Ancient Greeks in Kashmir Region

1
Archaeological References of Ancient

Greeks In Kashmir Region
* Dr. Tirtharaj Bhoi
Abstract
Key Words: Archaeology, Greek, Aryas, Geography, Coin, Temple.
Today we find the signs of change as the present period of transition in
Indian archaeology, such as multidisciplinary research, the questioning
of diffusion theories and growing concern with problems of social
structure, economic process, settlement pattern, colonization,
urbanization, and metallurgy etc. In the early decade of the twentieth
century, there was confusion in the debate on establishment of Greeks
in ancient Kashmir region. The objective of assessment is to critically
analyze the work on Greeks writings in relation to ancient Kashmir
region. The debate among the Indian historians over certain disputed
historical structures proves this point quite effectively. Archaeology in
history, thus, involves extracting the truth from the past by carefully
discovering and analyzing the historical data. At this point, an attempt
is made to give an extensive evaluation of existing archaeological and
literary writings that deals on Greeks in ancient Kashmir region. The
scheming is done to know what sort of important information are
available on archaeology and then to identify the gaps in order to carry
out future research and better suggestion. The Kashmir region included
present day Pakistan and Jammu and Kashmir State.
Introduction:
The importance of archaeology in history deals not so much with invention but
discovering historical evidences in different forms (artifacts, paintings, even
* Assistant Professor, Department of History, University of Jammu, Jammu
(J&K)
Volume III, Number 12, October-December 2014, ISSN 2277-4157
Dr. Tirtharaj Bhoi
quantitative data) so as to provide the background for making conjectures and

their refutation. The debate among the Indian historians over certain disputed
historical structures proves this point quite adequately. Archaeology in history,
thus, involves extracting the truth from the past by carefully discovering and
analyzing the historical data.1 The existence of modern human in Kashmir around
18000 years ago is fairly attested by the archaeological evidence. The period
witnessed excessive rains forcing the people to move out and it was only after the
climatic conditions improved around 5000 B.P., that Kashmir became habitable
attracting the Neolithic people of the neighboring territories to settle here. It is,
therefore, not surprising that the Neolithic Culture which began in Kashmir around
2920 BC, presents a striking affinity with the Neolithic cultures of China, Russia,
Iran, West Asia and Central Asia.2
Around 1500 B.C. another wave of immigrations and settlements is
substantiated by the presence of a new culture alongside the old one. The new
culture is underlined by Megaliths, cist graves, iron, rubble structures and rice
and millet cultivations. In 516 B.C. Dairus, the Achaemenian ruler of Iran extended
his empire up to India by annexing Sindh and Gandhara (North West frontier and
the parts of Punjab). We learn from the Greek Sources that at that time of Iranian
invasion, Kashmir was a part of Gandhara. As the Iranians ruled over these
territories upto Alexanders invasion of India in 326 BC, it would suggest that
Achaemenian rule continued in Kashmir for about 200 years paving the way for
huge Iranian influences. It would be significant to mention that the Achaemenians
introduced writing in India, and also their script Aramaic. The Kharoshti script,
which became common in Kashmir, was also carved out of Aramaic.3 It is
interesting to know that the Kashmiri masses became familiar with the money
currency for the first time during this period. This is evident from the Kashmiri
word diyar used for money currency. Diyar is the Kashmirized version of Greek
dinarus. During the Kushan period, Kashmir became a great centre of Buddhism
so much so that it attracted Kanishka to convene Fourth World Buddhist Council
in Kashmir in which, according to Hieun Tsang, hundreds of Buddhist savants
participated.
Geographical Identity:
The greater part of Asia was explored by Darius. Wishing to know where the
River Indus located, which is one of the two rivers that harbor crocodiles, discharges
into the sea, he sent with ships persons on whom he relied to discover the truth,
and in particular Scylax, a man of Caryanda. They set out from Caspatyrus and
the land of Pactyica, and sailed downstream to the eastward and the rising of the
sun as far as the sea. Then across the sea sailing westward in the thirtieth month
they arrived in the land whence the king of Egypt dispatched the Phoenicians, had
made the transit, Darius subjugated the Indians and made use of this sea.
Central India Journal of Historical And Archaeological Research CIJHAR.
Archaeological References of Ancient......
Among the janapadas of the Indus region we have already noticed that of
the Kambojas. Many attempts have been made to locate this people with precision.
According to the Mahabharata, the capital of the Kambojas was at Rajapura,
which was once identified by Huian Tsang as the town of Rajaori, in the south
east of Poonch district. Yet this position, eastward of Gandara, lacked confirmation,
and disagreed moreover with other literary indications. Recently the Nirukta of
Yaska (c. 300 B.C.) has been cited for the statement the word savati is a verb of
motion . . . among the Kambojas, a statement that would be correct for speakers
of an Iranian dialect.4
Other passages from the Mahabharata link the Kambojas with the Bahlikas
Bactrians, the Yavanas Greeks, the Sakas (Indo-Scythians) and the Gandharans.
Likewise in Asokas Third Rock Edict the Kambojas are coupled with thcjonas
Greeks and thcgamdhdras Gandharans. E. Benveniste, in his discussion of the
Asokan Greco-Aramaic inscription from Kandahar, suggested that it may have
been addressed to the Yonas and Kambojas in that region, though no mention of
such peoples is made in the text. Others have sought to connect the name Kamboja
in the Indian sources with Kambujiya, the Old Persian form of the name of the
Achaemenid king Cambyses. One might infer that Persian colonists had been
settled in parts of Arachosia, Gandara or Bactria, and perhaps even in all three, by
Cambyses the son of Cyrus the Great, and the settlements named after him. This
would have been a measure, perhaps, to consolidate the annexation of these
provinces by Cyrus. Yet, though this hypothesis would provide one explanation
of the Iranian idiom ascribed to the Kambojas, any link with Cambyses is admittedly
speculative, and only fresh archaeological evidence will provide a clear solution
to the problem.5
The Greek historian hekatairs mentions kaspapyros as a city of Gandharians.
In later period Herodotus mentioned the city of kaspapyros as the place at which
the expedition of scylax of Koryanda sent by Darius to explore the course of the
Indus, embarked. As Kashmir had close cultural and political relation with
Gandhara in ancient time. Heuen-Tsang entered Kashmir Valley through this area.
These early noticed are valuable in constructing the identity of this area.
The Activities and Battle:

There is a reference of trade between India and Greece flourished with silk, spices
and gold. The Greek invaded India several times, starting with the conquest of
Alexander in 327 B.C. many people fled to a high fortress or rock called Aornos.
He fought an epic battle against the Indian Purus in the battle of Hydaspes (modern
Beas). The result of this battle forced him to return back. But he left behind Greek
forces which established themselves in the city of Taxila, now in Pakistan. The
generals like Eudemus and Peithon governed the newly established province for
sometimes.
Dr. Tirtharaj Bhoi
According to Plutarch, the Androcottus, when he was a stripling, saw

