RESERVOIR DELINEATION BY

WIRELINE TECHNIQUES

by

J.F. Goetz

- W.J. Prins - J.F. Logar

Paper to be presented at the Sixth Annual

Convention of the

Indonesian Petroleum Association

Jakarta, May 1977

RESERVOIR DELINEATION BY
WIRELINE TECHNIQUES
By

J.F. Goetz, Schlumberger Technical Services Inc., Singapore

W.J. Prins, Schlumberger Overseas S.A., Jakarta, Indonesia
J.F. Logar, Schlumberger Overseas S.A., Balikpapan, Indonesia

ABSTRACT
Wireline logs provide complete records of all formations in a well. Log responses are functions of lithology,
porosity, fluid content and textural variations offormations. This information, coupled with characteristics of
sedimentary structures derived from high resolution
dipmeter surveys, provide clues to the sedimentary environment and allow estimation of the reservoir geometry
and orientation. A set of depositional models is established for the production geologist. A new technique
designed to make rapid and accurate multiple formation
pressure measurements confirms the hydraulic separation
or connection of reservoirs.

to predict the location, geometry and orientation of reser

voir rocks. If the origin of a reservoir rock can be determined, the task is simplified, because reservoirs, sand
bodies for example, originating under similar conditions
tend to have similar characteristics. Therefore definition
ol the sedimentary environment is of fundamental importance, fable I illustrates a classification ol depositional
environments. 'Ibis is not the only classification which
could have been used, but it is convenient since it is
based on oiigin and geometry.

CLASSIFICATION OF DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS

INTRODUCTION
i

Wireline logs are readily available, continuous records of the phyiscal characteristics of all of the formations crossed by all of the wells in a field. As such, logs are

ideal tools, not only for the quantitative evaluation of

the fluid content of each potential reservoir, but also
for the estimation of the si/c, shape, and orientation of
reservoirs. Methods of determining the geometry and
trend of a reservoir are of great assistance not only to the
development geologist but more so to the production
geologist and the reservoir engineer. The separation
and identification of the various separate units of a
complex sand aggregation is important knowledge in
planning an optimum completion and also in workover
and secondary recovery operations. The overall objective
is to help to find and recover more hydrocarbons, more
economically.

METHOD
Specifically, the objective is to increase our ability

_"_.

_-._.__._._

CONTINENTAL

LACUSTRINE
EOLIAN

BRAIDED

L MEANDERING

r DISTRIBUTARIES

LINEAR

ij LAOOONS
[ BARS & BARRIER

TRANSITIONAL
[SHORELINE]

I BEACHES

BARS

REEF
SHELF
TURBIDITE
PELABIC

MARINE

Table

MARSHES
ESTUARIES
I MOUTH BARS

DELTAIC

1.

Classification of

Depositional F.nvhonments

DEPOSITIONAL

Figure 1. Interrelationships

of Depositional Environments.

5
1 demonstrates the interrelationships between
environments and roughly locates
depositional
these
tfiem on the continent and adjacent shelf. Although this
diagram may represent depositional environments as we
see them today, it is not likely representative of the
distribution we might find in the subsurface. This is
because chances of preservation decrease with distance to
the left of the shoreline. Furthermore, our interest in the
petroleum industry is not evenly divided over all environments, but tends to concentrate on shoreline and near
shoreline deposits.

Figure

Figure 2 suggests an integrated approach necessary for the

delineation of reservoir geometry; observe, interpret,
predict. Through observations of items in the left hand
column, we attempt to interpret the sedimentary environment and paleogeography, and then predict the
geometry and trend of reservoir rocks.

Lithology can be measured efficiently by multiple

porosity log techniques. Textural sequences affect the
readings of most logs and are therefore deduced by
changes in measured parameter versus depth, i.e., curve
shapes. Sedimentary structures, mainly in the form of
current bedding, are measured by means of high resolution dipmeter surveys. The directional properties of this
current bedding are measures of paleocurrent directions.
All of these observations should be combined and compared to recent sediments or to a set of models, to interpret the depositional environment. This being done, the
directional parameters as measured by the dipmeter are
added to predict the geometry and orientation of the
reservoir.

Finally, multiple precision pressure measurements

are used to verify the hydraulic connection or separation
of individual reservoir units, both on a single well and on
a field basis.

RESERVOIR GEOMETRY BY
WIRELINE METHODS

LITHOLOGY

The porosity -lithology logs, Density, Neutron and

Sonic, are sensitive not only to porosity but also to

Figure 2. Illustration
geometry

of the

basic approach

to reservoir

delineation (modified from Selley).

fluid content and rock matrix material. Combinations

of these logs, however, along with a value of the flushed
zone resistivity, Rxo, can be used to derive true porosity
and matrix material density, thus defining the rock
matrix. In hydrocarbon bearing formations, this requires
a complex computation. But in clean water bearing
formations, the procedure is simplified to entering bulk
density, neutron porosity, and transit time readings on
cross plots of /*b vs 0N and A t vs 0N to obtain values
of apparent matrix density, ( t ma)a, and apparent
matrix transit time ( _. tma)a. See Figures 3 and 4. These
values are then entered on a Matrix Identification (MID)
Plot to determine the rock matrix. See Figure 5 4

A Density-Neutron recording, when compatibly

Perhaps the most important item to observe is the

fossils and microfossils present since these may
produce the most unequivocal evidence of depositional
environment. The main assumption is that the fossil lived
in the environment where it was buried. The identification of fossils can not, of course, be performed by wireline measurements and is therefore beyond the scope
of this paper.
type of

scaled for limestone, offers a very quick and simple way

to check lithology. Limestone compatible scaling means
that the Neutron Log is scaled in terms of limestone
porosity units at 30 p.u. per track while the Density Log
is scaled in grams per cubic centimeter at 0.5 gm/cc per
track, with the 2.70 gm/cc point positioned to coincide
with the zero of the Neutron scaling. With this scaling, the
curves should be almost coincident in a clean water

6
MID
DETERMINATION

NFUTI'ON

Chart

NEUTRON LOG

1.1.X

( r'
ma )

Or

MlO Ch.i.l

,,

FROM

FDC

Ot RUMINATION

( CNL, fresh MurJ )

I Api_r.nl

|n

P. 0

M I [..
H

MATRIX

30

II)[

.t y )

50

NFUTRON INDEX Upfront Limwton. P_romit)

from

oi<

GA_MA

80

fi*c/li

Figure 4. Crossplot

for

determination

CNL Neutron and Sonic Logs.

N:lflf AI UIH 'MIO)

A,rn)a,

Figure J. ?*"

'

(-,._."

Of(/_ ma )a FROM SONIC LOG

4 NEUTRON LOG (CNL)

Figure . . (.rossplot for determination of (Pniala

CNL Neutron tnd I-DC Density

Pj

ol'

of (A tma)a from

W BENSITY NEUTRON RECORDING

_4__
70

*(flm_

Identification (MID) Plot. The

plot is entered with ( rma)a values from Figure 3, and
{&tmaki values from Figure 4, for mineral identification.

Figure 6. ldealhed Density

common litbologies.

Neutron response for some

7
bearing limestone and should show a "positive" separation
of about 2 divisions in a clean water bearing sandstone
and a "negative" separation of about 5 divisions in a clean
water bearing dolomite. The response for these and other
common lithologies is shown in Figure 6. Care must be
taken to recognize hydrocarbon bearing intervals since
the presence of light hydrocarbons will also produce a
"positive" separation, in which case, a complete flushed
zone saturation solution is a lequisite.

