CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Casting

Casting is defined as the process whereby molten material is poured or forced into a mold
and allowed to harden. When the metal solidifies, the result is a casting - a metal object
conforming to that shape. A great variety of metal objects are also molded at some point
during their manufacture.
The most common type of mold is made of sand and clay; ceramics, sand with cement,
metals, and other materials are also used for molds. These materials are packed over the
face of the pattern (usually made of wood, metal, or resin) that forms the cavity into
which the molten metal is to be poured. The pattern is removed from the mold when its
shape is able to be retained by the mold material. Molds are usually constructed in two
halves, and the two halves are joined together once the pattern has been removed from
them. Pins and bushings permit precise joining of the two halves, which are enclosed in a
mold box. The metal is then poured into the mold through special gates and is distributed
by runners to different areas of the casting. The mold must be strong enough to resist the
pressure of the molten metal and sufficiently permeable to permit the escape of air and
other gases from the mold cavity; otherwise, they would remain as holes in the casting.
The mold material must also resist fusion with the molten metal, and the sand at the mold
surface must be closely packed to give a smooth casting surface.
The making of patterns for foundries requires care and skill. Patterns are uniformly larger
than the desired casting in order to compensate for shrinkage during drops of temperature
and the liquid-to-solid phase change. Polystyrene foam patterns remain in the' mold and
evaporate upon contact with the poured metal; wax patterns are melted out of the mold
prior to the pouring of the molten metal. Metal molds are used in that type of foundry
known as die-casting. Often a hollow space is desired within the casting; in this case a

core of fine sand is placed in one of the mold halves. Core boxes made of wood, metal, or
resin are also used in this regard.
Modern foundries capable of large-scale production are characterized by a high degree of
mechanization, automation, and robotics, and microprocessors allow for the accurate
control of automated systems. Advances in chemical binders have resulted in stronger
molds and cores and more accurate castings. Accuracy and purity are increased in
vacuum conditions, and further advances are expected from zero-gravity casting in space.
1.2 Sand Casting
Sand-casting is widely used for making cast-iron and steel parts of medium to large size
in which surface smoothness and dimensional precision are not of primary importance.
The first step in any casting operation is to form a mold that has the shape of the part to
be made. In many processes, a pattern of the part is made of some material such as wood,
metal, wax or polystyrene and refractory molding material is formed around this. For
example, in green sandcasting, sand combined with a binder such as water and clay is
packed around a pattern to form the mold. The pattern is removed, and on top of the
cavity is placed a similar sand mold containing a passage (called a gate) through which
the metal flows into the mold. The mold is designed so that solidification of the casting
begins far from the gate and advances toward it, so that molten metal in the gate can flow
in to compensate for the shrinkage that accompanies solidification. Sometimes additional
spaces, called risers, are added to the casting to provide reservoirs to feed this shrinkage.
After solidification is complete, the sand is removed from the casting, and the gate is cut
off. If cavities are intent to be left in the casting--for example, to form a hollow part--sand
shapes called cores are made and suspended in the casting cavity before the metal is
poured.
Patterns are also formed for sand-casting out of polymers that are evaporated by the
molten metal. Such patterns may be injection molded and can possess a very complex
shape. The process is called full-mold or evaporative pattern casting. However, the resin
sets, binding the sand particles together and forming half of a strong mold. Two halves
2

and any desired cores are then assembled to form the mold, and this mold is backed up
with moist sand for casting. Greater dimensional accuracy and a smoother surface are
obtained in this process than in green (mixture of sand, clay and water) sand-casting.
1.3 Basic Steps in Making Sand Casting
The basic steps involved in making a sand casting are:
1. Patternmaking: Patterns are required to make molds. The mold is made by packing
molding sand around the pattern. The mold is usually made in two parts so that the
pattern can be withdrawn.

In horizontal molding, the top half is called the cope, and the bottom half is called
the drag.

In vertical molding, the leading half of the mold is called the swing, and the back
half is called the ram.

When the patterns withdrawn from the molding material (sand or other), the
imprint of the pattern provides the cavity when the mold parts are brought
together. The mold cavity, together with any internal cores as required, is
ultimately filled with molten metal to form the casting.

2. Core Box Attachment: If the casting is to be hollow, additional patterns, referred to as

core boxes, are needed to shape the sand forms, or cores, that are placed in the mold
cavity to form the interior surfaces and sometimes the external surfaces as well of the
casting. Thus the void between the mold and core eventually becomes the casting.
3. Molding: Molding is the operation necessary to prepare a mold for receiving the metal.
It consists of ramming sand around the pattern placed in support, or flask, removing the
pattern, setting cores in place, and creating the gating/feeding system to direct the metal
into the mold cavity created by the pattern, either by cutting it into the mold by hand or
by including it on the pattern, which is most commonly used.

4. Melting and pouring: Melting and pouring are the processes of preparing molten
metal of the proper composition and temperature and pouring this into the mold from
transfer ladles.
5. Cleaning: Cleaning includes all the operations required to remove the gates and risers
that constitute the gating/feeding system and to remove the adhering sand, scale, parting
fins, and other foreign material that must be removed before the casting is ready for
shipment or other processing.
1.4 Pattern
The pattern is the principal tool during the casting process. It is the replica of the object to
be made by the casting process, with some modifications. The main modifications are the
addition of pattern allowances, and the provision of core prints. If the casting is to be
hollow, additional patterns called cores are used to create these cavities in the finished
product. The quality of the casting produced depends upon the material of the pattern, its
design, and construction. The costs of the pattern and the related equipment are reflected
in the cost of the casting. The use of an expensive pattern is justified when the quantity of
castings required is substantial.
Function of a pattern

A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of making a casting.

A pattern may contain projections known as core prints if the casting requires a
core and need to be made hollow.

Runner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten metal in the mold cavity may
form a part of the pattern.

Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth surfaces reduce casting
defects.

A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall cost of the castings.