Alexander himself, and we are told that he often said in later times that Alexander
narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since its king was hated
and despised on account of his baseness and low birth.6
The scene of battle between Alexander and Purus has long engaged the
attention, and exercised the ingenuity of the academician. The well judged by
Elphinstone placed this place opposite to Jalalpur and another academician Burnes
fixed it to near Jhelum which was a trade route followed by the Alexander.7 The
history of this region informs us that the Macedonians which as Yavana described
in Indian sources participated in the army of Chandragupta against Nanda Dynasty.
In the next stages of establishment is the seleucus conflict with Chandragupta
Maurya and finally concluded with an alliance. He sent an ambassador named
megasthenes to continue diplomatic exchange and good relation between empires.
The expression of this region loosely described since Sakala (modern sialkot)
city was under the domination of Indo-Greek. From about 200 BC to the first half
of the 6th century A.D. i.e. for about 700 years Kashmir was successively occupied
by Bacterian Greeks, Sakas, Parthians, Kushans, Kidarites and Huns. This is
sufficiently corroborated by both the archaeological and literary evidence. During
this long period of intimate contact with Central Asia, Kashmir underwent a
remarkable development not only because it was integrated with an international
market but also because it was greatly benefited by the great civilization which
emerged in Central Asia on account of the synthesis of the most developed
civilizations of the time namely Chinese, Greek, Iranian and Indian. This is evident
from huge material evidence revealed by a host of archaeological sites such as
Semthan, Harwan, Ushkur, Hoinar, Hutmur, Doen pather, Kanispora etc. Additional
evidence in this regard is provided by numismatics, written sources, word fund of
Kashmiri language, and place names.8
Archaeology and Culture Exchange:

That Kashmirs technology was greatly benefited by its contacts with the
neighboring civilizations. During the Kushan period, Kashmir became a great
centre of Buddhism so much so that it attracted Kanishka to convene Fourth World
Buddhist Council in Kashmir in which, according to Hieun Tsang, hundreds of
Buddhist savants participated.9 After Kushana this region was dominated by the
Mauryan Empire. In this period, the Greeks in India even seem to have played an
active role in the propagation of Buddhism. In his edicts, King Ashoka claims that
he had sent Buddhist emissaries to Greek to develop herbal medicine in their
territories. The Greco-Bactrians maintained a strong Hellenistic culture at the door
of India during the rule of the Mauryan period. When the Mauryan Empire was
overthrown by the Sunga Dynasty around 185B.C, an army led by King Demetrius
I of Bactria invaded India and seized the Kabul Valley. The possibility of a direct
Archaeological References of Ancient......
connection between the Indo-Greeks and Greco-buddhist art has been reaffirmed
recently dating 100 A.D in Punjab.
Cunningham10 described the art and architecture of this region is influenced
by the Greeks. The Kashmir style of architecture was the style of the Arians or the
Aryas of Kashmir as belonging to the Arian Order. He referred to the strong
resemblance between Kashmiri colonnades, with their fluted pillars, and the
classical peri-style of the Greeks. This influence made the temple architecture
aesthetically pleasing. Dowries and virilocal were also central features of marriage
customs in both ancient Greece and Rome. The predictions of historical
development of dowries, bequests, bride prices, and marriage gifts in various
civilizations of the past particularly in Ancient Greece from 500-1500 A.D.
influence in this region.11 In ancient Greece, Saffron was a royal dye and was used
as a perfume in saloons, courts, theatres and bathrooms; later its use spread among
ordinary people and it transformed in to this countries through trade.
Folklore of The Region:

The achievements of Alexander mentioned in the eastern record, Russian, Chinese
and Indian of his time. He is known in this region as a Sikandar Azam. He has
been the brave and powerful king and his achievements are mentioned in the
Kashmiri records. The folklore included the story of Sikandar, killing of King
Darius etc, preserved in the folk literature.12
Greeks And Ancient Tribes:

The original inhabitants of the valley were the Nagas; then came the Pisacas and
the Manavas. Being the original occupants of Kasmira, the Nagas did not like
introduction of the Pisacas or the Manavas into the valley, but the selection was to
be made between these two, they preferred Manavas to the Pisacas. The other
tribes which are described occupying the neighboring countries are the Madras
(inhabitants the modern Sialkot and the surrounding regions between the Irava
and the Chandrabhaga) the Darvas (inhabitants of Darva identified with the districts
of Jammu and Ballavar) the Abhisaras (inhabitants of modern Punch and the area
near it) the Gandharas (inhabitants of Peshawar, Rawalpindi), Juhundaras probably
same as Jaguda (inhabitants of Afghanistan), the Sakas, the Khasas, the Tarigams,
Mandavas, the Antargiris and the Bahirgiris. Indirect mention of Yavanas (Greeks)
is also made in the Naga name Yavanapriya.13
Among these later non-Vedic Mleccha peoples were Bactrian Greek cultures
that were settled under Alexander the Great and developed into an influential
urban civilization composed of many cities, later controlling neighboring parts of
Transoxiana and India. These Greeks were known in India as Yonas or Yavanas
(from the Greek Iaones or Ionians) and established an Indo-Greek kingdom in
the Hindu Kush. These kingdoms introduced Hellenic traditions to a new GrecoBuddhist culture that influenced the development of Buddhism in Asia.14
Dr. Tirtharaj Bhoi
6
Conclusion:
In the centuries before and after the beginning of the Common Era came the
conquests by Greeks, Scythians, Kusanas and associated ethnic groups, creating
cosmopolitan kingdoms of diverse ethnic origin, often heavily influenced by
Hellenistic culture. On the fall of the Mauryas, the Indo-Bactrian Greeks (190
BC.) under their famous kings, Demetrius and Menandra (Milinda), pronounced
Buddhism by building numerous viharas and stupas in Kashmir. It is either from
Kashmir or their Gandhara capital in Taxila that they transported Buddhas symbols
and images to China and Central Asia. Personally King Menandra held discussions
with an eminent Buddhist monk, Nagasena, and built Milindavihara after his own
name in Kashmir implicitly to allow free intellectual debate on faith and its
existential realities and develop a sense of inclusiveness among the Kashmiris.
Besides, the Indo-Greeks promoted Kashmirs trade with Central Asia and
introduced Gandharan art in Kashmir which is candidly evidenced by material
finds from Semthan (modern Bijbehara) in South Kashmir.
References
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Guru. Gopal, Archaeology of Untouchability, E.P.W, vol. xliv, No. 37, p. 54.
P. Singh, The Neolithic Culture of Western Asia, London, 1976, pp. 166-167.
Aman Ashraf Wani, Exogenous Influences in Kashmir from Neolithic Times to the
Beginning of Christian Era, M. Phil. dissertation (unpublished) CCAS, University of
Kashmir, pp. 101-108.
John Boardman, etal, The Cambridge Ancient History, Cambridge, 1988, pp. 194196.
Ibid.
Iqbal Ahmad, Ancient Greek in Kashmir, New Delhi, 2011, p. 16.
Journal of the Asiatic Society, Bengal, 1836, pp. 472-74.
For details see the R.C. Kak, Ancient Monuments of Kashmir, Srinagar, 2002.
M.A. Stein, trans. Rajatarangini, reprint 1989, pp. 312-316.
Upender Singh, The Discovery of Ancient India, New Delhi, 2005, p. 35.
Maristella Botticini, Why Dowries? University of Toronto Journal, Toronto, 2002,
pp. 12-16.
For details see, Molvi Siddqullah, Sikandarnama, Jammu, 1979.
Ved Kumari, The Nilamata Purana, Jammu, 1968, pp. 70-76.
DNA Tribes, The Digest, October 31, 2009. p.7.
Study of Distribution of Neolithic

