Psychology Theories

By
Kendra
Van
Wagner,
About.com Guide to Psychology
Much of what we know about human thought and behavior has emerged thanks to
various psychology theories. For example, behavioral theories demonstrated how
conditioning can be used to learn new information and behaviors. Psychology students
typically spend a great deal of time studying these different theories. Some theories
have fallen out of favor, while others remain widely accepted, but all have contributed
tremendously to our understanding of human thought and behavior. By learning more
about these theories, you can gain a deeper and richer understanding of psychology's
past, present and future.
1. Behavioral Theories
2. Cognitive Theories
3. Developmental Theories

4. Humanist Theories
5. Personality Theories
6. Social Psychology Theories

Behavioral Theories
Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon
the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Advocated by famous
psychologists such as John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, behavioral theories dominated
psychology during the early half of the twentieth century. Today, behavioral techniques
are still widely used in therapeutic settings to help clients learn new skills and
behaviors.

What is Behaviorism?
Schedules of Reinforcement
Classical Conditioning
What is Behavior Analysis?
How Pavlov Discovered Classical Conditioning
Stages of Change
Principles of Classical Conditioning
Conditioned Taste Aversions
Operant Conditioning

Cognitive Theories
Cognitive theories of psychology are focused on internal states, such as motivation,
problem solving, decision-making, thinking, and attention.

What is Cognitive Psychology?

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Theories of Intelligence

What Is a Genius IQ Score?

Perceptual Organization
Gardner's Theory of Multiple
Intelligences

Attention
Memory
4 Explanations for Forgetting
Left Brain vs. Right Brain
Dominance

Developmental Theories
Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about human growth,
development, and learning. If you have ever wondered about what motivates human

thought and behavior, understanding these theories can provide useful insight into
individuals and society.

Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development

Social Learning Theory
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
Attachment Theory
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development Parenting Styles
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Humanist Theories
Humanistic psychology theories began to grow in popularity during the 1950s. While
earlier theories often focused on abnormal behavior and psychological problems,
humanist theories instead emphasized the basic goodness of human beings. Some of
the major humanist theorists include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

What is Humanistic Psychology?

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Self-Efficacy

Personality Theories
Almost everyday we describe and assess the personalities of the people around us.
Whether we realize it or not, these daily musings on how and why people behave as
they do are similar to what personality psychologists do. Personality psychology looks
at the patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behavior that make a person unique. Some of
the best known theories in psychology are devoted to the subject of personality.

What is Personality?
Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality
Freud's Psychosexual Theory
Erikson's Psychosocial Theory
Trait Theory of Personality
The "Big Five" Theory of
Personality

Murray's
Psychogenic
Theory
Neurotic Needs
Defense Mechanisms
Jung's Archetypes

Needs

Social Psychology Theories

Social psychology is focused on helping us understand and explain social behavior.
Social theories are generally centered on specific social phenomena, including group
behavior, prosocial behavior, social influence, love and much more.

What Is Social Psychology?

The Bystander Effect
Theories of Love

Leadership Theories
Conformity
Obedience

What Is Behaviorism?
Question: What Is Behaviorism?
Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to
bring them up in and Ill guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become
any type of specialist I might select -- doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes,

even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities,
vocations,
and
race
of
his
ancestors.
--John Watson, Behaviorism, 1930
Answer: Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of
learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning.
Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. According to
behaviorism, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no
consideration
of
internal
mental
states.
There are two major types of conditioning:
1. Classical conditioning is a technique used in behavioral training in which a
naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a response. Next, a previously neutral
stimulus is paired with the naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the previously
neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response without the presence of the naturally
occurring stimulus. The two elements are then known as the conditioned stimulus
and the conditioned response.
2. Operant conditioning Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental
conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments
for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a
behavior and a consequence for that behavior.
Major Thinkers in Behaviorism
Ivan Pavlov
B. F. Skinner
Edward Thorndike
John B. Watson
Clark Hull
Important Events in Behaviorism
1863 - Ivan Sechenov's Reflexes of the Brain was published. Sechenov introduced
the concept of inhibitory responses in the central nervous system.
1900 - Ivan Pavlov began studying the salivary response and other reflexes.
1913 - John Watson's Psychology as a Behaviorist Views It was published. The
article outlined the many of the main points of behaviorism.
1920 - Watson and assistant Rosalie Rayner conducted the famous "Little Albert"
experiment.
1943 - Clark Hull's Principles of Behavior was published.
1948 - B.F. Skinner published Walden II in which he described a utopian society
founded upon behaviorist principles.
1959 - Noam Chomsky published his criticism of Skinner's behaviorism, "Review of
Verbal Behavior."
1971 - B.F. Skinner published his book Beyond Freedom and Dignity, where he
argues that free will is an illusion.

Criticisms of Behaviorism
Many critics argue that behaviorism is a one-dimensional approach to behavior and
that behavioral theories do not account for free will and internal influences such as
moods, thoughts, and feelings.
Behaviorism does not account for other types of learning, especially learning that
occurs without the use of reinforcements or punishments.

People and animals are able to adapt their behavior when new information is
introduced, even if a previous behavior pattern has been established through
reinforcement.

Strengths of Behaviorism
Behaviorism is based upon observable behaviors, so it is easier to quantify and
collect data and information when conducting research.
Effective therapeutic techniques such as intensive behavioral intervention, token
economies, and discrete trial training are all rooted in behaviorism. These approaches
are often very useful in changing maladaptive or harmful behaviors in both children
and adults.
Behaviorism
Definition:
A school of psychological thought that explains human reactions in terms of
learned behavior.
Behaviorism originated with Ivan Pavlov, who used classical conditioning to
teach dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell. B.F. Skinner later added the concepts of
reinforcement and punishment in his theory of operant conditioning.
Both reinforcement and punishment can be positive or negative, an idea that
sometimes causes confusion. In general, positive reinforcement or punishment involves
adding a consequence, while negative punishment or reinforcement removes a stimulus.
Positive reinforcement occurs when a reward is given for desired behavior. For
example, someone with a driving phobia might drive to her favorite store. Shopping in
the store is positive reinforcement for the act of driving.
Negative reinforcement occurs when something unpleasant is removed due to the
desired behavior. For example, someone with a phobia of snakes and a job at a pet store
might become an expert in birds to avoid handling the snakes.
Positive punishment can be a confusing concept. This occurs when something
undesirable happens as the result of a behavior. A classic example is a child being given
extra chores.
Negative punishment occurs when something desirable is taken away due to the
behavior. This occurs when a teenager has her driving privileges revoked.
Pure behaviorism is not common today. However, behavioral techniques are
often used in cognitive-behavioral therapy.
A common use of behaviorism in modern therapy is the behavior modification
plan. This contract between client and therapist delineates several concrete goals of
therapy and the rewards or punishments associated with specific behaviors. The plan
must meet specific criteria in order to be effective, and may be used alone or in
conjunction with other therapeutic techniques.
Classical Conditioning
Definition: An early form of behaviorism, pioneered by Ivan Pavlov, that pairs a
neutral stimulus with a stimulus that causes a response. Over time, the neutral stimulus
will begin to cause the response.
Pavlov demonstrated this technique using dogs. The dogs instinctively salivated when
meat was presented. Every time the meat was presented, Pavlov rang a bell. Eventually,

the dogs learned to associate the bell with the meat. When the bell was rung, the dogs
would salivate, even when no meat was present.
Other researchers expanded Pavlovs work to include human conditioning. While the
principles are still considered scientifically accurate and used in some situations, pure
classical conditioning is rarely used in clinical work today.
Introduction to Classical Conditioning
Behaviorism is a school of thought in psychology that assumes that learning
occurs through interactions with the environment. Two other assumptions of this theory
are that the environment shapes behavior and that taking internal mental states such as
thoughts, feelings, and emotions into consideration is useless in explaining behavior.
One of the best-known aspects of behavioral learning theory is classical conditioning.
Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a learning
process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a
naturally occurring stimulus. In order to understand how classical conditioning works,
it is important to be familiar with the basic principles of the process.
The Unconditioned Stimulus
The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and
automatically triggers a response. For example, when you smell one of your favorite
foods, you may immediately feel very hungry. In this example, the smell of the food is
the unconditioned stimulus.
The Unconditioned Response
The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in
response to the unconditioned stimulus. In our example, the feeling of hunger in
response to the smell of food is the unconditioned response.
The Conditioned Stimulus
The conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming
associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned
response. In our earlier example, suppose that when you smelled your favorite food,
you also heard the sound of a whistle. While the whistle is unrelated to the smell of the
food, if the sound of the whistle was paired multiple times with the smell, the sound
would eventually trigger the conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the whistle
is the conditioned stimulus.
The Conditioned Response
The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral
stimulus. In our example, the conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you
heard the sound of the whistle.
Classical Conditioning in the Real World
In reality, people do not respond exactly like Pavlov's dogs. There are, however,
numerous real-world applications for classical conditioning. For example, many dog
trainers use classical conditioning techniques to help people train their pets.
These techniques are also useful in the treatment of phobias or anxiety problems.
Teachers are able to apply classical conditioning in the class by creating a positive
classroom environment to help students overcome anxiety or fear. Pairing an anxietyprovoking situation, such as performing in front of a group, with pleasant surroundings

