THERMOREGULATION

Mammals and birds generally maintain body temperature within a narrow range (3638C for most mammals and 39-42C for most birds) that is usually considerably warmer than
the environment. Because heat always flows from a warm object to cooler surroundings, birds
and mammals must counteract the constant heat loss. This maintenance of warm body
temperature depends on several key adaptations. The most basic mechanism is the high
metabolic rate of endothermy itself. Endotherms can produce large amounts of metabolic heat
that replace the flow of heat to the environment, and they can vary heat production to match
changing rates of heat loss. Heat production is increased by such muscle activity as moving or
shivering. In some mammals, certain hormones can cause mitochondria to increase their
metabolic activity and produce heat instead of ATP. This nonshivering thermogenesis (NST)
takes place throughout the body, but some mammals also have a tissue called brown fat in the
neck and between the shoulders that is specialized for rapid heat production. Through
shivering and NST, mammals and birds in cold environments can increase their metabolic heat
production by as much as 5 to 10 times above the minimal levels that occur in warm
conditions.
Another major thermoregulatory adaptation that evolved in mammals and birds is
insulation (hair, feathers, and fat layers), which reduces the flow of heat and lowers the energy
cost of keeping warm. Most land mammals and birds react to cold by raising their fur or
feathers, thereby trapping a thicker layer of air. Humans rely more on a layer of fat just
beneath the skin as insulation; goose bumps are a vestige of hair-raising left over from our
furry ancestors. Vasodilation and vasoconstriction also regulate heat exchange and may
contribute to regional temperature differences within the animal. For example, heat loss from a
human is reduced when arms and legs cool to several degrees below the temperature of the
body core, where most vital organs are located.
Hair loses most of its insulating power when wet. Marine mammals such as whales and
seals have a very thick layer of insulation fat called blubber, just under the skin. Marine
mammals swim in water colder than their body core temperature, and many species spend at
least part of the year in nearly freezing polar seas. The loss of heat to water occurs 50 to 100
times more rapidly than heat loss to air, and the skin temperature of a marine mammal is close
to water temperature. Even so, the blubber insulation is so effective that marine mammals
maintain body core temperatures of about 36-38C with metabolic rates about the same as
those of land mammals of similar size. The flippers or tail of a whale or seal lack insulating

blubber, but counter current heat exchangers greatly reduce heat loss in these extremities, as
they do in the legs of many birds.
Through metabolic heat production, insulation, and vascular adjustments, birds and
mammals are capable of astonishing feats of thermoregulation. For example, small birds called
chickadees, which weigh only 20 grams, can remain active and hold body temperature nearly
constant at 40C in environmental temperatures as low as -40Cas long as they have enough
food to supply the large amount of energy necessary for heat production.
Many mammals and birds live in places where thermoregulation requires cooling off as
well as warming. For example, when a marine mammal moves into warm seas, as many
whales do when they reproduce, excess metabolic heat is removed by vasodilation of
numerous blood vessels in the outer layer of the skin. In hot climates or when vigorous
exercise adds large amounts of metabolic heat to the body, many terrestrial mammals and birds
may allow body temperature to rise by several degrees, which enhances heat loss by increasing
the temperature gradient between the body and a warm environment.
Evaporative cooling often plays a key role in dissipating the body heat. If environmental
temperature is above body temperature, animals gain heat from the environment as well as
from metabolism, and evaporation is the only way to keep body temperature from rising
rapidly. Panting is important in birds and many mammals. Some birds have a pouch richly
supplied with blood vessels in the floor of the mouth; fluttering the pouch increases
evaporation. Pigeons can use evaporative cooling to keep body temperature close to 40C in
air temperatures as high as 60C, as long as they have sufficient water. Many terrestrial
mammals have sweat glands controlled by the nervous system. Other mechanisms that
promote evaporative cooling include spreading saliva on body surfaces, an adaptation of some
kangaroos and rodents for combating severe heat stress. Some bats use both saliva and urine to
enhance evaporative cooling.

