Table of contents

Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

Continuous beams
A continuous beam is a statically indeterminate multispan beam on hinged support. The
end spans may be cantilever, may be freely supported or fixed supported. At least one of the
supports of a continuous beam must be able to develop a reaction along the beam axis.
An example of a continuous beam is presented in Fig. 1a. The supports are numbered from left to
right 1, 2, 3 and 4. The moment of inertia remains constant within the limits of each span, but
varies from one span to another.

I. Method of forces.
1. Statically determinate primary system.
The continuous beam in Fig. 1a has three redundant constraints. The statically determinate
primary system may be obtained by elimination of constraints considered as redundant. The most
intuitive primary system is a simply supported beam, obtained by elimination of internal supports
and elimination the constraint developing bending moment in the first fixed support. The most
effective (efficient) primary system for continuous beam is proposed by Clapeyron (French
engineer and physicist 1799-1864). His primary statically determinate system is obtained by
elimination of the constraints which prevent mutual rotation of two neighbouring sections over
the supports. With other words the primary system is obtained by putting a hinge at each internal
support as shown in Fig. 1b. In our case we should introduce a hinge in the first fixed support (if
this point were freely supported the hinges would be introduced over the internal supports only).
2. Canonical equations
The canonical equations expressing mathematically that the angles of every two neighbouring
sections over the supports, one with respect to the other remain nil, takes the following form:
11 X1 + 12 X 2 + 13 X 3 + 1 f = 0,

21 X1 + 22 X 2 + 23 X 3 + 2 f = 0,
31 X1 + 32 X 2 + 33 X 3 + 3 f = 0.
The coefficients of all unknowns as well as the free term will be calculated by using the diagrams
of the bending moments induced by unit couples acting along the direction of each redundant
constraint (Fig. 1 c, d and e) and the diagram due to the actual external load (Fig. 1f). In that
respect:

11 =

M12
1 1 3 1
ds =
=
;
EI
3 EI EI

M 22
1 1 3 1 1 5 1.8333
ds =
+
=
;
EI
3 EI 3 2 EI
EI
M2
1 1 5 1 1 6 2.8333
+
=
33 = 3 ds =
;
EI
3 2 EI 3 EI
EI

22 =

M1 M 2
1 1 3 0.5
=
ds =
;
6 EI EI
EI
M M3
13 = 31 = 1
ds = 0 ;
EI

12 = 21 =

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Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

M 2 M3
1 1 5
= 0.41667 ;
ds =
EI
6 2 EI
M1 M 0f
ds = 0 ;
1 f =
EI
M 2 M 0f
1 20 5 16.667
;
ds =
2 f =
=
3 2 EI
EI
EI
M 3 M 0f
1 20 5 1 ( 2 55 ) 6
101.67
.
3 f =
ds =

=
EI
EI
6 2 EI
6 EI

23 = 32 =

The coefficient 13 is zero. It could be concluded that all coefficients to the unknowns in the n-th
canonical equation with the exception of the coefficients n1,n , n,n and n,n+1 are zero. That
simplifies considerably calculation of the basic unknowns Xi using the force method. This
simplification is entirely due to the chosen primary system.
For the continuous beam under consideration the canonical equations take the form:
1 X1 + 0.5 X 2 = 0
0.5 X1 + 1.8333 X 2 + 0.41667 X 3 + 16.667 = 0
0.41667 X 2 + 2.8333 X 3 101.667 = 0.
Wherefrom the unknown moments become:
X1 = 10.386; X 2 = 20.773; X 3 = 38.937.
3. Internal forces diagrams
When all the moments of the supports are known, one may proceed with the determination of
bending moments within the spans, the shear forces and reactions developed at each support.
These computations will be carried out assuming that each span is a simply supported beam and
is acted upon both by the applied loads and the moments of the supports just determined (Fig.
1g). The final bending moment diagram Mf, applying the principle of superposition of applied
loads, could be obtained as:
M f = M ref + M base .

In the above equation M ref is the bending moment diagram in the primary system due to the
moments of the supports Xi (Fig. 1h); M base is the bending moment diagram in the primary
system due to the applied loads (Fig. 1i). This diagram coincides completely with M 0f . The
bending moment diagram of the original continuous beam ( M f ) is shown in Fig. 2a.
Having the bending moment graph M f available (Fig. 2a) the shear forces diagram can be
derived using the well known expression Q f = dM f dx . This graphics is depicted in Fig. 2b.
Finally, the reaction of any support is equal to the difference between the shear forces acting over
two adjacent cross sections located at both sides of the support under consideration. Thus, the
numerical value of this reaction will be equal to the jump in the shear diagram over the
corresponding support.