helps the student learn new associations. Instead of feeling anxious and tense in these
situations, the child will learn to stay relaxed and calm.
Pavlov's Dogs
How Ivan Pavlov Discovered Classical Conditioning
The concept of classical conditioning is studied by every entry-level psychology
student, so it may be surprising to learn that the man who first noted this phenomenon
was not a psychology at all. Ivan Pavlov was a noted Russian physiologist who went
on to win the 1904 Nobel Prize for his work studying digestive processes. It was while
studying digestion in dogs that Pavlov noted an interesting occurrence his canine
subjects would begin to salivate whenever an assistant entered the room.
In his digestive research, Pavlov and his assistants would introduce a variety of
edible and non-edible items and measure the saliva production that the items produced.
Salivation, he noted, is a reflexive process. It occurs automatically in response to a
specific stimulus and is not under conscious control. However, Pavlov noted that the
dogs would often begin salivating in the absence of food and smell. He quickly realized
that this salivary response was not due to an automatic, physiological process.
The Development of Classical Conditioning Theory
Based on his observations, Pavlov suggested that the salivation was a learned
response. The dogs were responding to the sight of the research assistants' white lab
coats, which the animals had come to associate with the presentation of food. Unlike
the salivary response to the presentation of food, which is an unconditioned reflex,
salivating to the expectation of food is a conditioned reflex.
Pavlov then focused on investigating exactly how these conditioned responses are
learned or acquired. In a series of experiments, Pavlov set out to provoke a conditioned
response to a previously neutral stimulus. He opted to use food as the unconditioned
stimulus, or the stimulus that evokes a response naturally and automatically. The sound
of a metronome was chosen to be the neutral stimulus. The dogs would first be exposed
to the sound of the ticking metronome, and then the food was immediately presented.
After several conditioning trials, Pavlov noted that the dogs began to salivate after
hearing the metronome. "A stimulus which was neutral in and of itself had been
superimposed upon the action of the inborn alimentary reflex," Pavlov wrote of the
results. "We observed that, after several repetitions of the combined stimulation, the
sounds of the metronome had acquired the property of stimulating salivary secretion"
(26). In other words, the previously neutral stimulus (the metronome) had become what
is known as a conditioned stimulus that then provoked a conditioned response
(salivation).
The Impact of Pavlov's Research
Pavlov's discovery of classical conditioning remains one of the most important in
psychology's history. In addition to forming the basis of what would become behavioral
psychology, the conditioning process remains important today for numerous
applications, including behavioral modification and mental health treatment. Classical
conditioning is often used to treat phobias, anxiety and panic disorders.
One interesting example of the practical use of classical conditioning principles
is the use of taste aversion to prevent coyotes from preying on domestic livestock
(Gustafson et al., 1974). A conditioned taste aversion occurs when a neutral stimulus
(eating some type of food) is paired with an unconditioned response (becoming ill after
eating the food). Unlike other forms of classical conditioning, this type of conditioning

does not require multiple pairings in order for an association to form. In fact, taste
aversions generally occur after just a single pairing. Ranchers have found useful ways
to put this form of classical conditioning to good use to protect their herds. In one
example, mutton was injected with a drug that produces severe nausea. After eating the
poisoned meat, coyotes then avoided sheep herds rather than attack them (Gustafson et
al., 1976).
While Pavlov's discovery of classical conditioning formed an essential part of
psychology's history, his work continues to inspire further research today. Between the
years 1997 and 2000, more than 220 articles appearing in scientific journals cited
Pavlov's early research on classical conditioning (Hock, 69). While Pavlov may not
have been a psychologist, his contributions to psychology have help make the discipline
what it is today and will likely continue to shape our understanding of human behavior
for years to come.
Principles of Classical Conditioning
Behaviorists have described a number of different phenomena associated with
classical conditioning. Some of these elements involve the initial establishment of the
response, while others describe the disappearance of a response. These elements are
important in understanding the classical conditioning process.
Acquisition
Acquisition is the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and
gradually strengthened. For example, if you are trying to teach a dog to shake in
response to a verbal command, you can say the response has been acquired as soon as
the dog shakes in response to only the verbal command. Once the response has been
acquired, you can gradually reinforce the shake response to make sure the behavior is
well learned.
Extinction
Extinction occurs when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or
disappear. In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no
longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus. For example, if the smell of food (the
unconditioned stimulus) had been paired with the sound of a whistle (the conditioned
stimulus), it would eventually come to evoke the conditioned response of hunger.
However, if the unconditioned stimulus (the smell of food) were no longer paired with
the conditioned stimulus (the whistle), eventually the conditioned response (hunger)
would disappear.
Sponteneous Recovery
Spontaneous Recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a
rest period or period of lessened response. If the conditioned stimulus and
unconditioned stimulus are no longer associated, extinction will occur very rapidly after
a spontaneous recovery.
Stimulus Generalization
Stimulus Generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke
similar responses after the response has been conditioned. For example, if a rat has been
conditioned to fear a stuffed white rabbit, it will exhibit fear of objects similar to the
conditioned stimulus.
Discrimination

Discrimination is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and

other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus. For example, if
a bell tone were the conditioned stimulus, discrimination would involve being able to
tell the difference between the bell tone and other similar sounds.
Introduction to Operant Conditioning
What Is Operant Conditioning?
Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a
method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through
operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for
that behavior.
Operant conditioning was coined by behaviorist B.F. Skinner, which is why you
may occasionally hear it referred to as Skinnerian conditioning. As a behaviorist,
Skinner believed that internal thoughts and motivations could not be used to explain
behavior. Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the external, observable causes
of human behavior.
Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon
the environment to generate consequences" (1953). In other words, Skinner's theory
explained how we acquire the range of learned behaviors we exhibit each and every
day.
Examples of Operant Conditioning
We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us. Consider
the case of children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or
employees finishing projects to receive praise or promotions.
In these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in
behavior, but operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior. The removal
of an undesirable outcome or the use of punishment can be used to decrease or prevent
undesirable behaviors. For example, a child may be told they will lose recess privileges
if they talk out of turn in class. This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in
disruptive behaviors.
Components of Operant Conditioning
Some key concepts in operant conditioning:
A reinforcer is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There
are two kinds of reinforcers:
1. Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after
the behavior. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or
behavior is strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise or a direct
reward.
2. Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes
after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by
the removal of something considered unpleasant.
In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.
Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome
that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment:

1. Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application,

involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken
the response it follows.
2. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when an
favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.
In both of these cases of punishment, the behavior decreases.
Operant Conditioning
Definition: A form of behaviorism based on the premise that reinforced
behaviors tend to continue, while those that are punished or are not reinforced tend to
gradually end.
Operant conditioning was pioneered by B.F. Skinner and built on the classical
conditioning work of Ivan Pavlov.
Operant conditioning techniques are still used today in clinical therapy. However,
they are most often used as part of a cognitive-behavioral treatment plan.
Examples: Parents often use operant conditioning, such as rewarding good
grades with ice cream.
Reinforcement
Definition:
In behaviorism, reinforcement refers to the consequences of desired behavior.
Reinforcement may be either positive or negative, depending on its application.
In positive reinforcement, a reward is given for the desired behavior. For
example, a parent might allow a child to stay up an hour late.
In negative reinforcement, something undesirable is taken away as a consequence
of the desired behavior. For example, a parent might relieve a child from dishwashing
duties for the evening.
Many experts believe that reinforcement is more effective than punishment in
shaping long-term behavior. Punishment focuses on negative behaviors, while
reinforcement ignores those and focuses only on desired behaviors.
Positive Reinforcement
Definition:
In behaviorism, positive reinforcement occurs when a reward, sometimes called
a reinforcer, is given for a specific desired behavior. Other behaviors, even those that
are negative, are simply ignored. Over time, this will lead to an increase in the desired
behavior.
Positive reinforcement must be individualized to the specific person receiving it.
What reinforces one persons behavior may not have the same effect on someone else.
Examples: Despite a driving phobia, Carla was able to drive to the mall in order
to shop at her favorite store. The experience of shopping was positive reinforcement for
the act of driving.
Negative Reinforcement
Definition:

In behaviorism, negative reinforcement involves the removal of an unpleasant

stimulus when a desired behavior occurs. It differs from positive reinforcement as the
stimulus is taken away rather than given when the behavior happens. The principles of
negative reinforcement may actually worsen a phobia.
Examples: Michael has a phobia of snakes, but works in a pet store where they
are sold. Over time, he's become such an expert in bird care that he is promoted and
now only works in the bird department of the store. This is a negative reinforcer of
Michael's snake phobia; as he does not need to interact with snakes, he does not need
to work to address his snake phobia, allowing it to only be perpetuated.
Positive Punishment
Definition:
In behaviorism, positive punishment occurs when a negative consequence is
applied in response to an undesired behavior. Other behaviors are ignored. Over time,
positive punishment can decrease the likelihood that the behavior will continue.
Examples: Julia has a social phobia that causes her to skip meetings where she
might have to speak. She decides that every time she skips a meeting, she will have to
do an extra hour of paperwork. The extra paperwork is a positive punishment for
avoiding the meeting.
Negative Punishment
Definition:
In behaviorism, negative punishment occurs when something desired is taken
away as a consequence of a certain behavior. Over time, this can decrease the frequency
of the undesired behavior.
Examples: Maria wants to combat her agoraphobia. On days that she does not go
out, she locks her prized laptop in a closet. Over time, she decides that the use of the
laptop is worth making at least a short daily trip.
Schedules of Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, schedules of reinforcement are an important component
of the learning process. When and how often we reinforce a behavior can have a
dramatic impact on the strength and rate of the response. Certain schedules of
reinforcement may be more effective in specific situations. There are two types of
reinforcement schedules:
1. Continuous Reinforcement
In continuous reinforcement, the desired behavior is reinforced every single time
it occurs. Generally, this schedule is best used during the initial stages of learning in
order to create a strong association between the behavior and the response. Once the
response if firmly attached, reinforcement is usually switched to a partial reinforcement
schedule.
2. Partial Reinforcement
In partial reinforcement, the response is reinforced only part of the time. Learned
behaviors are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement, but the response is more
resistant to extinction. There are four schedules of partial reinforcement:
1. Fixed-ratio schedules are those where a response is reinforced only after a
specified number of responses. This schedule produces a high, steady rate of
responding with only a brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer.

2. Variable-ratio schedules occur when a response is reinforced after an

unpredictable number of responses. This schedule creates a high steady rate of
responding. Gambling and lottery games are good examples of a reward based on
a variable ratio schedule.
3. Fixed-interval schedules are those where the first response is rewarded only after
a specified amount of time has elapsed. This schedule causes high amounts of
responding near the end of the interval, but much slower responding immediately
after the delivery of the reinforcer.
4. Variable-interval schedules occur when a response is rewarded after an
unpredictable amount of time has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady
rate of response.
What Is Behavior Analysis?
Question: What Is Behavior Analysis?
Answer:
Behavior Analysis Defined
Behavior analysis is a school of psychology based upon the foundations and
principles of behaviorism. Division 25 of the American Psychological Division is
devoted to the area of behavior analysis. According to Division 25:
"Among the APA divisions that advance psychology as a natural science, the
Division of Behavior Analysis is perhaps unique in its emphasis on behavior as a
subject matter in its own right. This analysis is pursued in three relatively distinct ways:
In the experimental analysis of behavior per se, which undertakes research on basic
behavioral processes in a temporal and biological context.
In applied behavior analysis, which extends these processes and research procedures
to behavior in a social context, especially to behavior-environment relationships of
relatively immediate individual, social, and cultural importance.
In the conceptual analysis of behavior, which addresses historical, philosophical,
theoretical, and methodological issues."
History of Behavior Analysis
Behaviorism was largely established through the influential work of three
theorists:
Ivan Pavlov
John B. Watson
B.F. Skinner
Pavlov discovered the conditioning reflex during his studies with dogs, establishing
classical conditioning as a learning method. His research demonstrated that an
environmental stimulus (i.e. ringing bell) could be used to stimulate a conditioned
response (i.e. salivating at the sound of the ringing bell).
John B. Watson extended Pavlov's theory to apply to human behavior, publishing
his landmark article Psychology as the Behaviorist View It in 1913 and establishing
behaviorism as a major school of thought.
B.F. Skinner later introduced the concept of operant conditioning in which
reinforcement leads to a desired behavior. These concepts continue to play an
influential role in behavior analysis, behavior modification, and therapy.

Applications of Behavior Analysis

Behavior analysis has proven to be a particularly effective learning tool for
helping children with autism or developmental delays acquire and maintain new skills.
These treatments include the Lovaas Method and ABA (applied behavior analysis) and
utilize techniques such as discrete trial training. The basic principles of behavior
medication are often adapted for use in educational settings, the workplace, and
childcare.
Cognitive Theory
Definition:
Cognitive theory is a learning theory of psychology that attempts to explain
human behavior by understanding the thought processes. The assumption is that
humans are logical beings that make the choices that make the most sense to them.
Information processing is a commonly used description of the mental process,
comparing the human mind to a computer.
Pure cognitive theory largely rejects behaviorism on the basis that behaviorism
reduces complex human behavior to simple cause and effect. However, the trend in past
decades has been towards merging the two into a comprehensive cognitive-behavioral
theory. This allows therapists to use techniques from both schools of thought to help
clients achieve their goals.
Social cognitive theory is a subset of cognitive theory. Primarily focused on the
ways in which we learn to model the behavior of others, social cognitive theory can be
seen in advertising campaigns and peer pressure situations. It is also useful in the
treatment of psychological disorders including phobias.
Learning Theory and Phobias
From Behaviorism to Cognitive Theory
Learning theory is a broad term that includes multiple theories of behavior that
are based on the learning process. Learning theory is rooted in the work of Ivan Pavlov,
who was able to train dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell.
Behaviorism
Pavlovs theory is known as classical conditioning. The dogs salivation was an
automatic response to the presence of meat. By pairing the presentation of the meat
with the ringing of a bell, Pavlov was able to condition the dogs to respond to a new
stimulus (the bell). Eventually, the dogs salivated when they heard the bell, even when
the meat was not present.
B.F. Skinner elaborated on Pavlovs theory. His work introduced operant
conditioning. In operant conditioning, behavior that is reinforced continues, while
behavior that is punished or not reinforced is eventually stopped.
Both reinforcement and punishment can be either negative or positive, depending
on whether a positive or negative reward is being given or taken away. Today,
reinforcement is seen as more effective than punishment in changing behavior.
Background and Key Concepts of Piaget's Theory
Stages of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget's Background
Jean Piaget was born in Switzerland in 1896. After receiving his doctoral degree
at age 22, Piaget formally began a career that would have a profound impact on both

psychology and education. After working with Alfred Binet, Piaget developed an
interest in the intellectual development of children. Based upon his observations, he
concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults, they simply think
differently. Albert Einstein called Piagets discovery "so simple only a genius could
have thought of it."
Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive
development involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. In Piagets view, early
cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses into
changes in mental operations.
Key Concepts
Schemas - A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in
understanding and knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to
interpret and understand the world. In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category
of knowledge and the process of obtaining that knowledge. As experiences happen, this
new information is used to modify, add to, or change previously existing schemas. For
example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child's
sole experience has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are small,
furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that the child encounters a very large dog. The
child will take in this new information, modifying the previously existing schema to
include this new information.
Assimilation - The process of taking in new information into our previously
existing schemas is known as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective,
because we tend to modify experience or information somewhat to fit in with our
preexisting beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is an
example of assimilating the animal into the child's dog schema.
Accommodation - Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our
existing schemas in light of new information, a process known as accommodation.
Accommodation involves altering existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new
information or new experiences. New schemas may also be developed during this
process.
Equilibration - Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between
assimilation and accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called
equilibration. As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is
important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation)
and changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration
helps explain how children are able to move from one stage of thought into the next.
Theories of Intelligence
While intelligence is one of the most talked about subjects within psychology,
there is no standard definition of what exactly constitutes 'intelligence.' Some
researchers have suggested that intelligence is a single, general ability, while other
believe that intelligence encompasses a range of aptitudes, skills and talents.
The following are some of the major theories of intelligence that have emerged
during the last 100 years.
Charles Spearman - General Intelligence:
British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863-1945) described a concept he
referred to as general intelligence, or the g factor. After using a technique known as
factor analysis to to examine a number of mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded

that scores on these tests were remarkably similar. People who performed well on one
cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while those who scored badly on
one test tended to score badly on other. He concluded that intelligence is general
cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically expressed (Spearman, 1904).
Louis L. Thurstone - Primary Mental Abilities:
Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887-1955) offered a differing theory of
intelligence. Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's
theory focused on seven different "primary mental abilities" (Thurstone, 1938). The
abilities that he described were:
Verbal comprehension
Reasoning
Perceptual speed
Numerical ability
Word fluency
Associative memory
Spatial visualization
Howard Gardner - Multiple Intelligences:
One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple
intelligences. Instead of focusing on the analysis of test scores, Gardner proposed that
numerical expressions of human intelligence are not a full and accurate depiction of
people's abilities. His theory describes eight distinct intelligences that are based on
skills and abilities that are valued within different cultures.
The eight intelligences Gardner described are:
Visual-spatial Intelligence
Verbal-linguistic Intelligence
Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence
Logical-mathematical Intelligence
Interpersonal Intelligence
Musical Intelligence
Intra personal Intelligence
Naturalistic Intelligence
Robert Sternberg - Triarchic Theory of Intelligence:
Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed
toward purposive adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world environments
relevant to ones life" (Sternberg, 1985, p. 45). While he agreed with Gardner that
intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he instead suggested some
of Gardner's intelligences are better viewed as individual talents. Sternberg proposed
what he refers to as 'successful intelligence,' which is comprised of three different
factors:
Analytical intelligence: This component refers to problem-solving abilities.
Creative intelligence: This aspect of intelligence involves the ability to deal with new
situations using past experiences and current skills.
Practical intelligence: This element refers to the ability to adapt to a changing
environment.
While there has been considerable debate over the exact nature of intelligence, no
definitive conceptualization has emerged. Today, psychologists often account for the

many different theoretical viewpoints when discussing intelligence and acknowledge

that this debate is ongoing.
Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
What Are Multiple Intelligences?
When you hear the word intelligence, the concept of IQ testing may immediately come
to mind. Intelligence is often defined as our intellectual potential; something we are
born with, something that can be measured and a capacity that is difficult to change. In
recent years, however, other views of intelligence have emerged. One such conception
is the theory of multiple intelligences proposed by Harvard psychologist Howard
Gardner.
This theory suggests that traditional psychometric views of intelligence are too limited.
Gardner first outlined his theory in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of
Multiple Intelligences, where he suggested that all people have different kinds of
"intelligences."1 Gardner proposed that there are eight intelligences, and has suggested
the possible addition of a ninth known as existentialist intelligence2.
In order to capture the full range of abilities and talents that people possess, Gardner
suggests that people dont possess just one intellectual capacity, but have many
different intelligences including musical, interpersonal, spatial-visual and linguistic
intelligences3
Gardners theory has come under criticism from both psychologists and educators.
These critics argue that Gardners definition of intelligence is too broad, and that his
eight different "intelligences" simply represent talents, personality traits and abilities.
Gardners theory also suffers from a lack of supporting empirical research4.
Despite this, the theory of multiple intelligences enjoys considerable popularity with
educators. Many teachers utilize multiple intelligences in their teaching philosophy and
work to integrate Gardners theory into the classroom.
Artist
Visual-Spatial Intelligence
Strengths:
Visual
and
Spatial
Engineer
Judgment
Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence
People who are strong in visual-spatial
Strengths: Words, Language and
intelligence are good a visualizing
Writing
things. These individuals are often good
People who are strong in linguisticwith directions as well as maps, charts,
verbal intelligence are able to use words
videos and pictures.
well, both when writing and speaking.
Characteristics of Visual-Spatial
These individuals are typically very
Intelligence
good at writing stories, memorizing
information and reading.
Enjoys reading and writing
Good at putting puzzles together
Characteristics of Linguistic-Verbal
Intelligence
Good at interpreting pictures, graphs
and charts
Good at remembering written and
spoken information
Enjoys drawing, painting and the
visual arts
Enjoys reading and writing
Recognizes patterns easily
Good
at debating or giving
persuasive
speeches
Potential Career Choices
Able to explain things well
Architect

Often uses humor when telling

stories

Potential Career Choices

Writer / Journalist
Lawyer
Teacher
Logical - Mathematical Intelligence
Strengths: Analyzing Problems and
Mathematical Operations
People who are strong in logicalmathematical intelligence are good at
reasoning, recognize patterns and
logically analyze problems. These
individuals tend to think conceptually
about numbers, relationships and
patterns.

Characteristics
of
LogicalMathematical Intelligence
Excellent problem-solving skills
Enjoys thinking about abstract ideas
Likes
conducting
scientific
experiments
Good
and
solving
complex
computations
Potential Career Choices
Scientist
Mathematician
Computer programmer
Engineer
Accountant
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
Strengths: Physical Movement, Motor
Control
Those who have high bodily-kinesthetic
intelligence are said to be good at body
movement, performing actions and
physical control. People who are strong
in this area tend to have excellent handeye
coordination and dexterity.
Characteristics of Bodily-Kinesthetic
Intelligence
Good at dancing and sports

Enjoy creating things with their

hands
Excellent physical coordination
Tends to remember by doing, rather
than hearing or seeing

Potential Career Choices

Dancer
Builder
Sculptor
Actor
Musical Intelligence
Strengths: Rhythm and Music
People who have strong musical
intelligence are good and thinking in
patterns, rhythms and sounds. They
have a strong appreciation for music
and are often good at musical
composition and performance.
Characteristics
of
Musical
Intelligence
Enjoy singing and playing musical
instruments
Recognizes musical patterns and
tones easily
Good at remembering songs and
melodies
Rich understanding of musical
structure, rhythm and notes
Potential Career Choices
Musician
Composer
Singer
Music Teacher
Conductor
Interpersonal Intelligence
Strengths: Understanding and Relating
to Other People
Those who have strong interpersonal
intelligence are good understanding and
interacting with other people. These
individuals are skilled at assessing the
emotions, motivations, desires and
intentions of those around them.

Characteristics of Interpersonal
Intelligence
Good at communicating verbally
Skilled nonverbal communicators
See
situations from different
perspectives
Create positive relationships with
others
Good at resolving conflict in groups
Potential Career Choices
Psychologist
Philosopher
Counselor
Sales person
Politician
Intrapersonal Intelligence
Strengths: Introspection and SelfReflection
Individuals who are strong in
intrapersonal intelligence are good at
being aware of their own emotional
states, feelings and motivations. They
tend to enjoy self-reflection and
analysis, including day-dreaming,
exploring relationships with others and
assessing their personal strengths.
Characteristics of Intrapersonal
Intelligence
Good at analyzing their strengths and
weaknesses
Enjoys analyzing theories and ideas
Excellent self-awareness
Clearly understands the basis for
their own motivations and feelings

Philosopher
Writer
Theorist
Scientist
Naturalistic Intelligence
Strengths: Finding Patters and
Relationships to Nature
Naturalistic is the most recent addition
to Gardners theory 5 and has been met
with more resistance than his original
seven intelligences. According to
Gardner, individuals who are high in
this type of intelligence are more in tune
with nature and are often interesting in
nurturing, exploring the environment
and learning about other species. These
individuals are said to be highly aware
of even subtle changes to their
environments.
Characteristics
of
Naturalistic
Intelligence
Interested in subjects such as botany,
biology and zoology
Good at categorizing and cataloguing
information easily
May enjoy camping, gardening,
hiking and exploring the outdoors
Doesnt enjoy learning unfamiliar
topics that have no connection to
nature
Potential Career Choices
Biologist
Conservationist
Gardener
Farmer

Potential Career Choices

Theory of cognitive development

The Theory of Cognitive Development, is a developmental stage theory first
developed by Jean Piaget.
Piaget's four stages
Sensorimotor period

The Sensorimotor Stage is the first of the four stages of cognitive development. "In
this stage, infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory
experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric actions." [1] "Infants
gain knowledge of the world from the physical actions they perform on it." [1] "An infant
progresses from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic
thought toward the end of the stage." [1] "Piaget divided the sensorimotor stage into six
sub-stages"[1]:
Sub-Stage

1 Simple Reflexes

Age

Description

Birth-6
weeks

"Coordination of sensation and action through reflexive

behaviors"[1]. Three primary reflexes are described by
Piaget: sucking of objects in the mouth, following
moving or interesting objects with the eyes, and closing
of the hand when an object makes contact with the palm
(palmar grasp). Over the first six weeks of life, these
reflexes begin to become voluntary actions; for
example, the palmar reflex becomes intentional
grasping.[2]).