Perhaps the easiest method for identifying lithology

is by reading the "Average Grain Density" curve on the
output of a Computer Processed Interpretation, "CPI".
This curve, recorded in the first track, is an end product
of the CPI program, CORIBAND*. The value reported is
the average density of the reservoir rock matrix material
and the clay content. Therefore in clean formations this
curve reports the grain density of the reservoir rock, thus
identifying the lithology in most common cases.
In all of these methods, it is essential to recognize
and allow for the effect of clay content. Clay tends to
produce a "negative" separation on the Density-Neutron
log as illustrated in Figure 6. Usually, the Gamma Ray
curve can be used as a first approximation of the clay
content, and an appropriate correction can be effected.

TEXTURAL SEQUENCES

Textural sequence is related to variations versus

depth of grain size and sorting. Grain size of a clastic rock
is a function of the incoming material and the depositional energy. Sorting is mainly a function of depositional energy. The pattern of variations of depositional
energy versus depth within a genetic unit is characteristic
of one, or a few, specific depositional environments.
There are, of course, no direct measurements of depositional energy. Nor are there direct geophysical measurements of sorting or grain size, but some inferences can be
made. We can relate porosity and permeability as functions of sorting, grain size and clay content, Vcl.

Porosity
'

= f (Sorting,
v
h 1 /Vcl )

'

'

Permeability = g (Sorting, Grain Size. l/Vcl)

(I)
v

'

(2)

In addition, both equations should include the distribu

tion mode of the clay, as well as the effects of diagenesis
and fracturing but these are ignored in this simplified

discussion.

Trademark of Schlumberger

,7.

Recording of a Computer Processed. Interpretation (CPI). Average Grain Density curve is in the
,f w
trackm Porosity
Pormitv and clay
Clay Volume curves are
left hand track.
plotted in the right hand track.
,-"
l'tgure

With modern logging techniques porosity can be

measured very accurately and clay content can be determined with reasonable accuracy. If there existed a direct
geophysical measurement of permeability, these equations
could be solved for sorting and grain size after establishing
empirical relationships. Unfortunately at this time permeability cannot be measured directly. However, by
making one assumption, qualitative variations of sorting
and gram size versus depth can be recognized. That
assumption is that clay content increases with decreasing
grain size of rock matrix material. Observation tends to
bear out this assumption. Our formulae can then be
simplified and rearranged.
Sorting

Grain Size

-j (l/Vcl)

h (Porosity, l/Vcl)

(3)
.(4)

Fquations 3 and 4 relate porosity and clay content

grain size, or, by inference, to depositional
energy. Therefore variations of porosity and clay content
versus depth represent variations of depositional energy
and such variations provide clues to the identification of
the depositional environment.
to sorting and

Porosity is measured continuously and quantitati-

vely by the Density-Neutron-Sonic techniques for any

lithology.
The volume of clay affects most logging tlevices to
some degree and therefore a number of devices can be
used to measure it. For example, the Density-Neutron
crossplot is a reliable clay indicator when the lithology
is known and the effects of light hydrocarbons are recognized. The Spontaneous Potential, or SP curve is often
used as a clay indicator, however, its sensitivity depends
on the contrast of fluid salinities in the formation and
the borehole, a problem in many offshore areas. Further,
the SP is subject to distortion from hydrocarbon effects
and numerous sources of noise. The Gamma Ray curve
is another commonly used clay indicator but its quantitative use may be adversely affected by the presence of
glauconitc, mica, feldspars, and detrital zircon. The
Computer Processed Interpretation system uses a total
of seven clay indicators, all of which are designed to
either give a good estimate of Vcl or to overestimate it.
The program then chooses the minimum of these seven
values as being the value most representative of Vcl. An
example is shown in Figure 7, in which the Vcl curve
appears in the right hand track of the CPI.

Specific depositional environments exhibit characteristic sequences of depositional energy with time,
resulting in characteristic profiles of grain size and sorting
versus depth. Since these profiles are measured by porosity and Vcl, recognizable patterns of porosity and Vcl
curves versus depth should be interpretable in terms of

depositional environments.
Log curve shapes of potential reservoirs have been
categorized according to their appearance as follows:- 12
a)

b)
g)
d)

cylindrical (abrupt lower and upper contacts),

bell shaped (abrupt lower contact and gradational
upper contact )
funnel shaped (gradational lowei contact and
abrupt upper contact)
combinations of the above, such as funnel-hell
shaped (gradational lower and upper contacts)

Further descriptive terms are added such as smooth,

serrated, concave, convex, linear. These shapes are summarized in figure X. In this classification, a bell shaped
curve, lot example, would suggest
a transgressional
sequence or ;i fluvial channel fill, while a funnel shaped
curve would suggest a regressive sequence or a bar type
deposit. A cylindrical curve shape often represents a delta
distributary channel fill. Comparison of porosity and Vcl
curve shapes to those Irom a set of models will assist
in
the definition of the depositional environment. When
combinations of the main categories are used, by convention we start from the bottom surface of the bed and
move upwards emulating the direction in which the
bed was deposited. For example, a cylindrical bell description means an abrupt lower contact, cylindrical
lower portion and a gradational upper contact.

SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES
Ihe term "sedimentary structures" covers a wideof phenomena. These can be subdivided into predepositional, syn -depositional and post -depositional sedimentary structures. Some sedimentary
structuies
can be effectively logged by means of the high resolution dipmeter survey.

range

Pre-depositional sedimentary structures are those

observed on the underside of a bed. These include erosional features, scour marks, flute marks, ripple marks,
mud cracks, worm burrowings, grooves and
channel
cutting. Of these, only channel cutting may sometimes
be recognized by the dipmeter. The others tend to produce inconsistent, and confusing dipmeter results (as
they also confuse core examinations).
Syn-depositional sedimentary structures are those
occurring within tire bed and mainly take the form of
crossbedding or current bedding. Our interest here is in
the magnitude of current bedding angles, their characteristics such as whether the current beds
are planar or
festoon type, and their variations versus depth.
These
factors provide clues to the depositional energy. It is

LOG

CURVE

Figure S.

SHAPES

Classification of log

curve shapes.

10

probably

its counterpart "sag" can be measured by the dipmeter

and can be extremely diagnostic.

steep current bedding is usually interpreted as indicative

As with curve shapes, comparison of sedimentary

structure patterns to those Irom a set of models will
facilitate the interprelation.

true that the larger the gram size, the steeper

the current bedding, also, the larger the grain size, the
greater the depositional energy. Therefore, by deduction,

of high energy deposition. This rule usually holds when

deposition occurs in a place away from the transportation artery such as in a delta front or when deposition
is associated with ocean wave energy. However, this
rule could be quite wrong when deposition and transportation occur simultaneously, as in a channel, where
the highest energy may produce the flattest, even reversed, current bedding. Figure ( > demonstrates the basic
differences between festoon and tabular current bedding.

Tabular- PSanar

PALEOCURRENT PATTERNS

Paleocurrenls

of course, not directly observable; we are a lew million years too late tor thai. However, the orientation of the current bedding is measured
using the dipmeter, and that direction is interpreted as
being the direction of the paleocurrent (after removal
ol structuial dip). This represents the direction of the
depositional current and is a measurement which cannot
inherit features from outside the actual site of deposition,
'I he variability in direction reflects the vagaries of the
are,

depositing currents.

Festoon

CURRENT

- Trough

BEDDING

EVALUATION

A- CHARACTERISTICS Ssyn depositional sedimentary

TYPE [festoon, tabular)
ANGLE

structures]

PATTERN
SPREAD

B- ORIENTATION (pileocurrent patterns]

Figure 9. Comparison of festoon (trough) and tabular

(planar) current bedding (After Pettijohn, Potter, and
Siever).

