Dir OC + EF Protn - APPS

Application of Directional
Overcurrent
and Earthfault Protection
GRID
Technical Institute
This document is the exclusive property of Alstom Grid and shall not be
transmitted by any means, copied, reproduced or modified without the prior
written consent of Alstom Grid Technical Institute. All rights reserved.
Directional Protection
> Directional Overcurrent and Earthfault Protection
Need for Directional Control

Generally required if current can flow in both directions
through a relay location
e.g. Parallel feeder circuits
Ring Main Circuits
2.1
1.7
1.3
0.9
0.5
0.1

Ring Main Circuits
2.1
1.7
1.3
0.9
0.5
0.1
Grading has now been lost !

Ring Main Circuits
0.9
0.1
0.5
0.5
0.1
0.9
Relays operate for current flow in direction indicated

(Typical operating times shown)
Ring Main Circuit

With ring closed :
Both load and fault current may flow in either
direction along feeder circuits
Thus, directional relays are required
Note: Directional relays look into the feeder
Need to establish setting philosophy
51
67
67
67
Load
51
67
Load
67
67
Load
6
Ring Main Circuit

Procedure :
1.
Open ring at A
Grade : A' - E' - D' - C' - B'

2.
Open ring at A'

Grade : A - B - C - D - E
Typical operating times shown.

Note : Relays B, C, D, E may be non-directional.
A
B'
C'
B
1.7
A'
0.1
0.5
1.3
E'
0.1
1.3
0.9
0.9
D'
0.5
1.7
Ring System with Two Sources

Discrimination between all relays is not possible due to different
requirements under different ring operating conditions.
For F1 :- B must operate before A
For F2 :- B must operate after A
Not
Compatible
B
F1
B'
C'
A'
F2
8
D'
8
Ring System with Two Sources

Option 1
Trip least important source instantaneously then treat as normal ring
main.
Option 2
Fit pilot wire protection to circuit A - B and consider as common source

B
busbar.
Option 1
50
Option 1
PW
PW
Option 2
Option 2
Option 1
Parallel Feeders
Non-Directional Relays :-
51 A
51 C
51 B
51 D
Load
Conventional Grading :Grade A with C

and Grade B with D
Relays A and B have

the same setting.
10
Operating Time
A&B
C&D
Fault level
at F
10
Parallel Feeders
Consider fault on one feeder :I1 + I2
I1
51 A
51 B
I2
51
51
LOAD
Relays C and D see the same fault current (I2). As C and

D have similar settings both feeders will be tripped.
11
11
Parallel Feeders
Solution:- Directional Control at C and D
I1 + I2
I1
51 A
51 B
C
I2
67
LOAD
67
Relay D does not operate due to current flow in the reverse

direction.
12
12
Parallel Feeders
Setting philosophy for directional relays
E
51 A
Load
67
51
51 B
67
Load current always flows in non-operate direction.

Any current flow in operate direction is indicative of a fault
condition.
13
13
Parallel Feeders
Usually, relays are set :-
14
50% of full load current (note thermal rating)
IDMT rather than DT
Minimum T.M.S. (0.1)
14
Parallel Feeder Application

Grade A with B with C at If1
(single feeder in service)
If3
P
B
Grade B with D at If3=If1

(upper feeder open at P)
Load
Load
A
B
If1
If2
Grade A with B at If2

(both feeders in service)
- check that sufficient margin exists

for bus fault at Q when relay A sees
total fault current If2, but relay B
sees only If2/2.
A
M = Margin
M
M
If2/2 If1If2
15
Ifmax
15
Partial Differential Scheme

Grid supply
P1
P2
S1
67
S2
67
51
S2 S1
P2
P1
51
51
51
Advantage : Reduced number of grading

stages
16
16
Establishing Direction
17
17
Establishing Direction:- Polarising Quantity
The DIRECTION of Alternating Current may only be

determined with respect to a COMMON REFERENCE.
In relaying terms, the REFERENCE is called the POLARISING

QUANTITY.
The most convenient reference quantity is POLARISING

VOLTAGE taken from the Power System Voltages.
18
18
Directional Decision by Phase Comparison (1)

S1 = Reference Direction = Polarising Signal = VPOL
S2 = Current Signal = I
OPERATION when S2 is within 90 of S1 :S
S
19
19
Directional Decision by Phase Comparison (2)

RESTRAINT when S2 lags S1 by between 90 and 270 :S1
S2
S2
S2
S2
S2
S2
20
S2
20
Polarising Voltage for A Phase Overcurrent Relay
21
OPERATE SIGNAL =
IA
POLARISING SIGNAL :-
Which voltage to use ?