Pattern materials
Patterns may be constructed from variety of materials. Each material has its own
advantages, limitations, and field of application. Some materials used for making patterns
are: wood, metals and alloys, plastic, plaster of Paris, plastic and rubbers, wax, and
resins. To be suitable for use, the pattern material should be:
Easily worked, shaped and joined
Light in weight
Strong, hard and durable
Resistant to wear and abrasion
Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions
Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature and humidity
Available at low cost
The usual pattern materials are wood, metal, and plastics. The most commonly used
pattern material is wood, since it is readily available and of low weight. Also, it can be
easily shaped and is relatively cheap. The main disadvantage of wood is its absorption of
moisture, which can cause distortion and dimensional changes. Araldite is the new
material for pattern making, which is referring to a range of engineering and structural
epoxy, acrylic, and polyurethane adhesives.

Fig 1.1: A typical pattern attached with gating and rising system

Pattern allowance
Pattern allowance is a vital feature as it affects the dimensional characteristics of the
casting. Thus, when the pattern is produced, certain allowances must be given on the
sizes specified in the finished component drawing so that a casting with the particular
specification can be made. The selection of correct allowances greatly helps to reduce
machining costs and avoid rejections. The allowances usually considered on patterns and
core boxes are as follows:
i.

Shrinkage or contraction allowance

ii.

Draft or taper allowance

iii.

Machining or finish allowance

iv.

Distortion or camber allowance

v.

Rapping allowance

i) Shrinkage or contraction allowance:

All most all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically on cooling. The metal shrinkage
is of two types:
a) Liquid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes
from liquid state to solid state at the solidus temperature. To account for this
shrinkage; riser, which feed the liquid metal to the casting, are provided in the
mold.
b) Solid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume caused when metal loses
temperature in solid state. To account for this, shrinkage allowance is provided on
the patterns.
The rate of contraction with temperature is dependent on the material. For example steel
contracts to a higher degree compared to aluminum. To compensate the solid shrinkage, a
shrink rule must be used in laying out the measurements for the pattern. A shrink rule for
cast iron is 1/8 inch longer per foot than a standard rule. If a gear blank of 4 inch in
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diameter was planned to produce out of cast iron, the shrink rule in measuring it 4 inch
would actually measure 4 -1/24 inch, thus compensating for the shrinkage.
Table 1.1: Rate of Contraction of Various Metals

Material
Grey Cast Iron

Cast steel

Aluminum
Magnesium

Dimension

Shrinkage Allowance
(inch/ft)

Up to 2 feet
2 feet to 4 feet
Over 4 feet
Up to 2 feet
2 feet to 6 feet
Over 6 feet
Up to 4 feet
4 feet to 6 feet
Over 6 feet
Up to 4 feet
Over 4 feet

0.125
0.105
0.083
0.251
0.191
0.155
0.155
0.143
0.125
0.173
0.155

ii) Draft or Taper Allowance:

By draft is meant the taper provided by the pattern maker on all vertical surfaces of the
pattern so that it can be removed from the sand without tearing away the sides of the sand
mold.
Figure shows a pattern having no draft allowance being removed from the pattern. In this
case, till the pattern is completely lifted out, its sides will remain in contact with the walls
of the mold, thus tending to break it.
Figure is an illustration of a pattern having proper draft allowance. Here, the moment the
pattern lifting commences, all of its surfaces are well away from the sand surface. Thus
the pattern can be removed without damaging the mold cavity.
Draft allowance varies with the complexity of the sand job. But in general inner details of
the pattern require higher draft than outer surfaces. The amount of draft depends upon the
length of the vertical side of the pattern to be extracted; the intricacy of the pattern; the
method of molding; and pattern material.
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Fig 1.2: Draft or Taper Allowance

iii) Machining or Finish Allowance:

The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting are generally poor. When the casting is
functionally required to be of good surface finish or dimensionally accurate, it is
generally achieved by subsequent machining. Machining or finish allowances are
therefore added in the pattern dimension. The amount of machining allowance to be
provided for is affected by the method of molding and casting used viz. hand molding or
machine molding, sand casting or metal mold casting. The amount of machining
allowance is also affected by the size and shape of the casting; the casting orientation; the
metal; and the degree of accuracy and finish required. The machining allowances
recommended for different metal is given in Table.
Table 1.2: Machine Allowance of Various Metals

Material

Dimension (inch)

Shrinkage Allowance
(inch/ft)

Cast Iron

Up to 12
12 to 20
20 to 40

0.12
0.20
0.25
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Cast steel

Aluminum

Up to 6
6 to 20
20 to 40
Up to 8
8 to 12
12 to 40

0.12
0.25
0.30
0.09
0.12
0.16

iv) Distortion or Camber Allowance:

Sometimes castings get distorted, during solidification, due to their typical shape. For
example, if the casting has the form of the letter U, V, T, or L etc. it will tend to contract
at the closed end causing the vertical legs to look slightly inclined. This can be prevented
by making the legs of the U, V, T, or L shaped pattern converge slightly (inward) so that
the casting after distortion will have its sides vertical.
The distortion in casting may occur due to internal stresses. These internal stresses are
caused on account of unequal cooling of different section of the casting and hindered
contraction. Measure taken to prevent the distortion in casting includes:
i.

Modification of casting design

ii.

Providing sufficient machining allowance to cover the distortion affect

iii.

Providing suitable allowance on the pattern, called camber or distortion allowance

(inverse reflection)

v) Rapping Allowance:
Before the withdrawal from the sand mold, the pattern is rapped all around the vertical
faces to enlarge the mold cavity slightly, which facilitate its removal. Since it enlarges the
final casting made, it is desirable that the original pattern dimension should be reduced to
account for this increase. There is no sure way of quantifying this allowance, since it is
highly dependent on the foundry personnel practice involved.