Specific

sedimentary

DIRECTIONAL MOOES
SCATTER

DIRECTIONAL RELATIONSHIPS
)

Post-deposttional sedimentary structures are those

observed on the top side of a bed. These include load
casts, quicksand structures, movement by slump or
creep all of which tend to confuse dipmeter results.
However "drape" due to differential compaction, and

to paleosiope

bi to sand unit geometry

environments give rise to

current bedding dips versus

characteristic patterns of
depth. Such patterns seen on the dipmeter plot can be
used to help identify the depositional environment.
For example, most bar type deposits will exhibit a high
dip spread in the upper part, decreasing to a low spread
near the base.

* as

seen in borehole, not large scale or regional

Table 2. A guide to current bedding evaluation.

11

TABLE OF CURRENT BEDDING CHARACTERISTICS & ORIENTATION

CHARACTERISTICS

ENVIRONMENT

BRAIDED STREAM

CURRENT BEDDING
ORIENTATION

CURRENT BEDDING

DEPOSITIONAL

UNIMODAL LARGE SCATTER (90)

GENERALLY DOWN PALEOSLOPE
DIRECTION OF SAND ELONGATION

FESTOON (TROUGH) TYPE

ALLUVIUM
LARGE DIP

MEANDERING STREAM
POINT BARS

EOLIAN

DUNES

SPREAD

UNIMODAL
( 1 80 )

FESTOON (TROUGH) TYPE

LARGE DIP SPREAD
HIGHER ANGLE AT BASE
LOW ANGLE TABULAR AT TOP

TABULAR

"

PALEOSLOPE
DIRECTION OF MEANDER BELT &
SAND BODY ALIGNMENT

GENERALLY DOWN

UNIMODAL
LITTLE SCATTER
NO RELATION TO PALEOSLOPE
NORMAL TO SAND ELONGATION

HIGH ANGLE (30X

EXTREMELY CONSISTENT

DECREASING ANGLE Al BASE

DELTA DISTRIBUTARY
CHANNELS

DISTRIBUTARY MOUTH
BARS

SEVERE SCATTER

FESTOON TABULAR
HIGHER ANGLE AT BASE
MODERATE SPREAD

UNIMODAL.

TABULAR MODERATE ANGLE

UNIMODAL RADIATING
SEAWARD DIRECTION BUT
INFLUENCED
BY LONGSHORE
CURRENTS
DIRECTION OF SAND ELONGATION

010

DIRECTION OF SAND ELONGATION

HIGHER ANGLE AT TOP

MODERATE SPREAD

MODERATE SCATTER

IN SEAWARD DIRECTION

(LOBATE)

ESTUARINE & TIDAL

CHANNELS

BEACHES & BARS

TABULAR

LOW ANGLE (10)

HIGHER ANGLE AT BASE
FLATTER AT TOP

BIMODAL (180) - SCATTERED

NORMAL TO COASTLINE
DIRECTION OF SAND ELONGATION

TABULAR

UNIMODAL POSSIBLY BIMODAL

USUALLY DOWN PALEOSLOPE
BUT POSSIBLY REVERSED
NORMAL TO SAND ELONGATION

LOW ANGLE ON SEAWARD SIDE

(

<IOX

HIGH ANGLE ON LAGOONAL SIDE

(

> 20 )

MARINE SHELF SANDS

TABULAR
VERY LOW ANGLE THROUGHOUT

TURBIDITES

TABULAR OR ABSENT
VERY LOW ANGLE THROUGHOUT
RARELY OBSERVABLE

POLYMODAL

RANDOM

UNIMODAL
PALEOSLOPE
DIRECTION OF SAND ELONGATION

DOWN

Table 3. Listing of current bedding characteristics in i terms of dip spread and dip sequences versus depth, and current bedding orientationi related to paleosiope and sand
body geometry for several depositional environments.

12
SUMMARY OF EVALUATION OF

SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES
AND PALEOCURRENTS

The geometry of a clastic unit is related to its internal structures which are functions ol its depositional
environment. After data on lithology. textural sequences
(from curve shapes), and current bedding patterns are
combined to define the depositional environment, draping
effects and paleocurrent directions are added to predict
the geometry and orientation of the reservoir.

A guide to curient bedding evaluation is shown

m Table 2. To evaluate current bedding, its characteristics
(direc(type, angle, pattern, spread) and its orientation
considered
se
tional mode, scatter, relationships) are
paratelv.

of current bedding characteristics and 01-ientation are presented as an aid to a systematic analysis
in 1 able s
[allies

At this point, a cautionary note, should be sounded.

In atteiiiptiii!' io evaluate current bedding by means ol the
high resolution dipnielci technique, it is essential to

111)1*
appreciate the limitations involved. Although the
dipmetei tool itself is capable of reemding a very high

degree ot foi mat ion detail, much of this detail may be

lost in the compulation technique. Indeed, foi structural dip applications the objective is to average out
much ot the anomalous detail in order to obtain results

which are representative of the most repetitive resistivity

features and theieloie most indicative of structural dip.
Nol so in stratigraphic applications; here we are interested
m the maximum amount of detail, however inconsistent.

dipmeter compulation techniques

Most automated
utilize a system which chooses a discrete depth interval
on one icsistivitv curve and attempts to correlate that
interval with an interval of equal length on the oilier
curves Of necessity, this approach lends to aveiage the
dip information within the correlation interval. To compute the dip ot anient bedding, it is necessary to shrink
the correlation interval to lengths sufficiently short
to enable the correlation function to recognize cross
beds. This can be done, but it must be realized that the
occurrence of spurious results or noise increases as the
length of the correlation interval decreases. Such noise
is usually due to microrugosity of the borehole wall.
The optimum length of correlation interval is a function
of the current bedding thickness and the borehole condition, Tli is length would normally be a compromise which
could be determined only by trial and error for a given
depositional environment.

A new computation technique called GEODIP*,

which is now available, is designed specifically for stra-

tigraphic dipmeter analysis. This technique analyzes each

curve and attempts to recognize certain curve characteristics or patterns. Correlations are then made on these
characteristics which will usually be representative of
individual geological features such as bedding planes.
Such a system, therefore, is geologically rathei than
mathematically oriented, and much better suited to the
measurement of current bedding.
A second point ol caution arises from the fact
that the dipmeter is a wall contact type tool and like all
wall contact tools, it is sensitive to borehole rugosity
and microrugosity, Microrugosity, small variations in the
borehole wall of the orilei ol one halt inch in depth and
wiih a period ot six inches to two feet, is nest recognized
on the cahpei curve recoided with the Formation Density
log. All types ol hole wall rugosity are deleterious to
dipmeter precision. For this reason, a prudent interpreter
correlates dip data with borehole caliper characteristics.

Fhirdlv. stratigraphic

interpretation attempts

to

conditions present at the time of deposition. To

obtain a valid picture of dip relationships at the time of
deposition, it is advisable to remove the effects of postdepositiunal structural [ill. This is achieved easily by
identifying structural dip and subjecting all dip results
to a rotation equal and opposite to the structural dip.
recreate

SET OF SEDIMENTARY MODELS

I'he science ot sedimentologv is extremely complex.
indeed, so complex as to discourage efforts to organize it. Yet, detailed studies of ancient sedimentary fades
reveal that there exist recurring patterns of sedimentation
in the geologic past. These patterns suggest that instead
ol a vast complexity of sedimentary events that do not
permit generalization, there are only a relatively tew
ma|or types of sedimentation patterns. Some of these
patterns can be represented by a set of models which
will serve as a basis for comparison. The following discussion develops such a set, based on a compilation of
actual field examples. These models illustrate both
porosity and Vcl curve shapes as well as the curient

bedding patterns.
In case of a conflict between evidence supplied by
two approaches, current bedding patterns should be
allowed Io overrule curve shapes. This extends to the
determination of the boundaries of genetic units, that is,
units coherent in terms of depositional conditions. Some-

these

* Trademark of Schlumberger

13

Figure 10 Origin

of alluvial sub-facies deposited by

change while the same

depositional conditions persist, with the result that
lithological unit boundaries may not match those ol
genetic units. One genetic unil may be made up ol more
than one lithological unit or vice versa. Interpretation
involving sedimentary structures is based on genetic
times the incoming material may

units.