"Coordination of sensation and two types of schemes:

habits (reflex) and primary circular reactions
(reproduction of an event that initially occurred by
2 First habits and 6
chance). Main focus is still on the infant's body." [1] As
primary circular weeks-4
an example of this type of reaction, an infant might
reactions phase
months
repeat the motion of passing their hand before their
face. Also at this phase, passive reactions, caused by
classical or operant conditioning, can begin[2].
Development of habits. "Infants become more objectoriented, moving beyond self-preoccupation; repeat
actions that bring interesting or pleasurable results."[1]
This stage is associated primarily with the development
of coordination between vision and prehension. Three
new abilities occur at this stage: intentional grasping for
a desired object, secondary circular reactions, and
3
Secondary
4-8
differentiations between ends and means. At this stage,
circular reactions
months infants will intentionally grasp the air in the direction of
phase
a desired object, often to the amusement of friends and
family. Secondary circular reactions, or the repetition
of an action involving an external object begin; for
example, moving a switch to turn on a light repeatedly.
The differentiation between means and ends also
occurs. This is perhaps one of the most important stages
of a child's growth as it signifies the dawn of logic[2].
"Coordination of vision and touch--hand-eye
coordination;
coordination of schemes
and
4 Coordination of
[1]
intentionality."
This stage is associated primarily
8-12
secondary circular
months with the development of logic and the coordination
reactions stage
between means and ends. This is an extremely
important stage of development, holding what Piaget

calls the "first proper intelligence." Also, this stage

marks the beginning of goal orientation, the deliberate
planning of steps to meet an objective [2].
"Infants become intrigued by the many properties of
objects and by the many things they can make happen
to objects; they experiment with new behavior." [1] This
5 Tertiary circular
12-18
stage is associated primarily with the discovery of new
reactions, novelty,
months means to meet goals. Piaget describes the child at this
and curiosity
juncture as the "young scientist," conducting pseudoexperiments to discover new methods of meeting
challenges [2].
"Infants develop the ability to use primitive symbols
and form enduring mental representations." [1] This
6 Internalization of 18-24
stage is associated primarily with the beginnings of
Schemes
months
insight, or true creativity. This marks the passage into
the preoperational stage.
"By the end of the sensorimotor period, objects are both separate from the self and
permanent."[1] "Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist
even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched."[1] "Acquiring the sense of object
permanence is one of the infant's most important accomplishments, according to
Piaget."[1]
[edit] Preoperational Period
The Preoperational stage is the second of four stages of cognitive development.[3] By
observing sequences of play, Piaget was able to demonstrate that towards the end of the
second year, a qualitatively new kind of psychological functioning occurs.
(Pre)Operatory Thought is any procedure for mentally acting on objects. The
hallmark of the preoperational stage is sparse and logically inadequate mental
operations. During this stage, the child learns to use and to represent objects by images,
words, and drawings.[3] The child is able to form stable concepts as well as mental
reasoning and magical beliefs.[3] The child however is still not able to perform
operations; tasks that the child can do mentally rather than physically.[3] Thinking is
still egocentric: The child has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others. Two substages
can be formed from preoperational thought.[3]

The Symbolic Function Substage

Occurs between about the ages of 2 and 4.[3] The child is able to formulate
designs of objects that are not present.[3] Other examples of mental abilities are
language and pretend play.[3] Although there is an advancement in progress,
there are still limitations such as egocentrism and animism.[3] Egocentrism
occurs when a child is unable to distinguish between their own perspective and
that of another person's.[3] Children tend to pick their own view of what they see
rather than the actual view shown to others.[3] An example is an experiment
performed by Piaget and Barbel Inhelder.[3] Three views of a mountain are
shown and the child is asked what a traveling doll would see at the various
angles; the child picks their own view compared to the actual view of the doll.[3]
Animism is the belief that inanimate objects are capable of actions and have
lifelike qualities.[3] An example is a child believing that the sidewalk was mad
and made them fall down.[3]

The Intuitive Thought Substage

Occurs between about the ages of 4 and 7.[3] Children tend to become very
curious and ask many questions; begin the use of primitive reasoning.[3] There
is an emergence in the interest of reasoning and wanting to know why things
are the way they are.[3] Piaget called it the intuitive substage because children
realize they have a vast amount of knowledge but they are unaware of how they
know it.[3] Centration and conservation are both involved in preoperational
thought.[3] Centration is the act of focusing all attention on one characteristic
compared to the others.[3] Centration is noticed in conservation; the awareness
that altering a substance's appearance does not change its basic properties.[3]
Children at this stage are unaware of conservation.[3] They are unable to grasp
the concept that a certain liquid can stay the same regardless of the container
shape.[3] In Piaget's most famous task, a child is represented with two identical
beakers containing the same amount of liquid.[3] The child usually notes that the
beakers have the same amount of liquid.[3] When one of the beakers is poured
into a taller and thinner container, children who are typically younger than 7 or
8 years old say that the two beakers now contain a different amount of liquid.[3]
The child simply focuses on the height and width of the container compared to
the general concept.[3] Piaget believes that if a child fails the conservation-ofliquid task, it is a sign that they are at the preoperational stage of cognitive
development.[3] The child also fails to show conservation of number, matter,
length, volume, and area as well.[3] Another example is when a child is shown
7 dogs and 3 cats and asked if there are more dogs than cats. The child would
respond positively. However when asked if there are more dogs than animals,
the child would once again respond positively. Such fundamental errors in logic
show the transition between intuitiveness in solving problems and true logical
reasoning acquired in later years when the child grows up.
Piaget considered that children primarily learn through imitation and play throughout
these first two stages, as they build up symbolic images through internalized
activity.[4][5]
Studies have been conducted among other countries to find out if Piaget's theory is
universal.[3] Psychologist Patricia Greenfield conducted a task similar to Piaget's beaker
experiment in the West African nation of Senegal.[3] Her results stated that only 50
percent of the 10-13 year olds understood the concept of conservation.[3] Other cultures
such as central Australia and New Guinea had similar results.[3] If adults had not gained
this concept, they would be unable to understand the point of view of another person.[3]
There may have been discrepencies in the communication between the experimenter
and the children which may have altered the results.[3] It has also been found that if
conservation is not widely practiced in a particular country, the concept can be taught
to the child and training can improve the child's understanding.[3] Therefore, it is noted
that there are different age differences in reaching the understanding of conservation
based on the degree to which the culture teaches these tasks.[3]
[edit] Concrete operational stage
The Concrete operational stage is the third of four stages of cognitive development in
Piaget's theory. This stage, which follows the Preoperational stage, occurs between
the ages of 7 and 12 years and is characterized by the appropriate use of logic. Important
processes during this stage are:

Seriationthe ability to sort objects in an order according to size, shape, or any other
characteristic. For example, if given different-shaded objects they may make a color
gradient.
Transitivity- The ability to recognize logical relationships among elements in a serial
order, and perform 'transitive inferences' (for example, If A is taller than B, and B is
taller than C, then A must be taller than C).
Classificationthe ability to name and identify sets of objects according to
appearance, size or other characteristic, including the idea that one set of objects can
include another.
Decenteringwhere the child takes into account multiple aspects of a problem to solve
it. For example, the child will no longer perceive an exceptionally wide but short cup
to contain less than a normally-wide, taller cup.
Reversibilitythe child understands that numbers or objects can be changed, then
returned to their original state. For this reason, a child will be able to rapidly determine
that if 4+4 equals t, t4 will equal 4, the original quantity.
Conservationunderstanding that quantity, length or number of items is unrelated to
the arrangement or appearance of the object or items.
Elimination of Egocentrismthe ability to view things from another's perspective
(even if they think incorrectly). For instance, show a child a comic in which Jane puts
a doll under a box, leaves the room, and then Melissa moves the doll to a drawer, and
Jane comes back. A child in the concrete operations stage will say that Jane will still
think it's under the box even though the child knows it is in the drawer. (See also Falsebelief task).
Children in this stage can, however, only solve problems that apply to actual (concrete)
objects or events, and not abstract concepts or hypothetical tasks.
[edit] Formal operational stage
The formal operational period is the fourth and final of the periods of cognitive
development in Piaget's theory.[6] This stage, which follows the Concrete Operational
stage, commences at around 13 years of age (puberty) and continues into adulthood. [6]
In this stage, individuals move beyond concrete experiences and begin to think
abstractly, reason logically and draw conclusions from the information available, as
well as apply all these processes to hypothetical situations.[6] The abstract quality of the
adolescent's thought at the formal operational level is evident in the adolescent's verbal
problem solving ability.[6] The logical quality of the adolescent's thought is when
children are more likely to solve problems in a trial-and-error fashion.[6] Adolescents
begin to think more as a scientist thinks, devising plans to solve problems and
systematically testing solutions.[6] They use hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which
means that they develop hypotheses or best guesses, and systematically deduce, or
conclude, which is the best path to follow in solving the problem.[6] During this stage
the young adult is able to understand such things as love, "shades of gray", logical
proofs and values. During this stage the young adult begins to entertain possibilities for
the future and is fascinated with what they can be.[6] Adolescents are changing
cognitively also by the way that they think about social matters.[6] Adolescent
Egocentrism governs the way that adolescents think about social matters and is the
heightened self-consciousness in them as they are which is reflected in their sense of
personal uniqueness and invincibility.[6] Adolescent egocentrism can be dissected into
two types of social thinking, imaginary audience that involves attention getting