QUESTIONS
1. According to paragraph 1, the most fundamental adaptation to maintain body
temperature is
(A) the heat generated by the metabolism
(B) a shivering reflex in the muscles
(C) migration to a warmer environment
(D) higher caloric intake to match heat loss
Answer: A
"The most basic mechanism [for maintenance of warm body temperature) is the high
metabolic rate. Choice B, C, and D are all ways to maintain body temperature, but they are
not the most fundamental adaptation.
2. Based on information in paragraph 1, which of the following best explains the term "
thermogenesis "?
(A) Heat loss that must be reversed
(B) The adaptation of brown fat tissue in the neck
(C) The maintenance of healthy environmental conditions
(D) Conditions that affect the metabolism
Answer: D
"In some mammals. certain hormones can cause mitochondria 10 Increase their metabolic
activity and produce heal Instead of ATP. This nonshivering thermogenesis (NST) ... ."
Choice A Is not correct because thermogenesis is the activity that generates heat, not the
heat loss. Choice B Is not correct because brown fat is one example of a more generalized
process. Choice C is not correct because thermogenesis is a response to the environment
to maintain the health of the animal, not a process that maintains the environment.
3. The word minimal in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A) most recent
(B) most active
(C) newest
(D) smallest
Answer: D
In this passage, smallest is a synonym for "minimal."
4. In paragraph 2, the author explains the concept of vasodilation and vasoconstriction by
(A) describing the evolution in our ancestors
(B) giving an example of heat loss in the extremities
(C) comparing the process in humans and animals
(D) identifying various types of insulation

Answer: B
"For example, heat loss from a human is reduced when arms and legs cool." Choice A is
not correct because goose bumps, not heat loss in the extremities, is a vestige of our
evolution. Choice C is not correct because no direct comparisons of these processes are
made in the paragraph. Choice D is not correct because the types of Insulation are
mentioned before the concept of vasodilatation and vasoconstriction are introduced.
5. The word regulate in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A) protect
(B) create
(C) reduce
(D) control
Answer: D
In this passage, control is a synonym for "regulate." Context comes from the reference to
"temperature differences" at the end of the same sentence.
6. According to paragraph 3, why do many marine animals require a layer of blubber?
(A) Because marine animals have lost their hair during evolution
(B) Because heat is lost in water twice as fast as it is in air
(C) Because dry hair does not insulate marine animals
(D) Because they are so large that they require more insulation
Answer: B
"The loss of heat to water occurs 50 to 100 times more rapidly than heat loss to air."
Choice A Is not correct because hair loses Insulating power when wet. but the evolution of
marine animals Is not mentioned. Choice C is not correct because dry hair Insulates better
than wet hair. Choice D Is not correct because there are land animals that are of similar
size.
7. The word those in the passage refers to
(A) marine animals
(B) core temperatures
(C) land mammals
(D) metabolic rates
Answer: D
" ... marine mammals maintain body core temperatures of abot 36-38 C with metabolic
rates about the same as those [metabolic rates] of land mammals of similar size."
8. Why does the author mention chickadees in paragraph 4?
(A) To discuss an animal that regulates heat very well
(B) To demonstrate why chickadees have to eat so much
(C) To mention an exception to the rules of thermoregulation
(D) To give a reason for heat production in small animals

Answer: A
" ... capable of astonishing feats of thermoregulation. For example, small birds called
chickadees . . . hold body temperature nearly constant" Choice B Is not correct because
the food supply supports thermoregulation which Is the main point of the example.
Choice C is not correct because chickadees are capable of astonishing feats of
thermoregulation. Choice D Is not Correct because the reason for heat production In
animals Is explained before the example of the chickadee.
9. In paragraph 6, the author states that evaporative cooling is often accomplished by all of
the following methods EXCEPT
(A) by spreading saliva over the area
(B) by panting or fluttering a pouch
(C) by immersing themselves in water
Answer: C
Choice A is mentioned in paragraph 6, sentence 7. Choice B Is mentioned In paragraph 6,
sentences 3 and 4.
10. The word enhance in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A) simplify
(B) improve
(C) replace
(D) interrupt
Answer: B
In this passage, improve Is a synonym for "enhance: Context comes from the reference to
"promote" In the previous sentence.