Selectable from
VA
VB
VC
VA-B
VB-C
VC-A
21
Directional Relay
Applied Voltage
Applied Current
:
:
VA
IA
VA
IA
Operate
IAF
VAF
Restrain
Question :
- is this connection suitable for a typical power system ?
22
22
Polarising Voltage
Applied Voltage : VBC
Applied Current : IA
VA
IA
IAF
VBC
MAXIMUM SENSITIVITY LINE
IVBC
VBC
ZERO SENSITIVITY
LINE
23
Polarising voltage remains

healthy
Fault current is near centre
of characteristic
23
Relay Connection Angle

The angle between the current applied to the relay and the
voltage applied to the relay at system unity power factor
e.g. 90 (Quadrature) Connection :
IA and VBC
IA
VA
90
VBC
VC
VB
The 90 connection is now used for all overcurrent relays.

30 and 60 connections were also used in the past, but no
longer, as the 90 connection gives better performance.
24
24
Relay Characteristic Angle (R.C.A.)

for Electronic Relays
The angle by which the current applied to the relay must be
displaced from the voltage applied to the relay to produce maximum
operational sensitivity
e.g. 45
OPERATE
RESTRAIN
45
25
IA FOR MAXIMUM OPERATE

SENSITIVITY
VA
RCA
VBC
25
90 Connection - 45 R.C.A.
MAX SENSITIVITY
LINE
OPERATE
IA
VA
RESTRAIN
45
90
45
VBC
VC
26
IA FOR MAX
SENSITIVITY
VA
135
VBC
VB
RELAY
CURRENT
VOLTAGE
IA
VBC
IB
VCA
IC
VAB
26
90 Connection - 30 R.C.A.
OPERATE
MAX
SENSITIVITY
LINE
RESTRAIN
IA
VA
IA FOR MAX
SENSITIVITY
VA
30
90
VBC
VC
27
30
150
VBC
VB
RELAY
CURRENT
VOLTAGE
IA
VBC
IB
VCA
IC
VAB
27
Selection of R.C.A. (1)

Overcurrent Relays
90 connection 30 RCA (lead)
Plain feeder, zero sequence source behind relay
28
28

Plain Feeder
900 Connection
RCA = 300
Zero seq source
behind relay
From
Sonnemans paper
29
29

90 connection 45 RCA (lead)
Plain or Transformer Feeder :- Only Zero Sequence Source is in
Front of Relay
Transformer Feeder :- Delta/Star Transformer in Front of Relay
30
30

Plain Or
Transformer
Feeder
900 Connection
RCA = 450
Zero seq source
In front of relay
From
Sonnemans paper
31
31

Transformer
Feeder
900 Connection
RCA = 450
/Y transformer
in front of relay
From
Sonnemans paper
32
32
Directional Earthfault Protection
33
33
Directional Earth Fault

Requirements are similar to directional overcurrent
i.e.
need operating signal

and polarising signal
Operating Signal
obtained from residual connection of line CT's
i.e. Iop = 3Io
Polarising Signal
The use of either phase-neutral or phase-phase voltage as
the reference becomes inappropriate for the comparison with
residual current.
Most appropriate polarising signal is the residual voltage.
34
34
Residual Voltage (1)

May be obtained from broken delta V.T. secondary.
A
B
C
VA-G
VB-G
VC-G
VRES = VA-G + VB-G + VC-G = 3V0

VRES
Notes :
35
1.
VT primary must be earthed.
2.
VT must be of the '5 limb' construction (or 3 x single phase units)

35

E
Solidly Earthed System
ZS
ZL
A-G
VA
VA
VB VC
VC
VA
VB
VB VC
VRES
VA
VB
VC
VC
VB
VRES
VB
VC
Residual Voltage at R (relaying point) is dependant upon ZS / ZL ratio.
VRES
36
2ZS1
ZS0
ZS0 2ZL1
Z L0
x 3E
36

Resistance Earthed System
S
ZS
ZL
ZE
A-G
G
VA-G
VA-G
G.F
VC-G
VB-G VC-G
VRES
VA-G
VB-G
37
2ZS1
VB-G
VA-G
ZS0 3ZE
ZS0 2ZL1 Z L0
VB-G VC-G
VRES
VC-G
VRES
G.F
G.F
VRES
VB-G
VC-G
VC-G
3ZE
VB-G
x 3E
37
Relay Characteristic Angle (R.C.A.)

