UNIT -III PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY

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Mechanical Engineering 81 908 79379

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 Regular Class starts for

TRB Poly Lecturer.,

TRB Asst. Professor

Foreman Gr-II
27-02-2023
Monday

81 908 79379
Manufacturing

Processes

CASTING
Manufacturing

Basically implies making of goods or articles and providing services to meet

the needs of mankind.

Manufacturing process

Is that part of the production process which is directly concerned with the
change of form or dimensions of the part being produced.
Evolutoin of Manufacturing

Began about 5000 to 4000 B.C with the production of various articles of
wood, ceramic, stone and metal

Derived from Latin word manu factus — meaning “made by hand”

The word manufacture first appeared in 1567

The word manufacturing appeared in 1683

Production is also used interchangeably .



Traditional Manufacturing Processes

Casting

Forming

Sheet Metal Processing

Jointing

Lathe


CASTING


Casting Process
Casting process is one of the earliest metal shaping
techniques known to human being.

It means pouring molten metal into a refractory mold cavity

and allows it to solidify.
The solidified object is taken out from the mold either by
breaking or taking the mold apart.
The solidified object is called casting and the technique
followed in method is known as casting process.
Steps of Casting
Place a pattern in sand to create a mold.

Incorporate the pattern and sand in a gating system.

Remove the pattern.

Fill the mold cavity with molten metal.

Allow the metal to cool.

Break away the sand mold and remove the casting.



Pattern: An approximate duplicate or true replica of required product

of casting

Flask/Box: The rigid metal or a wooden frame that holds the moulding
material

Cope: Top half of the moulding box

Drag: Bottom half of the moulding box

Core: As and shape that is inserted into a

mould to produce internal features of a casting such as holes.
Riser:
A vertical opening in the mould Act
as a vent for gases Helps to confirm
that the mould is completely filled
Act as a reservoir of molten metal to
feed and compensate for shrinkage
during solidification of a casting
Gating System: Channels used to deliver the molten metal
to the mould cavity

Sprue: The vertical passage in the gating system

Runner: The horizontal channel of the gating system

Gate: Channel which connects runner and mould

Advantages
Product can be cast as one piece.

Very heavy and bulky parts can be manufactured.

Metals difficult to be shaped by other manufacturing

processes may be cast (eg: Cast Iron)

Best for mass production

Complex shapes can be manufactured

Disadvantages
Casting process is a labour intensive process

Not possible for high melting point metals

Dimensional accuracy, surface finish and the

Amount of defects depends on the casting process

Allowances required.
Applications
Transportation vehicles(eg.:engines)
Machine tool structures.
Turbine vanes
Mill housing
Valves
Sanitary fittings
Agricultural parts
Construction & atomic energy applications.

PATTERN

Pattern is the principal tool during the casting process.

A pattern is a model or the replica of the object (to be
casted)
It may be defined as a model or form around which sand
is packed to give rise to a cavity known as mold cavity in
which when molten metal is poured, the result is the cast
object.
A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of
making a casting.
Objectives of Pattern
Pattern prepares a mould cavity for the purpose of making a
casting.

Pattern possesses core prints which produces seats in form of

extra recess for core placement in the mould.

It establishes the parting line and parting surfaces in the

mould.

Runner, gates and riser may form a part of the pattern.

Properly constructed patterns minimize overall cost of the
casting.

Pattern may help in establishing locating pins on the mould

and therefore on the casting with a purpose to check the
casting dimensions.

Properly made pattern having finished and smooth surface

reduce casting defects.
Pattern Material

Wood: Inexpensive, Easily available, Light weight, easy to shape, good

surface finish, Poor wear resistance, absorb moisture, less strength,
not suitable for machine moulding, easily repaired, warping, weaker
than metallic patterns.
Eg. Shisam, kail, deodar, Teak wood, maogani.

Metal: less wear and tear, not affected by moisture, metal is

easier to shape the pattern with good precision, surface finish and
intricacy in shapes, withstand against corrosion and handling for
longer, excellent strength to weight ratio,
 metallic patterns are higher cost, higher weight and tendency
of rusting.

preferred for production of castings in large quantities with

same pattern.

