Syncope

Nabeel Kouka, MD, DO, MBA

www.brain101.info
 Syncope

! Definition
! Epidemiology
! Etiology
! Diagnosis & Evaluation Options
! Specific Conditions
 Syncope - Definitions
! ACP 1997 - Transient loss of consciousness (LOC)
with loss of postural tone, from which recovery is
spontaneous.
! ACEP 2001 - Sudden, transient LOC with inability to
maintain tone & is distinct from seizures, coma,
vertigo, hypoglycemia and other states of altered
consciousness.
! ESC 2001 - Transient, self limited LOC with a
relatively rapid onset and usually leading to fainting;
the subsequent recovery is spontaneous, complete,
and usually prompt.
! AFP 2005 - Transient loss of consciousness, usually
accompanied by falling, and with spontaneous
recovery.
 Syncope:
A Symptom…Not a Diagnosis

! Self-limited loss of consciousness and

postural tone
! Relatively rapid onset
! Variable warning symptoms
! Spontaneous complete recovery
 The Significance of Syncope

The only difference between

syncope and sudden death
is that in one you wake up.1

1 Engel GL. Psychologic stress, vasodepressor syncope, and sudden death. Ann Intern Med 1978; 89: 403-412.
 The Significance of Syncope

1
National Disease and Therapeutic Index on Syncope and Collapse, ICD-9-CM 780.2, IMS America, 1997
2
Blanc J-J, L’her C, Touiza A, et al. Eur Heart J, 2002; 23: 815-820.
3
Day SC, et al, AM J of Med 1982
4
Kapoor W. Evaluation and outcome of patients with syncope. Medicine 1990;69:160-175
 Syncope
Reported Frequency
! Individuals <18 yrs 15%

! Military Population 17- 46 yrs 20-25%

! Individuals 40-59 yrs* 16-19%

! Individuals >70 yrs* 23%

*during a 10-year period
Brignole M, Alboni P, Benditt DG, et al. Eur Heart J, 2001; 22: 1256-1306.
 The Significance of Syncope
infrequent,
unexplained:
38% to 47% 1-4

explained:
53% to 62%

! 500,000 new syncope patients each year 5

! 170,000 have recurrent syncope 6
! 70,000 have recurrent, infrequent, unexplained
syncope 1-4
1
Kapoor W, Med. 1990;69:160-175. 4 Kapoor W, et al. N Eng J Med. 1983;309:197-204.
2 Silverstein M, et al. JAMA. 1982;248:1185-1189. 5 National Disease and Therapeutic Index, IMS America, Syncope and Collapse #780.2; Jan 1997-Dec 1997.
3 Martin G, et al. Ann Emerg. Med. 1984;12:499-504. 6 Kapoor W, et al. Am J Med. 1987;83:700-708.
 The Significance of Syncope
! Some causes of syncope are potentially fatal
! Cardiac causes of syncope have the highest mortality
rates (5 year mortality - 50 %, 1 year mortality - 30 %)
25%

20%
Syncope Mortality

15%

10%

5%

0%
Overall Due to Cardiac Causes
1 Day SC, et al. Am J of Med 1982;73:15-23.
2 Kapoor W. Medicine 1990;69:160-175.
3 Silverstein M, Sager D, Mulley A. JAMA. 1982;248:1185-1189.

4 Martin G, Adams S, Martin H. Ann Emerg Med. 1984;13:499-504.

 Impact of Syncope
100%
73% 1 71% 2
80%
Proportion of Patients

60% 2

60%
37% 2
40%

20%

0%
Anxiety/ Alter Daily Restricted Change
Depression Activities Driving Employment

1Linzer, J Clin Epidemiol,

Epidemiol, 1991.
2Linzer, J Gen Int Med,
Med, 1994.
 Syncope - Mechanism

! Global cerebral hypoperfusion

! Interruption of sympathetic outflow
! Increased vagal tone
! Other mechanisms - edema, cerebral autoregulation,
central serotonin pathways.