Voltage Polarising Signal
Rotate VRES by 180O to obtain voltage polarisation signal
0O, -45O or -60O R.C.A. applied for maximum sensitivity
OPERATE
e.g. - 45
RESTRAIN
VA
MAX SENSITIVITY
LINE
VF
IRES FOR MAX

SENSITIVITY
-45
Rotate VRES by 180
VC
38
VRES
VB
38
Residual Voltage Polarisation

Relay Characteristic Angle
0 - Resistance/Petersen Coil earthed systems
-45 (I lags V) - Distribution systems (solidly earthed)
-60 (I lags V) - Transmission systems (solidly earthed)

+90 (I leads V) - Insulated systems
Zero Sequence Network :ZS0
3R
I0
ZL0
V0
(Relay Point)
V0 = 0 - I0 (ZS0 + 3R)
39
39
Ancillary Functions
Dealing with Load Encroachment
Modern directional relays provide load blinders
Blinders block directional element during healthy system conditions
Blinders are disabled using typical starters such as undervoltage

and neg sequence current
This permits appropriate pick-up settings to be used for the
directional element
Typical blinder configuration

40
40
Application (1/11)
Typical UK Sub-Transmission Protection System
Distance protection (21), without signalling, is commonly used at
sub-transmission levels
Intertripping is used to supplement the distance protection by
opening the LV breaker
Faults at F1 cleared by:

Distance protection at CB1
and CB2
Intertripping to CB4
DOC (67) provides back-up in the
event of intertripping failure
CB1
Sub Transmission Network
CB2
21
F1
IT
67
CB3
CB4
LV Network
Intertripping
Channel
Embedded
generation
LV Load
41
41
Application (2/11)
Directional Protection
DOC protection without embedded generation : Protection is naturally insensitive to load current (IA-LOAD), by virtue of its
direction
Since load current resides in the restraining region, a setting of 0.5In is

often selected
CB1
IAF
VA
IAF
RCA
Restrain
F1(A
Normal
Load
Direction
(IA-LOAD)
-B)
45
VBC
(VPOL)
IAF
67
CB3
42
Operate
CB2
VC
IA-LOAD
VB
CB4
42
Application (3/11)
Impact of Embedded Generation
Excess generation is exported back on to the sub-transmission network
Exported current (IA-EXP) resides in the operate region
Unless measures are taken, the DOC relay mal-operates during peak
export conditions
Increase threshold?
CB1
IA-EXP
67
CB3
43
RCA
VA
IA-EXP
Normal
Load
Direction
(IA-LOAD)
Operate
CB2
Restrain
IA-EXP
45
Embedded
Generation
VC
IA-LOAD
VBC
(VPOL)
VB
CB4
43
Application (4/11)
Problem.
Increasing the current setting (IS) to, say, 1.2In ensures stability of the
DOC protection during peak export conditions. But.
Reducing the sensitivity creates a potential blind spot for the DOC
protection. This is a problem if :-
IF1
The intertripping scheme fails

to function and we are reliant
of the DOC relay to clear the
fault
CB1
IF1+
IF2
IF1
The embedded generation is

67
CB3
Potential
Blind Spot
IS > (IF1+ IF2)

Embedded
Generation
minimal or none existent

during the fault condition
44
CB2
CB4
IF2
44
Application (5/11)
Solution DOC with Load Blinding
Load blinding originates from distance protection relays:
Relay determines the difference between fault and load conditions by
the change in system impedance
DOC protection is:

Inhibited during load conditions, thus permitting export of excess generation
Allowed to operate for faults providing the correct direction
IF1
VS
CB2
CB1
Z in front
of relay
jX
Fault Impedance
(F)
IF1+ IF2
IF1
Potential
Blind Spot
Load Locus
(lagging VARs)
IS > (IF1+ IF2)
R
Embedded
Generation
Load Locus
(leading VARs)
Z behind
relay
67
CB3
Load Blinder
CB4
VS
45
45
Application (6/11)
Load Blinder Characteristic
4 main settings denote the shape and behaviour of the blinder
characteristic:-
ZMIN
V<
I2>
Minimum impedance threshold

Load angle setting
Voltage threshold to disable load blinder

Negative sequence threshold to disable load blinder
jX
How to set?
ZMIN2
46
ZMIN1
Load Locus
Load Locus
(Import)
(Export)
46
Application(7/11)
Load Blinder Settings
ZMIN1 Minimum impedance threshold (Export)
Set below the minimum load impedance