VOCABULARY

No.

Difficult Word

1.

maintain (v)

2.

surrounding (n)

3.

counteract (v)

4.

flow (v)

5.

vary (v)

6.

shiver (v)

7.

evolve (v)

8.

rapid (adj)

9.

trap (v)

10.

rely (v)

11.

12.

vestige (n)

furry (adj)

13.

ancestor (n)

14.

regulate (v)

15.

lack (n)

Definition

Synonym

Antonym

cause or enable (a condition

or situation) to continue;
keep (something) at the same
level or rate
the area around a thing or
place
to reduce or remove the effect
of something unwanted by
producing an opposite effect
to move or run smoothly with
unbroken continuity
become different in some
particular
way,
without
permanently losing one's or
its former characteristics or
essence
a reflex motion caused by
cold or fear or excitement
to develop gradually, or to
cause something or someone
to develop gradually
(of an action or movement)
performed
or
occurring
during a short interval of
time
hold or catch as if in a trap
to need a particular thing or
the help and support of
someone or something in
order to continue, to work
correctly, or to succeed; to
have faith or confidence in
somebody or something
a mark, trace, or visible
evidence of something that is
no longer present or in
existence; a very slight
amount of something

keep going;
retain; keep up

end; terminate

covered with fur; describes

things that are made from a
soft material that looks like
fur

hairy

a person who was a member

of one's family a long time
ago and from whom one is
descended.
to
control
something,
especially by making it work
in a particular way
the
state
of
needing
something that is absent or
unavailable

antecedent

descendent

manage; order

deregulate

environment;
setting
resist; work
against
stream;
circulate
differ; alter;
change

shudder;
tremble
develop;
metamorphose;
grow
quick; fast

slow;
unhurried

snare; trammel
depend; trust

trace; remnant

absence;
deficiency

16.

excess (n)

17.

vigorous (adj)

18.

enhance (v)

19.

gradient (n)

20.

dissipate (v)

21.

pouch (n)

22.

flutter (v)

23.

sufficient (adj)

24.

gland (n)

25.

surface (v)

an amount which is more

than acceptable, expected or
reasonable
characterized by forceful and
energetic action or activity
to make something to appear
greater or better.
the property possessed by a
line or surface that departs
from the horizontal
to cause to separate and go in
different directions
a small or medium size
container for holding or
carrying things; (anatomy)
saclike structure in any of
various
animals
(as
a
marsupial or gopher or
pelican)
to move back and forth very
rapidly
being as much as is needed;
adequate for the purpose
any of various organs that
synthesize substances needed
by the body and release it
through ducts or directly into
the bloodstream
to rise or cause to rise to or as
if to the surface

surplus; surfeit
strenuous;
spirited
improve;
increase
slope; incline
scatter; disperse
pocket; sack

flicker; waver
enough
secreter

come up; appear

insufficient

SENTENCES
1. maintain
She is trying to maintain her friendships.
2. flow
Endless thoughts flow in my head when Im in bed.
3. vary
My music taste can't stick to one genre. It has to vary to everything.
4. evolve
I get emotional when my Pokemon evolves.
5. trap
There was a spider trapping me from getting to the bathroom.
6. rely
You have to rely on mirrors and pictures to see yourself in person.
7. lack
My eyes literally hurt from lack of sleep.
8. vigorous
Dean makes me do vigorous exercises once a month.
9. enhance
Its about time to enhance my wardrobe.
10. sufficient
I think there will be no sufficient answer for your question.