Analysing qualitative data by computer

By Nigel Fielding
Methods of doing social research are continually advancing. New developments in
information technology enable complex analyses to be carried out on a personal
computer. Laptop computers and computer assisted telephone interviewing change
fundamentally the way in which surveys are done. New statistical techniques are
being developed which are better suited to the kinds of data which social researchers
generally deal with. New approaches to qualitative data raise new theoretical and
ethical problems.
In face of all this change, social researchers, pressurised to produce results, often do
not have time to keep up with the latest developments. It is to fill this gap that we are
producing Social Reseach Update.
Social Research Update will be published every three months or so and distributed to
social researchers in the UK. Initially, it will be available without charge. Once it is
established, we hope that we will be able to obtain support from other sources to
cover its running expenses.
Each issue, we will cover one topic in sufficient depth to indicate the main directions
of recent developments and provide a bibliography for further reading. If there is
room, we shall also list courses, addresses and other useful information.
Social Research Update is produced by the Department of Sociology at the
University of Surrey. Sociology at Surrey is one of the leading sociology departments
in the UK concerned with developing and teaching methods of social research. We
run part-time and full-time Masters' courses in Social Research that train graduates
in social research as a career. We offer full-time, part-time and a unique
'Collaborative' PhD programme for those who are employed in research posts. We
also regularly offer two and three day courses on aspects of social research
methods. We teach quantitative and qualitative methods, and use them ourselves on
a wide range of policy related and basic research problems.

Writing for Social Research Update

We welcome contributions to Social Research Update. Theme articles should be
about 2,000 words in length and aimed at a general research audience. If you are
thinking of contributing, it is helpful if you contact the Editor as early as you can (see
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Comments on this issue of Social Research Update can be sent to the Editor or the
contributors by post or email. We look forward to your reactions to this new venture.

Qualitative Data Analysis with a computer: recent developments

Nigel Fielding, University of Surrey

[Nigel Fielding, Reader in Sociology, is responsible for teaching qualitative methods

and has research interests in criminal justice and qualitative methodology. Among his
books are The National Front (1981), Linking Data (1986; a text on triangulation),
Actions and Structure (1988; on micro-sociology and macro-theory) and Using
computers in qualitative research (1991). He is also editor of the Howard Journal of
Criminal Justice. It has been claimed that 'computer use in qualitative sociology is
advancing faster than in quantitative research' (Hinze 1987). Around 15 dedicated
qualitative analysis programs of various kinds are currently available. A number of
researchers have also adapted word processing and text retrieval programs to help
in qualitative analysis (for an overview of the programs, see Tesch 1991).]
Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data AnalysiS (CAQDAS) is a recent development.
The arrival of word processors with text retrieval and handling capacities was the
background for the development of specialist qualitative packages. While some early
experimenters began developing their own software for particular qualitative
applications almost as soon as they had assembled their first DIY personal computer,
the main impetus came from academic seminars including social researchers and
computing enthusiasts during the early 1980s.
The software did not, however, remain an interest only for those in 'pure' academic
disciplines. From the first it gained substantial use in applied research. It offered to
address the needs of researchers working under the pressure of short-term 'soft
money' contracts and yet who retained an enthusiasm for the intrinsic interest of
qualitative data. Another major use was in market research, where the focus group
approach continues to represent a distinct branch of the field.
This does not mean that CAQDAS is the answer to every qualitative research
problem. Indeed, Seidel, the creator of one of the most popular programs, has written
of his fear that researchers, especially those with little qualitative experience and
those working under the pressure of applied research settings, may be led into
slavish adherence to conventions that are set into program assumptions. Many
qualitative researchers believe that the use of software poses a threat to the craft
skills of a long-established research tradition. There is a perceived danger of
superficial analysis produced by slavishly following a mechanical set of procedures.
There is also a more profound concern, that the existing software contains an implicit
theory of qualitative analysis, one which is not conducive to the full range of analytic
postures customarily found in this eclectic field. Insofar as existing software
presumes a generic theory of qualitative analysis, it largely relates to the
conventional, but by no means universal, grounded theory approach. Those
preferring hermeneutic approaches, ethnomethodology, conversation analysis or
holistic analysis are less well-served.
It is also apparent that some software imposes a very light touch on the analyst,
being confined to simple, albeit rapid, text retrieval (database software such as
SONAR). But other packages, notably NUDIST and Atlas-ti, promise much more. The
authors of NUDIST explicitly claim that their software 'transforms' qualitative analysis.
The co-developer of Atlas-ti has complained that, while developers have already
advanced 'over the horizon', users are too conservative and reluctant to use features
which are technically feasible. Developers of Hypercard-based applications report
that much of their time is spent removing features so as to make their programs
accessible to qualitative researchers.
Thus, a researcher considering whether to use a package on a particular project
needs to take into account the kinds of analytic work the software facilitates and the

kinds of work for which it is unsuitable; the relevance of the features included in the
software to the analytic procedures employed by different research traditions; the
degree to which holistic as opposed to segmental analysis is facilitated; and the
degree to which micro-analysis (e.g., conversation analysis) is facilitated.
Fortunately, the very limits of the existing software seem to hold at bay problems of
the sort expressed by Siedel. Those who have used CAQDAS generally find the
'threat' of the software implausible. For the last year Ray Lee and I have been
researching user experiences with CAQDAS, by convening focus groups (we plan to
carry out more soon; if you'd like to participate, let me know!). For the most part
researchers regard CAQDAS as just another tool, to be used when appropriate but
not when analytic closure would be premature or when sample size or features of the
data do not justify the time setting it up (Lee and Fielding 1991).
What's around
This section concerns dedicated software for qualitative analysis. But a variety of
common programs are useful, such as timeliners (MacTimeline, Tom Synder
Productions), outliners (MORE, Symantec), graphics packages (SuperPaint, Aldus)
and word processing, database and spreadsheet programs (Works, Word and Excel,
Microsoft). These are all for Macintosh but similar software exists for all platforms.
In making choices it is important to know what sort of manipulation or presentation is
required and on what scale. For example, a straight-forward database like Microsoft
Works is certainly adequate for inductive coding at the sentence level of transcripts,
where there is little need to interrelate categories with other transcripts. You just
create a record template with a field for sentence TEXT, and another (or several,
perhaps one for each family of coding categories) to hold a set of CODEWORDS,
and one for sentence NUMBERS. This effectively duplicates the process of writing
marginal notes when working with paper. Sentences are then coded by typing the
names of coding categories in the CODEWORDS field. When this is complete,
categories can be extracted by searches and sorts, and printed. You can always
return the transcript to its original context by sorting by NUMBERS.
Thus, depending on the amount of data you have and the depth of analysis you want,
it might make sense to use The Ethnograph, or a word processor and outlining
software, or revert to highlighting pens and Post-It notes. The overhead in setting up
and using packages is not always worth it.
Turning to dedicated packages, a few remarks about two well-known packages help
to sketch in some key considerations that users face. The Ethnograph, first
developed in the early 1980s, has been upgraded periodically and is now a rather
sophisticated program for IBM PCs and compatibles. Users have adapted it to many
individual analytic approaches, but it is best suited to analysis of the 'cut and paste'
kind rather than analytic approaches based on, say, sociolinguistics. Its not very wellsuited to use on networks and, like other similar programs, does not allow
simultaneous access to data files by multiple users. The current version allows onscreen coding and the attachment of 'memos' to coded data. In contrast, NUDIST is
specifically designed for multi-access use. It indexes on-line and off-line data,
provides 'audit trails' of retrievals, and now has an interface to the quantitative data
management program SPSS. Relationships in the data are displayed in 'tree
structures' which users may initially find daunting. Compared to The Ethnograph, the
emphasis is on conceptual relations between codes rather than on the construction
of typologies where the relationship of data to code is the pre-eminent concern. The

interface is common across platforms and advisory support is available to those who
can call Australia.
With such points in mind we can go on to some descriptive profiles. Some details,
especially prices, are subject to change. This section is based on a selection from the
Resources Appendix in Fielding and Lee (1991); an updated Resources Appendix
appears in the new edition available from March 1993.
The ETHNOGRAPH
Allows you to identify and retrieve text from documents. Basic unit is the segment.
Each can be identified by up to 12 codewords. Segments can be nested and
overlapped 7 levels deep. Search results are sensitive to nests and overlaps.
Searches can be done on single or multiple codeword(s). Each data file can be
identified by facesheet variables. Existing coding schemes can be selectively or
globally modified. Includes memo feature and codebook feature. Runs on all PCs
and compatibles. Hard disk essential for version 4, recommended for earlier
versions. Single copy $150 plus $20 shipping. Site licenses available.
Distributor: Qualitative Research Management, 73425 Hilltop Rd., Desert Hot
Springs, CA 92240 USA. Tel. (619) 329 7026
HyperQual
Provides an integrated environment for data entry, memory and illustrations.
Designed to assist in the analysis of text data from interviews, observations and
documents. A HyperCard application (stack). A special package for focus groups,
Hyperfocus, is also available. Any Macintosh; word processor, hard disk; HyperCard
ver. 1.2 or higher. $125 plus $10 shipping.
Distributor: as per The Ethnograph. Or Dr R.V. Padilla, 3327 North Dakota, Chandler,
AZ 85224 USA.
HyperResearch
A HyperCard-based application that allows for qualitative and quantitative analysis of
textual, audio and video materials. An expert system provides a semi-formal
mechanism for theory-building. Statistical option allows for the simple analysis of
coded data. Reporting allows for the displaying or printing of text and the replay of
coded segments of audio or video. Macintosh with System 6.0 or later and
HyperCard ver. 1.2 or higher. $175
Distributor: Researchware Inc., 20 Soren St., Randolph MA 02368-1945, USA. Tel
(617) 961 3909.
Hypersoft
Offers facilities for filing, copying, indexing, searching and extracting textual data.
Includes procedures for summarizing, annotating, categorizing, mapping, coding and
quantifying data. Expresses relationships in the data graphically on screen by width
of linking line. Macintosh with System 6.0 or later and HyperCard ver. 1.2 or higher.
50

Distributor: Ian Dey, 45 Colinton Rd., Edinburgh EH10 5EN

NUDIST
Uses flagging and text search to construct a possibly large and highly structured
hierarchical database indexing into the documents to be analysed. Retrievals use a
complete set of Boolean operators on indexing categories, as well as a set of
nonBoolean operators which encourage generation of new ideas. All retrievals are
added back to the indexing system as additional indexing categories, and are
available as the basis of further and more abstracted retrievals. To support emerging
theory, indexing categories are independent objects which may be modified, titled,
have text comments added and be shifted to other locations in the indexing structure.
Text unit may be any length you like, including single words. Text search can be
word, phrase, or a pattern of words, or by facesheet variables such as pulling out all
interviews with women. Can have several windows open to have data and codes on
view simultaneously. Representation of node relationships ('tree structures') is not
graphical.
Mainframe version supports multi-user multi-database projects; minis or mainframes
that have any version of Common LISP. Mac version needs any Macintosh with
minimum of 2 MB free main memory; 2 MB+ Macs on Appletalk network. Hard disk.
PC version for 386s. Mainframe AUS $1500. Macintosh single user AUS $250,
network AUS $1000; site AUS $3000.
Distributor: NUDIST Project, ACRI, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3083
Australia. Tel (613) 479 2857. During 1993 a network of franchised dealers is being
set up.
QUALPRO
Provides basic functions needed by qualitative researchers, similar conception to
Ethnograph. Search for co-occurring codes on basis of overlap and nested
segments. Just 4 menus, pure cut and paste. Text segments can be identified
flexibly, codes attached and segments retrieved. Good introductory program,
especially for postgrads. IBM PC/XT/AT or 100% compatible with DOS 2.0 or higher;
at least 128k RAM. $160
Distributor: Qualitative Research Management (see address above)
QUALOG
Emphasises Dewey's 'induction process'. Many relationships are built in. User
formulates queries about codes, such as an if-then query. Replies are confirming and
disconfirming instances. Unappealing interface. Uses LogLisp.
Mainframe only. DEC VAX/VMS or IBM CMS/VM.
$700 site licence
Distributor: Ernest Sibert and Anne Shelly, Syracuse University, 4-116 CST, School of
Computer and Information Science, Syracuse, NY 13244-4100 USA.
Textbase Alpha

Permits coding of data which have an internal structure, as well as narrative texts of
any kind. Searching and assembling of coded segments is supported along with
frequency counts, and data matrix output. Completely new version ('Textbase Beta')
now at advanced stage with new features, can code portions of line and can be used
with a mouse. Similar code memoing to Ethnograph ver.4. IBM/XT and fully
compatibles; 640k RAM and DOS 2.00 or higher. $160
Distributor: Although this program was developed in Denmark it is most
straightforward to order from Qualitative Research Management (address above).
SONAR
Enhanced text retrieval software which allows coding. Minimal file preparation,
instant retrieval of target phrases (especially useful for structured interviews). Data
can be on screen with your comments and an index of comments. Code categories
have to be in the data, though you can edit in codewords. Conditional searches on
Boolean basis. Instant index (occurences in corpus, filename and page number). Link
files (conceptual categories). Comment window attaches to datum. Good introductory
program, simple, basic and fast. Unknown price.
Distributor: Qualitative Research Management (address above).
Atlas-ti
Sophisticated package with an impressive interface. Like NUDIST, emphasis is on
inter-code relationships and theory-building, rather than straight code and retrieve.
SPSS interface and Graphical User Interface. Two levels, text level (segmenting,
coding) and theory building (manipulating and specifying code relationships).
Networking tool, query browser. You get a series of statements expressing textual
relationships, like 'this statement justified that', and inter-code relations, like AI/formal
logic relations, followed by your commentary on text. Unlimited codes for text
segments. IBM-compatible 80286, 80386 SX (or better) based PC-AT with system
speed greater than 20MHz, 4MB RAM, a VGA graphics adapter and monitor is
necessary. Demo only at present.
Distributor: No commercial distribution as yet. Current details from the developer, Dr
Thomas Muhr, Technische Universitt Berlin, Projekt ATLAS, Hardenbergstr. 28, D1000 Berlin 12.
The users voice
Like other software, there is a need for systematic evaluation of program capabilities.
Some progress is being made. There is work being done at University College Cardiff
on the evaluation of selected software, including The Ethnograph; the project is
headed by Paul Atkinson. In the US, the group at Boston College associated with the
Mac program HyperRESEARCH is beginning to carry out detailed and explicit
assessments of software. The ins and outs of CAQDAS, and particular packages, are
a recurring topic on the 'QUALRSL' e-mail discussion group (details below). Finally,
Ray Lee and I are engaged in the focus groups mentioned above which are looking
at the experiences of users of several selected packages. Preliminary findings were
presented at the Bremen conference (details below) in October 1992 and the
fieldwork will continue over the next 12 months.
Keeping in touch

If you are looking for an introduction to CAQDAS, Ray Lee has run short courses in
the autumn for several years. Ray can be contacted at the Department of Social
Policy and Social Science, Royal Holloway, Egham Hill, Egham TW20 0EX (tel. 0784
443152).
If you want to participate in the 'QUALRS-L' electronic discussion group, you can join
by sending a message to listserv@uga.cc.uga.edu containing the message:
Subscribe QUALRS-L <your name, institution>. Note that QUALRS-L concerns all
aspects of qualitative research, not just CAQDAS.
Surrey's involvement in all this largely began when Nigel Gilbert, Nigel Fielding and
Ray Lee convened a conference on the subject in 1989. The Surrey conference
inaugurated a series, with the second at the University of Colorado in Breckenridge
and the third at the University of Bremen, Germany. The fourth conference will take
place in 1994, probably in June/July, at Syracuse University, New York. Details will
appear on QUALRS-L, or contact the organiser, Prof. Anne Shelley (address shown
in entry for QUALOG above) or Nigel Fielding at Surrey, closer to the time.
Further reading
N. Fielding and R. Lee, eds., (1991) Using computers in qualitative research, Sage.
K. Hinze (1987) 'Computing in sociology', Social science computer review, 5:439-51.
R. Lee and N. Fielding (1991) 'Options, problems and potential' in Fielding and Lee.
R. Tesch (1991) 'Software for qualitative researchers: analysis needs and program
capabilities' in Fielding and Lee.