The trigger for the switch in autonomic response remains one of the
unresolved mysteries in cardiovascular physiology*
Hainsworth. Syncope: what is the trigger? Heart 2003; 89: 123-124
 Syncope - Etiology

! Reflex mediated - 40%

! Unexplained - 25%
! Cardiac - 15%
! Others - 20%
" Orthostatic Hypotention
" Cerebrovascular / Neurologic
" Psychiatric
" Hypoglycemia
" Medications
 Syncope - Etiology
Reflex Structural Non-
Cardiac
(Neurally) Orthostatic Cardio- Cardio-
Arrhythmia
Mediated Pulmonary vascular

1 2 3 4
• Vasovagal • Drug 5
• Brady • Aortic
(common faint) Induced "Sick sinus
• Psychogenic
Stenosis • Metabolic
• Carotid Sinus • ANS "AV block
• HOCM
• Neuralgia Failure • Tachy e.g. hyper-
• Pulmonary
• Situational "Primary "VT* ventilation
"SVT Hypertension • Neurological
"Cough "Secondary
"Post- • Long QT
micturition Syndrome
24% 11% 14% 4% 12%

Unknown Cause = 34%

DG Benditt, UM Cardiac Arrhythmia Center
 Causes of Syncope1
Cause Prevalence Prevalence
(Mean) % (Range) %
Reflex-mediated:
!Vasovagal 18 8-37
!Situational 5 1-8
Carotid Sinus 1 0-4
Orthostatic hypotension 8 4-10
Medications 3 1-7
Psychiatric 2 1-7
Neurological 10 3-32
Organic Heart Disease 4 1-8
Cardiac Arrhythmias 14 4-38
Unknown 34 13-41
1Kapoor W. In Grubb B, Olshansky B (eds) Syncope: Mechanisms and Management. Armonk NY; Futura Publishing Co, Inc:
1998; 1-13.
 Causes of Syncope-like States

! Migraine*
! Acute hypoxemia*
! Hyperventilation*
! Somatization disorder (psychogenic syncope)
! Acute Intoxication (e.g., alcohol)
! Seizures
! Hypoglycemia
! Sleep disorders

* may cause ‘true’ syncope

 Syncope
Diagnostic Objectives

! Distinguish ‘True’ Syncope from other

‘Loss of Consciousness’ spells:
" Seizures
" Psychiatric disturbances
! Establish the cause of syncope with
sufficient certainty to:
" Assess prognosis confidently
" Initiate effective preventive treatment
 Initial Evaluation
(Clinic/Emergency Dept.)

! Detailed history
! Physical examination
! 12-lead ECG
! Echocardiogram (as available)
 Syncope
Basic Diagnostic Steps
! Detailed History & Physical
" Document details of events
" Assess frequency, severity
" Obtain careful family history

! Heart disease present?

" Physical exam
" ECG: long QT, WPW, conduction system disease
" Echo: LV function, valve status, HOCM

! Follow a diagnostic plan...

 Syncope
Evaluation and Differential Diagnosis
History – What to Look for

! Complete Description
" From patient and observers

! Type of Onset
! Duration of Attacks
! Posture
! Associated Symptoms
! Sequelae
 12-Lead ECG

! Normal or Abnormal?
" Acute MI
" Severe Sinus Bradycardia/pause
" AV Block
" Tachyarrhythmia (SVT, VT)
" Preexcitation (WPW), Long QT, Brugada

! Short sampling window (approx. 12 sec)

 Carotid Sinus Massage

! Site:
"Carotid arterial pulse just below thyroid cartilage

! Method:
" Right followed by left, pause between
" Massage, NOT occlusion
" Duration: 5-10 sec
" Posture – supine & erect
 Carotid Sinus Massage

! Outcome:
" 3 sec asystole and/or 50 mmHg fall in systolic blood
pressure with reproduction of symptoms =