Culture In The Jammu Region
*Megha Sharma
In the cultural history of mankind, the Neolithic age marks the concluding phase
of the stone tools culture. Stages the Neolithic age is also characterised by the
introduction of more evolved and developed typo-technological features.1These
were marked by the use of ground and polished tools and the pottery- the feature
which set them apart from preceding Palaeolithic and Mesolithic cultures.The
emergence of the practice of plant cultivation and animal domestication leading
to the growth of farming communities and a settled village life.2
Neolithic period presents a wide shift from hunting gathering to the
agriculture which also gives the signal that Neolithic man had started to lead a
sedentary life style. The rise of agriculture in Neolithic period is one of the most
important events of human cultural history. Agriculture or food production appeared
in and spread from many different regions of the world between 10,000 and 5000
years ago. Jacob L.weisdorf in his article From Foraging to Farming: Explaining
the Neolithic Revolution has worked upon few theories which suggest about the
rise of agriculture. Increase in the population may have prompted on man to produce
more surpluses and increased surplus resulted in the establishment of the nonproducing sector. The presence of non-food specialists-craftsman, chiefs, priests
and with the rise of these classesinnovations started taking place such as writing,
metallurgy, city planning and scientific principles.3Another factor is the climatic
changes, with the melting of ice, warmer and moister conditions persisted due to
which Neolithic man had wide pastures to explore and an increasing number of
productive food plants came to the fore.4 The first domesticates probably appeared
near garbage heaps, forest paths and cooking- places where human unintentionally
had disseminated seeds from their wild grasses, growing nearby(Olsson and hibbs)
may have been cause of start of agriculture which has been mentioned by weisdorf.
*Ph.D. Scholar, University of Jammu, Jammu, J&K

Megha Sharma
An interesting idea presented by Gordon childe regarding the Neolithic

settlements was that certainly that Neolithic revolution (term coined by Gordon
childe) allowed an expansion of population and increased the carrying capacity of
suitable land but the villages had to be shifted at least every twenty years this is so
because there was an absence of wheeled vehicles and roads to transport of bulky
crops men had to live within easy walking distance of their cultivation. As soon as
the population of a settlement rose above the numbers that could be supported
from the accessible land, the excess had to migrate to find a new settlement. Besides
increase in the population and their exploitation, increase in surplus was a new
factor which came during the Neolithic time. The new economy allowed. And
indeed required the farmer to produce every year more food than was needed for
sustenance for farmer and his family.5
With the increase in agriculture increased the capacity to produce surplus
for which new technology of tools came to the fore front. The Neolithic period
was characterised by the ground and polished tools having smooth and round
surface for better cutting edge. These tools mark an improvement on earlier ones
which once damaged had to be discarded, but now after grinding them they could
once more be rendered serviceable. Thus, with the growth of grinding technique,
there was a economy of effort as well as of the raw material. The chief tool type of
Neolithic age is designated by the common term Celt which is basically an axe
or adze. It might have been used to clear the area of wild vegetation and make it fit
for cultivation.
The region covering the Jammu occupies the southern flanks of the Himalaya
comprising (i) the foothill plains (ii) the Shivalik and (iii) the lesser Himalayas(pir
panjal) varying in elevation from 3000 to 4500m in general, just touching the
snow line along its eastern border. The siwaliks, as also in other Himalayan zones,
consists of forested and furrowed hills enclosing the structural depressions like
duns, notable being those of Udhampur and kotli. With an abrupt ascent from the
siwaliks are met with the pir panjal with forest clad tops prone to seasonal snowfall.6
The area of Jammu has also yielded some Neolithic sites. It was in the year
of 1961-62 during the exploration by archaeological survey of India at Akhnoor
where a plain red ware, sometime slipped. This type represented being the bowl
with a vertical sharp-edged rim and sides tapering to a flat rim having cordon
below it and its variants, bottle necked jar, sprinkler and spouts.7Although the
yearly report in which the findings were published have named it as early historical
but this site may belong to the Neolithic age the basis of our arguments is the red
ware pottery which have been found at Akhnoor, the same kind of pottery is found
in Neolithic age of burzahom area of Kashmir region. Although the red ware
pottery found in the burzahom is coarse where as in Akhnoor it is plain in its
making.
But it was in the year 1993-94, when a full-fledged Neolithic site was
excavated in Jammu in the area of malpur, 28 kms north of Jammu located on the
Study of Distribution of Neolithic Culture In The Jammu Region
left bank of the ranbir canal. Two diagonally opposite quadrants were taken up for
examination at malpur. Two sections were maintained on the southern and western
sides of the trench. At a depth of 1.70m the lowest level comprising bed of boulders
and pebbles were found. The occupational deposit was found to be confined in
the upper 50cm only. In all, five layers were encountered in the digging, of which
layer 1 was humus while layers 2to 4 form the compact natural alluvial soil mixed
with stone tools and flakes. Layer 3 form a floor with patches and burnt boulders.
Tiny pieces of charcoal were found in layer 2 while layer 5 forms the main bed.
Although we have found no evidence of grains or crops from the Neolithic site of
Jammu but tiny pieces of charcoal found from the Neolithic site of malpur may
suggest that jhum agriculture or slash and burn type of agriculture may have been
prevalent here and further proof for our argument is in the finding of querns in the
site of malpur which are mainly used to grinding purposes. But it is just an idea
which can only be recognised after further scrutinization of the material found.
The excavation revealed a few Neolithic artefacts in the form of Celt, chisel,
ring-stone and quern, pounder, ball, blade and scrapers. A few unfinished tools
with refuse material were also found. Generally the tools were of sandstone pebbles
and few polished ones were made on black basalt. The stone tools in surface
collection comprise choppers, scrapers, querns. Only limited kinds of pottery
including the sherds of hand-made red ware of medium to thick fabric which are
not well-burnt were collected. As mentioned in the reports of archaeological survey
of India, typologically the artefacts found in the site of malpur resemble those
found at burzahom and gufkral in the Kashmir valley.8 Although absence of any
habitation site does raise a question that was Jammu Neolithic man still living in
open but it cant be possible as the discovery of celt, chisel, ring-stone and quern,
pounder, blade and scraper point towards the other direction along with the red
ware pottery shards. But a possibility arises that like the man in Kashmir, the man
in Jammu region was also living on hunting.
The site of malpur was again taken for excavation after the gap of a decade.
In the new course of digging, ill-fired handmade red ware of medium- to-thick
fabric presenting the shapes like, bowl, vase, long-necked jar, etc. were found.
The limited area of excavation did not provide animal bones or cereals but the
occurrence of large number of grinding stones indicates that farming practice was
possibly known. As there is no clear evidence of the subsistence economy of
these people, it appears that hunting played an important role. The archaeological
evidence at malpur represents both the early and mature phase of Neolithic cultures
with refined tool technology, handmade ill fired pottery like other contemporary
site of the Kashmir valley. The scattered material remains found on the surface of
the site of malpur shows that site was temporarily occupied during the rainy season
because the river Chenab used to be turbulent during the season which could built
a difficulty in making contact with other contemporary sites. Due to this reason,
10
Megha Sharma
the inhabitants of malpur made temporary settlements only during the monsoonal
period.9
Considering the affinity of techno-typological features of tools and the
manufacturing technique of handmade pottery with the evidences found from the
surrounding Neolithic cultures, the chronology of the malpur site might be placed
around 3000-2500 BC. The present archaeological findings from malpur opens
new prospects to conduct multidisciplinary studies to ascertain the antecedent
stage of the cultures in the light of finds at burzahom and gufkral in Kashmir and
also to understand the palaeo-climatic changes in the region during early
Holocene.10
References
1.
D.K.Bhattacharya: prehistoric archaeology: a comparative study of human succession;