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Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

20
a)

2I

l1=3

4 I

l2=5

l3=6

l4=2

Simple statically determinate system

X1

b)

100

10

X2

X3

2I

X1=1

c)

M1
1.0

X2=1
M2

d)
1.0

X3=1
M3

e)
1.0

200
116.25
55

20

f)

X 1= 10.386

16.25

M 0f

100

10

20 X 3 = 38.937

g)

X 1= 10.386

20.773

X 2 = 20.773

Reference bending moment diagram

X 3 = 38.937
M ref

X 2 = 20.773

38.937

10.386

h)

200
116.25
55

i)

20

16.25

M base M 0f

Figure 1 Continuous beam. Bending moment diagrams due to the unit couples and applied loads.
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Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

100

10

20
I

l1=3

l2=5

l3=6

l4=2

35.532

20.773
0.773

10.386

18.328

17.765

12.953

Mf

10.386

a)

38.937

10.386

200

2I

106.51

169.823
100
+

b)
10.386

7.942

Qf
9.823
69.823

Figure 2 Diagrams of internal forces

4. Verifications
4.1 Equilibrium verification
V = 0 10.386 + 18.328 17.765 + 169.823 10 6 100 = 188.151 + 188.151;

M 0 = 0 10.386 18.328 3 + 17.765 8 169.823 14 + 20 + 10 6 11 + 100 16 = 2432.51 2432.51.

If the equilibrium verification is not fulfilled this means that some mistakes could have been
made in the bending moment diagrams due to the unit couples of moments or applied loads (in
the primary statically determinate system). Another error can be committed in the final bending
moment diagram during the summation of the ordinates of M ref and M base .
4.2 Compatibility verification
According to the principle of geometrical compatibility the mutual rotation of points of
application of Xi must be zero, because a constraint between these points is available in the real
continuous beam. In that respect the following relations must be satisfied:
1 =

M1 M f
EI

ds = 0

1 (2 10.386 20.773) 3
= 0;
6 EI

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Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

M2 M f

1 (2 20.733 10.386) 3 1 (2 0.733 + 38.937) 5 15.58 15.58

;

6 EI
6 2 EI
EI
EI
EI
M3 M f
1 (2 38.937 0.773) 5 1 (2 35.532 38.937) 6 32.125 32.126
.
3 =

ds = 0
6 2 EI
6 EI
EI
EI
EI
2 =

ds = 0

If only one of the compatibility verifications is not fulfilled, say the second equation 2 0 , the
probable errors are:
Error in the derivation of mutual rotation 22 due to the unit moments X2=1;
Error in the derivation of mutual rotation 2 f due to the applied loads;

The obtained mutual displacements Zi do not satisfy second canonical equation (this
equation does not equal to zero).

II. Slope and deflection method (Displacement method)

1. Kinematically determinate primary system
The unknowns of the slope and deflection method are angles of rotation (rotations) and
displacements of the joints of the structure. The total number of unknowns (n) is equal to the
number of unknown displacements (nd) and rotations of the joints (nr):
n = nd + nr .
The number of unknown rotations is always equal to the number of the rigid joints of the
structure. A joint is considered rigid if at least two members meeting at this joint are rigidly
connected one-another.
For the continuous beam under consideration the rigid joints are two (always the number of
internal restraints, independently of the type of the end supports). The constraints introduced in
order to prevent the rotations of the rigid joints are shown in Fig. 3a.
The number of independent joint deflections (nd) is equal to the degree of freedom of the socalled hinge connected system, obtained by introduction of hinges at all the rigid joints and
supports of the original structure (Fig. 3b). The number of joint deflections is always equal to the
number of additional bars which should be introduced to make the hinge connected structure
geometrically stable. Obviously the hinged system under consideration is statically determinate,
compounded by non-singular dyads, or in our case nd=0. Thus, it is not necessary to introduce
single bars to prevent joint linear displacements. The kinematically determinate simple system
coincides with that in Fig. 3a.
2. Canonical equations
The bending moment diagrams due to the unit rotations of the fixed joints are presented in Figs.
3c and 3d. The bending moment diagram in the kinematically determinate primary system due to
the applied loads is shown in Fig. 3e.
The canonical equations of the displacement method are as follow:
r11 Z1 + r12 Z 2 + R1 f = 0,

r21 Z1 + r22 Z 2 + R2 f = 0.
The first equation expresses that in the real structure no reactive moment is developed at the
imaginary constraint which prevents the rotation of joint 2. The second expression means that the
reaction in the constraint introduced in joint 3, due to rotations of joint 2 and 3 (Z1 and Z2) and
due to the applied loads, is equal to zero.
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Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