BRAIDED STREAM ALLUVIUM

Braided stream deposits are the products of an

interlaced network of low sinuosity channels exhibiting
flood stage scouring and subsequent filling. Such streams
usually occur on relatively steep gradients where large
amounts of sediments are available. Fiosion is rapid,
discharge is sporadic and high. Because of these factors,
streams are generally overloaded with sediment. A channel
is no sooner cut than it chokes on its own detritus.
This is dumped in the form of bars in the center of the
channel around which two new channels are diverted.
Repeated bar formation and channel branching generates
a network of braided channels over the entire depositional area. Individual bars may be destroyed during
each flood stage. Figure 10 shows a typical braided

braided rivers. (After Selley)

switching, there aie few typical "'fining upward" channel

sequences. Braided stream deposits show little variation

either vertically or laterally. Both porosity and permeability are high, forming excellent reservoirs. The amount
of silt which is present is generally deposited in abandoned channels. This textural sequence gives rise to serrated cylindrical curve shapes.

Water How during deposition is highly turbulent

resulting in trough or festoon type current bedding. Dipdip
meter results can be expected to be erratic in both
small
borehole
relatively
the
angle and direction because
will encounter non-planar bedding surfaces and incomplete deposit ional sequences. Dip angle will probably
vary sharply between zero and 35 " while direction may
vary up to lSO"but will probably remain within a X arc
which should reflect the downstream direction and the
direction of elongation of the sand body. Planarity
rating of dip results will be low.

Typical curve shapes and dip patterns for a braided

in Figure 1 1.

stream deposit are shown

MEANDERING STREAM POINT BARS

stream environment.

High

Braided stream alluvium is typically composed of

moderately sorted sand and gravel deposits to the exclusion of silts and clays. Because of repeated channel

sinuosity meandering river

channels typically

develop where gradients are low and sediment availability

is relatively low. The meandering action results from
erosion on the outer bank and deposition on the inner

14

BRAIDED

STREAM

ALIOMIUM,

Figure IF Curve shapes and dip patterns on a braided stream alluvial deposit. The lithology in the clean zones is defined
as being sandstone by the Density-Neutron. Porosity and Vcl curves are cylindrical-bell shaped indicating poorer sorting
and finer grain she in the upper portion. Dip magnitude and spread vary with gram sin-.

15

Figure 12. Meandering Stream Fnvironment (After R. J. I.e lanc)

bank ol each curve. The stream bed thus migiates lateially. Most deposition occuis during flood stages in the foi in
of point bars which exhibit a chaiacteristic sequence ol
grain size and sedimentary structures. At the base is an
erosional surface overlain by pebbles and a sequence of
sands with a general upward decrease in gram size. Coarse lesioon crossbedded sands grade up into tabulat
crossbedded sands of diminishing set height. These in
turn grade into flat bedded line sands and then into
silts. Cut off meander channels form ox-bow lakes which
fill iir with silts and clays. The reservoirs formed do not
take the form of the meander channel but rather that
of curved, tabular wedges of sand occupying a large
portion of the meander belt. These may be separated
from each other by abandoned channel fades. Ibis
meander belt can be up to 20 tunes the width of the
stream. Figure 12 (after R. J. Le Blanc) demonstrates
a meandering stream environment.

Repeated reworkings of the deposits within the

meander belt winnow the line grained material and
result in a progressive downstream decrease in grain
size. Such reworkings also result in interrupted sequences
and the stacking of severaJ of the basal coarse grained
parts. 'The textural sequence is basically fining upwards
with a coarse grained /one of variable thickness at the
base. This presence gives rise to concave bell shaped log
curves with a cylindrical lobe at the base and serrated
in the upper partDip magnitude will be erratic and high angled at
the base in the festoon bedded sands, progressively

becoming more consistent and (latter upwards in the

tabular beds. Because of the wide swing in the direction
of the depositing currents and the type of current bedding, a variation in dip direction of 180 would be
expected. But statistically, the average dip direction
should reilect the overall downstream direction of the
meander belt and the trend of the separate reservoirs.
Typical curve shapes and dip patterns for a meandering stream point bar deposit are shown in figure 1. .

EOLIAN DUNES
Wind blown dune deposits are often difficult to
distinguish from those laid down by water. The mechanics of both processes are quite similar. Although we
normally think of dunes as occurring in a desert environment, dunes often form on beaches and barrier bars,
Tims some sediments may go through a wind phase
before being finally deposited by water.
Generally, eolian sands are better sorted than
aqueous ones, leading to uniformly high porosities and
permeabilities. This makes them excellent potential
reservoirs if they come in contact with source rocks.
Curve shapes are normally cylindrical with possible
funnel shaped bases.
As dunes migrate, sand grains are carried up the

16

MEANDERING

STREAM

POINT

BARS

Figure 13. Curve shapes and dip patterns on a meandering stream point bar accumulation. Although no perfectly clean zone
exists, the Density-Neutron plus Gamma Ray suggest sandstone. Porosity and Vcl curves are of the cylindrical-serrated hell
type and indicate good sorting in the bottom with sorting and gram she decreasing upward. Dip magnitude and scatter
suggest decreasing grain she upward and probably indicate festoon current bedding in the lower zone

17
windward slope and then roll down the slip face. This
results in crossbedding of enormous set heights. As
seen by a borehole, this crossbedding is tabular, high
angle and consistent in magnitude through the height
of almost the entire dune. Consistent crossbedding for
intervals of up to 100 feet is not uncommon and it is this
characteristic that distinguishes eolian sands from all
others. The average direction of the crossbedding is in
the direction of the wind, but depending on the type of
dune, there may be variations of up to 90 Figure 14
illustrates the relationship between crossbedding direction and wind direction for transverse, barchan, and seif
dunes. It is to be noted that irrespective of the type
of dune, the average crossbedding direction is roughly
normal to the direction of elongation of the dune.

DELTA DISTRIBUTARY CHANNELS

The meandering streams of the plains areas grade

into delta distributary channels in the exposed delta areas.
These channels are relatively straight and are cut into
young, soft sediments. Natural levees formed of clays
and silts tend to contain the channel in a fixed position.
Such channels experience little seasonal variation in the
level of water they carry. By various mechanisms such as
blockage of the mouth or bifurcation upstream, velocity
may drop and deposition will occur. The depositing
material is relatively coarse grained and moderately
well sorted. Normally more coarse material will be found
at the base and there will be a general fining upward.
However, in many cases, the entire channel tends to become clogged with fairly uniform sands. These give
rise to characteristic cylindrical curve shapes possibly
grading into bell shaped at the top.
The infilling of a distributary channel may be a
rapid process and there will be no further reworking of
the infilling sediments. Current bedding will therefore
reflect stream energy and direction at the time of deposition. Current bedding near the base is usually of the
festoon type. Dips measured are likely to be fairly erratic
near the base, sometimes grading upward into more
consistent dips near the top. The direction of the channel
and thus the direction of sand elongation, is given by the
average of the current bedding directions.

Figure 14. Diagrams showing relationship between dune

morphology and crossbedding orientation. Wind blows
up the page, (After Selley).

Figure 15 shows the curve shapes and dip patterns on a

series of dune deposits. The extreme consistency of the
dip angle and direction over long intervals is characteristic of eolian dunes. It is also characteristic that individual dunes as seen in a borehole, bear no relationship
to one another nor to the paleoslope.