Hindustan publishing corp;1972; p-139
2. V.K.Jain: prehistory and protohistory of India:An Appraisal - Palaeolithic, NonHarappan, Chalcolithic Cultures (Perspectives in Indian Art & Archaeology); d.k.
print world ltd.; 2006; p-75
3. Jacob L. weisdorf: from foraging to farming: explaining the Neolithic revolution;
journal of economic surveys vol.19,no.4 2005;p-563
4. Ibid;p-568
5. V.gordon childe: the urban revolution; the town planning review,vol.21,no.
1(april,1950);pp-4-6
6. R.L.Singh: India a regional geography; Ubs publishers, distributors(p) ltd.; 2009;p386
7. Indian archaeological survey:1961-62;archaeological survey of India ; government
of India; new Delhi;1964;pp-16-17
8. Indian archaeological survey :1993-94;archaeological survey of India; government
of India; New Delhi;2000;pp-53-54
9. Indian archaeology review:2003-04; archaeological survey of India; government of
India; New Delhi; 2011;p-90
10. Indian archaeology review:2003-04; archaeological survey of india; government of
India; New Delhi;2011;p-90
11
Fortification of Badami (A.D.543-44)

Rise of Chalukyan Imperialism
*Dr. Pramila Devi B.K.
The glorious epoch of the history of Karnataka was by the emergence of Chalukyas
of Badami on the political arena of South India. Badami Chalukyas 1. (Badami
being their capital) or western Chalukyas or karnatas, made South India their
political stronghold,and for around two hundred and fifty years (500-757a.d.) they
were the masters of the Deccan and had a greater role in political and cultural
fields of South India. Chalukyas were the first historical dynasty of the south2 as
they have left several sources and official records for the study.
Establishment of a dynasty and leading it into an active expansionist policy
and helping it to reach its natural dimensions of power and prestige being carried
on by several of its rulers to their fullest manifestation is a foregone conclusion
by the way the kingdom was established. Thus foundation, erection of a fort around
Badami in 543A.D., by Chalukyan prince PulikesiI symbolizes the growth and
enlargement of an Empire. Fortification of the capital by this prince symbolized
the inherent imperialistic zeal of the Chalukyas. It foretold the coming of a glorious
period of power and grandeur to that city. Shatavahans,successors of the Mauryas
in the South, provided political stability to the Deccan for three hundred years.
Significance of the Satvahana rule over Deccan was that, they included most of
the existing royal familiesinto their Empire, but never tried to vanquish them.
Kadambas were masters of western Deccan(4th and 5th centuries of Christian
era), had matrimonial relations with the Guptas, Vakataks and other ruling families.
This situation of political anarchy provided opportunity for ambitious Chalukyan
princes who were the subordinates of the Kadambas. The Chalukyas claim they
being Haritiputras and of Manvyagotra; as that ofKadambas.3 TheChalukyan were
closely related to the Kadambas, probablu had matrimonial relations..
*Associate Professor of History (Retd.), Govt. Women College, Hunsur,

Karnataka
12
Dr. Pramila Devi B.K.
But legendry connections of these Chalukyas with divine origin and originally
from Ajodhyaas revealed by Bilhana in his Vikramankadevacharita(an 11th century
work of Kalyani Chalukyan period) must be a poetical imagination. The Chalukyas
were natives and Kannada speaking princes. Many of their inscriptions have
Kannada words, though the writing is Sanskrit. As A.C.Burnell opines the region
they were ruling had much wider usage of Kannada language by 5thand 6th
centuries.4The copper plates issued by Keertivarmaand Badami cave inscriptions
of the same period 577-78A.D. have several Kannada words.5.The authors of
IndianAntiquity say thatKannada was the spoken language of the rulers and the
people at this time.6
Chalukyan dynasty was probably founded by Jayasimha (500-520), but hardly
there are any sources of his achievements.It seems he fought with his neighbouring
kingdoms to have hold over the region.7 Ranaraga (520-540), his successor was
equally strong enough to put the small kingdom on a strong base. But very little
is known about his contributions to his dynasty. Most of the family records both
archeological and literary sources mention him as a ruler. R.G.Bhandarkar states
He was a prince of velour and a stately person.8Ellora or Eyehole was their
capital.
The region was fertile and strategically placed making it suitable to be capital
of an Empire.9 On one side they were bordered with pink sand-stone, horse-shoe
shaped Mahakuta hills, and watered by river Malaprabha. Badami being the epiccenter of this quadruple was a cleverest choice of Pulakesi to be his capital. The
region is one of the oldest pre-historic sites. The hills around have some references
being the caves inhabited by pre-historic people.10
Vatapi theancient name of Badami has its own mythological and legendry
importance.Vatapi and Ilvala; the demons who obstructed the movement of saint
Agasthya, on his way to the south.Agasthy killed them both and moved further
south. The place of Vatapi was Badami and the resident of Illvala was Ihole.
Ramayana has reference to this place. Ptolemy Philodelphous; author of
Geographia mentions it as Badamoi(A.D.150). From time-immemorial these
places; Badami and Eyehole were centers of trade.11
PulakesiI (means tiger-haired) (540-566A.D.) was an ambitious prince. He
acquired more secured place to be as capital for his expanding kingdom. Not
with-standing its natural barriers of the surrounding hills and river in 543 A.D. To
commemorate the event heinscribed an inscription on one of the walls of the fort.
By building a fort around the capital Pulikesi I as K. A. Nilakantasastrisay the
new fortress stood on a defensive eminence of his kingdom.
His successors acclaimed his achievement. The Godhachi, copper plates,
Badami cave inscription of his successor Keertivarman, Mahakuta pillar inscription
of Mangalesha and Aihole Inscription of most celebrated of his successors; Pulikesi
II, and all other records mention this event. Pulikesi I, intended to put his infant
kingdom on a strong footage and carried on a relentless struggle against the
Fortification of Badami (A.D.543-44)......
13
Kadambas; their erstwhile masters, Bans, Mauryas of Konkana etc. He called

