re-radiates broad-band noise centered on its nominal receiving
frequency;
it has a relatively broad bandwidth of several MHz on UHF frequencies, and thus is sensitive to interference;
9

dynamic range is limited;

it is usable only with ASK modulation.

d

-1

|
Early OscillationBuildup-' /

.......

"

Figure 6-4: Superregenerative Receiver Operation

140

Receivers

6.3 Superheterodyne Receiver

The superheterodyne receiver is the most common configuration for radio
communication. Its basic principle of operation is the transfer of all received
channels to an intermediate frequency band where the weak input signal is
amplified before being applied to a detector. The high performance of the
receiver is due to the fact that amplification and filtering of input signals is
done at one or more frequencies that do not change with the input tuning
of the receiver and at the lower intermediate frequency, greater amplification can be used without causing instability.
Figure 6-5 shows the basic construction of a superheterodyne receiver.
The antenna is followed by a band-pass filter that passes all signals within
the tuning range of the receiver. The mixer multiplies the RF signals by a
tunable signal from a local oscillator and outputs the sum and the difference
off~r and f o ~ 9 The IF amplifier amplifies and filters either the difference or
the sum signal and rejects the other. In VHF and higher frequency receivers it is the lower, difference frequency signal that is retained almost
universally and this is the case we consider here. The result is an intermediate frequency signal that has all of the characteristics of the input RF
signal except for the shift in frequency. This signal can now be demodulated in the detector. Any type of modulation may be used. A low-pass
filter that gives additional noise reduction follows the detector. In a digital
data receiver a signal-conditioning stage converts the baseband receive
signal to binary levels for digital signals. The signal conditioner in an
analog receiver is often a signal expander for audio analog signals that
were compressed in the transmitter to improve their dynamic range.

-iftf

RF AMP

MIXER

__

IBPFI
RF
OSCILLATOR

IF AMP
~
[......

I'-ICONDITIONINGI

fosc

Figure 6-5" SuperheterodyneReceiver

141

OUT

Chapter Six
The diagram shows only the basics of the superheterodyne principle,
but variations are possible for improved performance. The IF bandpass
filter (BPF) should be as narrow as possible in order to reduce the noise
without affecting the bandwidth required by the modulation components
of the signal. The lower the IF frequency, the narrower the bandpass filter
can be. However, using a low IF frequency means that the oscillator
frequency must be close to the received RF frequency. Since the IF frequency is the absolute value of the difference between the received
frequency and the oscillator frequency, two received frequencies can give
the same IF frequency---one at fo~c + f~F and the other at fo~c--f~F" It is the
function of the input B PF to reject the undesired frequency, which is
called the image frequency. When a low IF is used in order to obtain a
narrow passband, the input B PF may not reject the image frequency,
thereby increasing the possibility of interference. Even if there is no
interfering signal on the image frequency, the noise at this frequency will
get through and reduce the signal-to-noise ratio. To reduce input noise at
the image frequency, including the circuit noise of the RF amplifier, an
image frequency bandpass filter should be included between the RF
amplifier and the mixer (not shown in the diagram).
In order to reduce the response to image frequencies and have a low IF
for effective filtering, UHF superheterodyne receivers often employ dual
or triple conversion. A dual conversion superhet receiver has a first mixer
and an IF high enough to reject the image frequency using a simple bandpass filter, followed by another mixer and IF at a low frequency for
effective filtering.
IF frequency must be chosen according to the image rejection and
filtering considerations discussed above, but the final choice usually is a
frequency for which standard bandpass filter components are readily
available. The two most common IF frequencies are 455 kHz and 10.7
MHz, which were standardized for AM and FM broadcast bands. When a
SAW-controlled local oscillator is used, the IF frequency may be determined so that a standard SAW device is available at a frequency difference
from the transmitter SAW device frequency for which ceramic IF filters
are available. Such choosing of frequencies for short-range security systems
often results in compromises and subsequent reduced performance~high
image frequency response and insufficient IF filtering.

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Receivers

6.4 Direct Conversion Receiver

The direct conversion receiver is similar to the superhet in that a local

oscillator and mixer are used, but in this case the IF frequency is zero. The
image frequency, a potential problem in the superhet, coincides with the
desired signal, so it is no issue in this topography. Very high-gain
baseband amplification is used, and a baseband low-pass filter achieves
high sensitivity with high noise and adjacent channel interference rejection.
On the negative side, the local oscillator is at the same frequency as
the received signal, so there is a potential for self-interference, and interference with close-by receivers tuned to the same frequency. Design and
layout are very important to limit radiation from the local oscillator and
prevent leakage back through the mixer and RF amplifier to the antenna.
Also, because of the very narrow bandwidth, the crystal-controlled local
oscillator frequency must be accurate and stable.
A block diagram of an FSK direct conversion data receiver is shown in
Figure 6-6. The output of an RF amplifier is applied to two mixers. A
local oscillator output at the same frequency as the RF signal is applied
directly to one mixer. The other mixer receives the local oscillator signal
after being shifted in phase by 90 degrees. The outputs of the mixers are
each passed through low-pass filters and limiters and then applied to a
phase detector for demodulation. The frequency shift keyed signals appear
with opposed relative phase at the phase detector, giving a binary mark or
LIMITER AMP

RF AMPI
_

......