behavior, and personal fable which involves an adolescent's sense of personal

uniqueness and invincibility.[6]
[edit] Challenges to Piagetian stage theory
Piagetians' accounts of development have been challenged on several grounds. First, as
Piaget himself noted, development does not always progress in the smooth manner his
theory seems to predict. 'Decalage', or unpredicted gaps in the developmental
progression, suggest that the stage model is at best a useful approximation. More
broadly, Piaget's theory is 'domain general', predicting that cognitive maturation occurs
concurrently across different domains of knowledge (such as mathematics, logic,
understanding of physics, of language, etc). During the 1980s and 1990s, cognitive
developmentalists were influenced by "neo-nativist" and evolutionary psychology
ideas. These ideas de-emphasized domain general theories and emphasized domain
specificity or modularity of mind. Moularity implies that different cognitive faculties
may be largely independent of one another and thus develop according to quite different
time-tables. In this vein, some cognitive developmentalists argued that rather than being
domain general learners, children come equipped with domain specific theories,
sometimes referred to as 'core knowledge', which allows them to break into learning
within that domain. For example, even young infants appear to be sensitive to some
predictable regularities in the movement and interactions of objects (e.g. that one object
cannot pass through another), or in human behavior (e.g. that a hand repeatedly
reaching for an object has that object, not just a particular path of motion, as its goal).
These basic assumptions may be the building block out of which more elaborate
knowledge is constructed. More recent work has strongly challenged some of the basic
presumptions of the 'core knowledge' school, and revised ideas of domain generality-but from a newer dynamic systems approach, not from a revised Piagetian perspective.
Dynamic systems approaches harken to modern neuroscientific research that was not
available to Piaget when he was constructing his theory. One important finding is that
domain-specific knowledge is constructed as children develop and integrate
knowledge. This suggests more of a "smooth integration" of learning and development
than either Piaget, or his neo-nativist critics, had envisioned. Additionally, some
psychologists, such as Vygotsky and Bruner, thought differently from Piaget,
suggesting that language was more important than Piaget implied.
Another recent challenge to Piaget's theory is a new theory called Ecological Systems
Theory. This is based on the contextual influences in the child's life like his/her
immediate family, school, society and the world, and how these impact the child's
development.
[edit] Post Piagetian and Neo-Piagetian stages
After Piaget:
Postformal stages have been proposed. Kurt Fischer suggested two, Michael
Commons presents evidence for four postformal stages: the systematic,
metasystematic, paradigmatic and cross paradigmatic. (Commons & Richards,
2003; Oliver, 2004).
A "sentential" stage has been proposed, said to occur before the early
preoperational stage. Proposed by Fischer, Biggs and Biggs, Commons, and
Richards.
Searching for a micro-physiological basis for human mental capacity, Traill
(1978, Section C5.4; 1999, Section 8.4)[citation needed] proposed that there may be

"pre-sensorimotor" stages ("M1L", "M2L", ) developed in the womb

and/or transmitted genetically.
[edit] Postulated physical mechanisms underlying "schemes" and stages
Piaget himself (1967) considered the possibility of RNA molecules as likely
embodiments of his still-abstract "schemes" (which he promoted as units of action)
though he did not come to any firm conclusion. At that time, due to work such as that
of Holger Hydn, RNA concentrations had indeed been shown to correlate with
learning, so the idea was quite plausible.
However, by the time of Piaget's death in 1980, this notion had lost favour. One main
problem was over the protein which (it was assumed) such RNA would necessarily
produce, and that did not fit in with observation. It then turned out, surprisingly, that
only about 3% of RNA does code for protein (Mattick, 2001, 2003, 2004). Hence most
of the remaining 97% (the "ncRNA") could now theoretically be available to serve as
Piagetian schemes (or other regulatory roles now under investigation). The issue has
not yet been resolved experimentally, but its theoretical aspects have been reviewed;
(Traill 2005 / 2008).
Cognitive development
Cognitive development is a field of study in neuroscience and psychology focusing on
a child's development in terms of information processing, conceptual resources,
perceptual skill, and other topics in cognitive psychology. A large portion of research
has gone into understanding how a child conceptualizes the world. Jean Piaget was a
major force in the founding of this field, forming his "theory of cognitive development".
Many of his claims have since fallen out of favor.
A major topic in cognitive development is "nature vs. nurture", or nativism versus
empiricism. Another is the question of convergance or homology with animals when
humans have similar cognition. These two debates are present in nearly every smaller
part of the field.
[edit] Core systems of cognition
Nativists theorize that children are born with many innate cognitive systems designed
to tackle problems that the human species have faced over a very long evolutionary
time. Empiricists study how these skills may be learned in such a short time. The debate
is over whether these systems are learned by general-purpose learning devices, or
domain-specific cognition. Moreover, many modern cognitive developmental
psychologists, recognizing that the term "innate" does not square with modern
knowledge about epigenesis, neurobiological development, or learning, favor a nonnativist framework wherein "core systems" and believe that the "core systems"
approach is less theoretically warranted than a more general dynamic systems or
"neuroconstructivist" approach.
Nevertheless, some influential researchers posit a set of so-called "core domains" in
which children show sensitivity to various patterns of information. Those commonly
cited include:
[edit] Number
Infants appear to have two systems for dealing with numbers. One deals with small
numbers, often called subitizing. Another deals with larger numbers in an approximate
fashion.[1]
[edit] Navigation

Very young children appear to have some skill in dead reckoning. This basic "sense of
direction" does not change very much through development.
Later in life, adults can use natural language to store additional navigational
information. Making them use their language skills for something else makes them
perform like children or rats.
[edit] Visual perception
One of the original nativist versus empiricist debates was over depth perception. There
is some evidence that children less than 72 hours old can perceive such complex things
as biological motion.[2]
[edit] Essentialism
Young children seem to be predisposed to think of things in an essentialistic way.[3]
[edit] Language acquisition
A major, well-studied feat of cognitive development is language acquisition. The
modern consensus is that this draws on many innate systems.
[edit] Creation of new representational resources
Of course, the human mind expands far beyond these simple forms of cognition. For
example, children are not born knowing what force is, but they are capable of eventually
learning.
[edit] Whorf's hypothesis
Whorf believed that a person cannot think what they cannot say in language.
[edit] Quine's bootstrapping hypothesis
Quine suggests that words are commonly used to help create new thoughts.
[edit] Piaget's theory
Jean Piaget believed that people move through stages of development that allow them
to think in new, more complex ways.
Many of his claims have fallen out of favor. For example, he claimed that young
children cannot conserve number. However, further experiments show that children did
not really understand what was being asked of them. When the experiment is done with
candies, and the children are asked which set they want rather than tell an adult which
is more, they show no confusion about which group has more items.
[edit] Neuroscience
During development, especially the first few years of life, children show interesting
patterns of neural development and a high degree of neuroplasticity.
Social Cognitive Theory
Understanding the Effects of Social Cognitive Theory on Phobias
Social cognitive theory is a subcategory of cognitive theory that focuses on the
effects that others have on our behavior. It is a form of learning theory, but differs from
other learning theories such as behaviorism in several important ways.
Tenets of Social Cognitive Theory
Expert opinions differ on exactly what separates social cognitive theory from the
more general social learning theory. In general, however, these principles can be used
to define social cognitive theory.

1. People learn by observing others, a process known as vicarious learning, not only
through their own direct experiences.
2. Although learning can modify behavior, people do not always apply what they have
learned. Individual choice is based on perceived or actual consequences of
behavior.
3. People are more likely to follow the behaviors modeled by someone with whom
they can identify. The more perceived commonalities and/or emotional attachments
between the observer and the model, the more likely the observer will learn from
the model.
4. The degree of self-efficacy that a learner possesses directly affects his or her ability
to learn. Self-efficacy is a fundamental belief in ones ability to achieve a goal. If
you believe that you can learn new behaviors, you will be much more successful in
doing so.
Social Cognitive Theory in Daily Life
Social cognitive theory is frequently used in advertising. Commercials are
carefully targeted toward particular demographic groups. Each element of the
commercial, from the actors to the background music, is chosen to help that
demographic identify with the product. Notice how different the commercials shown
during Saturday morning cartoons are from those shown during the evening news or a
late-night movie.
And who hasn't at one time or another realized the power of peer pressure? We
all want to belong, and so we tend to change our behaviors to fit in with whatever group
we most strongly identify with. Although we often think of peer pressure as solely a
teen phenomenon, how many of us drive a particular car, live in a specific
neighborhood, or have our hair done at a certain salon simply because it is expected of
someone in our social class or peer group?
Social Cognitive Theory and Phobias
Social cognitive theory may explain why some people develop phobias. Many
phobias stem from early childhood, when our parents were our greatest influences and
role models. It is not uncommon for a parents distaste for spiders or rats to become a
full-blown phobia in her child. Watching someone else, whether a parent, friend, or
even stranger, go through a negative experience such as falling down the stairs can also
lead to a phobia.
Social cognitive theory can also be used in the treatment of phobias. Many people
with phobias genuinely want to overcome them and have a strong belief in their ability
to do so. However, they get stuck when trying to unlearn the automatic fear response.
If there is a good relationship of trust and rapport with the therapist, modeling the
behavior can help. In this situation, the therapist calmly goes through whatever process
is being asked of the individual seeking help.
In some cases, just watching someone else perform the behavior without fear can
be enough to break the phobic response. However, it is generally best to combine the
techniques of social cognitive theory with other cognitive-behavioral therapies. While
watching others can greatly lower the level of fear, repeated practice is generally the
best way to get rid of the phobia entirely.
Social Learning Theory
An Overview of Bandura's Social Learning Theory