In the U. S, Gulf Coast, a second mode of distributary channel dips has been reported. This mode produces a pattern of increasing dips with depth within the
channel, these dips pointing at right angles to the strike.
These relatively low angle dips, when observable, are
probably due to pre -depositional sedimentary structures
in the form of channel cutting, and arise from the channel
base changing in a series of progressively shallower concave surfaces as infilling proceeds.

Unlike braided or meandering stream deposits,

which tend to be quite wide due to lateral migration of
the channels, distributary channel fills will produce long,
narrow reservoirs, often with very thick sections.
Figure 16 shows curve shapes and dip patterns for a
delta distributary channel.

18

EOLIAN

DUNES

Figure IS. Curve shapes and dip patterns on a series of eolian dunes. Lithology is shown to be sandstone by the DensityNeutron. Porosity and Vcl curve shapes are cylindrical demonstrating excellent sorting and consistent grain she throughout.
This consistency of grain size is confirmed by the dip magnitude which is extremely uniform. Dip angles drop to structural
dip at the base of each dune in a pattern offoreset bedding.

19

DELTA

DISTRIBUTARY

CHANNEL

FILL

Curve shapes and dip patterns on a delta distributary channel fill. Density-Neutron response in the clean zone
sandstone
lithology. Porosity and Vcl curve shapes are basically cylindrical with a short serrated hell shape at the top.
defines
The porosity range suggests moderately well sorted sand. Dip magnitude and spread indicate fining upward.

Figure 16.

20

DISTRIBUTARY MOUTH BARS

Figure 17 illustrates three common forms of deltas.

The form developed by a delta depends on the sediment
load and the leiative strengths of fluvial and marine
processes. Where river currents clearly dominate, a highly
constructive birdslool delta, such as the modern Mississippi will form. These are characterized by elongate
bar fingers containing the distributary channels. On the
other hand, where marine processes such as longshore
currents are clearly more powerful, a cuspate type landmass will develop. An example is the modern Baram
delta of Brunei-Sarawak. This type ol delta lias lew
distributaries and grows by prograding wave generated
beaches. A moie balanced situation results in a lobate
delta lorm such as the modem Niger.

Figure 17. An illustration

(After A. J. Scott)

A cross section ol a prograding delta front in a

highly constructive situation is shown in Figure 18. This
shows the relative positions and the lithologies of delta
Ironl deposits. A highly constructive delta is most favourable to the formation of distributary mouth bars or delta
bar lingers. These are sands and silts dropped in front of
the mouths of distributary channels which suffei little or
no reworking by wave motion. The river currents are the
principal factor in determining sand body geometry.
Sand bodies usually take the form ol elongate or lobate
masses extending outward from the river mouth.
Current bedding is normally tabular in form and
dips in the seaward direction, normal to the strand line,
unless deflected by longshore currents. The direction of
current bedding dips is the direction of sand elongation,
flic crossbedding angle is steepest at the top of the
gross sand unit and decreases downward. Individual
sand uniis are normally relatively ihin. It is not uncommon to have a dtstiihulaiy channel cutting through
the top of a distributaiy. mouth bar.

of the effects on delta formation of the relative strengths of marine processes and fluvial influences.

21

Figure IH. A diagrammatic section through a high-constructive delta front showing seaward
environments and seaward migration of a distributary mouth bar.

Distributary mouth bar sands are relatively tine

grained and moderately sorted. However, curve shapes
reflect a general coarsening upward in a highly serrated
funnel type configuration. The serrations
probably
arise from irregular downward movements due to growih
faulting, common in a highly constructive delta.
Curve shapes and dip patterns for a typical distributary mouth bar are shown in Figure 1 . .

movement

of depositional

upstream motion of sea water, at flood fide. This may

lead to bimodal crossbedding in the channel deposits.

Narrow estuaries may develop elongate sand bodies
with characteristics similar to those of distributary channel tills except that crossbedding may be bimodal. On
the other hand, very wide estuaries tend to develop tidal
flats which contain some sand but are often predominantly mud. Deposits formed in wide tidal estuaries will
tend Io he groupings of roughly parallel elongate sand
bars amid silts and muds, as shown in Figure 20. In section, the profile would show coarse sands at the base,
grading erratically upwards into shales.

ESTUARINE AND TIDAL CHANNEL DEPOSITS

Certain delta areas are strongly tidal dominated. In
this case, rather than the distributaries building outward,
the effect of tidal currents is to form indentations at the
location of each distributary mouth. The modem
Mahakam is an example. The outer reaches of the distributary channels will therefore be subject to tides
and there will be significant mixing of river water and sea
water. Because of density differences, there may be net

Tidal estuary deposits will tend to generate curve

shapes of the serrated bell type. Current bedding will
be polyniodal or possibly bimodal. Figure 21 is an ex
ample.

22

DISTRIBUTARY

MUUTH

BAR

19. Curve shapes and dip patterns on a distributary mouth bar. Although no shale
free formation exists sandstone
lithology is indicated. Curve shapes are of the serrated funnel type indicating heller sorting upward. Gram size increases
upward as suggested by increasing dip magnitude.

Figure

23

As mentioned, beaches generally give rise to long,

narrow sand bodies. On the other hand, in the case of
deltas dominated by longshore currents, beaches tend to
form to the side of, and between distributary mouths.
As the delta progrades. sheet sands are formed with
regressive characteristics and low angle, tabular crossbedding. These are sometimes broadly classified as delta
front sands. Log curve shapes and dip data will fail to
distinguish between these sheet sands and narrow beach
sands. Differentiation can still be achieved by correlation between wells.

Figure 20. F.bb and flood channels and sandy shoals

of outer Thames F.stuary, l.ngland. (After Pettijohn,
Potter, and Siever).

BEACHES AND BARS

Where marine currents are sufficiently strong to
redistribute land-derived sediments, linear shorelines
are formed with bars and beaches running parallel to the
coast. In the subsurface, these become preserved as long
narrow sand bodies. Typically, beach sands arc upward
coarsening, regressive type sequences. These give rise
to smooth funnel shaped curves on logs. Beach sands, in
their upper sections, are normally very well sorted.
Current bedding reflects the wave action showing
gentle, tabular, unimodal crossbedding. Hie direction
of crossbedding is seaward, normal to the direction of
elongation of the sand body.

In rare cases, overlying shales may show some draping dip. This dip might, be expected to point in the
direction of seaward pmchout, but in practice it probably
occurs over surfaces which have been steeply cut by
erosion, and therefore may not be indicative of the
coastline orientation.

Offshore bars may develop in the area where waves

break. The incoming water rapidly loses energy thus
dropping its sediment load. Bars lend to grow parallel
to the shoreline. On the seaward slope, bars very closely
resemble a beach deposit in that they are upward coarsening and crossbedding is gentle and tabular. The direction of crossbedding is normal to sand hotly elongation.
As long as the bar remains submarine and is overwashed,
dips on the landward or lagoonal side may be much
stronger, reaching X in the cleaner sands. A diagrammatic relationship between beaches and bars is shown in
Figure 22.

With an adequate supply of sediment, a bar may

become emergent, forming a barrier. Barrier bars tend to
have gentle dips on both sides and may be associated
with coal swamps or evaporitic lagoons.
An example of curve shapes and dip characterof
a bar type deposit is shown in Figure 23,
istics
A particular type of beach sand deposit is one variously known as a basal unconformity sand, strike valley
sand or drowned topography sand. This type of deposition originates on erosional surfaces which are fairly
rugged in profile and have undergone a rapid transgression. Low lying areas will tend to collect unsorted detrital material. Sands develop on the flanks of the erosional
highs where wave energy has been sufficient to clean up
the sediments. Titus sands tend to follow the outlines of
the erosional surface often developing on both sides
of old erosional channels.