LOCAL

PHASE
DETECTOR

(a)

LIMITER AMP

Figure 6-6: Direct Conversion Receiver

143

DATA OUT

Chapter S &
space output according to whether the input signal is higher or lower than
the local oscillator frequency. This can be seen as follows:
Let input MARK and SPACE signals be
SM= cos2rt(f +d)t
S s - cos2rt(f-d)t

where f i s the nominal receiver frequency and d is the frequency deviation

of the FSK signal.
The quadrature oscillator signals to the mixers are
LO I -

cos2rtf

L O Q - sin2rtf

The mixer outputs when a MARK is sent are"

IM-- S M LO I

= cos2rt(f+d)t x cos2rtf

(6-1)

= 89 {cos2rtd + cos2rt(2f + d)}

Q M - SM x LO o
= cos2rt(f+d)t x sin2rtf
= 89 {-sin2rrd + sin2rt(2f + d)}

(6-2)

Similarly when a SPACE is sent

Is - 89 {cos2rrd + cos2rt(2f + d)}

(6-3)

Qs - 89 [sin2rrd + sin2=(2f - d ) }

(6-4)

The trigonometric identities cosA x cosB - 1/2 {cos(A-B) +

cos(A+B)} and sinA x sinB - 1/2 {sin(A-B) + sin(A+B)} are used to
derive (6-1) through (6-4).
The double frequency components of IM, QM, Is, and Qs are removed
in the low-pass filter of each channel, leaving
I'M- cos2rrd

(6-5)

Q'M - -sin2rrd

(6-6)

I ' s - cos2rrd

(6-7)

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Receivers

Q s - sin2nd

(6-8)

where the multiplying constants, 1/2, have been left out.

The limiter amplifiers square up the filter outputs so that they can be
applied to a digital phase detector, which outputs MARK or SPACE
according to the phase difference in each pair of inphase (I) and quadrature (Q) signals.
Although in the above explanation, the local oscillator frequency is set
exactly to the nominal transmitter frequency, small differences are tolerated as long as they are less than the modulation deviation minus the data
bit rate.

6.5 Digital Receivers

Digital receivers are more often called "software-defined radios" (SDR).
Digital signal processing (DSP) components are extensively used in them
and many performance characteristics are determined by software. The
basic construction is superheterodyne, but the mixing and IF filtering is
done by analog-to-digital converters and digital filters. Although not
presently used in short-range products of the types we' re focusing on
here, they can be expected to be applied to them as costs come down and
demands for uncompromising wireless performance and compliance with
multiple standards in a single radio force a break from the traditional
topologies.
Figure 6-7 shows a diagram of a digital receiver and transmitter. As in
a conventional superhet, the signals from the antenna are amplified by a
~
_

RECEIVER
_~

,9

DIGITAL
DEMODULATION
ANDFILTERING
BASEBAND
PROCESSING

TRANSMITTER
PA
DIRECT
~-]--.--

DIGIT,Ir

SYNTHESIZER

Figure 6-7: Software Radio

145

OUTPUTSIGNAL
INPUTSIGNAL

Chapter Six
low-noise amplifier, then down-converted by mixer and local oscillator to
an intermediate frequency. An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) replaces
the second mixer of a double superhet, and digital signal processing
software performs the IF filtering and demodulation.
The digital transmitter uses a direct digital synthesizer (DDS) to
generate the modulated transmitter frequency. This device outputs digital
words which represent the waveform of the signal to be transmitted. Phase,
frequency and amplitude variations of the carrier as functions of the
baseband data are implemented by the software, and many modulation
formats can be used as required with no change in hardware. The digital
output of the DDS is converted to an analog signal by a digital-to-analog
converter (DAC), up-converted by local oscillator and mixer (remember,
the mixer also outputs the sum of the input and local oscillator frequencies) and amplified, then coupled to the antenna.
By performing modulation and demodulation in software, and filtering
too, great flexibility is achieved, as well as high performance. Elimination
of many hardware components will eventually reduce size and cost, while
giving high communication efficiency in bandwidth utilization and error
correction.

6.6 Repeaters
While range and communication link reliability are limited in unlicensed
devices by the low power allowed by the telecommunication authority
standards, the use of repeaters can overcome these limitations. In the
repeater, a weak signal is received and demodulated. The re-created baseband signal then modulates a transmitter whose signal can be received at a
distance where the original signal could not be heard. In digital systems,
the relaying of a signal through one or more receivers is done without
errors. The repeater receiver and transmitter operate at the same frequency
as used in the original link, and its operation is transparent in the sense
that the receiver doesn't have to know whether the signal is to be received
direct or through an intermediary. The repeater does create a time delay,
however, since its transmitter must wait until the original transmitter has
completed transmitting, in order to avoid interference. Repeaters may be
chained, but each link creates an additional delay.

146

Receivers

A potential problem when more than one repeater is deployed is that

a repeater closer to the transmitter may repeat the transmission from a
repeater further along the link, thereby causing a ping-pong effect. One
way to avoid this is to include in the message protocol identification of the
repeaters so that a repeater will ignore messages received from a device
further down the link. Another way is to force a time delay after transmission of a frame during which an identical frame (received from another
repeater) will not be retransmitted.

6.7 Summary
Most often, short-range radio link performance is determined primarily by
the receiver. This chapter has reviewed various topologies that have been
developed for different performance levels and applications. While the
superheterodyne receiver is dominant, the simplicity and low cost, as well
as low power consumption, of tuned radio frequency and supelTegenerative
receivers can be taken advantage of for very short-range applications~up
to several meters. Digital, or software, radios were introduced here in
anticipation of their adoption for short-range applications in the future.
Finally, we described how repeaters can be used to extend the range of
low-power license-flee communication links.

147