10

20
I

2I

l1=3

l2=5

100
4

l3=6

I
l4=2

Simple kinematically determinate system

Z1

a)

Z2
2I

b)
4i1=1.3333EI

c)
2i1=0.66667EI

r 11 1.6EI

2i2=0.8EI

Z1=1

1.3333EI

4i2=1.6EI

4i2=1.6EI

r 21

0.8EI

r 11= 2.9333EI

r 21= 0.8 EI

r 12 0.8EI

r 22 0.5EI

Z2=1

d)
2i2=0.8EI

r 12 = 0.8 EI

3i3=0.5EI

1.6EI

r 22 = 2.1EI

200

20

R 1f

27.5

20

R 2 f 55

e)

55

20.773
0.773

10.386

18.328

17.765

200

12.953

Mf

10.386

f)

38.937

10.386

R2 f = 55

35.532

106.51

R 1 f = 20

169.823

Figure 3 Slope and deflection method for static analysis of the continuous beam
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Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

3. Determination of coefficients to the unknowns of the canonical equations and the free
terms.
In the above equations r11 is the reactive moment due to the rotation of joint 2 through an angle
equal to unity; r12 is the reactive moment in the imaginary constraint of joint 2 due to a unit
rotation of joint 3; r22 is the reactive moment which arises in the second support when the joint 3
is rotated to unity. The free term R1f is the reactive moment in the first imaginary constraint due
to the applied loads; R2f is the reaction in the second restraint due to the same loads. Z1 and Z2 are
basic unknowns of the slope and deflection method, namely the rotations of the rigid joints 2 and
3.
The coefficients to the unknowns and the free terms, in the case of continuous beam, should be
obtained isolating each of the fixed joints and forming the equilibrium equations of the type
M = 0 . The coefficients to the unknowns rij are obtained in Figs. 3c and 3d next to the bending
moment diagrams. The free terms Rif are shown in Fig. 3e.
The canonical system of equations becomes:
2.9333EI Z1 + 0.8EI Z 2 20 = 0,

0.8EI Z1 + 2.1EI Z 2 + 55 = 0.
Wherefrom the unknown rotations are:
Z1 = 15.579 / EI ; Z 2 = 32.162 / EI .
4. Internal forces diagrams
The final bending moment diagram of the original system can be obtained by the summation of
the ordinates to the M 0f diagram with those of the unit diagrams being previously multiplied by

the magnitude of the unknowns just determined, or:

M f = M 0f + M1 Z1 + M 2 Z 2 .
The bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 3f. This diagram is the same as that previously
obtained by the method of forces.
5. Verification
The verification of the slope and deflection method is the static equilibrium. In the case of a
continuous beam the equilibrium of moments acting at each of the rigid joints should be checked.
If the bending moments at one of the joints do not balance, this means that some mistakes could
have been made in computing the value of the corresponding reactions or just the relevant
canonical equation is not satisfied.
The equilibrium of the rigid joints is fulfilled, which could be seen in Fig. 3f.

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Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

III. Influence lines

Applying the method of forces the internal force at any section of the continuous beam under
consideration, or support reaction, could be obtained by the following equation:
0
" Sm " = " Sm
"+ Sm,1 " X1 "+ Sm,2 " X 2 "
Let us derive the bending moment and shear force influence lines in section m of the beam,
placed at the half of the second span (Fig. 4a) and the support reaction influence line for reaction
at joint 2.
100
10
20
m
a)
I
2I
I
I
R

l1=3

b)

d)

l3=6

Mm,1=0

l4=2

M1

R1

1.0

c)

l2=5

2
1.0 R2

Mm,2=0.5

R3

M2

Mm,3=0.5

M3

1.0

Figure 4 Unit bending moment diagrams

The values of internal forces in section m at the primary statically determinate system, due to the
unit moments Xi=1, are as follow (Figs. 4b, c and d):
M m,1 = 0, Qm,1 = 0;
1
M m,2 = 0.5, Qm,2 = = 0.2;
5
1
M m,3 = 0.5, Qm,2 = = 0.2;
5
1
1
1 1
R1 = , R2 = + = 0.53333, R3 = = 0.2
3
5
3 5
The expressions for determination of corresponding influence lines take the following form:
0
0
"Mm " = "Mm
"+ M m,1 " X1 "+ M m,2 " X 2 "+ M m,3 " X 3 " = " M m
"+ 0.5 " X 2 "+ 0.5 " X 3 ";
0
0
" Qm " = " Qm
"+ Qm,1 " X1 "+ Qm,2 " X 2 "+ Qm,3 " X 3 " = " Qm
" 0.2 " X 2 "+ 0.2 " X 3 ";

1
" R " = " R 0 "+ R1 " X1 "+ R2 " X 2 "+ R3 " X 3 " = " R 0 "+ " X1 " 0.53333R2 " X 2 "+ 0.2 " X 3 ".
3
1. Internal forces influence lines in statically determinate primary system
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Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

The influence lines for internal forces and required reaction in the primary statically determinate
system are shown in Fig. 5. These influence lines are derived as the respective lines in the simply
supported beams.

a)

m
I
l1=3

b)

2I

l2=5

l3=6

l4=2

0
"Mm
"

+
1.25
0.5

c)

0
" Qm
"

+
0.5

d)

" R0 "

+
1.0

Figure 5 Influence lines for the internal forces and the support reaction in the primary system

Now we proceed with influence lines construction for the basic unknowns of the method of
forces Xi. These unknowns are derived as a solution of the system of canonical equations, which
written in a matrix form is:
[ ] { X } = f , wherefrom:

{ }
{ X } = 

[ ]1 { f } = [ ] { f } .
[ ]

The matrix [ ] is the inverse matrix of the compliance matrix [ ] multiplied by -1. Thus, in
order to obtain expressions for Xi, first we should compute the matrix [ ] .

0.5
0
1
1
1
[ ] = [ ] = 0.5 1.83333 0.41667
EI 0 0.41667 2.8333

2. Influence lines for if

0.3285 0.048309
1.1642
= EI 0.3285
0.657
0.096618
0.048309 0.096618 0.36715

Next, we should construct the influence lines for the mutual rotations if in the simple statically
determinate system. Influence lines for displacements can be derived as elastic curve of the road
lane caused by a unit load (unit couple of moments) along the direction of required displacement.
The elastic curve of the road lane can be obtained as a bending moment diagram in a fictitious
conjugate beam loaded with the corresponding fictitious distributed and concentrated loads.

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Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

2. 1 Influence line for 1 f

a)

1.0

1 1/EI

Conjugate beam
3

ground

M1

4
w4

b)
1/EI

Statically determinate conjugate beam

c)
d)

" EI 1 f "

0.35156

0.5625

0.49219

1/EI

1/2EI

e)
" EI 2 f "

+
0.78125

0.68359

0.49219

0.5625

0.35156

0.48828

f)

1/2EI

1/EI

2.0

g)

" EI 3 f "

0.68359

+
1.40625

2.25

+
1.96875

0.78125

0.48828

h)

Figure 6 Influence lines for if

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Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

In order to derive " 1 f " we should first introduce a unit load (unit bending moment) in the
direction of required rotation and construct the corresponding bending moment diagram. This
diagram is M1 from Fig. 4b.
Next, the conjugate beam must be formed. Starting from left to right, along the beam axis, a
mutual rotation is possible between the ground and the left end of the beam at joint 1. Therefore,
the fictitious concentrated force must be introduced at the corresponding section of the conjugate
beam. This force is denoted 1 , in accordance with its physical meaning, and is shown in Fig. 6b.
Likewise mutual rotations are allowed between every both adjacent sections of the hinges at
joints 2 and 3. The fictitious concentrated forces corresponding to these rotations are 2 and
3 . Considering the end of the beam mutual rotation and mutual vertical displacement is
allowed between the end section of the beam and the ground. These concentrated fictitious
moment and force must be introduced at the and of the beam respectively 4 and w4 .
Sections of the road lane for which the vertical displacements are zero could be replaced by
hinges in the conjugate beam. These sections are joints 1, 2, 3 and 4, because there are vertical
supports at these points in the simple system. Thus, in the conjugate beam we can introduce
hinges at sections corresponding to these supports (Fig. 6b).
Finally, the conjugate beam must be loaded with the distributed transverse load
q fict = M1 / ( EI cos ) (Fig. 6b). In order to avoid the calculation of all fictitious concentrated
loads the conjugate beam could be supported as statically determinate system, as shown in Fig.
6c.
The bending moment diagram of conjugate beam, which coincides with required influence line
" 1 f " is shown in Fig. 6d.
2. 2 Influence line for 2 f

In order to obtain 2 f influence line we should introduce a unit couple of moments at joint 2
and trace the bending moment diagram in the simple system. This is the bending moment
diagram M2 given in Fig. 4c.
The conjugate beam for determination of 2 f is the same as the one constructed for 1 f , given
in Figs. 6c and 6e. The distributed transverse load here is q fict = M 2 / ( EI cos ) and this load is
presented in Fig. 6e. The influence line " 2 f " is obtained in Fig. 6f.
2. 3 Influence line for 3 f

The bending moment diagram corresponding to mutual rotation at joint 3 is M3 given in Fig. 4d.
The conjugate beam with the relevant loads is shown in Fig. 6g. The fictitious bending moment
diagram presenting the required influence line " 3 f " is depicted in Fig. 6h.
3. Influence lines for the basic unknowns of the force method Xi
Influence lines for bending moments at the supports of the continuous beam can be derived by
the equation { X } = [ ] f . The same expressions in expanded form are:

{ }

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Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

0.3285 0.048309 1 f
X1
1.1642

0.096618 2 f ,
0.657
X 2 = EI 0.3285

0.048309 0.096618 0.36715
X3
3 f
or:
X1 = 1.1642 EI 1 f + 0.3285 EI 2 f 0.048309 EI 3 f ,
X 2 = 0.3285 EI 1 f 0.657 EI 2 f + 0.096618 EI 3 f ,
X 3 = 0.048309 EI 1 f + 0.096618 EI 2 f 0.36715 EI 3 f .
The influence lines Xi are obtained by the summation of the ordinates of the " if " influence lines
previously multiplied by the coefficients of matrix [ ] in accordance with the above expressions.
These lines are drawn in Fig. 7.
4. Influence lines for the internal forces and support reaction of the original indeterminate
beam
Having influence lines for unknown moments Xi and internal forces in the statically determinate
system available, we can obtain required internal forces influence lines in the original continuous
beam. This will be done by the summation of relevant ordinates of the influence lines according
to the following expressions:
0
"Mm " = "Mm
"+ 0.5 " X 2 "+ 0.5 " X 3 ";
0
" Qm " = " Qm
" 0.2 " X 2 "+ 0.2 " X 3 ";

1
" R " = " R 0 "+ " X1 " 0.53333R2 " X 2 "+ 0.2 " X 3 ".
3
The corresponding influence lines for the internal forces in section m and the support reaction at
joint 2 are given in Fig. 8.

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10

l1=3

l2=5

l3=6

l4=2

0.09662

0.09511
0.12738

0.21739
0.82609

0.19324

" X2 "

0.13587

0.19022
0.72283

0.20380

0.21135

tg=0.072455

0.73430

0.03057

0.02717

0.11322

tg=0.50726

" X1 "

0.51630

0.21890
0.43780

0.25476

0.20097
0.40195

0.20788

0.06929
0.18478

0.06793

0.10870

0.24762

2I

tg=0.25362

0.01019

100

0.47011

0.45754

20

" X3 "

Figure 7 Influence lines for bending moments over the supports X i

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Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

10

l1=3

l2=5

l3=6

l4=2

0.27053

" Qm "

"R"

0.39572

"Mm "

0.13043

0.20870

0.19837

0.31739

0.27772

0.26019

0.54529

0.76419

1.00872

0.38757

1.0

0.13648
0.44728
0.78444

0.18261

0.45471

0.04239
0.04769

0.01590

tg=0.11305

0.19226

0.92542

0.36741

0.18551

tg=0.21014

0.28213

0.19022

0.30435

0.26630

2I

0.08865

0.07880

0.02955

20

100

Figure 8 Influence lines for internal forces and support reaction in the continuous beam

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5. Verification

In order to verify the obtained influence lines for the given indeterminate continuous beam we
shall derive the bending moments over the supports (Xi), internal forces at section m (Mm and
Qm) and support reaction at joint 2 (R) by using their influence lines and we shall compare the
results with those previously obtained.
" X1 " = 20

1
( 11 0 + 18 0.20097 9 0.21890 + 2 0.12738)
6 1.25

2
0
0
10 1.5 + 2 0.09511 + 0.10870 + 2 0.06793 + + 100 0.09662 = 10.386;
3
2
2

" X 2 " = 20

1
( 11 0 + 18 0.40195 9 0.43780 + 2 0.25476 ) +
6 1.25

2
0
0
+ 10 1.5 + 2 0.19022 + 0.21739 + 2 0.13587 + 100 0.19324 = 20.773;
3
2
2
1
" X 3 " = 20
( 11 0 + 18 0.11322 9 0.21135 + 2 0.20380 )
6 1.25
2
0
0
10 1.5 + 2 0.72283 + 0.82609 + 2 0.51630 + + 100 0.73430 = 38.937.
3
2
2
2
0
0
" M m " = 20 0.21014 10 1.5 + 2 0.26630 + 0.30435 + 2 0.19022 + + 100 0.27053 =
3
2
2
= 19.082;
2
0
0
" Qm " = 20 0.11305 10 1.5 + 2 0.18261 + 0.2087 + 2 0.13043 + + 100 0.18551 =
3
2
2
= 7.9421;
1
" R " = 20
( 111 + 18 1.00872 9 0.76419 + 2 0.38757 )
6 1.25

2
0
0
10 1.5 + 2 0.27772 + 0.31739 + 2 0.19837 + + 100 0.28213 = 18.329.
3
2
2

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IV. Appendix
Some expressions for numerical integration and differentiation are given in this section. These
expressions are applicable for functions with known numerical values in equal subintervals.
1. Numerical integration
The expressions presented below are valid for smooth functions in the interval into consideration.

When a square or cubic parabola is defined over three ordinates (respectively the interval is
divided into two equal subintervals), the area of the obtained figure (shaded area) is:

c
A=

2 a
c
+ 2b +
3 2
2

(1)

L
When a cubic parabola is defined over four ordinates (respectively the interval is divided into
three equal subintervals), the area of the generated figure (shaded area) is:

A=

3
(a + 3b + 3 c + d )
8

(2)

L
By multiple application of equation (1), an expression valid for arbitrary even number of
subintervals can be derived. In case of six subintervals for example the area of the figure
becomes:

A=

g
2 a
+ 2b + c + 2 d + e + 2 f +
3 2
2

(3)

2011 S. Parvanova, University of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy - Sofia

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Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

By multiple application of equation (2), an expression valid for number of subintervals divisible
by three can be derived (n/3 is a whole number /integer/, where n is the number of subintervals).
In case of six subintervals for example the area of the figure becomes:

A=

3
(a + 3 b + 3 c + 2 d + 3 e + 3 f + g )
8

(4)

2. Numerical differentiation

When a square parabola is defined over three ordinates (the interval is divided into two equal
subintervals), the first derivative at point with ordinate a (the slope of the tangent line at this
point) could be obtained by the following expression:
y

a
a

tg a =

1
( 3 a + 4 b c )
2

(5)

1
( a + c )
2

(6)

L
The first derivative at point with ordinate b is:
y
b
a

tg b =

In case of cubic parabola defined over four ordinates the first derivative at point with ordinate a
is:
1
tg a =
(7)
( 11 a + 18 b 9 c + 2 d ) .
6
The slope of the tangent line at point with ordinate b is:
1
(8)
tg b =
( 2 a 3 b + 6 c d ) .
6
2011 S. Parvanova, University of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy - Sofia

79

Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

References
DARKOV, A. AND V. KUZNETSOV. Structural mechanics. MIR publishers, Moscow, 1969
WILLIAMS, . Structural analysis in theory and practice. Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint
of Elsevier , 2009
HIBBELER, R. C. Structural analysis. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Singapore, 2006
KARNOVSKY, I. A., OLGA LEBED. Advanced Methods of Structural Analysis. Springer
Science+Business Media, LLC 2010
, .
- I .
, , 2006

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