Basal unconformity sands will tend to have stronger crossbedding angles, perhaps proportional to the
topographic relief. In addition, there will usually be a
large factor of draping dip due to differentia] compaction
present in the overlying beds. Draping dips point away
from the local high on the erosional surface. Granite
wash sands typically exhibit this behaviour.

24

ESTUARINE

or

TIDAL

CHANNEL

DEPOSITS

Figure 21. Curve shapes and dtp patterns on tidal channel or tidal flat deposits. The Density-Neutron
logy. Porosity and Vcl curves are mainly bell shaped. Clay content
_____>__, _._
/vXma i
D

. decreasing upward. Dip directions

may

be bimodal.

* ***'

'P

...

shows sandstone lithoVtude **" "ruble gram

25

Figure 22. A cross section normal to the shoreline, through an overwashed bar and a beach.

sea floor.

MARINE SHELF SANDS

Many blanket type sands are thought to have originated on large, shallow shelf areas. A plentiful supply
of sediments and a persistent energy condition is required.
In addition, il is probably true that most of these sands
are the result of repetitive regressive-transgressive sequences. In many cases, shelf blanket sands end up with
a regressive sequence and develop bar deposits at the top.

There

is

no good standard type section for

marine

shelf sands. Sorting may vary from good to poor. Curve

shapes, on the average, will exhibit a serrated combination funnel-bell appearance. Current bedding is low
angle and poly modal or random. An example is shown
in Figure 24.

REEFS AND CARBONATES

A carbonate build-up is broadly defined as a lens

of carbonate rock. This can be subdivided into reefs and
banks.

Reef: A carbonate build-up of skeletal organisms which

had a rigid framework forming a topographic high on the

Bank: A carbonate build-up which was a syn -depositional

topographic high of non wave resistant material such as
oolite shoals, coquina banks or crinoid debris.
These definitions, by Selley, roughly correspond to
bioherm and biomstrome reefs. Present day reefs occur
mainly in shallow tropical seas. Reel growth requires
sunlight (clear water, shallow depth), oxygen (rough
water), food supply, and a favourable temperature.
Fringing reefs are linear in plan and stretch parallel to
the coast with no intervening lagoon. Barrier reels are
similar but a lagoon separates them from the land. Atolls
are subcircular reefs enclosing a lagoon often built around
a sinking volcano.
The seaward or forereef edge of a reef is normally
quite steep and may form a talus slope of reef detritus
at its base. Crossbedding dips pointing away from the
immediate reef high can be measured in this detrital
wedge.
After reef organisms are killed due to some change
in conditions, the reef mass may be buried in mud.
Overburden weight causes compaction in the muds
leading to sizeable draping dips. Compaction may be as
great as 50%, generating draping dips as high as 30
Draping dips point away from the reef build-up.

26

Figure 23. Curve shapes and dip patterns

bar-type sand. Lithology is sandstone. Porosity and Vcl curves are of the smooth
and coarsening upward. Dip magnitude increases moderately upward suggesting
the top. Beaches and most bars exhibit low angle current bedding normal to the elongation of the sand
on a

funnel shaped type indicating better sorting

larger grain she at
body.

27

MARINE

SHELF

BLANKET

SANDS

Figure 24. Curve shapes and dip patterns on marine shelf blanket sands. Density -Neutron separation indicates sandstone.
possibly with lime cement. The general curve shape is funnel-bell. The porosity range indicates variable sorting. Dip magnitude suggests fine grain size. Dip direction may be polymodal.

28
found on the flank ol a bioherin reef.

A rule-of- thumb has been established to calibrate

the rate of build-up ofthe reef mass.

'fhe characlei of log curve and dip plots on shelf

degree of shaliness.
Massive limestones, ol couise. give rise to cylindrical Vcl
curves. Dips measured in massive limestones are likely to
present an incoherent pattern, being mainly the result of
vugs and fractures. To be able to measure meaningful dips,
it is necessary to have lecogni/able resistivity bedding
planes which arc mainly due to variations in shaliness.
Hie degree of betiding is icvealed by the character ol the

caibonales is very dependent upon the

Case A: Compaction contemporaneous with deposition

characterized by low resistivity shales exhibiting a gradual
build-up of dip veisus depth.:
teel Iron! angle - maximum diapingdip plus !()'
Case B: Compaction mainly after deposition: characterized by a fairly constant draping dip in the overlying shale
which contains a substantial proportion ol calcilutite:
reef front angle - twice the maximum draping dip.

dip plot.

Reef masses made up of calearemte oi delntal

material may show crossbedding. paiiicularly on the red
Hanks. On the other hand, no meaningful dip information
is obtained from biohthite zones.

TURBIDITES

Density or turbidity currents, currents caused by

ot mud and sand that periodically ti a vol
downslope along the bottom, are considered by most sedimentologists to be the principal mechanism for tiansport
ol silt and sand into deep water basins. These currents
result in thick sequences of marine terrigenous sediments consisting, mostly of rytlunically interhedded shale
and argillaceous, poorly sorted sandstones. Most of the
sandstones exhibit graded bedding and evidence of scour-

Back reef areas are usually filled in by calcilutite

which has neithei distinct bedding planes nor diaping
ellects. A typical icef outline is shown in Figure X

suspensions

CARBONATE BUILD-UP : REEF

ing.

BACK Rttf

--

___

_-__-~__"^_______________ ra

calcilutite

furbidiie deposits tend to be tabular, elongate or

fan shaped. Individual sand beds are poorly sorted, but
the upward fining of grain size should produce bell shaped
log curves. Rythmic alternation of graded beds with, shales
produces a stacking oi roughly similar curve shapes.

fORE Rfcfcf-

g*x:- r

calcarenite tongues

-,

UCL 1

/
biohthite

Figure 25. A cross-section normal

barrier type reef build-up.

to

"^

*_>*;_ "__3iin

"--*

shale

*^~*~"^-^^^

alcaren tte

the shoreline

of a

Reef porosity is extremely variable and follows no

particular pattern veisus depth. The biolithic zones will
normally be the most porous. All three usual rock types,
biohthite, calcarenite and calcilutite may develop porosity
in the form of vugs, fractures and dolomitization. Curve
shapes are therefore not very predictable other than the
Vcl or Gamma Ray which will be cylindrical. The percentage of dolomite can be determined by porosity log
crossplots and calcarenite can be distinguished from calcilutite in the same manner.

Figure 26 illustrates curve shapes and dip patterns

A characteristic of turbidites, in spite of being

a high energy deposit, is the absence of appreciable
crossbedding. Dipmeter results will therefore show little
variation from structural dip, and will not be very helpful in defining sand body geometry.
Al tins time, no proven field example is available
to serve as a model of curves shapes and dip patterns for
turbidite deposits.
Turbidites deposited in deep marine basins may be
interhedded with muds which can be hydrocarbon source
rocks. However turbidite sands do not generally make
good reservoirs because poor sorting and clay matrix
inhibit porosily and permeability. The thin bedding of
turbidite sands and the intervening shales make reservoirs numerous, hut thin and disconnected.

29

CARBONATE

BUILD-UP

FORE REEF

FACIES

Figure 26. Curve shapes and dip patterns on the flank of a reef. The Vcl curve is primarily cylindrical while the porosity
curve shows no characteristic shape. Overlying shales exhibit draping dip. The zone immediately overlying the reef mass
is made up largely of reef detrital material and exhibits a dip scatter due to crossbedding. In the hiolithic zone, no coherent
dip patterns are evident.