himself as Satyasraya, Vallabheshvara, and Prtihvivallabhaetc.
Pulikesi I initiated Vedic rites in his kingdom. Performed Asvamedha sacrifice
to show his political hegemony over neighbouring kingdoms, andperformed Agnistoma and mahadana of Hiranyagarbhasacrifices.
The policy of imperialism expressed by the activities of Pulakesin I (was
considered the real founder of Chalukyan power) through his construction of
the fort is most significant as it reveal the desire of this Chalukyan prince to enhance
his political power and prestige over south India. His conquests brought large
areas under his rule. It was a firmpolicy whichwas relentlessly continued by most
of his successors.
Keertivarma (566-596A.D.), the son and successor of Pulakesin I was a
worthysuccessor. Not just continued his policy of territorial expansion, encouraged
art and religion. Godachi copper plates contain details of his military activities as
well his donations to Vedic institutions. This record refers to him as Kattiarasa,
khadgaraja (sword king), denoting his military activities12Mangalesha, his younger
brother assisted him in all his endeavors. He being a staunch vaishanavite,in 578
A.D excavated a cave temple for Vishnu in one of the nearby caves. This is a one
of the beautiful transformation of a natural cave into a temple.Badami has three
more caves, two devoted to Jainism and one a Shaiva shrine.
It also denotes the change in the religious preference of the people and the
rulers. Inthis context, the authors of Imperial Gazetteer(Bijapur district) states
that these caves mark the period when Hinduism was re-asserting itself.. Final
triumph over Buddhism with considerable beauty13 Walls of the caves are
embossed with several beautiful depictions of Narasimha, Laxmi-Vishnu.14The
family records also proclaim they worshipped Sapthamatirkas and Kartikeya.
Mangalesha, who became the regent of his nephews after the death of his elder
brother Keertivarman, was equally ambitious and continued the family tradition
of expanding the territories like his predecessors. According to that record of
Mangalesha, he said to have conquered far off places like Anga, Vanga, Kalinga
and other places, which may not be true, and donated all the wealth to
Mahakooteshvara.
The conquest of these early rulers and their military exploits starting from
the fortification of their capital, put Chalukyan kingdom on the path of an emerging
as a strong power which could engulf most of the existing ruling families of the
South. These rulers were able put the Chalukyan Empire as one of the foremost
Empires, thus heralding the period of Empires in the history of South India.
Pulakesi II (609-642.) son of Keertivarman put an end to the rule of his
uncle Mangalesha ( who tried to pass-on the kingdom to his own son, rather than
handing over to his nephew) througha civil-war was the most ambitious and strong
ruler. The fame and splendor of the Empire spread beyond the frontiers of India.
Received an embassy from Persian monarch Khusrau II in 625-26A.D.15
14
Dr. Pramila Devi B.K.
Foundation of the fort of Badami is a turning point in the spread and

development of Chalukyas as an imperial power. Their capital Badami was not
just an Adhisthana, but also a cultural and religious hub. Besides it continued its
prime concern of trade and industry. Hiuen Tsang the Chinese monk who visited
South India in his sojourn says that their empire was spread over 6000 to 12000 Li
and the capital city was of thirty Li.16Hiuen Tsang writes about the affluence of
the Empire and nature of the people.Chalukyas continued the administrative
divisions of the Shatavahansas and the Kadambas. Their army marched under the
leadership of their monarch, won great victories. They possessed a navy to control
the areas off the coastRevatidweepa, Elephanta and other islands which were
brought under their control. Their vastly extended kingdom was divided into
Rashtra, nadu and, Vishaya, 17 grama being the lowest unit.
The glorious epoch of Pulikesi II was eclipsed for thirteen years during
which the capital was under the siege of the Pallavas, the successors of Pulikesi II
regained their power and prestige.Nevertheless they carried on their relentless
struggle against the Pallavas for five generations.
The Chalukyas provided a glimpse of what a well administered Empire should
be. Their contribution topolitical prowess, administrative agility, broad vision of
cultural and religious involvement, while in power. Provided a new angle to the
field of art and architecture which continued by most of their successors.As the
subject is the effect of the construction of the fort which symbolized the inherent
desire of early Chalukyan princes to possess a vast kingdom and to be a strong
contenders for the supremacy of the South, which was fulfilled by the rulers like
Pulikesi, Keertivarman and Mangalesha. Thus even before the emergence of their
most celebrated monarch Pulikesi II.18
Another significant achievement of these early rulers was the consolidation
of the Kannada speaking areas under their banner. Badami and the surrounding
regions including the holdings of the Kadambas and the Ganges of Gangavadi
were Kannada regions. By uniting all Kannadaspeaking regions; politically and
culturally, they wereresponsible for the strengthening the bondage of land and its
culture.19 Thus their contemporaries and the successors proudly called them as
karnatas. Their country as Karnatas, their army (which was feared and envied
by their neighbours) was Karnatabala. In this contest it is apt to state that the
foundation of modern Karnataka and its glorious culture was laid by the Ganges
and the Kadambas, but the Badami Chalukyas helped it to reach itszenith and
added power and glory.
Fortification of Badami (A.D.543-44)......
15
References:1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
The Chalukyan families were identified with their capitals or regions, as there were
four different families of the Chalukyas ruling in Badami, Vengi Kalyan and at Gujarat.
Badami Chalukyas are the original family; others were the branches of them.
A.C.Burnell. Elements of South Indian Paleography. Ideological Book House Delhi
1968 p-17.
K.G.Nandimath. Gouache Copper plates of Keertivarman I (kan) Prabhuddha
Karnataka, vol-23. Mysore University. 1942. P- 25-29.
A.C.BurnellOp.Cit. P-18.
K.G.Nandimath. Gouache Copper plates of Keertivarman I (Kan). Op.Cit. P- 2529. 5a). R.G.Bhandarkar .Early History of Dekha .Chakerverty,Chatterjee and Co.Ltd.
Calcutta 1975. P-82.
J.Fleet.Indian Antiquity, vol-x. Pp57-58.
R.G.Bhandarkar.Op.Cit. P- 83.
ibid.
Imperial Gazetteer of India. Vol-vi, Oxford 1908. P- 177. 9a. Chinese pilgrim Hiuen
Tsang writes about the bounty of the land and steadfastness of its people.
Kannada Vishaya Vishwakosh- Itihas and Purattatva. University of Mysore p- 37374.
A.Champakalakshmi. Trade Ideology and Urbanization in South India 33B.C. to
A.D.130034. 10a] Kannada Vishaya Vishwakosh- Itihas and Purattatva. University
of Mysore 2009. P- 373.
D.C.Sirkar. Classical Age. P-231.
K.G.Nandimath. Op.Cit.
Imperial Gazetteer, Op.Cit p-177.
J. Fleet. Bombay Gazetteer .vol-I, part-II p- 350].
.Fleet. Ibid. PP- 350-52.
R.G.Bhandarkar Op.Cit p- 58..
T.V.Mahalingam. South Indian Polity. University of Madras 1955. P- 307-08.
Suryanath Kamath (Ed). Karnataka Gazetteer. Government of Karnataka. Bangalore
.p- 178.
16
Environmental Ideas of Asoka