Eg.: cast iron, brass and bronzes and aluminum alloys

Plastic:
Plastics are getting more popularity now a days because the
patterns made of these materials are lighter, stronger, moisture
and wear resistant, non sticky to molding sand, durable and they
are not affected by the moisture of the molding sand.

Fragile, less resistant to sudden loading and their section may

need metal reinforcement.

Fg.:phenolic resin, foam plastic

Plaster: Intricate shapes can be made, good compressive
strength, expands while solidifying, less dimensionally
accurate.

Wax: Good surface finish, high accuracy, no need to remove

from the mould. less strength.
FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF PATTERN MATERIAL
1. Number of castings to be produced. Metal pattern are
preferred when castings are required large in number.
2. Type of mould material used.
3. Kind of molding process.
4. Method of molding (hand or machine).
5. Degree of dimensional accuracy and surface finish required.
6. Minimum thickness required.
7. Shape, complexity and size of casting.
8. Cost of pattern and chances of repeat orders of the pattern
 Types of Patterns

Single-piece or solid pattern

Solid pattern is made of single piece without
joints, partings lines or loose pieces.
It is the simplest form of the pattern.
Typical single piece pattern is shown in Fig.
Simplest type, inexpensive used for limited
production
Two-piece or split pattern SPLIT PATTERN
When solid pattern is difficult for withdrawal from the mold
cavity, then solid pattern is splited in two parts.
Split pattern is made in two pieces which are joined at the
parting line by means of dowel pins.
The splitting at the parting line is done to facilitate the
withdrawal of the pattern.
Cope and drag pattern

In this case, cope and drag part of the mould are prepared
separately. This is done when the complete mould is too
heavy to be handled by one operator.
The pattern Is made up of two halves, which are mounted on
different plates. A typical example of match plate pattern is
shown in Fig.
Loose-piece Pattern
When pattern is difficult for withdrawal from the mould.
Loose pieces are provided on the pattern and they are the
part of pattern.
The main pattern is removed first leaving the loose piece
portion of the pattern in the mould.
Finally the loose piece is withdrawal separately leaving the
intricate mould.
Match plate pattern
This pattern is made in two halves and is
on mounted on the opposite sides of a
wooden or metallic plate, known as
match plate.
The gates and runners are also attached
to the plate.
This pattern is used in machine molding.
A typical example of match plate pattern
is shown in Fig.
Follow board pattern

When the use of solid or split

patterns becomes difficult, a
contour corresponding to the
exact shape of one half of the
pattern is made in a wooden
board, which is called a follow
board and it acts as a molding
board for the first molding
operation as shown in Fig.
Gated pattern
In the mass production of casings, multi cavity moulds are
used. Such moulds are formed by joining a number of
patterns and gates and providing a common runner for the
molten metal, as shown in Fig.
These patterns are made of metals, and metallic pieces to
form gates and runners are attached to the pattern.
Sweep pattern
Sweep patterns are used for forming
large circular moulds of symmetric kind
by revolving a sweep attached to a
spindle as shown in Fig.
Sweep is a template of wood or metal
and is attached to the spindle at one
edge and the other edge has a contour
depending upon the desired shape of the
mould.
The pivot end is attached to a stake of
metal in the center of the mould.
Segmental pattern

Patterns of this type are generally used for circular castings, for
example wheel rim, gear blank etc.

Such patterns are sections of a pattern so arranged as to form a

complete mould by being moved to form each section of the mould.

The movement of segmental pattern is guided by the use of a

central pivot. A segment pattern for a wheel rim is shown in Fig.
Shell pattern

Shell patterns are used mostly for piping work or for

producing drainage fittings. This pattern consists of a thin
cylindrical or curved metal piece parted along the center line.

The two halves of the pattern are held in alignment by dowels.

The outside surface of the pattern is used to make the mould

for the fitting required while the inside can serve as a core box.
PATTERN ALLOWANCES

The size of a pattern is never kept the same as that of the desired
casting because of the fact that during cooling the casting is subjected
to various effects and hence to compensate for these effects,
corresponding allowances are given in the pattern.