30

RESERVOIRS UNDER A

RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION BY
PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
Some methods of delineating reservoirs by wire
line techniques are described above. To a great extent,
these methods rely on the heterogeneous characteristics
of the sedimentary rock material, and variations of
porosity and clay content, which produce curve shapes
and dip patterns of interpretive value. In general these
methods are usually reliable, such that formation boundaries can be extrapolated beyond the region of the
borehole with variable degrees of uncertainty in reservoir
mapping. It would be of interest if these geometrical
predictions, and the implied reservoir extent, could be
verified by measurements of the more homogeneous
and continuous reservoir properties such as formation
pressure, depth to fluid contact and hydrocarbon density.

DEPLETION REGIME

Verification of lateral reservoir continuity is possible where the reservoir is being produced in an offset
well. An observable pressure reduction is definitive of
hydraulic connection, while an indication of no pressure
reduction implies separation when drainage radii intersect.
A few measurements in normally pressured water bearing formations will establish the water gradient. For
laterally connected reservoirs, fluid gradients in the /one
being depleted will exhibit a parallel shift in the direction
of reduced pressure, when compared with gradients
established under virgin reservoir conditions. Figure 28 is
a model lor such a case. Pressure measurements from
three reservoirs in the same well are plotted. Reservoir 1
has been produced from an offset well; it can be said to
be hydrauhcally connected to its equivalent in the offset
well. Similarly, reservoir .2 is continuous between this
well and other producing wells.

The various units of a complex sand aggregation

may represent one or several independent reservoirs.
Similarly a single correctable unit may not represent
a single reservoir, if a natural permeability barrier exists.
Thus it is of importance to have information relating to
lateral and vertical hydraulic continuity to accurately
define reservoirs.
Until

recently,

efficient methods of obtaining

multiple pressure measurements in open hole were not

technologically or economically feasible. However, the

development of the wireline Repeat Formation Tester
(RFT*) permits rapid testing of reservoirs, of whatever
economic merit, such that sufficient data are available
to assist in the definition of reservoir extent and continuity.

A typical pressure test recording is shown in Figure

27. The precision of the downhole measuring system is
reflected in the resolution shown in the data presentation.
A convenient method of utilizing the data is by
means of pressure versus depth curves. Using multiple
pressure measurements, this approach is simplified since
less reliance needs to be placed upon the absolute accuracy of each measurement. With the RFT, pressure
resolution is quoted at 1 psi. Hence slopes of pressure
versus depth curves can be expected to be quite precise.
Some common reservoir conditions are examined using
these curves.

"Trademark of Schlumberger

Figure 27. Fxample

of RFT pressure recording.

In complex sand aggregations, definition of vertical hydraulic continuity can be occasionally less straightforward. However from the set of measurements,
a valid judgement of reservoir connection can often be
deduced. Referring again to Figure 28, the pressure
measurements for reservoir 3 establish that it is not vertically connected to reservoirs 1 and 2.

31

DEPTHS
(aetiri)

RESERVOIRS AT VIRGIN CONDITIONS

.1008

RESERVOIR

.3
.1100

RESERVOIR

2
3200

RESERVOIR

1
3300

3400

4500

4hoo

4/00

4HOG

PRESSURE

4900

_00

5100

PSI

Figure 28. F.xample of pressure versus depth

several reservoirs under a depletion regime.

plot for

Sets of pressure measurements in virgin formations

can be helpful in defining reservoir continuity. II cotrelative units in two wells have a common water table,
this fact would assisi in substantiating that they are
laterally connected. Use of pressure measurements to
determine distance to fluid contact in two wells, demands
extreme precision, and the presence of the same fluid in
bolh wells. The fluid densities can be compared by means
of the pressure gradients. We would suggest the following
method. Water gradients should be normalized for absolute pressure differences by referring these gradients to a
common depth reference. Then comparison of the intercept of the gradient in hydrocarbon with the water
gradient will determine the water fable. Equivalent water
tables substantiate lateral continuity. The determination
of different water tables verifies lateral reservoir separation. See figure 2l). In this idealized model it would be
of interest to verily the lateral continuity of the reservoir
in well B. Reference to pressure versus depth curves
suggests that since the hydrocarbon gradient determined
in the upper reservoir of well A and the reservoir in
well B determine the same fluid contact, verification of
lateral continuity is established. The hydrocarbon gradient in the lowei reservoir of well A would establish

Figure 29. Model of pressure versus depth curves in virgin reservoirs used to determine lateral reservoir continuity.

32

Well A

Well B ,

Single Reservoir

separated by shale

Two Reservoirs
shale member

separated by

Figure 30. Model of pressure versus depth curves in virgin reservoirs used determine vertical reservoir continuity
a different fluid contact and verify that the lower reservoir

voir

in

in

well A was not laterally connected to the

EXAMPLE

NO. 1

leser-

well B.

Vertical hydraulic continuity of a complex sand

can often be deduced by pressure versus
depth curves. II pressure measurements in several members having a common fluid type define a unique gradient,
hydraulic continuity is implied. Where separate gradients
are observed hydraulic discontinuity is indicated. Figure
30 is an idealized model of these cases. Logs from both
wells would have nearly the same characteristics.
Pressure measurements, however, would be definitive.
The single hydrocarbon gradient confirms that one
reservoir exists m well A, By contrast, the separate hydrocarbon gradients demonstrate that two reservoirs exist
in well B.
aggregation

Figure 31. Porosity and Vcl curves with a dipmeter

arrow plot on well A. These data are interpreted as representative of a delta distributary channel fill trending
N6o F.

33

FIELD EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE NO. 1

Figure 32 illustrates an interpretive isopach map of the

gross genetic unit, made using thicknesses measured in
the subsequent wells, B, C, D, and E. These thicknesses
support the channel interpretation.
A cross section showing Induction log correlations
in Figure 33. Note that the hydrocarbon
bearing channel sand in well A does not extend to well
B as evidenced by the presence of water bearing formations in the equivalent /one. Well B is somewhat lower
structurally, but not sufficiently to explain the lack of
hydrocarbons. To the south, however, structure controls the water-hydrocarbon contacts.
is constructed

The porosity and Vcl curves, as well as the de-

tailed dip display from a section of hole in well A, are

shown in Figure 31. The Density -Neutron log (not shown)
describes the lithology in the cleanest zones as sandstone and identifies a coal bed. Curve

shapes on the main

might be best described as serrated cylindrical.
in itself, is not fully definitive but would suggest
type of channel fill. The dip pattern is unimodal,
higher dip angles near the base and reasonably
consistent in direction. Dip magnitude and spread suggest relatively coarse grain size in a generally fining
upward textural sequence. Overall, these characteristics,
with the possible exception of the serrated curve outline, are most diagnostic of a delta distributary channel
fill. Tlte implied trend is southwest-northeast and the
channel flow direction is interpreted as N6OE.
sand
Tins,
some
with

EXAMPLE
INTERPRETIVE

NO

EXAMPLE
LINi

Or

SECTION

NO

1
O-C-A-B

ISOPACH

MAP

OF
GROSS

GENETIC

UNIT

THICKNESS

Figure 33. Cross section through wells

showing outline of distributary channel.

/), C, A,

and B

EXAMPLE NO. 2

Figure 32. Interpretive isopach map of gross genetic

units thickness after adding wells H, C, D, and _".

Curve shapes and dip patterns from a different

zone in well A are shown in Figure 34. Allowing for
shaliness, the lithology in the cleanest zone is sandstone
as determined by the Density-Neutron log. Porosity
and Vcl curve shapes on the main sand are of the serrated
funnel type suggesting coarsening grain size and better
sorting upward. Tire upward coarsening is confirmed
by the dip spread. Clearly, this is evidence of a bar type

deposit.

34

The dip magnitude is too great to represent either

a beach or a barrier bar. There is a possibility that it
could be the landward side of an overwashed bar. However, the serrated nature of the curves leads to the conclusion that it is a distributary mouth bar. Dip directions
suggest a lobe prograding approximately N35 E.