In Inscriptions
*Sagar Simlandy
Priyadarshi Asoka, the greatest king of Maurya Empire converted himself from
Chandasokathe cruel to Dharmasoka the pious after kalinga war in the bank of
river Daya. He eradicated his cruelty in mind and body after taking Buddha dharma.
He not only devoted himself in peaceful life but also formulated some
environmental ethics in the way of non-violence. Asoka also had some very
progressive environmental policies, mostly to do with wildlife and the treatment
of animals. His belief in the sanctity of all life meant a drastic reduction in animal
consumption. Hunting for sport was outlawed, as was the branding of livestock.His
environmental policies probably culminated in the 5th of his Seven Pillar edicts,
in which he gave a large variety of wildlife official protection. His vision of
ahimsa was not confined to animals or human beings. All living things plants
and water-were to be respected and protected.
Ahimsa is taking action to preserve our environment and working to
generate variable models of sustainable habitat preservation of endangered forests.1
Protection of the natural habitats of which endangered and threatened for spices
take refuge is high priority foe Ahimsa international as was environmental
stewardship a priority of king Ashoka more than 2200 years ago.King
Ashoka,emperor of India and other regions of the middle east, organised travelling
expeditions to monitor habitat and species biodiversity of the land, plant, the
animals and maintained elaborate records of the these observation via a stewardship
council. 2King Ashoka established medical treatment, farming techniques,
established preservation efforts, and hunting restrictions in a very barbaric time
where numerous animalssacrifices were common place.
King Ashoka also planted along the roadways fruit and shade trees, so that
every traveller was accommodated in his journeys and so thatno animals or human
*Assistant Professor (History), Sripatsingh College, Jiaganj, Murshidabad,
West Bengal
Environmental Ideas of Asoka In Inscriptions
17
would go hungry. 3 He also extended to us the development of agriculture and