These various allowances given to pattern can be enumerated as,

allowance for shrinkage allowance , machining allowance , draft
allowance , rapping or shake allowance , distortion allowance
Shrinkage Allowance

In practice,all common cast metals shrink a significant amount when

they are cooled from the molten state. The total contraction in volume
is divided into the following parts:

1. Liquid contraction, i.e. the contraction during the period in which the
temperature of the liquid metal or alloy falls from the pouring
temperature to the liquidus temperature.
2. Contraction on cooling from the liquidus to the solidus temperature,
i.e. solidifying contraction,

3. Contraction that results there after until the temperature reaches

the room temperature. This is known as solid contraction.

The first two of the above are taken care of by proper gating and
risering. Only the last one, i.e. the solid contraction is taken care by the
pattern makers by giving a positive shrinkage allowance. This
contraction allowance is different for different metals.
The contraction allowances for different metals and alloys such as Cast
Iron 10 mm/mt.. Brass 16 mm/mt., Aluminium Alloys. 15 mm/mt., Steel
21 mm/mt., Lead 24 mm/mt. In fact, there is a special rule known as the
pattern marks contraction rule in which the shrinkage of the casting
metals is added.

The pattern must be made over size to compensate for contraction of

liquid metal on cooling. This addition to the dimension of the pattern
is known as shrinkage allowance.
Gate 2004

Grey cast iron block 200.x 100 x 10mm are to be cast in sand moulds.
Shrinkage allowance for pattern making is 1%.The ratio of the volume
of pattern to that of the casting will be ?

A) 0.97 b)0.99 c) 1.01 d) 1.03

Gate 2004
A cubical casting of 50 mm size undergoes volumetric solidification of
4% and volumetric solid contraction 6%. There is no riser is used and
pattern making allowance is not considered. What is the final size of
casting?
Machining Allowance

It is a positive allowance given to compensate for the amount of

material that is lost in machining or finishing the casting.

If this allowance is not given, the casting will become undersize

after machining.
Machining allowance depends on the size of casting, methods of
machining and the degree of finish.

value varies from 3 mm. to 18 mm.

pattern must be made over size for machining purpose

This extra amount of dimensions provided in the pattern is known

as Machining allowance.
Taper allowance
positive allowance

given on all the vertical surfaces of pattern to make withdrawal

easier.

taper on the external surfaces varies from 10 mm to 20 mm/mt. On

interiorholes and recesses which are smaller in size, the taper
should be around 60 mm/mt.

These values are greatly affected by the size of the pattern and the
molding method

In machine molding its, value varies from 10 mm to 50 mm/mt.

Rapping or Shake Allowance
Before withdrawing the pattern it is rapped and thereby the size of
the mould cavity increases.

by rapping, the external sections move outwards increasing the size

and internal sections move inwards decreasing the size.

insignificant in the case of small and medium size castings,

but it is significant in the case of large castings. negative allowance

patternis made slightly smaller in dimensions 0.5-1.0 mm,
Distortion Allowance

This allowance is applied to the castings which have the tendency to

distort during cooling due to thermal stresses developed.

For example a casting in the form of U shape will contract at the

closed end on cooling, while the open end will remain fixed in
position.

Therefore, to avoid the distortion, the legs of U pattern must

converge
slightly so that the sides will remain parallel after cooling.
Pattern Desigh With Allowance
Follow the Given order of Allowance

1.Machinging Allowance

2.Shrinkage Allowance

3.Draft/Tapper/Distortion Allowance

4.Rapping Allowance

5.Final Design
Mould

suitable and workable material possessing high refractoriness

in nature

material can be metallic or non-metallic

For metallic category, the common materials are cast iron,

mild steel and alloy steels.

non-metallic group molding sands, plaster of paris, graphite,

silicon carbide and ceramics
Molding sand is the most common utilized non-metallic
molding material
because of its certain inherent properties namely,
refractoriness,
chemical and thermal stability at higher temperature,
high permeability and workability along with good
strength.
highly cheap and easily available.
MOLDING SAND