Carotid Sinus Syndrome (CSS)

! Contraindications
" Carotid bruit, known significant carotid arterial disease,
previous CVA, MI last 3 months

! Risks
" 1 in 5000 massages complicated by TIA
 Head-up Tilt Test (HUT)

! Unmasks VVS
susceptibility
! Reproduces symptoms
! Patient learns VVS
warning symptoms
! Physician is better able
to give prognostic /
treatment advice
 Electroencephalogram

! Not a first line of testing

! Syncope from Seizures
"Abnormal in the interval between two
attacks – Epilepsy
"Normal – Syncope
 Ambulatory ECG

Method Comments
Holter (24-48 hours) Useful for infrequent events

Event Recorder !Useful for infrequent events

!Limited value in sudden LOC
Loop Recorder !Useful for infrequent events
!Implantable type more
convenient (ILR)
Wireless (internet) Initiated
Event Monitoring
 ®
Reveal Plus
Insertable Loop Recorder

Patient Activator Reveal® Plus ILR 9790 Programmer

 Conventional EP Testing in Syncope

! Limited utility in syncope evaluation

! Most useful in patients with structural heart

disease
" Heart disease……..50-80%
" No Heart disease…18-50%

! Relatively ineffective for assessing

bradyarrhythmias

Brignole M, Alboni P, Benditt DG, et al. Eur Heart Journal 2001; 22: 1256-1306.
 Diagnostic Limitations

! Difficult to correlate
spontaneous events and
laboratory findings
! Often must settle for an
attributable cause
! Unknowns remain 20-30% 1

1Kapoor W. In Grubb B, Olshansky B (eds) Syncope: Mechanisms and Management. Armonk NY; Futura Publishing Co, Inc:
1998; 1-13.
 Challenges of Syncope
! Cost
" Cost/year
" Cost/diagnosis

! Quality of Life Implications

" Work/financial
" Mobility (automobiles)
" Psychological

! Diagnosis & Treatment

" Diagnostic yield and repeatability of tests
" Frequency and clustering of events
" Difficulty in managing/treating/controlling future events
" Appropriate risk stratification
" Complex Etiology
 Unexplained Syncope Diagnosis
History and Physical Exam
Surface ECG

ENT Evaluation Endocrine

Evaluation
CV Syncope
Workup
Neurological Other CV
Testing • Holter
Testing
• ELR or ILR
• Head CT Scan • Angiogram
• Tilt Table
• Carotid Doppler • Exercise Test
• Echo
• MRI • SAECG
• EPS
• Skull Films
• Brain Scan
• EEG
Psychological
Evaluation Adapted from: W.Kapoor.An overview of the evaluation
and management of syncope. From Grubb B, Olshansky B (eds)
Syncope: Mechanisms and Management.
Armonk, NY: Futura Publishing Co., Inc.1998.
Typical Cardiovascular Diagnostic Pathway
Syncope

History and Physical, ECG

Known No
SHD SHD

> 30 days; < 30 days

Echo
> 2 Events
EPS
Tilt
Tilt Holter/ ELR
- + ILR ILR

Tilt/ILR Treat Adapted from:

Linzer M, et al. Annals of Int Med, 1997. 127:76-86.
Syncope: Mechanisms and Management. Grubb B, Olshansky B (eds) Futura Publishing 1999
Zimetbaum P, Josephson M. Annals of Int Med, 1999. 130:848-856.
Krahn A et al. ACC Current Journal Review,1999. Jan/Feb:80-84.
Specific Conditions
Neurally-Mediated Reflex Syncope
(NMS)

! Vasovagal syncope (VVS)

! Carotid sinus syndrome (CSS)
! Situational syncope
" post-micturition
" cough
" swallow
" defecation
" blood drawing
" etc.
 NM Reflex Syncope:
Pathophysiology

! Multiple triggers
! Variable
contribution of
vasodilatation and
bradycardia
 NMS – Basic Pathophysiology
Feedback via
Cerebral Carotid Baroreceptors
Cortex Other Mechanoreceptors
Baro-
Parasympathetic (+) receptors

Heart

sympathetic (+) ! Heart Rate

! AV
Conduction
Vascular
Bed Bradycardia/
Hypotension
_
Vasodilatation
Benditt DG, Lurie KG, Adler SW, et al. Pathophysiology of vasovagal syncope. In: Neurally mediated syncope: Pathophysiology, investigations and treatment. Blanc
JJ, Benditt D, Sutton R. Bakken Research Center Series, v. 10. Armonk, NY: Futura, 1996
 Vasovagal Syncope (VVS):
Clinical Pathophysiology

! Neurally Mediated Physiologic Reflex

Mechanism with two Components:

"Cardioinhibitory ( HR )
"Vasodepressor ( BP )

! Both components are usually present

 Diagnosing VVS

! Patient history and physical exam

! Positive tilt table test
" Overnight fast
" ECG
" Blood pressure
" Supine and upright
60° - 80°
" Tilt to 60-80 degrees
" Isoproterenol
" Re-tilt

DG Benditt, Tilt Table Testing, 1996.

Management Strategies for VVS

! Optimal management strategies for VVS are a

source of debate
" Patient education, reassurance, instruction
" Fluids, salt, diet
" Tilt Training
" Support hose

! Drug therapies
! Pacing
" Class II indication for VVS patients with positive HUT and
cardioinhibitory or mixed reflex
VVS: Treatment Overview
! Education
" symptom recognition
" reassurance
" situation avoidance

! Tilt-Training
" prescribed upright posture

! Pharmacologic Agents
" salt/volume management
" beta-adrenergic blockers
" SSRIs
" vasoconstrictors (e.g., midodrine)

! Cardiac Pacemakers
 VVS: Tilt-Training

! Objectives
" Enhance Orthostatic Tolerance
" Diminish Excessive Autonomic Reflex
Activity
" ReduceSyncope Susceptibility /
Recurrences
! Technique
" Prescribed Periods of Upright Posture
" Progressive Increased Duration
 VVS: Pharmacologic Rx
! Salt /Volume
" Salt tablets, ‘sport’ drinks, fludrocortisone

! Beta-adrenergic blockers
" 1 positive controlled trial (atenolol),
" 1 on-going RCT (POST)

! Disopyramide
! SSRIs
" 1 controlled trial

! Vasoconstrictors (e.g., midodrine)

" 1 negative controlled trial (etilephrine)
 Pacing in VVS

! Recent clinical studies demonstrated

benefits of pacing in select VVS patients:
" VPS I
" VASIS
" SYDIT
" VPS II –Phase I
" ROME VVS Trial
 VVS Pacing Trials Conclusions

DDD pacing reduces the risk of syncope

in patients with recurrent, refractory,
highly-symptomatic, cardioinhibitory
vasovagal syncope.
Carotid Sinus Syndrome (CSS)

! Syncope clearly associated with carotid

sinus stimulation is rare (!1% of
syncope)

! CSS may be an important cause of

unexplained syncope / falls in older
individuals
 Etiology of CSS

! Sensory nerve endings in the

carotid sinus walls respond to
deformation
! “Deafferentation” of neck muscles
may contribute
! Increased afferent signals to brain
stem
Carotid Sinus ! Reflex increase in efferent vagal
activity and diminution of
sympathetic tone results in
bradycardia and vasodilation
Carotid Sinus Hypersensitivity(CSH)

! Abnormal response to CSM

! Absence of symptoms attributable to CSS
! CSH reported frequent in ‘fallers’ (Kenny)

CSH ! CSS
 CSS and Falls in the Elderly

! 30% of people >65 yrs of age fall each year1

" Total is 9,000,000 people in USA
" Approximately 10% of falls in elderly persons are due to
syncope2

! 50% of fallers have documented recurrence3

! Prevalence of CSS among frequent and
unexplained fallers unknown but…
" CSH present in 23% of >50 yrs fallers presenting at ER 3

1Fallingin the Elderly: U.S. Prevalence Data. Journal of the American Geriatric Society, 1995.
2 Campbell et al: Age and Aging 1981;10:264-270.
3Richardson DA, Bexton RS, et al. Prevalence of cardioinhibitory carotid sinus hypersensitivity in patients 50 years or over presenting

to the Accident and Emergency Department with “unexplained” or “recurrent” falls. PACE 1997
 Role of Pacing in CSS --
Syncope Recurrence Rate
75% Class I indication for
pacing (AHA and BPEG)
57%
Limit pacing to CSS that
% Recurrence

50% is:
•Cardioinhibitory
•Mixed
25% %6
DDD/DDI superior to VVI
(Mean follow-up = 6 months)
0%
No Pacing Pacing

Brignole et. Al. Diagnosis, natural history and treatment. Eur JCPE. 1992; 4:247-254
 Principal Causes of
Orthostatic Syncope
! Drug-induced (very common)
" diuretics
" vasodilators

! Primary autonomic failure

" multiple system atrophy
" Parkinsonism

! Secondary autonomic failure

" diabetes
" alcohol
" amyloid

! Alcohol
" orthostatic intolerance apart from neuropathy
Syncope Due to Arrhythmia or Structural
CV Disease:
General Rules
! Often life-threatening and/or exposes
patient to high risk of injury
! May be warning of critical CV disease
" Aortic stenosis, Myocardial ischemia, Pulmonary
hypertension

! Assess culprit arrhythmia / structural

abnormality aggressively
! Initiate treatment promptly
Principal Causes of Syncope due to
Structural Cardiovascular Disease
! Acute MI / Ischemia
" Acquired coronary artery disease
" Congenital coronary artery anomalies
! HOCM
! Acute aortic dissection
! Pericardial disease / tamponade
! Pulmonary embolus / pulmonary
hypertension
! Valvular abnormalities
" Aortic stenosis, Atrial myxoma
Syncope Due to Cardiac Arrhythmias

! Bradyarrhythmias
" Sinus arrest, exit block
" High grade or acute complete AV block

! Tachyarrhythmias
" Atrial fibrillation / flutter with rapid ventricular
rate (e.g. WPW syndrome)
" Paroxysmal SVT or VT
" Torsades de pointes
 Rhythms During Recurrent Syncope

Bradycardia
Normal Sinus 36%
Rhythm
Normal Sinus Rhythm
58%
58%
Tachyarrhythmia
6%

Krahn A, et al. Circulation. 1999; 99: 406-410

 Treatment of Syncope Due to
Bradyarrhythmia

! Class I indication for pacing using dual-

chamber system wherever adequate
atrial rhythm is available
! Ventricular pacing in atrial fibrillation
with slow ventricular response
 Treatment of Syncope Due to
Tachyarrhythmia
! Atrial Tachyarrhythmias;
" AVRT due to accessory pathway – ablate pathway
" AVNRT – ablate AV nodal slow pathway
" Atrial fib#– Pacing, linear / focal ablation, ICD selected pts
" Atrial flutter – Ablation of reentrant circuit

! Ventricular Tachyarrhythmias;
" Ventricular tachycardia – ICD or ablation where appropriate
" Torsades de Pointes – withdraw offending Rx or ICD (long-
QT/Brugada)

! Drug therapy may be an alternative in many

cases
 Conclusion

Syncope is a common symptom,

often with dramatic consequences,
which deserves thorough investigation
and appropriate treatment of its cause.
 Conclusion

Syncope is a common symptom,

often with dramatic consequences,
which deserves thorough investigation
and appropriate treatment of its cause.