Core and Core Prints

Castings are often required to have holes, recesses, etc. of various sizes and shapes. These
impressions can be obtained by using cores. So where coring is required, provision
should be made to support the core inside the mold cavity. Core prints are used to serve
this purpose. The core print is an added projection on the pattern and it forms a seat in the
mold on which the sand core rests during pouring of the m old. The core print must be of
adequate size and shape so that it can support the weight of the core during the casting
operation. Depending upon the requirement a core can be placed horizontal, vertical and
can be hanged inside the mold cavity. A typical job, its pattern and the mold cavity with
core and core print is shown in Figure.

Fig 1.3: A Typical Job, its Pattern and the Mold Cavity

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Types of Patterns
Patterns are of various types, each satisfying certain casting requirements.
A pattern for a part can be made many different ways, which are classified into the
following main types:
Solid pattern - A solid pattern is a model of the part as a single piece. It is the easiest to
fabricate, but can cause some difficulties in making the mold. The parting line and runner
system must be determined separately. Solid patterns are typically used for geometrically
simple parts that are produced in low quantities.

Fig 1.4: Solid Pattern

Split pattern - split pattern models the part as two separate pieces that meet along the
parting line of the mold. Using two separate pieces allows the mold cavities in the cope
and drag to be made separately and the parting line is already determined. Split patterns
are typically used for parts that are geometrically complex and are produced in moderate
quantities.

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Fig 1.5: Split Pattern

Match-plate pattern - A match-plate pattern is similar to a split pattern, except that each
half of the pattern is attached to opposite sides of a single plate. The plate is usually made
from wood or metal. This pattern design ensures proper alignment of the mold cavities in
the cope and drag and the runner system can be included on the match plate. Match-plate
patterns are used for larger production quantities and are often used when the process is
automated.

Fig 1.6: Match plate Pattern

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Cope and drag pattern - A cope and drag pattern is similar to a match plate pattern,
except that each half of the pattern is attached to a separate plate and the mold halves are
made independently. Just as with a match plate pattern, the plates ensure proper
alignment of the mold cavities in the cope and drag and the runner system can be
included on the plates. Cope and drag patterns are often desirable for larger castings,
where a match-plate pattern would be too heavy and cumbersome. They are also used for
larger production quantities and are often used when the process is automated.

Fig 1.7: Cope-n-Drag Pattern

1.5 Core and Core Box

A core is a preformed baked sand or green sand aggregate inserted in a mold to
shape the interior part of a casting which cannot be shaped by the pattern.
A core box is a wood or metal structure, the cavity of which has the shape of the
desired core which is made therein.
A core box, like a pattern is made by the pattern maker.
Cores run from extremely simple to extremely complicated.

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 A core could be a simple round cylinder form needed to core a hole through a hub
of a wheel or it could be a very complicated core used to core out the water
cooling channels in a cast iron engine block along with the inside of the cylinders.
Dry sand cores are for the most part made of sharp, clay-free, dry silica sand
mixed with a binder and baked until cured; the binder cements the sand together.

Fig 1.7: Dry sand core with a support wire

When the metal is poured the core holds together long enough for the metal to
solidify, then the binder is finely cooked, from the heat of the casting, until its
bonding power is lost or burned out. If the core mix is correct for the job, it can be
readily removed from the castings interior by simply pouring it out as burnt core
sand. This characteristic of a core mix is called its collapsibility.
The size and pouring temperature of a casting determines how well and how long
the core will stay together.
The gases generated within the core during pouring must be vented to the outside
of the mold preventing gas porosity and a defect known as a core blow.
Also, a core must have sufficient hot strength to be handled and used properly.
The hot strength refers to its strength while being heated by the casting operation.
Because of the shape and size of some cores they must be further strengthened
with rods and wires.
A long span core for a length of cast iron pipe would require rodding to prevent
the core from sagging or bending upward when the mold is poured because of the
liquid metal exerting a strong pressure during pouring.

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Binders
There are many types of binders to mix with core sand. A binder should be
selected on the basis of the characteristics that are most suitable for your
particular use.
Some binders require no baking becoming firm at room temperature such as
rubber cement, Portland cement and sodium silicate or water glass.
In large foundry operations and in some small foundries, sodium silicate is a
popular binder as it can be hardened almost instantly by blowing carbon dioxide
gas through the mixture.
The sodium silicate/CO2 process hardens through the following reaction:

The silica gel that is formed binds individual sand grains together.
Oil binders require heating or baking before they develop sufficient strength to
withstand the molten metal.
Sulfite binders also require heating. The most popular of the sulfite binders is a
product of the wood pulp industry.
There are many liquid binders made from starches, cereals and sugars. They are
available under a countless number of trade names.
A good binder will have the following properties

Strength

Collapse rapidly when metal starts to shrink.

Will not distort core during baking.

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Maintain strength during storage time.

Absorb a minimum of moisture when in the mold or in storage.

Withstand normal handling.

Disperse properly and evenly throughout the sand mix.

Should produce a mixture that can be easily formed.

1.6 Manufacturing of Core

Core sand mixes can be mixed in a Muller or paddle type mixer and in small amounts on
the bench by hand.
The core is made by ramming the sand into the core box and placing the core on a core
plate to bake.

Fig 1.8: Muller and Mixer

Fig 1.9: A Typical Manufacturing of three part core

16

Pasted Cores
Cores can be made in halves and after they are dried, glued together to make the
complete core.

Fig 1.10: A Typical Manufacturing of pasted core

Fig 1.11: A Typical Manufacturing of dump core

17

1.7 Molding process and Materials

The term molding process refers to the method of making the mold and the materials
used. The term casting process conveys a broader meaning, often including the molding
process, the method of introducing the metal into the mold cavity, or all processes used in
making the casting.
Molding processes have certain features in common.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.

The use of pattern.

Some type of aggregate mixture comprising a granular refractory and binders.
A means of forming the aggregate mixture around the pattern.
Hardening of aggregate or developing its bond while in contact with the pattern.
Withdrawal of the pattern from the hardened aggregate mold.
Assembly of the mold and core pieces to make a complete mold, metal then being
poured into the mold.