Sources of receiving molding sands beds of sea,

Rivers

Lakes

Granulular elements of rocks

Deserts.
Natural Molding sand:
Known as green sand having appreciable amount of clay
which acts as a binder between sand grains obtained by
crushing and milling of soft yellow sand stone, carboniferrous
etc

Ease of availability
Low cost
High flexibility
Mostly used for ferrous and non ferrous metal casting
Synthetic sand

known as silica sand

not having binder(clay) in natural form

desired strength and properties developed by separate

addition of binder like bentonite, water and other materials.

More expensive than natural sand

Special sands

Zicron-cores of brass and bronze casting

Olivine-for non ferrous casting

Chromite-for heavy steel casting

Chrome-magnesite-used as facing materials in steel casting.

Types of moulding sand

(According to use)

1. Dry sand
2. Facing sand
3. Backing sand
4. System sand
5. Parting sand
6. Loam sand
7. Core sand
Green sand

Green sand is also known as tempered or natural sand

mixture of silica sand with 18 to 30 percent clay, having

moisture content from 6 to 8 %

The clay and water furnish the bond for green sand, It is fine,
soft, light, and porous.
Green sand is damp, when squeezed in the hand and it retains
the shape and the impression to give to it under pressure.

Molds prepared by this sand are not requiring backing and

hence are known as green sand molds.
Loam sand

Loam is mixture of sand and clay with water to a thin plastic

paste.

sand possesses high clay as much as 30-50% and 18% water.

Patterns are not used for loam molding and shape is given to
mold by sweeps,
particularly employed for loam molding used for large grey
iron castings.

This sand is used for loam sand moulds for making very heavy
castings

usually with the help of sweeps and skeleton patterns.

Facing sand

Facing sand is just prepared and forms the face of the mould.

It is directly next to the surface of the pattern and it comes

into contact molten metal when the mould is poured.

high strength refractoriness.

made of silica sand and clay, without the use of used sand.
Different forms of carbon are used to prevent the metal
burning into the sand.

A facing sand mixture for green sand of cast iron may consist
of 25% fresh and specially prepared and 5% sea coal.

sometimes mixed with 6-15 times as much fine molding sand

to make facings.

The layer of facing sand in a mold usually ranges from 22-28

mm. From 10 to 15% of the whole amount of molding sand is
the facing sand.
Backing sand

Backing sand or floor sand is used to back up the facing sand

and is used to fill the whole volume of the molding flask.

Used molding sand is mainly employed for this purpose.

The backing sand is sometimes called black sand because that

old
System sand
In mechanized foundries where machine molding is employed.

A so-called system sand is used to fill the whole molding flask.

The used sand is cleaned and re-activated by the addition of

water and special additives. This is known as system sand.

Since the whole mold is made of this system sand, the

properties such as strength, permeability and refractoriness
of the molding sand must be higher than those of backing
sand.
Partingsand

without binder and moisture to keep the green sand not to

stickto the pattern

To allow the sand on the parting surface the cope and drag to
separate without clinging.

This is clean clay-free silica sand which serves the same

purpose as parting dust.
Core sand
is used for making cores and it is sometimes

also known as oil sand.

This is highly rich silica sand mixed with oil binders such as
core oil which composed of linseed oil, resin,

light mineral oil and other bind materials.

Pitch or flours and water may also be used in large cores for
the sake of economy.
 Properties of Moulding Sand
Refractoriness

Refractoriness is defined as the ability of molding sand to

withstand high temperatures without breaking down or fusing
thus facilitating to get sound casting.
poor refractoriness

burn on to the casting surface and

no smooth casting surface can be obtained.

degree of refractoriness depends on the SiO2 1.e. quartz
content, and the shape and grain size of the particle.

higher the Si 02 content higher is the refractoriness of the

molding

Refractoriness is measured by the sinter point of the sand

rather than its melting point.
Permeability

It is also termed as porosity of the molding sand in order to allow

the escape of any air, gases or moisture present or generated in
the mould when the molten metal is poured into it.