EXAMPLE

NO

MAP

ISOPACH

INTERPRETIVE

OF
GENETIC

CROSS

UNIT

THICKNESS

Subsequent wells B, C, D, E, F, G and II found

correlative thicknesses as shown in Figure 35. The interpretive isopach map fits measured thicknesses and the
interpretation on well A.
The cross section H, Ig A, B, in Figure 36 demonstrates the shape of the gross genetic unit relative to a
marker bed. Note that post-depositional structural defornration controls water-hydrocarbon contacts. Note
also that the SP curve shape on this formation in well
A is not typical of a bar type deposit. This is the effect
of distortion due to hydrocarbon and illustrates the
danger of using a single clay indicator.

tXAMPLE

NO. 2

Figure 35. Interpretive isopach map of gross genetic

unit thickness after adding data from other wells.

LINf.
H

A
l

-.X-'

Iv

Figure 34. Porosity and Vcl curves with dipmeter arrow

plot on another zone in well A. A distributary mouth
bar prograding northeast is interpreted.

-,..

Ol
f

StCTION

,_,

_A

..

S3

<
i-

H- ( -A

ft
fl

.a
'-,

X'

"*- .X "'-

J'

'

.-.

...

i^.

.x

"
-'

x
y,

->*

Figure 36. Cross section through wells H, F, A, and B,

showing the outline of the interpreted geometry.

35

EXAMPLE NO 3

EXAMPLE NO. 3
Figure 37 shows the following curves in well A:

Gamma Ray, Caliper. Density-Neutron. In this well no

porosity or Vcl curves are available. Lithology indicated by the Density-Neutron separation in the cleanest
non gas bearing zones confirms sandstone, (e.g. the
zone 1584-1 590m). Several coal beds stand out clearly.
Curve shapes in the thickest sand P ( 1448-1 400m) are
serrated funnel-cylindrical-bell shaped combinations.
Porosity is varying and fairly low overall, indicating
poor sorting. From lithology and curve shapes one may
deduce a tidal flal estuaiinc condition.

The dip pattern, displayed on the right hand side

of Figure 37 shows, after structural dip subtraction
(1 1 v at 275 v azimuth), a polymodal, gentle current bedding preferentially to the west. The very low dip spread
is associated with finer grain size. This reservoir can be
considered an aggregation of low energy tidal flat
deposits. Similarity to the sand at 300 feet in the estuarine model (Figure 21 ) is to be noted.
The sand 0 at I 385-1 367 mhas a serrated funnelbell shape. Porosity is higher, suggesting betlei sorting.
The relatively larger dip spread indicates coarser gram
size but without preferential lining oi coarsening directions. Dip is again polymodal. The presence of coal
further substantiates the tidal flat-cstuarinc -deltaic environment.

Both curve shapes and dipmeter displays on both

sands P and 0 indicate a complex blanket type sand accumulation. In view of this conclusion, correlation with
nearby wells should be possible.

Figure 38 shows such a correlation using Resistivity, SP and Gamma Ray curves in well A and well
B, 600 meters awary (S 28 W). Also a dipmeter result
from a long interval computation is displayed on the
right hand side of Figure 38. This computation shows a
structural dip of 1 1 ' with an azimuth of 275 , read
preferentially from the shalier zones. The correlation
is relatively straightforward if one can rely on the continuity of the coal streaks. For confirmation, however,
it is a good practice to utilize the structural dip information. This is accomplished by calculating the apparent
dip along the line -of section between the two wells.
The method is detailed in Figure 39. The result of this
computation gives an apparent dip of 4.3 resulting in
an elevation difference of approximately 45 meters.

Figure 37. Well A. Gamma Ray, Caliper, Density, Neutron

curves and detailed dipmeter results after subtraction of
the structured dip of 11 at an aximutb of 275. Note
the effect of coal streaks and gas on the Density-Neutron
log.

36

HUMPH WO 3

Figure 38. Correlation of logs between wells A and B using Gamma Ray, SP, and Resistivity logs. Also sboivn is a plot
long interval High Resolution Dipmeter results and a "Stick Plot" along the line of section between the two wells.

of

37
merits from sand Q oevels 5-7) plot well below the expected gradient as does a measurement from sand R
(level 8). Reservoirs O and R had been produced for
about a year in well B from perforations at 1419-1921
and 1398 140! as indicated on Figure 38. Pressure measurements in sand Q (in well A) confirm the correlation
with well B and establish that sand Q has both vertical
and horizontal hydraulic continuity. Sand Q, although
a complex sand is one reservoir extending through both
wells. Similarly, sand R is continuous between the wells
and appears to be separated from sand Q. On the other
hand, sand P is not connected to reservoir Q and constitutes a separate reservoir. The hydrocarbon gradient
suggests that sand P is vertically continuous in well A.

CONCLUSIONS

Figure 39. Calculation of the elevation difference between

wells A and B due to structural dip. Structural dip is 11'
at an azimuth of 275" . Azimuth of the line of section
through wells A and _is 2 OS . Distance between wells is
600 meters. X is the dip angle along the line of section.

"

tansy.- tan

11

iX = 4.34

x cos 67

Flevation difference

600 x tan 4.34

45.5m

Correlations show approximately 45m, see Figure 38.

Simplification and enhanced clarity are accomplished with the "Stick Plot" presentation of the structural dip results, which illustrates an apparent dip along
a line of section augmented by the vertical exaggeration
factor (x 7 in this case). This confirms the correlation.
The fact that the correlation is clear, although there is
some change in character of the sands, supports the
interpretation that this is a complex blanket type sand.

Example No. 3 is from a multi reservoir area where

sands come and go from well to well, even over short
distances. Confirmation of reservoir extension was sought
through RFT pressure measurements, a plot of which
is seen in Figure 40. A fresh water gradient line is drawn.
Level 1 is an oil bearing zone, and its pressure plots
slightly above the water gradient. Pressure measurements
from zone P (levels 24) plot above the water gradient
and define a fluid density of 0.25gm/cc (gas). Measure-

In the course of theit production history, few

reservoirs behave like storage tanks. The general rule is
that reservoirs are extremely complex aggregations of
permeable units of variable characteristics and intricate
geometry which may be interconnected or separated by
subtle and sinuous mechanisms. This is especially evident in deltaic formations.
Optimum efficiency in reservoir drainage demands a
detailed and accurate description of the geometry ol
permeable units. To this end, definition of the depositional environment is a requisite. This may be achieved
through analysis of fossils, lithology, textural sequences,
and sedimentary structures. The addition of paleocurrent
patterns often provides an estimate of reservoir geometry.
It is not suggested that this is an easy task. In many
cases, depositional environment and permeable unit
geometry can never be unequivocally defined. Furthermore, a complete analysis of all the variables, by con-

ventional methods, may be a prohibitively expensive, if

not impossible endeavour. However, if much of this
analysis can be accomplished by means of studies of
data already in the files of oil companies, in the form of
wireline logs, it means that an economically feasible
technique is available for use in describing reservoirs.

The recent introduction of a rapid multiple pressure measurement system opens a new horizon in reservoir delineation.
The approaches advocated in this paper are in their
infancy. Much investigation and development remain to
be done. For example, it may be possible to relate current
bedding dip angle or dip spread quantitatively to rock
texture. In future years, we hope to be able to report
on progress in the evaluation of rock characteristics such
as sorting and grain size, by wireline techniques.

38

EXAM. IE

NO 3

Figure 40. Pressure versus depth curves for intervals P, Q, and R

of well A.

Formations Q and R are producing in well B.

11.

Stratigraphic Control Through Dip Computations": American Association of Petro-

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