Classification of Molding Processes

Molding processes can be classified in a number of ways. Broadly they are classified
either on the basis of the method used or on the basis of the mold material used.
Classification based on the mold material used:
a. Sand molding:
1. Green sand mold
2. Dry sand mold,
Skin dried mold.
3. Cement bonded sand mold
4. Carbon-dioxide mold
5. Shell mold.
b. Plaster molding,
c. Metallic molding
Classification based on the method used:
d. Bench Molding
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e. Floor Molding
f. Pit Molding
g. Machine Molding
a) Sand Molding
Molding processes where a sand aggregate is used to make the mold produce by far the
largest quantity of castings. Whatever the metal poured into sand molds, the product may
be called a sand casting.
i) Green Sand Molding:
Among the sand-casting processes, molding is most often done with green sand. Green
molding sand may be defined as a plastic mixture of sand grains, clay, water, and other
materials which can be used for molding and casting processes. The sand is called
"green" because of the moisture present and is thus distinguished from dry sand. The
basic steps in green-sand molding are as follows:
1. Preparation of the pattern. Most green-sand molding is done with match plate or
cope and drag patterns. Loose patterns are used when relatively few castings of a
type are to be made. In simple hand molding the loose pattern is placed on a mold
board and surrounded with a suitable-sized flask.

Fig 1.12: Drag half of the mold.

19

Fig 1.13: Cope half of the mold.

2. Making the mold. Molding requires the ramming of sand around the pattern. As
the sand is packed, it develops strength and becomes rigid within the flask.
Ramming may be done by hand. Both cope and drag are molded in the same way,
but the cope must provide for the sprue. The gating-system parts of the mold cavity
are simply channels for the entry of the molten metal.
3. Core setting. With cope and drag halves of the mold made and the pattern
withdrawn, cores are set into the mold cavity to form the internal surfaces of the
casting.
4. Closing and weighting. With cores set, the cope and drag are closed. The cope
must usually be weighted down or clamped to the drag to prevent it from floating
when the metal is poured.
Because of the nature of green-sand molding and molding sands, the process has certain
advantages and limitations. Advantages are:
a. Great flexibility as a production process. Mechanical equipment can be utilized for
performing molding and its allied operations. Furthermore, green sand can be reused
many times by reconditioning it with water, clay, and ether materials. The molding
process can be rapid and repetitive.

20

b. Usually, the meat direct route from pattern to mold ready for pouring is by green
sand molding.
c. Economy, green sand molding is ordinarily the least costly method of molding.
Limitations of a green sand molding are:
a. Some casting designs require the use of other casting processes. Thin, long
projections of green sand in a mold cavity are washed away by the molten metal
or may not even be moldable. Cooling fins on air-cooled-engine cylinder blocks
and head are an example. Greater strength is then required of the mold.
b. Certain metals and some castings develop defects if poured into molds containing
moisture.
c. The dimensional accuracy and surface finish of green-sand castings may not be
adequate.
d. Large castings require greater mold strength and resistance to erosion than are
available in green sands.
ii) Dry-Sand Molding:
Dry-sand molds are actually made with molding sand in the green condition. The sand
mixture is modified somewhat to favor good strength and other properties after the mold
is dried.
Dry-sand molding may be done the same way as green-sand molding on smaller sizes of
castings. Usually, the mold-cavity surface is coated or sprayed with a mixture which,
upon drying, imparts greater hardness or refractoriness to the mold. The entire mold is
then dried in an oven at 300 to 650 F or by circulating heated air through the mold. The
time-consuming drying operation is one inherent disadvantage of the dry-sand mold.
Advantages

Dry sand molds are generally stronger than green sand molds and therefore can
withstand much additional handling.
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Better dimension control than if they were molded in green sand.

The improved quality of the sand mixture due to the removal of moisture can
result in a much smoother finish on the castings than if made in green sand molds.
Where molds are properly washed and sprayed with refractory coatings, the
casting finish is further improved.

Disadvantages

This type of molding is much more expensive than green sand molding and is not
a high production process. Correct baking (drying) times are essential.

ii) Carbon-Dioxide Gas Molding:

This process is widely used for rapid hardening the molds & cores made up of
green sand.
The mold making process is similar to conventional molding procedure except the
mold material which comprises of pure dry silica sand free from clay, 3-5%
sodium silicate as binder and moisture content generally less than 3%.
A small amount of starch may be added to improve the green compression
strength and a very small quantity of coal dust, sea coal, dextrin, wood floor,
pitch, graphite and sugar can also be added to improve the collapsibility of the
molding sand.
The prepared molding sand is rammed around the pattern in the mold box and
mold is prepared by any conventional technique.
After packing, carbon dioxide gas at about 1.3-1.5 kg/cm2 pressure is then forced
all-round the mold surface to about 20 to 30 seconds using CO2 head or probe or
curtain.
Cores can be baked this way.
The sodium silicate presented in the mold reacts with CO2 and produce a very
hard constituents or substance commonly called as silica gel.

22

 This hard substance is like cement and helps in binding the sand grains.
Molds and cores thus prepared can be used for pouring molten metal for
production of both ferrous and non-ferrous casting.
The operation is quick, simple require semi-skilled worker.
The evolution of gases is drastically reduced after pouring the thus prepared mold.
This process eliminates mold and core baking oven.
Reclamation of used sand is difficult for this process.

Fig 1.14: Carbon Dioxide Gas Molding.