All these gaseous generated during pouring and solidification

process must escape otherwise the casting becomes defective.
Permeability is a function of grain size, grain shape, and
moisture and clay contents in the molding sand.

The extent of ramming of the sand directly affects the

permeability.
Cohesiveness

It is property by virtue of which the sand grain particles interact

and attract each other within the molding sand.

Thus, the binding capability of the molding sand gets enhanced to

increase the green, dry and hot strength property of molding and
core sand.
Green strength

By virtue of this property, the pattern can be taken out from the
mould without breaking the mould and also the erosion of mould
wall surfaces does not occur during the flow of molten metal.

The green sand after water has been mixed into it, must have
sufficient

strength and toughness to permit the making and handling of the

mould.
For this, the sand grains must be adhesive, i.e. they must be
capable of attaching themselves to another body and therefore,
and sand grains having high adhesiveness will cling to the sides of
the molding box.
Dry strength

As soon as the molten metal is poured into the mould, the

moisture in the sand layer adjacent to the hot metal gets
evaporated and this dry sand layer

must have sufficient strength to its shape in order to avoid

erosion of mould wall during the flow of molten metal.

The dry strength also prevents the enlargement of mould

cavity cause by the metallostatic pressure of the liquid metal.
Strength of the moulding sand depends on:

1. Grain size and shape

2. Moisture content

3. Density of sand after ramming

The strength of the mould increases with a decrease of grain size

and an increase of clay content and density after ramming. The
strength also goes down if moisture content is higher than an
optimum value.
Flowability or plasticity
It is the ability of the sand to get compacted and behave like a
fluid. It will flow uniformly to all portions of pattern when
rammed and distribute the ramming pressure evenly all
around in all directions.

Generally sand particles resist moving around corners or

projections.
In general, flowability increases with decrease in green
strength, an, decrease in grain size.
The flowability also varies with moisture and clay content.
Adhesiveness

It is the important property of the moulding sand and it is

defined as the sand particles must be capable of adhering to
another body, then only the sand should be easily attach itself
with the sides of the moulding box and give easy of lifting and
turning the box when filled with the stand.
Collapsibility

After the molten metal in the mould gets solidified, the sand
mould must be collapsible so that free contraction of the
metal occurs and this would naturally avoid the tearing or
cracking of the contracting metal.

In absence of this property the contraction of the metal is

hindered by the mold and thus results in tears and cracks in
the casting.
This property is highly desired in cores.
CONSTITUENTS OF MOLDING SAND

The main constituents of molding sand involve

Silica sand,

Binder

Moisture content and

Additives.
Silica sand
Silica sand in form of granular quarts is the main constituent
of molding sand

Having enough refractoriness

Which can impart strength,

Stability

Permeability to molding and core sand.

Along with silica small amounts of iron oxide, alumina, lime
stone, magnesia, soda and potash are present as impurities.

The silica sand can be specified according to the size (small,

medium and large silica sand grain) and the shape (angular,
sub-angular and rounded).
Binder

In general, the binders can be either inorganic or organic

substance.

The inorganic group includes clay sodium silicate and port

land cement etc.

In foundry shop, the clay acts as binder which may be

Kaolonite, Ball Clay, Fire Clay, Limonite, Fuller’s earth and
Bentonite.
Binders included in the organic group are dextrin, molasses,
cereal binders, linseed oil and resins like phenol
formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde etc.

Organic binders are mostly used for core making.

Among all the above binders, the bentonite variety of clay is

the most common. However, this clay alone can not develop
bonds among sand grains without the presence of moisture in
molding sand and core sand.
Moisture
The amount of moisture content in the molding sand varies
generally between 2 to 8 percent.

This amount is added to the mixture of clay and silica sand for
developing bonds.

This is the amount of water required to fill the pores between

the particles of clay without separating them.
This amount of water is held rigidly by the clay and is mainly
responsible for developing the strength in the sand.

The effect of clay and water decreases permeability with

increasing clay and moisture content.