greatly contributed to Ayurvedic medicine. He also placed a strong emphasis on
the important relationship between man and nature..
1st major Rock edict explained no living thing having been killed, it to be
sacrificed; nor is the holding of a festival permitted. The king Piyadassi have been
consisted of the medical care of man and the care of animals.4Medicinal herbs
whether useful to man or to beast, have been brought and planted wherever they
did not grow; similarly, roots and fruit have been brought and planted wherever
they did not grow. Along the roads wells have been dug and trees planted for the
use of men and beasts. In this edits,Ashoka vows to care for his people like a father.
He promises neighboring people that they need not fear him: he will use only
persuasion, not violence, to win people over. 5Ashoka notes that he has made available
shade fruit trees for the people as well as medical care all people and animals.
During the remaining portion of Ashokas reign he persuaded an official
policy of nonviolence.Wildlife became protected by kings law sport hunting and
branding: even the unnecessary slaughter or mutilation of animals was immediately
abolished. Limited haunting was permitted for consumption for reasons.6 But
Ashoka also promoted the concept of vegetarianism. Ashok also showed mercy to
those imprisoned allowing them outside on day each year.Second major rock edits
prohibits of animal sacrifice. Ashok is acclaimed for constructing hospital for
animals and renovating major roads through India.
4th major rock edits maintains medical treatment for man and animals and
wells and tree plantings.7The killing of animal to a large extent also stopped in
this edit. This edit emphasis virtue of tolerance, nonviolence and togetherness;
they preach to the people the important of such human practices as looking after
and comforting sick humans and animals. 5th major rock edit tells Dhamma was a
way for people to treat each other on animals with respect. Dhamma was related
to dharma which is the fundamental laws of Hindus, Buddhist and jainist believe
applies to all animals.
No sacrifice of animals for religious rituals will be permitted in the capital.
The slaughter and mutilation of pacific animals and birds by any one is
forbidden.8Hospitalsfor peoples and animals will be built by Ashoka. Gardens for
growing medicinal plants will be established. Wells, trees and rest houses put
along roads for comfort of travelers and animals.
5th piller edict speaks the Beloved of the Gods, the king Piyadassi; when I
had been consecrated for twenty-six years I forbade the killing of the following
species of animals, namely- parrots, manias, red-headed ducks, cakravaka-geese,
swans, Nandi-mochas, pigeons, bats, ants, tortoises, boneless fish, vedaveyakas,
papules of the Ganges, domesticated animals, rhinoceroses, white pigeons,
domestic pigeons and all quadrupeds which are of no utility and are not eaten. l.
Fish are not to be caught or sold and in these same days in the Elephant Park and
fisheries, other classes of animals like wise must not be killed. On festival days bulls,
goats, rams, beers, and other animals which it is customary are not to be castrated.
18
Sagar Simlandy
7th pillar edit speaks the beloved of gods9the Piyadassi on the roads I have
had banyan trees planted, which will give shed and best of man, I have had mango
groves planted and I have had wells dug and rest houses built for every animals.
So in this article I tried to establish Emperor Ashoka as a true environmentalist.
For that human mind inspire and protect our Earth.
In the past, kings went on pleasure tours, which consisted of hunts and other
similar amusements. 10 The Beloved of the Gods, the king Piyadassi, when he had
been consecrated ten years, went to the tree of Enlightenment. From that time
arose the practice of tours connected with Dhamma, during which meetings are
held with ascetics and Brahmans, gifts are bestowed, meetings are arranged with
aged folk, gold is distributed, meetings with the people of the country side are
held, instruction in Dhamma is given, and questions on Dhamma are answered.
The Beloved of the Gods, the king Piyadassi, derives more pleasure from this,
than from any other enjoyments.
Thus speaks the Beloved of the Gods, the king Piyadassi. People practice
various ceremonies.11 In illness, at the marriage of sons and daughters, at the birth
of children, when going on a journey- on these and on other similar occasions
people perform many ceremonies. Women especially perform a variety of
ceremonies, which are trivial and useless. If such ceremonies must be performed
they have but small results. But the one ceremony which has great value is that of
Dhamma. This ceremony includes, regard for slaves and servants, respect for
teachers, restrained behavior towards living being and donations to Sramanas and
Brahmans these and similar practices are called the ceremony of Dhamma.
The Beloved of the Gods, the king Piyadassi, sets no great store by fame or
glory, except in, that he desires fame and glory both now and in the future,12 in
order that his people may obey Dhamma with obedience and follow the way of
Dhamma. To this extent the Beloved of the Gods desires fame and glory. Whatever
efforts the Beloved of the Gods, the king Piyadassi, makes, it is all done with a
view to the after-life, that all men may escape from evil inclinations, for there can
be no merit in evil inclinations..
Thus speaks the Beloved of the Gods, the king Piyadassi: There is no gift
comparable to the gift of Dhamma, the praise of Dhamma, the sharing of Dhamma,
fellowship in Dhamma. And this is - good behaviour towards slave and servants,
obedience to mother and father, generosity towards friends, acquaintances, and
relatives and towards Sramanas and Brahmans, and abstention from killing living
beings. Father, son, brother, master, friend, acquaintance, relative, and neighbours
should say, this is good, this we should do. By doing so, there is gain in this
world, and in the next there is infinite merit, through the gift of Dhamma.
The Beloved of the Gods, the king Piyadassi, honours all sects and both
ascetics and laymen, with gifts and various forms of recognition. 13 But the Beloved
of the Gods do not consider gifts or honour to be as important as the advancement
of the essential doctrine of all sects. This progress of the essential doctrine takes
Environmental Ideas of Asoka In Inscriptions
19
many forms, but its basis is the control of ones speech, so as not to extol ones
own sec or disparage anothers on unsuitable occasions, or at least to do so only
mildly on certain occasions.. Again, whosoever honours his own sec or disparages
that of another man, wholly out of devotion to his own, with a view to showing it
in a favourable light, harms his own sect even more seriously.
Beloved of the Gods, is that those who dwell there, whether Brahmans,
Sramanas, or those of other sects, or householders who show obedience to their
superiors, obedience to mother and father, obedience to their teachers and behave
well and devotedly towards their friends, acquaintances, colleagues, relatives,
slaves, and servants - all suffer violence, murder, and separation from their loved
ones. This inscription of Dhamma was engraved at the command of the Beloved of
the Gods, the king Piyadassi. It exists in abridged, medium length, and extended
versions, for each clause has not been engraved everywhere. Since the empire is
large, much has been engraved and much has yet to be engraved. There is considerable
repetition because of the beauty of certain topics, and in order that the people may
conform to them. In some places it may be inaccurately engraved, whether by the
omission of a passage or by lack of attention, or by the error of the engraver.
References:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Romila Thapar, The Mauryas Revisited, center for studies in social sciences, retrieved
30 August, 2013, pp-139-140.
Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age
to the 12th century, Pearson Education India, 2009. Pp, 326 -327
Asoka the Greats Rule of India, Holistic Thought Education, Retrieved, 11 August,
2013,pp 17-18
H Sharma, Essay on Asokas Policy of Dhamma, Preserve articles, Retrieved, 11
August,2013,pp 11-13
Manohar k.Gupta, The Aryan Path of the Buddha, Sun deep Prakashan, 2007, pp,
170,171.
Irfan Habib, Jha,Vivekananda,Mauryan India Volume 4 of Peoples history of India,
Tulika, 2005,pp,192.
Reddy, General Studies History 4, Tata McGraw-Hill Education-2005,pp.47-49.
Ramesh Chandra Mazumdar, Ancient India, Motilal Banarasidas Publication,1977,
pp-237.
Sudeshna Sengupta, History and Civics, Ratna Sagar,2010,pp-99-100.
Mirgandra Agarwal, Philosophy of Inspiration, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd.2005, p-42.
Richard McKeon, The Edicts of Ashoka, Chicago:University of Chicago Press,
1965,pp-37-39.
Romila Thapar, Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas, Oxford, Oxford University
Press, 1963,p-132.
Romila Thapar, Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300, University of California
Press, 2004,p-12-13.
20
Apsaras- As A Decorative Features And

Expressing Common Human Moods
(Related To Historical Buildings of Bundelkhand)
*Dr. Vinay Shrivastava
Apsarasand Sura Sundaries are one more beautiful category of sculptures. They
are executed either in the round, or in high or medium relief, on the outer or inner
walls, Pillars, and ceilings.Apsaras, divine nymphs or celestial dancing girls, are
character form Indian mythology.Their origin is explained in the story of the
churning of the Ocean of milk or Samudra manthan, found in the Vishnu Purana.
Other stories in the Mahabharata detail the exploits of individual Apsaras who
were often used by the gods as agents to persuade or seduce mythological demons,
heroes and ascetics. The widespread use of Apsaras as a motif for decorating the
walls and pillars of temples and other religious buildings, however, was a Khajuraho
innovator in modern descriptions of temple.
The term Apsaras is sometimes used to refer not only to dancers but also to
other minor female deities, though minor female deities who are depicted standing
about rather than dancing, are more commonly called Debates.1
The lively tradition of Indian Sculptures date back to the third century B.C.
It was during the time of first Indian Empire the Mayura dynasty most probably,
the art of carving found its origin in this period. This period is marked by the birth
of Sculptures.2It is the branch of the Visual arts. A wide range of styles and tradition
succeeding centuries, but by the ninth and tenth centuries C.E. Indian Sculpture
had reached a form that has lasted with little change up to the present day. This
Sculpture is distinguished not by a sense of plastic volume and fullness but rather
by its linear character, the figure is conceived from the standpoint of its outline
and the figure itself a graceful, slender and has supple limbs. From the tenth century
this Sculpture was used mainly as a part of architectural decorations.Sculpture
has been a means of human expression since prehistoric times. It begins to carve
*Department of History, Chhatrasal Government P.G. College , Panna (M.P.)