"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people

had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do.
Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from
observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later
occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action."
-Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory, 1977
What is Social Learning Theory?
The social learning theory proposed by Albert Bandura has become perhaps the
most influential theory of learning and development. While rooted in many of the basic
concepts of traditional learning theory, Bandura believed that direct reinforcement
could not account for all types of learning.
His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information
and behaviors by watching other people. Known as observational learning (or
modeling), this type of learning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviors.
Basic Social Learning Concepts
1. People can learn through observation.
Observational Learning
In his famous "Bobo doll" studies, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and
imitate behaviors they have observed in other people. The children in Banduras studies
observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the children were later
allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the aggressive
actions they had previously observed.
Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:
1. A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a
behavior.
2. A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a
behavior.
3. A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors
in books, films, television programs, or online media.
2. Mental states are important to learning.
Intrinsic Reinforcement
Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor
to influence learning and behavior. He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of
internal reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. This
emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions helps connect learning theories to
cognitive developmental theories. While many textbooks place social learning theory
with behavioral theories, Bandura himself describes his approach as a 'social cognitive
theory.'
3. Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior.
While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent change in behavior,
observational learning demonstrates that people can learn new information without
demonstrating new behaviors.
The Modeling Process
Not all observed behaviors are effectively learned. Factors involving both the
model and the learner can play a role in whether social learning is successful. Certain

requirements and steps must also be followed. The following steps are involved in the
observational learning and modeling process:

Attention:
In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that detracts your
attention is going to have a negative effect on observational learning. If the model
interesting or there is a novel aspect to the situation, you are far more likely to
dedicate your full attention to learning.

Retention:
The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process.
Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up
information later and act on it is vital to observational learning.

Reproduction:
Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to
actually perform the behavior you observed. Further practice of the learned behavior
leads to improvement and skill advancement.

Motivation:
Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated
to imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play
an important role in motivation. While experiencing these motivators can be highly
effective, so can observing other experience some type of reinforcement or
punishment. For example, if you see another student rewarded with extra credit for
being to class on time, you might start to show up a few minutes early each day.
Humanistic Psychology
The "Third Force" In Psychology
During the 1950s, humanistic psychology began as a reaction to psychoanalysis
and behaviorism, which dominated psychology at the time. Psychoanalysis was focused
on understanding the unconscious motivations that drove behavior while behaviorism
studied the conditioning processes that produced behavior. Humanist thinkers felt that
both psychoanalysis and behaviorism were too pessimistic, either focusing on the most
tragic of emotions or failing to take the role of personal choice into account.
Humanistic psychology was instead focused on each individuals potential and
stressed the importance of growth and self-actualization. The fundamental belief of
humanistic psychology was that people are innately good, with mental and social
problems resulting from deviations from this natural tendency.
In 1962, Abraham Maslow published Toward a Psychology of Being, in which he
described humanistic psychology as the "third force" in psychology. The first and
second forces were behaviorism and psychoanalysis respectively.
However, it is not necessary to think of these three schools of thought as
competing elements. Each branch of psychology has contributed to our understanding
of the human mind and behavior. Humanistic psychology added yet another dimension
that took a more holistic view of the individual.

Major Thinkers in Humanistic Psychology

Abraham Maslow
Carl Rogers
Important Events in Humanistic Psychology
1961-Journal of Humanistic Psychology was established.

1962-American Association for Humanistic Psychology was formed.

1971-Humanistic psychology becomes an APA division.
Criticisms of Humanistic Psychology
Often seen as too subjective; the importance of individual experience makes it
difficult to objectively study and measure humanistic phenomena. How can we
objectively tell if someone is self-actualized? The answer, of course, is that we
cannot. We can only rely upon the individual's own assessment of their experience.
Observations are unverifiablethere is no accurate way to measure or quantify these
qualities.
Strong Points of Humanistic Psychology
Emphasizes the role of the individual; humanistic psychology gives more credit to
the individual in controlling and determining their state of mental health.
Takes environmental influence into account; rather than focusing solely on our
internal thoughts and desires, humanistic psychology also credits the environment's
influence on our experiences.
Humanistic psychology continues to influence therapy, education, healthcare, and
other areas.
Humanistic psychology helped remove some of the stigma attached to therapy, and
made it more acceptable for normal, healthy individuals to explore their abilities and
potential through therapy.
What Is Personality?
Almost everyday we describe and assess the personalities of the people around
us. Whether we realize it or not, these daily musings on how and why people behave as
they do are similar to what personality psychologists do.
While our informal assessments of personality tend to focus more on individuals,
personality psychologists instead use conceptions of personality that can apply to
everyone. Personality research has led to the development of a number of theories that
help explain how and why certain personality traits develop.
Components of Personality
While there are many different theories of personality, the first step is to
understand exactly what is meant by the term personality. A brief definition would be
that personality is made up of the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors that make a person unique. In addition to this, personality arises from within
the individual and remains fairly consistent throughout life.
Some of the fundamental characteristics of personality include:
Consistency - There is generally a recognizable order and regularity to behaviors.
Essentially, people act in the same ways or similar ways in a variety of situations.
Psychological and physiological - Personality is a psychological construct, but
research suggests that it is also influenced by biological processes and needs.
Impact behaviors and actions - Personality does not just influence how we move
and respond in our environment; it also causes us to act in certain ways.
Multiple expressions - Personality is displayed in more than just behavior. It can
also be seen in out thoughts, feelings, close relationships, and other social
interactions.

Theories of Personality
There are a number of different theories about how personality develops.
Different schools of thought in psychology influence many of these theories. Some of
these major perspectives on personality include:
Type theories are the early perspectives on personality. These theories suggested
that there are a limited number of "personality types" which are related to biological
influences.
Trait theories viewed personality as the result of internal characteristics that are
genetically based.
Psychodynamic theories of personality are heavily influenced by the work of
Sigmund Freud, and emphasize the influence of the unconscious on personality.
Psychodynamic theories include Sigmund Freuds psychosexual stage theory and
Erik Eriksons stages of psychosocial development.
Behavioral theories suggest that personality is a result of interaction between the
individual and the environment. Behavioral theorists study observable and
measurable behaviors, rejecting theories that take internal thoughts and feelings into
account. Behavioral theorists include B. F. Skinner and John Watson.
Humanist theories emphasize the importance of free will and individual experience
in the development of personality. Humanist theorists include Carl Rogers and
Abraham Maslow.
Leadership Theories - 8 Major Leadership Theories
Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century.
Early leadership theories focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and
followers, while subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational factors
and skill level. While many different leadership theories have emerged, most can be
classified as one of eight major types:
1. Great Man Theories:
Great Man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent that great
leaders are born, not made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic,
and destined to rise to leadership when needed. The term Great Man was used
because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality, especially
in terms of military leadership.
2. Trait Theories:
Similar in some ways to Great Man theories, trait theory assumes that people
inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait
theories often identify particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by
leaders. But if particular traits are key features of leadership, how do we explain people
who possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties
in using trait theories to explain leadership.
3. Contingency Theories:
Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the
environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for
the situation. According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations.
Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities
of the followers, and aspects of the situation.

4. Situational Theories:
Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based
upon situational variable. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for
certain types of decision-making.
5. Behavioral Theories:
Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are
made, not born. Rooted in behaviorism, this leadership theory focuses on the actions of
leaders, not on mental qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can
learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.
6. Participative Theories:
Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that
takes the input of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and
contributions from group members and help group members feel more relevant and
committed to the decision-making process. In participative theories, however, the
leader retains the right to allow the input of others.
7. Management Theories:
Management theories (also known as Transactional theories) focus on the role
of supervision, organization, and group performance. These theories base leadership on
a system of reward and punishment. Managerial theories are often used in business;
when employees are successful, they are rewarded; when they fail, they are
reprimanded or punished.
8. Relationship Theories:
Relationship theories (also known as Transformational theories) focus upon the
connections formed between leaders and followers. These leaders motivate and inspire
people by helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task.
Transformational leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also
want each person to fulfill his or her potential. These leaders often have high ethical
and moral standards.
Constructivist Theory
Constructivism is the label given to a set of theories about learning which fall
somewhere between cognitive and humanistic views. If behaviourism treats the
organism as a black box, cognitive theory recognises the importance of the mind in
making sense of the material with which it is presented. Nevertheless, it still
presupposes that the role of the learner is primarily to assimilate whatever the teacher
presents. Constructivism particularly in its "social" forms suggests that the learner
is much more actively involved in a joint enterprise with the teacher of creating
("constructing") new meanings.
We can distinguish between
"cognitive constructivism" which is about how the individual learner
understands things, in terms of developmental stages and learning styles,
and
"social constructivism", which emphasises how meanings and
understandings grow out of social encounterssee Vygotsky below.