Based upon rated current and rated voltage
Include safety margin if required
ZMIN (primary)
Rated Primary Vo ltage (ph - ph)

3 CT Primary Rating
m arg in
Example: for a 33kV system with a 600/5 CT (no margin):

ZMIN (primary)
33 10 3
3 600
31 .7
ZMIN2 Not required as imported load is naturally in the restraining

region of the DOC relay
47
47
Application (8/11)
Load Blinder Setting
Load angle setting
Set above worst case power factor angle

Include safety margin of typically 15
Equal in inductive and capacitive reactance regions ( 1 =

Hence :1
COS -1 Power Factor
2)
15
Example: lowest power factor = 0.85:

1
48
COS -1 0.85
15
47
48
Application (9/11)
Load Blinder Setting
V<
Undervoltage threshold
Designed to disable the load blinder during fault conditions

Must disable load blinder for faults with minimum embedded generation
(VFAULT
0.5VN)
Disabling load blinder for faults with maximum embedded generation

less important due to increase in fault current
Recommended setting = 0.7VN

Hence :-
Example: For 33kV system:

V
0.7
33 10 3
3
13.3kV
i.e. Operates if any ph-n

voltage falls below 13.3kV
49
Fault Impedance
(HV fault)
jX
Import region
naturally
blocked by
DOC blinder
characteristic.
ZMIN =
31.7
Restraining
region
47
47
Restraining
region
49
Application (10/11)
Load Blinder Characteristic Setting Criteria (I2>)
I2>
Negative sequence current threshold

Designed to disable the load blinder during unbalanced fault conditions where the
phase to neutral voltage collapse is insufficient (common with delta / star
transformers)
Phase to Phase to Ground being the worst case

Calculation assumes zero arc resistance to ground resulting in lowest possible I2
component
Sequence analysis gives the following setting guideline :-
I2
0.38IS
Example: Assuming IS = 0.5 IFLC

132kV
I2
0.38
0.5 524
600
0.166 A sec
i.e. Load blinder turns off if
30MVA
I2 component is above 0.166A sec

600/1
50
33kV
67
Full load current (IFLC)

= 524A at 33kV
50
Application (11/11)
Hybrid Load Blinder / DOC Characteristic
(A-Phase Element)
Import / Export Load
Conditions
51
Fault Condition
51
Insulated Systems (1)

a b c
Ica
Icb
Ic
Ica
Icb
Source
Ic
Ica
Icb
3Ic
2Ic
Location CT's
52
52
Insulated Systems (2)

Faulty Feeder
VRES
a
Ic
Icb
Ica
-3Ic
c
Healthy Feeders
VRES
VRES
RCA
Operate
Restrain
VPOL
53
-2Ic
Ic = Ica + Icb
RCA
Operate
Restrain
VPOL
53
Peterson Coil Earthed Systems (1)

a b c
Ica
Icb
Ic
Ica
Icb
Source
Ic
IL
Ica
Icb
IL
Ic
3Ic
2Ic
Location of CT's
IL
54
54
55
55
56
56
Negative Phase Sequence Voltage Polarisation

Transmission Systems
Directional earth fault used as back-up protection
Can form part of a directional scheme
VRES might be unreliable due to mutual coupling

Unsuitable VT for VRES measurement (i.e. open delta, 3-limb)
Negative Sequence Network :ZS2
I2
ZL2
ZS1=ZS2
V2
ZL1=ZL2
(Relay Point)
V2 = 0 I2 (ZS2)
58
58
Current Polarising
A solidly earthed, high fault level (low source impedance) system
may result in a small value of residual voltage at the relaying point. If
residual voltage is too low to provide a reliable polarising signal then
a current polarising signal may be used as an alternative.
The current polarising signal may be derived from a CT located in a
suitable system neutral to earth connection.
e.g.
OP
POL
DEF Relay
59
59
Current Polarising (1)
OP
POL
INCORRECT
DEF RELAY
Direction of current depends on fault

position
60
60
OP
POL
61
DEF RELAY
CORRECT
61
POL
62
OP
DEF RELAY
CORRECT IF
ZLO + ZSO IS
POSITIVE
62
OP
POL
63
DEF RELAY
CORRECT
63
Virtual Current Polarising (1)