Apsaras- As A Decorative Features And Expressing......
21
characters and scenes from the stories of Indias three interconnected religiousHinduism, Buddhism and toa lesser extent Jainism.3
The presentation tends to be frontal. The most abiding image of Hindu arts
are magnificent young women nude, full breasted and often in some strikingly
athletic pose. Occasionally these are just female attendants but more often they
are characters of legend.In central India the Apsaras sculptures have been found
at Khajuraho, Sanchi, Bagh, Bhojpur, Gyaraspur, Kholvi, and Dhamnar etc.Many
of them are marked by symmetry, proportion balance, rhythm and serenity, thus
melding the Apsaras sculptural art inspirational both to the visitors and the
artists.4An Apsara is a female spirit of the clouds and waters in Hindu and Buddhist
mythology.5English translation oftheword Apsarainclude nymph,celestial nymph
and celestial maiden.Apsara are beautiful supernatural female beings. They are
youthful elegant and superb in the art of dancing. They are often the wives of the
Gandharvas, the court musicians of Indra. They dance to the music made by the
Gandharvas, usually in the palaces of the Gods, entertain and sometimes
seducegods and men. As ethereal beings that inhabit the skies, and are often
depicted taking flight or at service of a God, they may be compared to angels.6
Apsara are said to be able to change their shape at will, and rule over the
fortunes of garbing and gambling. Urvasi, Menaka, Rambha and Tilotama are the
most famous among them.Apsara are sometimes compared to the Muses of ancient
Greece, with each of the twenty six Apsaras at Indra court representing a distinct
aspect of the performing arts. They are associated with fertility rites.7
There are two types of Apsaras, Laukika (worldly), of whom thirty four are
specified and Devika(divine), of which there are ten. The Bhagavata Purana also
states that the ApsaraUrvashi was born from the Sages Nara- Narayana and
Muni.8TheRig-Veda tells of an Apsara who is the wife of Gandharvas; however
the Rig-Veda also seems to allow for the existence of more than one Apsara. The
only Apsara specifically named as Urvasi. An entire hymn deals with the colloquy
between Urvashi and her mortal lover Pururavas.9Later Hindu Scriptures allow
for the existence of numerous Apsaras, who act as the handmaidens of Indra or as
dancers at hill celestial court.Natya Shastra the principal work of dramatic theory
for Sanskrit drama lists the following Apsaras; Manjukesi, sukesi,Misrakesi,
Sulochana, Saudamini, Devadatta,Devasena, Manorama, Sudati, Sundari,
Vigagdha, Vividha, Budha, sumala, Santali, Sunanda, Sumukhi, Magodhi, Arjuni,
Sarala, Kerala,Dharti, Nanda, Supuskala, Supuspamala and Kalabha.10Apsara
dance taken from the twelth century Khajuraho temple at Khajuraho.Apsaras are
depicted on the base of the temple, a work of tenth century.11
Khajuraho is known for its ornate temples. These temples built by the
Chandella rulers between AD 900 and 1130. The first recorded mention of the
Khajuraho temples is in the accounts of Abu Rihan Alberuni and the Arab traveller
Ibn- Battuta.12The Nagaraor northern style of temple architecture reached its
apogee during this period.The Nagara temple was focused on a square sanctum
22
Dr. Vinay Shrivastava
which acquired a cruciform shape on account of transepts on either side. It was

also topped by gently curvilinear sikhara or spire.13
All Khajuraho temples are built of fine-grained sandstone, in varying shades
of buff, pink or pale yellow, brought from the quarries of Panna on the east bank
of the Ken River. Sculptures as decorative features of Khajuraho temples can be
divided into five broad categories. In the five categories one of them category
consists of Apsaras and Sura-Sundaries, and these accounts for the finest and
most numerous sculptures at Khajuraho. They are executed either in the round, or
in high or medium relief on the outer or inner walls, pillars and ceilings. The
Sura-Sundaries are invariably represented as graceful nymphs, attired in the
choicest garments and bedecked in the finest jewellery.As Apsara, they are shown
dancing in various postures. As attendants of the higher divinities, they are
represented with hands folded or carrying the lotus-flower, mirror and water jar
raiment, Ornaments etc. as offerings for the deities.14The Sura-Sundaries are
portrayed expressing common human moods, emotions and activities and are often
difficult to distinguish from conventional human Nayikas. They are thus shown
disrobing, , Scratching their backs, touching their breasts, rinsing water from wet
plaits, removing thorns from their feet, fondling babies, playing with pets like
parrots and monkeys, writing letters, playing on a flute or via painting designs on
walls or bedecking themselves in various ways by painting their feet or applying
collegium to their eyes.15
Conclusion- The lovely tradition of Indian Sculptures date back to the third
century B.C. most probably the art of carving found its origin Mauryan dynasty.
This period is marked by the birth of sculptures.
Sculptures as a decorative features are more important of any historical
building. Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts. Sculptures have been a means
of human expression since pre historic times. From the 10th century this sculptures
was used mainly as a part of architectural decoration with vast number of relatively
small figures of mediocre quality produced for this purpose.Decorative feature
explained the culture and socio-economic condition in on period. Decorative feature
like sculptures and carve character are related form the stories of Indias religious
books and traditions.Apsara, Sura-Sundaries and Devatas are one more beautiful
category of Sculptures. The wider spread use of Apsaras as a motif for decorating
the walls and pillars of temples and other religious buildings.
In modern descriptions of temple the term Apsaras is sometimes used to
refer not only to dancers but also to other miner female deities though miner
female deities, who are depicted standing about rather than dancing, are more
commonly called devatas. Apsara and devatas are ubiquitous of the 12th century.
The 12th century temples of Khajuraho are the master piece of religious architecture,
constructed under the direction of the Chandellas Kings. It was to serve as a
templeto the Hindu God Shiva. Apsara as a motif use for decorating the walls and
pillars of these temples. Apsaras, divine nymphs or celestial dancing girls are
character from Indian mythology.
Apsaras- As A Decorative Features And Expressing......
23
References1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Roveda Vittorio, Images of the God: Khmer mythology in Cambodia, Loas and
Thailand. River Books publisher, 2005, P-200ff.
Romila Thapar, Ashoka and Decline of Mauryas, Oxford University Press, 2001, PP267-270.
J.C. Harle, The Art and Architecture of the Indian Sub-Continent, II edition, Yale
University Press, Pelican History of Art,1994, P-26-38
Swati Mitra, Editor in Chief, World Heritage Series: Khajuraho, Archaeological Survey
of India,P-9.
Manka, Mahbhrata, