CHAPTER 7

DISLOCATIONS AND STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS

PROBLEM SOLUTIONS

7.2 Consider two edge dislocations of opposite sign and having slip planes that are separated by several atomic
distances, as indicated in the following diagram. Briefly describe the defect that results when these two dislocations
become aligned with each other.

Answer
When the two edge dislocations become aligned, a planar region of vacancies will exist between the
dislocations as:

7.6 (a) Compare planar densities (Section 3.11 and Problem 3.60) for the (100), (110), and (111) planes for FCC.
(b) Compare planar densities (Problem 3.61) for the (100), (110), and (111) planes for BCC.

Solution
(a) For the FCC crystal structure, the planar density for the (110) plane is given in Equation 3.19 as

PD110 (FCC)

1
2

4R

0.177

R2

Furthermore, the planar densities of the (100) and (111) planes are calculated in Homework Problem 3.60,
which are as follows:

PD100 (FCC) =

PD111(FCC)

1
2

4R
1
2

2R

0.25

R2

0.29
R2

(b) For the BCC crystal structure, the planar densities of the (100) and (110) planes were determined in
Homework Problem 3.61, which are as follows:

PD100 (BCC) =

PD110 (BCC)

3
2

16R

3
8 R2 2

0.19

R2

0.27
R2

Below is a BCC unit cell, within which is shown a (111) plane.

(a)
The centers of the three corner atoms, denoted by A, B, and C lie on this plane. Furthermore, the (111) plane does
not pass through the center of atom D, which is located at the unit cell center. The atomic packing of this plane is
presented in the following figure; the corresponding atom positions from the Figure (a) are also noted.

(b)
Inasmuch as this plane does not pass through the center of atom D, it is not included in the atom count. One sixth of
each of the three atoms labeled A, B, and C is associated with this plane, which gives an equivalence of one-half
atom.
In Figure (b) the triangle with A, B, and C at its corners is an equilateral triangle. And, from Figure (b), the
xy
2
area of this triangle is
. The triangle edge length, x, is equal to the length of a face diagonal, as indicated in
Figure (a). And its length is related to the unit cell edge length, a, as

x2 a2 a2 2a2

or

x a 2

a
For BCC,

4R
3
(Equation 3.4), and, therefore,

4R 2
3

Also, from Figure (b), with respect to the length y we may write
2

x
y2 x2
2

y
which leads to

x 3
2
. And, substitution for the above expression for x yields

x 3 4R 2

2
3

3
4R 2

2
2

Thus, the area of this triangle is equal to

AREA

1 4 R 2 4 R 2
1
8 R2
xy

2
2
2
3
3

And, finally, the planar density for this (111) plane is

PD111(BCC)

0.5 atom
2

8R

3
2

16 R

0.11
R2

7.12 Consider a metal single crystal oriented such that the normal to the slip plane and the slip direction are at
angles of 60 and 35, respectively, with the tensile axis. If the critical resolved shear stress is 6.2 MPa (900 psi),
will an applied stress of 12 MPa (1750 psi) cause the single crystal to yield? If not, what stress will be necessary?

Solution
This problem calls for us to determine whether or not a metal single crystal having a specific orientation
and of given critical resolved shear stress will yield. We are given that = 60, = 35, and that the values of the
critical resolved shear stress and applied tensile stress are 6.2 MPa (900 psi) and 12 MPa (1750 psi), respectively.
From Equation 7.2

R = cos cos = (12 MPa)(cos 60)(cos 35) = 4.91 MPa (717 psi)

Since the resolved shear stress (4.91 MPa) is less that the critical resolved shear stress (6.2 MPa), the single crystal
will not yield.
However, from Equation 7.4, the stress at which yielding occurs is

crss
6.2 MPa

15.1 MPa (2200 psi)

cos cos (cos 60)(cos 35)

7.15 A single crystal of a metal that has the FCC crystal structure is oriented such that a tensile stress is applied
parallel to the [100] direction. If the critical resolved shear stress for this material is 0.5 MPa, calculate the

[110] [101]
magnitude(s) of applied stress(es) necessary to cause slip to occur on the (111) plane in each of the
,
,
[011]
and

directions.

Solution
In order to solve this problem it is necessary to employ Equation 7.4, but first we need to solve for the for

and angles for the three slip systems.

For each of these three slip systems, the will be the samei.e., the angle between the direction of the
applied stress, [100] and the normal to the (111) plane, that is, the [111] direction. The angle may be determined
using Equation 7.6 as

cos 1

u1u2 v1v2 w1w2

u12 v12 w12 u22 v22 w22

where (for [100]) u1 = 1, v1 = 0, w1 = 0, and (for [111]) u2 = 1, v2 = 1, w2 = 1. Therefore, is equal to

cos1

(1)(1) (0)(1) (0)(1)

(1) (0) (0)

2

cos 1

(1) (1) (1)

2

54.7

[1 10 ]
Let us now determine for the

slip direction. Again, using Equation 7.6 where u1 = 1, v1 = 0, w1 = 0 (for

[1 10]
). Therefore, is determined as

[100]), and u2 = 1, v2 = 1, w2 = 0 (for

(1)(1) (0)( 1) (0)(0)

[100][1 10] cos

(1)2 (0)2 (0)2 (1)2 (1)2 (0)2

cos 1

45

[1 10]
Now, we solve for the yield strength for this (111)

slip system using Equation 7.4 as

crss
(cos cos )

0.5 MPa
0.5 MPa

1.22 MPa
cos(54.7) cos(45) 0578)(0.707)

[10 1]
Now, we must determine the value of for the (111)

slip systemthat is, the angle between the

[10 1]
[100] and

directions. Again using Equation 7.6

[100 ][101 ]

cos1

(1) 2 (0) 2 (0) 2

cos 1

(1) 2 (0) 2 (1) 2

(1)(1) (0)(0) (0)(1)

45

[10 1]
Thus, since the values of and for this (111)

[1 10]
slip system are the same as for (111)

be the sameviz 1.22 MPa.

[0 11]
And, finally, for the (111)

slip system, is computed using Equation 7.6 as follows:

, so also will y

[100 ][ 01 1]

cos1

(0) 2 (1) 2 (1) 2

(1)(0) (0)(1) (0)(1)

(1) 2 (0)2 (0) 2

cos1 (0) 90

Thus, from Equation 7.4, the yield strength

for this slip system is

crss
(cos cos )

0.5 MPa
0.5 MPa

cos (54.7) cos (90) 0578) (0)

[0 11]

which means that slip will not occur on this (111)

slip system.

7.19 The critical resolved shear stress for copper (Cu) is 0.48 MPa (70 psi). Determine the maximum possible yield
strength for a single crystal of Cu pulled in tension.

Solution
In order to determine the maximum possible yield strength for a single crystal of Cu pulled in tension, we
simply employ Equation 7.5 as

y = 2 crss = (2)(0.48 MPa) = 0.96 MPa (140 psi)

7.23 Describe in your own words the three strengthening mechanisms discussed in this chapter (i.e., grain size
reduction, solid-solution strengthening, and strain hardening). Explain how dislocations are involved in each of the
strengthening techniques.

Solution
These three strengthening mechanisms are described in Sections 7.8, 7.9, and 7.10.

7.28 (a) Show, for a tensile test, that

100
+ 1

%CW

if there is no change in specimen volume during the deformation process (i.e., A0l0 = Adld).
(b) Using the result of part (a), compute the percent cold work experienced by naval brass (for which the
stressstrain behavior is shown in Figure 6.12) when a stress of 415 MPa (60,000 psi) is applied.

Solution
(a) We are asked to show, for a tensile test, that

100
1

%CW =

From Equation 7.8

A0 Ad

A
100 = 1 d 100

A0
A0

%CW =

The following relationship

A0l0 Adld
may be rearranged to read as follows:

Ad l0

A0 ld
Substitution of the right-hand-side of this expression into the above equation for %CW leads to


l
%CW = 1 0 100
ld

Now, from the definition of engineering strain (Equation 6.2)

ld l0
l
= d 1
l0
l0

Or, upon rearrangement

l0
1
=
ld 1
Substitution of this expression for l0/ld into the %CW expression above gives

1
%CW = 1 0 100 = 1
100 =
100

ld
1

the desired equation

(b) From Figure 6.12, a stress of 415 MPa (60,000 psi) corresponds to a strain of 0.15. Using the above
expression

0.15
%CW =
100 =
100 = 13.0%CW

1
0.15 1.00

7.37 (a) What is the driving force for recrystallization?

(b) What is the driving force for grain growth?

Solution

(a) The driving force for recrystallization is the difference in internal energy between the strained and
unstrained material.
(b) The driving force for grain growth is the reduction in grain boundary energy as the total grain boundary
area decreases.

7.41 The average grain diameter for a brass material was measured as a function of time at 650C, which is shown
in the following table at two different times:
Time (min)
40
100

Grain Diameter (mm)

5.6 102
8.0 102

(a) What was the original grain diameter?

(b) What grain diameter would you predict after 200 min at 650C?

Solution
(a) Using the data given and Equation 7.9 (taking n = 2)that is

d2 d02 Kt
we may set up two simultaneous equations with d0 and K as unknowns, as follows:

(5.6 102 mm )2 d02 = (40 min) K

(8.0 102 mm )2 d02 = (100 min) K
Solution of these expressions yields a value for d0, the original grain diameter, of
d0 = 0.031 mm,
and a value for K of

K 5.44 105 mm 2 /min

(b) At 200 min, the diameter d is computed using a rearranged form of Equation 7.9 (incorporating values
of d0 and K that were just determined) as follows:

d=

d02 Kt

(0.031 mm)2 (5.44 105 mm 2 /min ) (200 min)

= 0.109 mm