The faulted phase is not considered in the residual
voltage calculation.
Faulted Phase Polarising
A
B
C
VB + V C
VA + VC
VA + VC
The polarising quantity is in the same direction as
Vres.
Applicable even where solid earthing immediately behind
the IED prevents residual voltage from being developed.
64
64
Auto Transformers (1)

ZT
SOURCE
ZH
ZL
ZS SOURCE
DEF
RELAY
Neutral connection is suitable for current

polarising if earthfault current flows up the
neutral for faults on H.V. & L.V. sides.
65
65
For LV Faults
IH
IL
IN = 3 (ILO - IHO)
67
67
For HV Faults
IH
IL
IN = 3 (IHO - ILO)
68
68
Auto-Transformer Example
ZS
L
IN = 3 (IHO - ILO)
IH0
ZH0
ZL0
IL0
ZS0
I0
ZT0
69
69
H0
0 in p.u.
MVAbase
0 x
in kA
3 x kVH
L0
70
Z T0
Z T0
Z S0
ZL0
Z T0
Z T0
Z S0
MVA base
. 0 x
in kA
ZL0
3 x kVL
. 0 in p.u.
70
3 0 .MVAbase
1
1
3
kVH kVL Z T0
N is
ve if
1
kVH
kVH
or
kVL Z T0
71
1
kVL Z T0
Z T0
Z S0
ZL0
Z T0
Z S0
Z T0
Z S0
ZL0
ZL0
71
T
ZS
L
IN = 3 (ILO - IHO)
IH0
ZH0
ZL0
IL0
ZS0
I0
ZT0
IH0 = 0
72
IN = 3IL0 which is +ve.
72
Directional Control
Static Relay (MCGG + METI)
M.T.A. Selectable
Characteristic Selectable
51
I
V
67
Overcurrent Unit
(Static)
73
Directional Unit
(Static)
73
Numerical Relay Directional Characteristic
Characteristic angle c
c = -95
0
95
in 1 steps
Zone of
forward start
forward operation
+Is
(c - 90)
Polarising thresholds
Vp 2V to 320V
in 2V steps
(c + 90)
-Is
Reverse start
VT supervision
selectively block operation
74
74

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Application of Directional

> Directional Overcurrent and Earthfault Protection

Need for Directional Control

> Directional Overcurrent and Earthfault Protection

Need for Directional Control

Grading has now been lost !

> Directional Overcurrent and Earthfault Protection

Need for Directional Control

Relays operate for current flow in direction indicated

> Directional Overcurrent and Earthfault Protection

Ring Main Circuit

> Directional Overcurrent and Earthfault Protection

Ring Main Circuit

Grade : A' - E' - D' - C' - B'

Open ring at A'

Typical operating times shown.

> Directional Overcurrent and Earthfault Protection

Ring System with Two Sources

For F2 :- B must operate after A

> Directional Overcurrent and Earthfault Protection

Ring System with Two Sources

Fit pilot wire protection to circuit A - B and consider as common source

> Directional Overcurrent and Earthfault Protection

Conventional Grading :Grade A with C

Relays A and B have

> Directional Overcurrent and Earthfault Protection

Relays C and D see the same fault current (I2). As C and

> Directional Overcurrent and Earthfault Protection

Relay D does not operate due to current flow in the reverse

> Directional Overcurrent and Earthfault Protection

Load current always flows in non-operate direction.

> Directional Overcurrent and Earthfault Protection

Usually, relays are set :-

50% of full load current (note thermal rating)

IDMT rather than DT

Minimum T.M.S. (0.1)

> Directional Overcurrent and Earthfault Protection

Parallel Feeder Application

Grade B with D at If3=If1

Grade A with B at If2

- check that sufficient margin exists

> Directional Overcurrent and Earthfault Protection

Partial Differential Scheme

Advantage : Reduced number of grading

> Directional Overcurrent and Earthfault Protection

> Directional Overcurrent and Earthfault Protection

Establishing Direction:- Polarising Quantity

The DIRECTION of Alternating Current may only be

In relaying terms, the REFERENCE is called the POLARISING

The most convenient reference quantity is POLARISING

> Directional Overcurrent and Earthfault Protection

Directional Decision by Phase Comparison (1)

> Directional Overcurrent and Earthfault Protection

Directional Decision by Phase Comparison (2)

> Directional Overcurrent and Earthfault Protection

Polarising Voltage for A Phase Overcurrent Relay

Which voltage to use ?

> Directional Overcurrent and Earthfault Protection