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iii) Shell Molding:

Shell mold casting is recent invention (Germany during the Second World War)
in molding techniques for mass production and smooth finish.
It is a process in which, a thin mold is made around a heated metallic pattern
plate.
The molding material is a mixture of dry, fine silica sand (clay content should be
kept very low), and 3-8% of a thermosetting resin like phenol formaldehyde or
silicon grease.
Conventional dry mixing techniques are used for obtaining the moulding mixture.
Specially prepared resin coated sands are also used.
When the molding mixture drops on to the pattern plate, which is heated to a
temperature of 35 to 700^F (18 to 375C), a shell of about 6 mm thickness is
formed.
In order to cure the shell completely, it must be heated to 440 to 650F (230 to
350t) for about 1-3 minutes.
The shell is then released from the pattern plate by ejector pins.
To prevent sticking of the baked shell to the pattern plate, a silicone release agent
is applied to the latter before the molding mixture drops on to it.
Shell molding is suitable for mass production of thin walled, grey cast iron (and
aluminum alloy) castings having a maximum weight between 35 and 45 pounds
(15 to 20 kg.) However, castings weighing up to 1000 pounds can be made by
shell molding on an individual basis.

24

Fig 1.15: Stepwise explanation of shell molding.

25

Advantages
High suitable for thin sections like petrol engine cylinder.
Excellent surface finish.
Dimensional accuracy of order of 0.002 to 0.003 mm.
Negligible machining and cleaning cost.
Occupies less floor space.
Skill-ness required is less.
Molds formed by this process can be stored until required.
Better quality of casting assured.
Mass production.
Disadvantages
The main disadvantages of shell molding are:
Higher pattern cost.
Higher resin cost.
Not economical for small runs.
Dust-extraction problem.
Complicated jobs and jobs of various sizes cannot be easily shell molded.
Specialized equipment is required.
Resin binder is an expensive material.
Limited for small size.
Classification based on the method
i) Bench Molding
This type of molding is preferred for small jobs. The whole molding operation is carried
out on a bench of convenient height. In this process, a minimum of two flasks, namely
cope and drag molding flasks are necessary. But in certain cases, the number of flasks
may increase depending upon the number of parting surfaces required.

26

ii) Floor Molding

This type of molding is preferred for medium and large size jobs. In this method, only
drag portion of molding flask is used to make the mold and the floor itself is utilized as
drag and it is usually performed with dry sand.
iii) Pit Molding
Usually large castings are made in pits instead of drag flasks because of their huge size.
In pit molding, the sand under the pattern is rammed by bedding-in process. The walls
and the bottom of the pit are usually reinforced with concrete and a layer of coke is laid
on the bottom of the pit to enable easy escape of gas. The coke bed is connected to
atmosphere through vent pipes which provide an outlet to the gases. One box is generally
required to complete the mold, runner, sprue, pouring basin and gates are cut in it.
iv) Machine Molding
For mass production of the casting, the general hand molding technique proves
uneconomical and in efficient. The main advantage of machine molding, besides the
saving of labor and working time, is the accuracy and uniformity of the castings which
can otherwise be only obtained with much time and labor. Or even the cost of machining
on the casting can be reduced drastically because it is possible to maintain the tolerances
within narrow limits on casting using machine molding method.
Molding machines thus prepare the molds at a faster rate and also eliminate the need of
employing skilled molders. The main operations performed by molding machines are
ramming of the molding sand, roll over the mold, form gate, rapping the pattern and its
withdrawal. Most of the molds making operations are performed using molding
machines.

27

1.8 Steps Involved in Making a Sand Mold

A. Initially a suitable size of molding box for creating suitable wall thickness is
selected for a two piece pattern. Sufficient care should also be taken in such that
sense that the molding box must adjust mold cavity, riser and the gating system
(sprue, runner and gates etc.).
B. Next, place the drag portion of the pattern with the parting surface down on the
bottom (ramup) board
C. The facing sand is then sprinkled carefully all around the pattern so that the
pattern does not stick with molding sand during withdrawn of the pattern.
D. The drag is then filled with loose prepared molding sand and ramming of the
molding sand is done uniformly in the molding box around the pattern. Fill the
molding sand once again and then perform ramming. Repeat the process three
four times,
E. The excess amount of sand is then removed using strike off bar to bring molding
sand at the same level of the molding flask height to completes the drag.
F. The drag is then rolled over and the parting sand is sprinkled over on the top of
the drag.
G. Now the cope pattern is placed on the drag pattern and alignment is done using
dowel pins.
H. Then cope (flask) is placed over the rammed drag and the parting sand is
sprinkled all around the cope pattern.
I. Sprue and riser pins are placed in vertically position at suitable locations using
support of molding sand. It will help to form suitable sized cavities for pouring
molten metal etc.
J. Fill the cope with molding sand and ram uniformly.
K. Strike off the excess sand from the top of the cope.
L. Remove sprue and riser pins and create vent holes in the cope with a vent wire.
M. Sprinkle parting sand over the top of the cope surface and roll over the cope on
the bottom board.

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N. Rap and remove both the cope and drag patterns and repair the mold suitably if
needed and dressing is applied
O. The gate is then cut connecting the lower base of sprue basin with runner and then
the mold cavity.
P. Bake the mold in case of a dry sand mold.
Q. Set the cores in the mold, if needed and close the mold by inverting cope over
drag.
R. The cope is then clamped with drag and the mold is ready for pouring.
1.9 Molding Material
A suitable and workable material possessing high refractoriness in nature can be used for
mold making. Thus, the mold making material can be metallic or non-metallic. For
metallic category, the common materials are cast iron, mild steel and alloy steels. In the
non-metallic group molding sands, plaster of paris, graphite, silicon carbide and ceramics
are included. But, out of all, the molding sand is the most common utilized non-metallic
molding material because of its certain inherent properties namely refractoriness,
chemical and thermal stability at higher temperature, high permeability and workability
along with good strength. Moreover, it is also highly cheap and easily available.
Refractory Sand
Different types of refractory sand used for molding are:
(i) Silica sand (ii) Magnesite (iii) Zircon (iv) Silimanite (v) Olivine (vi) Graphite/carbon
Sand used in foundries must be capable of with-standing very high temperatures
and shouldn't collapse under the prevailing load.
Silica sand is mostly used in foundries because of the following.

It is a very good refractory material and doesn't fuse or soften even at very
high temperatures, i.e. 1650C, when in contact with molten metal.

They can be easily molded into intricate shapes.

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They have sufficient porosity or permeability and allow easy escape of gases
produced by molten metal and other bonding constituent.

They can be used repeatedly for making molds after addition of some bonding
materials.

They are cheap and easily available.

They are chemically immune to molten metals.

They don't decay. Its main drawback is its high coefficient of thermal
expansion (above 560T).

Types of molding sand

Depending upon the purity and other constituents present, sand is classified into (i)
Natural sand. (ii) Synthetic sand, (iii) loam sand.
Natural sand:
Natural sand is directly used for molding and contains 5-20% of clay as binding
material.
It needs 5-8% water for mixing before making the mold. Many natural sands
possess a wide working range of moisture and are capable of retaining moisture
content for a long time.
Its main drawback is that it is less refractory as compared to synthetic sand.
Many natural sands have weak molding properties. T
These sands are reconditioned by mixing small amounts of binding materials like
bentonite to improve their properties and are known as semi-synthetic sand.
Synthetic Sands:
Synthetic sand consists of silica sand with or without clay, binder or moisture.
It is a formulated sand i.e. sand formed by adding different ingredients. Sand
formulations are done to get certain desired properties not possessed by natural
sand.

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 These sands have better casting properties like permeability and refractoriness and
are suitable for casting ferrous and non-ferrous materials.
These properties can be controlled by mixing different ingredients.
Synthetic sands are used for making heavy castings.
Loam Sand:
Loam sand contains many ingredients, like fine sand particles, finely ground
refractories, clay, graphite and fiber reinforcements.
In many cases, the clay content may be of the order of 50% or more.
When mixed with water, the materials mix to a consistency resembling mortar
and become hard after drying.
Big molds for casting are made of brick framework lined with loam sand and
dried.
Sweeps etc are used for making big castings like big bells by using loam sand.
1.10 Binders Used in Molding Sands
Binders are added to give cohesion to molding sands.
Binders provide strength to the molding sand and enable it to retain its shape as
mold cavity.
Binders should be added in optimum quantity as they reduce refractoriness and
permeability.
An optimal quantity of binders is needed, as further increases have no effect on
properties of foundry sand.
The following binders are generally added to foundry sand:
a. Fireclay
b. Illite
c. Bentonite

Sodium montmorillonite

Calcium montmorillonite
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d. Limonite
e. Kaolinite
(a) Fireclay: It is usually found near coal mines. For use in the foundry, the hard black
lumps of fireclay are taken out, weathered and pulverized. Since the size of fireclay
particles is nearly 400 times greater than the size of bentonite particles, they give poor
bonding strength to foundry sand.
(ib) Illite: Illite is found in natural molding sands that are formed by the decomposition of
micaceous materials due to weathering. Illite possesses moderate shrinkage and poor
bonding strength than bentonite.
(c) Bentonite: It is the most suitable material used in molding sands. Limonite and
Kaolinite are not commonly used as binders as they have comparatively low binding
properties.
1.11 Constituents of Molding Sand
The main constituents of molding sand involve silica sand, binder, moisture content and
additives.
Silica sand:
Silica sand in form of granular quarts is the main constituent of molding sand
having enough refractoriness which can impart strength, stability and permeability
to molding and core sand.
Along with silica small amounts of iron oxide, alumina, lime stone, magnesia,
soda and potash are present as impurities.
The chemical composition of silica sand gives an idea of the impurities like lime,
magnesia, alkalis etc. present.
The presence of excessive amounts of iron oxide, alkali oxides and lime can lower
the fusion point to a considerable extent which is undesirable.
The silica sand can be specified according to the size (small, medium and large
silica sand grain) and the shape (angular, sub-angular and rounded).
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Moisture:
The amount of moisture content in the molding sand varies generally between 2 to
8 percent.
This amount is added to the mixture of clay and silica sand for developing bonds.
This is the amount of water required to fill the pores between the particles of clay
without separating them.
This amount of water is held rigidly by the clay and is mainly responsible for
developing the strength in the sand.
The effect of clay and water decreases permeability with increasing clay and
moisture content.
The green compressive strength first increases with the increase in clay content,
but after a certain value, it starts decreasing.
Additives:
Additives are the materials generally added to the molding and core sand mixture to
develop some special property in the sand. Some common used additives for enhancing
the properties of molding and core sands are
Coal dust: Coal dust is added mainly for producing a reducing atmosphere during
casting. This reducing atmosphere results in any oxygen in the poles becoming
chemically bound so that it cannot oxidize the metal.
Dextrin: Dextrin belongs to starch family of carbohydrates. It increases dry strength
of the molds.
Pitch: It is distilled form of soft coal. It can be added from 0.02 % to 2% in mold
and core sand. It enhances hot strengths, surface finish on mold surfaces.
Wood flour: This is a fibrous material mixed with a granular material like sand; its
relatively long thin fibers prevent the sand grains from making contact with one
another. It can be added from 0.05 % to 2% in mold and core sand. It increases
collapsibility of both of mold and core.
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1.12 Kinds of Molding Sand

Molding sands can also be classified according to their use into number of varieties
which are described below.
Green sand
Green sand is also known as tempered or natural sand which is a just prepared mixture of
silica sand with 18 to 30 percent clay, having moisture content from 6 to 8%. The clay
and water furnish the bond for green sand. It is fine, soft, light, and porous. Green sand is
damp, when squeezed in the hand and it retains the shape and the impression to give to it
under pressure. Molds prepared by this sand are not requiring backing and hence are
known as green sand molds. This sand is easily available and it possesses low cost. It is
commonly employed for production of ferrous and non-ferrous castings.
Dry sand
Green sand that has been dried or baked in suitable oven after the making mold and cores
is called dry sand. It possesses more strength, rigidity and thermal stability. It is mainly
suitable for larger castings. Mold prepared in this sand are known as dry sand molds.
Loam sand
Loam is mixture of sand and clay with water to a thin plastic paste. Loam sand possesses
high clay as much as 30-50% and 18% water. Patterns are not used for loam molding and
shape is given to mold by sweeps. This is particularly employed for loam molding used
for large grey iron castings.
Facing sand
Facing sand is just prepared and forms the face of the mold, gives surface finish to
casting. It is directly next to the surface of the pattern and it comes into contact molten
metal when the mold is poured. Initial coating around the pattern and hence for mold
surface is given by this sand. This sand is subjected severest conditions and must possess,

34

therefore, high strength refractoriness. It is made of silica sand and clay, without the use
of used sand.
Backing sand
Backing sand or floor sand is used to back up the facing sand and is used to fill the whole
volume of the molding flask. Used molding sand is mainly employed for this purpose.
The backing sand is sometimes called black sand because that old, repeatedly used
molding sand is black in color due to addition of coal dust and burning on coming in
contact with the molten metal.
Parting sand
Parting sand without binder and moisture is used to keep the green sand not to stick to the
pattern and also to allow the sand on the parting surface the cope and drag to separate
without clinging.
Core sand
Core sand is used for making cores and it is sometimes also known as oil sand. This is
highly rich silica sand mixed with oil binders such as core oil which composed of linseed
oil, resin, light mineral oil and other bind materials.
1.13 Properties of Molding Sand
The basic properties required in molding sand and core sand are described as under.
Refractoriness
Refractoriness is defined as the ability of molding sand to withstand high temperatures
without breaking down or fusing thus facilitating to get sound casting. It is a highly
important characteristic of molding sands. Refractoriness can only be increased to a
limited extent. Molding sand with poor refractoriness may burn on to the casting surface
and no smooth casting surface can be obtained. The degree of refractoriness depends on
the SiO2 i.e. quartz content, and the shape and grain size of the particle. The higher the
SiO2 content and the rougher the grain volumetric composition the higher is the
35

refractoriness of the molding sand and core sand. Refractoriness is measured by the sinter
point of the sand rather than its melting point.
Permeability
It is also termed as porosity of the molding sand in order to allow the escape of any air,
gases or moisture present or generated in the mold when the molten metal is poured into
it. All these gaseous generated during pouring and solidification process must escape
otherwise the casting becomes defective. Permeability is a function of grain size, grain
shape, and moisture and clay contents in the molding sand. The extent of ramming of the
sand directly affects the permeability of the mold. Permeability of mold can be further
increased by venting using vent rods
Cohesiveness
It is property of molding sand by virtue which the sand grain particles interact and attract
each other within the molding sand. Thus, the binding capability of the molding sand gets
enhanced to increase the green, dry and hot strength property of molding and core sand.
Green strength
The green sand after water has been mixed into it, must have sufficient strength and
toughness to permit the making and handling of the mold. For this, the sand grains must
be adhesive, i.e. they must be capable of attaching themselves to another body and.
therefore, and sand grains having high adhesiveness will cling to the sides of the molding
box. Also, the sand grains must have the property known as cohesiveness i.e. ability of
the sand grains to stick to one another. By virtue of this property, the pattern can be taken
out from the mold without breaking the mold and also the erosion of mold wall surfaces
does not occur during the flow of molten metal. The green strength also depends upon the
grain shape and size, amount and type of clay and the moisture content.
Dry strength
As soon as the molten metal is poured into the mold, the moisture in the sand layer
adjacent to the hot metal gets evaporated and this dry sand layer must have sufficient
36

strength to its shape in order to avoid erosion of mold wall during the flow of molten
metal.
Flowability or plasticity
It is the ability of the sand to get compacted and behave like a fluid. It will flow
uniformly to all portions of pattern when rammed and distribute the ramming pressure
evenly all around in all directions. Generally sand particles resist moving around corners
or projections. In general, flow ability increases with decrease in green strength, an,
decrease in grain size. The flow ability also varies with moisture and clay content.
Adhesiveness
It is property of molding sand to get stick or adhere with foreign material such sticking of
molding sand with inner wall of molding box.
Collapsibility
After the molten metal in the mold gets solidified, the sand mold must be collapsible so
that free contraction of the metal occurs and this would naturally avoid the tearing or
cracking of the contracting metal. In absence of this property the contraction of the metal
is hindered by the mold and thus results in tears and cracks in the casting. This property is
highly desired in cores.
Miscellaneous properties
In addition to above requirements, the molding sand should not stick to the casting and
should not chemically react with the metal. Molding sand should be cheap and easily
available. It should be reusable for economic reasons. Its coefficients of expansion should
be sufficiently low.
1.14 Solidification of Casting
The mechanism of solidification of metals/alloys and its control for obtaining
sound castings is the most important problem of foundry men.
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 The proper understanding of the solidification mechanism is essential for

preventing defects due to shrinkage of the metal.
As soon as the molten metal is poured in a sand mold, the process of solidification
starts.
During solidification, cast form develops cohesion and acquires structural
characteristics.
The mode of solidification affects the properties of the castings because a casting
acquires a metallographic structure which is determined during solidification.
The metallographic structure consists of

Grain size, Shape and orientation

Distribution of alloying elements.

Underlying crystal structure and its imperfections.

Besides structure, the soundness of a casting also depends upon the solidification
mechanism.

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 Soundness implies the degree of true metallic continuity and a casting will be
sound if volume shrinkage accompanying the change of state of melt to solid is
compensated by liquid metal with the help of riser, etc.
Volume shrinkage or volume contraction occurs during three stages and thus
contraction or shrinkage is of three types.

Liquid Contraction (shrinkage): it occurs when the metal is in liquid state.

Solidification Contraction (shrinkage): it occurs during the change from

liquid (melt) to solid.

Solid Contraction (shrinkage): it occurs when metal is solid i.e. after

solidification. They do not influence shrinkage defects.

Solidification in pure metals and eutectic alloys takes place at constant

temperature. In solid solution, alloys proceeds over a temperature range.
Solidification occurs by the nucleation of very small crystals which grow under
the thermal and crystallographic conditions existing during solidification.
Grain growth stops when complete melt has been solidified.
The relative rates and location of nucleation and growth phenomenon within the
melt decides final structure of the solid and establishes whether solidification is
directional or it takes place in a discrete manner throughout the melt.
Changes that occurs are

Superheat must be removed from the metal. Super heat is basically that
heat which must be removed before solidification begins.

Latent heat of fusion is also evolved; this must be transferred to the

surrounding mold before complete solidification can be achieved.

Finally solid metal transfers heat to the mold, and then to the atmosphere
as it cools to room temperature.

Concept of Solidification of Metals

A metal in molten states possess high energy. As the melt cools, it loses energy to
form crystals

39

 Since heat loss is more rapid near mold walls than any other place, first
submicroscopic metal crystallites called nuclei form here.
Melt experiences difficulty in starting to crystallites if no nuclei in the form of
impurities are present to start crystallization.
However in such conditions melt undercools and thus nuclei or seed crystals
form.
Nuclei formed as above tend to grow at the second stage of solidification.
The crystal growth proceeds with release of energy at crystal melt interface.

Fig 1.16: Crystal growth proceeding in solidification.

The crystal growth occurs in a dendritic manner.

Dendritic growth takes place by the evolution of small arms on the original
branches of individual dendrites.

Fig 1.17: Dendritic growth in solidification.

These solid dendrites give rise to grains.

40

Slow cooling makes the dendrites to grow long whereas fast cooling causes
short dendrite growth.

Since eventually dendrites become grains, slow cooling results in large

grain structure and fast cooling in small grain structure in the solidified
metal.

As solidification proceeds, more and more arms grow on an existing dendrite and
also more and more dendrites form until the whole melt is crystallized.
Dendrite arms grow because metal atoms attach themselves to the solid dendrite.
Atoms arrange themselves in a three dimensional pattern which is repeated many
times during the crystal growth.
This unit of repetition is called a Unit cell. Unit cells arrange themselves in
straight lines.
Straight lines thus formed in geometric pattern at right angles to each other
produce dendritic structure.
Dendrite grow outward until they contact the neighboring dendrite and generate
grain boundaries i.e. boundaries between crystals or grains
Quiet likely that the dendrite arms become thickened and ultimately a solid crystal
or grain may remain with no indication of dendritic growth.
Solidification of Pure Metals
Pure metals generally posses

Excellent thermal and electrical conductivity (eg. Cu and Al)

Higher ductility, higher melting point, lower yield point and tensile
strength

Better corrosion resistance as compared to alloys

Pure metals melt and solidify at a single temperature which may be termed as
Melting
Point or Freezing Point, it is in solid state.
Above freezing point the metal is liquid and below freezing point, it is in solid
state.
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 If number of temperature measurements are taken at different times, while pure

metal is cooled under equilibrium conditions from the molten state till it
solidifies, a Time- Temperature plot will be obtained.

Fig 1.18: Time Temperature plot of solidification.

Liquid metal cools from A to B.

From B to C, the melt liberates latent heat of fusion; temperature remains

constant.

The liquid metal starts solidifying at B and it is partly solid at any point
between B and C and at C the metal is purely solid.

From C to D, the solid metal cools and tends to reach room temperature.

The slopes of AB and CD depend upon the specific heats of liquid and
solid metals respectively.

A pure metal cools rapidly or even otherwise when it is very pure and does not contain at
all impurity as nucleus to start crystallization.

42

Fig 1.19: Time Temperature plot of pure metal solidification.

Nucleation of solid does not start at point B (i.e normal solidification temperature) but it
does so at C i.e after the liquid metal has supercooled. This phenomenon is known as
supercooling or undercooling. Besides pure metals, supercooling may occur in alloys
also, e.g. Gray cast iron.
Undercooling-The temperature to which the liquid metal must cool below the equilibrium
freezing temperature before nucleation occurs.
Recalescence-The increase in temperature of an undercooled liquid metal as a result of
the liberation of heat during nucleation.
Thermal arrest-A plateau on the cooling curve during the solidification of a material
caused by the evolution of the latent heat of fusion during solidification.
Total solidification time-The time required for the casting to solidify completely after the
casting has been poured.
Local solidification time-The time required for a particular location in a casting to
solidify once nucleation has begun.

43

 When pure metals (and some eutectic alloys) are allowed to solidify in a mold, the
portion of molten metal next to the mold wall begins to solidify.

44

Fig 1.20: Solidification mechanism of a pure metal.

The metal solidifies in the form of a solid skin and then the liquid metal tends to
freeze onto it.
The metal solidifies in the form of a solid skin and then the liquid metal tends to
freeze onto it.
The solid skin progresses towards the center of the mold from all the mold walls.

45

 As the successive layers of molten metal build up in the form of solid skin or as
the solid metal wall thickness increases, the liquid level in the mold falls because
of solidification shrinkage.

Fig 1.21: Cooling curve of a pure metal.

1.15 Objective of the Thesis

In casting of an object many problems are raised during solidification. One of these
problems is internal cracks of the cast object due to compressive stress generated during
solidification. This compressive stress is governed by many factors of mold topology.
Compressive stress generated during solidification of casting can be controlled by mold
thickness, mold materials, combination of different mold materials and layer thickness,
draft angle etc. So, before taking decision on above parameters it is needed to know the
stress distribution of cast object after solidification. Here in this work a detailed transient
(i.e. time dependent) couple-field analysis has been done on a cast object to predict
thermal stress in the cast body during solidification. Moreover an investigation has been
done in this work on shrinkage and thermal strain with a mold material named mullite
and combination of sand and mullite.
46