In this sense, conversational theories of learning fit into the constructivist framework.
The emphasis is on the learner as an active "maker of meanings". The role of the teacher
is to enter into a dialogue with the learner, trying to understand the meaning to that
learner of the material to be learned, and to help her or him to refine their understanding
until it corresponds with that of the teacher.
One strand of constructivism may be traced to the writings of John
Dewey, On Dewey: this site as a whole is invaluablebookmark it who

emphasised the place of experience in education.

Another starts from the work of Piaget, who demonstrated empirically
that childrens minds were not empty, but actively processed the material
with which they were presented, and postulated the mechanisms of
accommodation and assimilation as key to this processing.
At the theoretical level connections can also be made with the Personal
Construct theory of George Kelly (the coincidence of terminology is no
accident).

Vygotsky
Note that Zone of Proximal Development (or just "ZPD"even better) has a very
high score on the jargon index! But the most significant bases of a social constructivist
theory were laid down by Vygotsky [1896-1934] (1962), in his theory of the "Zone of
Proximal Development" (ZPD). "Proximal" simply means "next". He observed that
when children were tested on tasks on their own, they rarely did as well as when they
were working in collaboration with an adult. It was by no means always the case that
the adult was teaching them how to perform the task, but that the process of engagement
with the adult enabled them to refine their thinking or their performance to make it more
effective. Hence, for him, the development of language and articulation of ideas was
central to learning and development. (See Daniels (1996) for an introduction to
Vygotsky.) The common-sense idea which fits most closely with this model is that of
"stretching" learners.
It is common in constructing skills check-lists to have columns for "cannot yet do",
"can do with help", and "can do alone". The ZPD is about "can do with help", not as a
permanent state but as a stage towards being able to do something on your own. The
key to "stretching" the learner is to know what is in that person's ZPDwhat comes
next, for them.
If you are of a psychoanalytic turn of mind, you may see clear links between the idea
of the ZPD and Winnicott's "potential space" which develops between baby and mother.
It is always interesting to find the same observations and ideas cropping up in quite
different frameworks.
The social dimension of learning is also central to the idea of situated learning and
communities of practice, although the interaction is a little more diffuse, and to the
social learning theories of Albert Bandura.
While constructivism has received more explicit attention in schools than in postcompulsory education, particularly through the influential work of Jerome Bruner (who
is credited with introducing Vygotsky to the West), its attention to pre-existing ideas
and understanding clearly has a lot to offer in post-compulsory education most
dramatically perhaps in the area of resistance to learning. Constructivist assumptions
are also implicit in the notion of learning through reflection in professional practice.

And Laurillard's conversational model of teaching in higher education is also based on

constructivist thinking.
Constructivism
Summary: Constructivism as a paradigm or worldview posits that learning is an active,
constructive process. The learner is an information constructor. People actively
construct or create their own subjective representations of objective reality. New
information is linked to to prior knowledge, thus mental representations are subjective.
Originators and important contributors: Vygotsky, Piaget, Dewey, Vico, Rorty, Bruner
Keywords: Learning as experience, activity and dialogical process; Problem Based
Learning (PBL); Anchored instruction; Vygotskys Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD); cognitive apprenticeship (scaffolding); inquiry and discovery learning.
Constructivism
A reaction to didactic approaches such as behaviorism and programmed instruction,
constructivism states that learning is an active, contextualized process of constructing
knowledge rather than acquiring it. Knowledge is constructed based on personal
experiences and hypotheses of the environment. Learners continuously test these
hypotheses through social negotiation. Each person has a different interpretation and
construction of knowledge process. The learner is not a blank slate (tabula rasa) but
brings past experiences and cultural factors to a situation.
NOTE: A common misunderstanding regarding constructivism is that instructors
should never tell students anything directly but, instead, should always allow them to
construct knowledge for themselves. This is actually confusing a theory of pedagogy
(teaching) with a theory of knowing. Constructivism assumes that all knowledge is
constructed from the learners previous knowledge, regardless of how one is taught.
Thus, even listening to a lecture involves active attempts to construct new knowledge.
Vygotskys social development theory is one of the foundations for constructivism.
Social Development Theory (Vygotsky)
Summary: Social Development Theory argues that social interaction precedes
development; consciousness and cognition are the end product of socialization and
social behavior.
Originator: Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934).
Key terms: Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)
Vygotskys Social Development Theory
Vygotskys Social Development Theory is the work of Russian psychologist Lev
Vygotsky (1896-1934), who lived during Russian Revolution. Vygotskys work was
largely unkown to the West until it was published in 1962.
Vygotskys theory is one of the foundations of constructivism. It asserts three major
themes:
Major themes:
1. Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive
development. In contrast to Jean Piagets understanding of child development
(in which development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social
learning precedes development. He states: Every function in the childs
cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the

individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the
child (intrapsychological). (Vygotsky, 1978).
2. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The MKO refers to anyone who has a
better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a
particular task, process, or concept. The MKO is normally thought of as being
a teacher, coach, or older adult, but the MKO could also be peers, a younger
person, or even computers.
3. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD is the distance between a
students ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer
collaboration and the students ability solving the problem independently.
According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this zone.
Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural context in
which they act and interact in shared experiences (Crawford, 1996). According to
Vygotsky, humans use tools that develop from a culture, such as speech and writing, to
mediate their social environments. Initially children develop these tools to serve solely
as social functions, ways to communicate needs. Vygotsky believed that the
internalization of these tools led to higher thinking skills.
Applications of the Vygotskys Social Development Theory
Many schools have traditionally held a transmissionist or instructionist model in which
a teacher or lecturer transmits information to students. In contrast, Vygotskys theory
promotes learning contexts in which students play an active role in learning. Roles of
the teacher and student are therefore shifted, as a teacher should collaborate with his or
her students in order to help facilitate meaning construction in students. Learning
therefore becomes a reciprocal experience for the students and teacher.
For more information, see:
Driscoll, M. P. (1994). Psychology of Learning for Instruction. Needham, MA:
Allyn & Bacon.
Crawford, K. (1996) Vygotskian approaches to human development in the
information era. Educational Studies in Mathematics. (31) 43-62.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental
processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wertsch, James V. Sohmer, Richard. (1995). Vygotsky on learning and
development. Human Development. (38 ) 332-37.
Category: Constructivist Theories
Social Development Theory (Vygotsky)
Summary: Social Development Theory argues that social interaction precedes
development; consciousness and cognition are the end product of socialization and
social behavior.
Originator: Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934).
Key terms: Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), More Knowledgeable Other
(MKO)
View details of this theory >>

Communities of Practice (Lave and Wenger)

Summary: Etienne Wenger summarizes Communities of Practice (CoP) as
groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn
how to do it better as they interact regularly. This learning that takes place is not
necessarily intentional. Three components are required in order to be a CoP: (1) the
domain, (2) the community, and (3) the practice.
Originators: Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger in 1991 and further elaborated in
1998.
Key Terms: domain, community, practice, identity, learning
View details of this theory >>
Constructivism
Summary: Constructivism as a paradigm or worldview posits that learning is an
active, constructive process. The learner is an information constructor. People actively
construct or create their own subjective representations of objective reality. New
information is linked to to prior knowledge, thus mental representations are subjective.
Originators and important contributors: Vygotsky, Piaget, Dewey, Vico, Rorty,
Bruner
Keywords: Learning as experience, activity and dialogical process; Problem
Based Learning (PBL); Anchored instruction; Vygotskys Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD); cognitive apprenticeship (scaffolding); inquiry and discovery
learning.
View details of this theory >>
Discovery Learning (Bruner)
Summary: Discovery Learning is a method of inquiry-based instruction,
discovery learning believes that it is best for learners to discover facts and relationships
for themselves.
Originator: Jerome Bruner (1915-)
Keywords: Inquiry-based learning, constructivism
View details of this theory >>
Stage Theory of Cognitive Development (Piaget)
Summary: Piagets Stage Theory of Cognitive Development is a description of
cognitive development as four distinct stages in children: sensorimotor, preoperational,
concrete, and formal.
Originator: Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
Key Terms: Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete, formal, accommodation,
assimilation.
Category: Social Learning Theories
Social Development Theory (Vygotsky)

Summary: Social Development Theory argues that social interaction precedes

development; consciousness and cognition are the end product of socialization and
social behavior.
Originator: Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934).
Key terms: Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), More Knowledgeable Other
(MKO)
View details of this theory >>
Communities of Practice (Lave and Wenger)
Summary: Etienne Wenger summarizes Communities of Practice (CoP) as
groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn
how to do it better as they interact regularly. This learning that takes place is not
necessarily intentional. Three components are required in order to be a CoP: (1) the
domain, (2) the community, and (3) the practice.
Originators: Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger in 1991 and further elaborated in
1998.
Key Terms: domain, community, practice, identity, learning