The green compressive strength first increases with the

increase in clay content, but after a certain value, it starts
decreasing.

For increasing the molding sand characteristics some other

additional materials beside basic constituents are added
which are known as additives.
Additives
Dextrin
carbohydrates increases dry strength of the molds.
Corn flour
It belongs to the starch family of carbohydrates is used to
increase the collapsibility of the molding and core sand.
Coal dust
To avoid oxidation of pouring metal For production of grey iron
and malleable cast iron castings.
Sea coal
Sand grains become restricted and cannot move into a dense
packing pattern,
 Pitch
form of soft coal (0.02 % to 2%)
Wood flour:0.05 % to 2 % To avoid expansion defects.
increases collapsibility of both of mold and core,
Silica flour
Added up to 3% which increases the hot strength and finish on
the surfaces of the molds and cores.
It is also reduces metal penetration in the walls of the malds
and cores.
Sand Testing
Molding sand and core sand depend upon shape, size
composition and distribution of sand grains, amount of clay,
moisture and additives.

The increase in demand for good surface finish and higher

accuracy in castings necessitates certainty in the quality of
mold and core sands.

Sand testing often allows the use of less expensive local sands.
It also ensuresreliable sand mixing and enables a utilization of
the inherent properties of molding sand.
Sand Testing
Sand testing on delivery will immediately detect any variation
from the standard quality, and adjustment of the sand
mixture to specific requirements so that the casting defects
can be minimized.

It allows the choice of sand mixtures to give a desired surface

finish. Thus sand testing is one of the dominating factors in
foundry and pays for itself by obtaining lower per unit cost.
1. Moisture content test

2. Clay content test

3. Grain fitness test

4. Permeability test

5. Strength test

6. Refractoriness test

7. Mould hardness test

Moisture Content Test

Moisture is the property of the moulding sand it is defined as the

amount of water present in the moulding sand. Low moisture
content in the moulding sand does not develop strength
properties. High moisture content decreases permeability.

Procedures are:
1. 20 to 50 gms of prepared sand is placed in the pan and is heated
by an infrared heater bulb for 2 to 3 minutes.
2. The moisture in the moulding sand is thus evaporated.
3. Moulding sand is taken out of the pan and re weighed.
4. The percentage of moisture can be calculated from the
difference in the weights, of the original moist and the
consequently dried sand samples.

Percentage of moisture content = (W1-W2)/(W1) %

Where, W1-Weight of the sand before drying

W2-Weight of the sand after drying

Clay Content Test

Clay influences strength, permeability and other moulding

properties. It is responsible for bonding sand particles together.

Procedures are:

1. Small quantity of prepared moulding sand was dried

2. Separate 50 gms of dry moulding sand and transfer wash bottle.

3. Add 475cc of distilled water + 25cc of a 3% NaOH.

4. Agitate this mixture about 10 minutes with the help of sand
stirrer.

5. Fill the wash bottle with water up to the marker.

6. After the sand etc., has settled for about 10 minutes, Siphon out
the water from the wash bottle.

7. Dry the settled down sand.

8. The clay content can be determined from the difference in

weights of the initial and final sand samples.
Percentage of clay content = (W1-W2)/(W1) * 100

Where, W1-Weight of the sand before drying,

W2-Weight of the sand after drying.

Grain fitness test:

The grain size, distribution, grain fitness are determined with

the help of the fitness testing of moulding sands. The
apparatus consists of a number of standard sieves mounted
one above the other, on a power driven shaker.

The shaker vibrates the sieves and the sand placed on the top
sieve gets screened and collects on different sieves depending
upon the various sizes of grains present in the moulding sand.
Grain fitness test:

The top sieve is coarsest and the bottom-most sieve is the

finest of all the sieves. In between sieve are placed in order of
fineness from top to bottom.
Procedures are:
1. Sample of dry sand (clay removed sand) placed in the upper
sieve
2. Sand is vibrated for definite period
3. The amount of same retained on each sieve is weighted.

4. Percentage distribution of grain is computed.

Flowability Test

Flowability of the molding and core sand usually determined

by the movement of the rammer plunger between the fourth
and fifth drops and is indicated in percentages.

This reading can directly be taken on the dial of the flow

indicator.

Then the stem of this indicator rests again top of the plunger
of the rammer and it records the actual movement of the
plunger between the fourth and fifth drops.
Permeability Test
The quantity of air that will pass through a standard specimen
of the sand at a particular pressure condition is called the
permeability of the sand.
Following are the major parts of the permeability test
equipment:

1. An inverted bell jar, which floats in a water.

2. Specimen tube, for the purpose of hold the equipment
3. A manometer (measure the air pressure)
Steps involved are:
1. The air (2000cc volume) held in the bell jar is forced to pass
through the sand specimen.

2. At this time air entering the specimen equal to the air

escaped through the specimen

3. Take the pressure reading in the manometer.

4. Note the time required for 2000cc of air to pass the sand

5. Calculate the permeability number

6. Permeability number (N)=((V XH)/(AXP XT))
Where,

V-Volume of air (cc)

H-Height of the specimen (mm)

A-Area of the specimen (mm^2)

P-Air pressure (gm / cm^2)

T-Time taken by the air to pass through the sand (seconds)

Retractoriness Test
The refractoriness of the molding sand is judged by heating
the American Foundry Society (A.F.S) standard sand specimen
to very high temperatures ranges depending upon the type of
sand.
The heated sand test pieces are cooled to room temperature
and examined under a microscope for surface characteristics
or by scratching it with a steel needle.
If the silica sand grains remain sharply defined and easily give
way to the needle. Sintering has not yet set in.
In the actual experiment the sand specimen in a porcelain
boat is placed into an electric furnace.
It is usual practice to start the test from 1000°C and raise the
temperature in steps of 100°C to 1300°C and in steps of 50°
above 1300°C till sintering of the silica sand grains takes place.

At each temperature level, it is kept for at least three minutes

and then taken out from the oven for examination under a
microscope for evaluating surface characteristics or by
scratching it with a steel needle.
The refractoriness is used to measure the ability of the sand to
withstand the higher temperature.
Steps involved are:

1. Prepare a cylindrical specimen of sand

2. Heating the specimen at 1500 C for 2 hours

3. Observe the changes in dimension and appearance

4. If the sand is good, it retains specimen share very little

expansion. If the sand is poor, specimen will shrink and distort.
Strength Test
Green strength and dry strength is the holding power of the
various bonding materials.
Generally green compression strength test is performed on
the specimen of green sand (wet condition).
The sample specimen may of green sand or dry sand which is
placed in lugs and compressive force is applied slowly by hand
wheel until the specimen breaks.
The reading of the needle of high pressure and low pressure
manometer indicates the compressive strength of the
specimen in kgf/cm2.
The most commonly test performed is compression test which
1s carried out in a compression sand testing machine
Measurements of strength of moulding sands can be carried
out on the universal sand strength testing machine. The
strength can be measured in compression, shear and tension.
The sands that could be tested are green sand, dry sand or
core sand. The compression and shear test involve the
standard cylindrical specimen that was used for the
permeability test.
Mould hardness test:
Hardness of the mould surface can be tested with the help of an
“indentation hardness tester”.It consists of indicator, spring
loaded spherical indenter.
The spherical indenter is penetrates into the mould surface at the
time of testing. The depth of penetration w.r.t. the flat reference
surface of the tester.
Mould hardness number = ((P) / (D — (D’-d’))
Where,
P- Applied Force (N)
D- Diameter of the indenter (mm)
d- Diameter of the indentation (mm)
 CORE
Cores are compact mass of core sand (special kind of molding
sand ) prepared separately that when placed in mould cavity
at required location with proper alignment does not allow the
molten metal to occupy space for solidification in that portion
and hence help to produce hollowness in the casting.

The environment in which the core is placed is much different

from that of the mold. In fact the core has to withstand the
severe action of hot metal which completely surrounds it.
They may be of the type of green sand core and dry sand core.
Therefore the core must meet the following functions or
objectives which are given as under.
1. Core produces hollowness in castings in form of internal
cavities.
2. It must be sufficiently permeable to allow the easy escape of
gases during pouring and solidification.
3. It may form a part of green sand mold
4. It may be deployed to improve mold surface.
5. It may provide external under cut features in casting.
6. It may be inserted to achieve deep recesses in the casting.
7. It may be used to strengthen the mold.
8. It may be used to form gating system of large size mold.

 Core Sand
It is special kind of molding sand. Keeping the above mentioned
objectives in view, the special considerations should be given
while selecting core sand. Those considerations involves

(1) The cores are subjected to a very high temperature and hence
the core sand should be highly refractory in nature

(2) The permeability of the core sand must be sufficiently high as

compared to that of the molding sands so as to allow the core
gases to escape through the limited area of the core recesses
generated by core prints
(iii) The core sand should not possess such materials which may
producegases while they come in contact with molten metal and
 (iv) The core sand should be collapsible in nature, 1.e. 1t
should disintegrate after the metal solidifies, because this
property will ease the cleaning of the casting.

The main constituents of the core sand are pure silica sand and
a binder. Silica sand is preferred because of its high
refractoriness. For higher values of permeability sands with
coarse grain size distribution are used.

The main purpose of the core binder is to hold the grains

together, impart strength
and sufficient degree collapsibility.
Beside these properties needed in the core sand, the binder
should be such that it produces minimum amount of gases
when the molt metal is poured in the mould.

Although, in general the binder are inorganic as well as

organic ones, but for core making, organic binders are
generally preferred because they are combustible and can be
destroyed by heat at higher temperatures thereby giving
sufficient collapsibility to the core sand.
 CORE and CORE BOX

Cores are compact mass of core sand that when placed in mould
cavity at required location with proper alignment does not allow
the molten metal to occupy space for solidification in that portion
and hence help to produce hollowness 1n the casting.

The environment in which the core is placed is much different

from that of the mold.In fact the core (Fig.) has to withstand the
severe action of hot metal which completely surrounds it.

Cores are classified according to shape and position in the mold.

 CORE BOX

Cores are made by means of core boxes comprising of either

single or in two parts.

Core boxes are generally made of wood or metal and are of

several types.

The main types of core box are half core box, dump core box,
split core box, strickle core box, right and left hand core box
and loose piece core box.

 Half core box

This is the most common type of core box. The two identical
halves of a symmetrical core prepared in the half core box are
shown in Fig.

Two halves of cores are pasted or cemented together after

baking to form a complete core.

 Dump core box

Dump core box is similar in construction to half core box

The cores produced do not require pasting, rather they are
complete by themselves.

If the core produced is in the shape of a slab, then it is called as a

slab box or a rectangular box.

A dump core-box is used to prepare complete core in it. Generally

cylindrical and rectangular cores are prepared in these boxes.
Dump core box
 Split core box

Split core boxes are made in two parts as shown in Fig. 10.19. They
form the complete core by only one ramming.

The two parts of core boxes are held in position by means of

clamps and their alignment is maintained by means of dowel pins
and thus core is produced.

 Right and left hand core box

Some times the cores are not symmetrical about the center line.
In such cases, right and left hand core boxes are used.

The two halves of a core made 1n the same core box are not
identical and they cannot be pasted together.

 Strickle core box

This type of core box is used when a core with an irregular shape
is desired. The required shape is achieved by striking oft the core
sand from the top of thecore box with a wooden piece, called as
strickle board.

The strickle board has the same contour as that of the required
core.

 CORE BOX ALLOWANCES

Materials used in making core generally swell and increase in size.

This may lead to increase the size of core.

The larger cores sometimes tend to become still larger.

This increase in size may not be significant in small cores, but it is

quite significant in large cores and therefore certain amount of
allowance should be given on the core boxes to compensate for
this increase the cores.

It is not possible to lay down a rule for the amount of this

allowance as this will depend upon the material used, but it is
customary to give a negative allowance of 5 mm /mt.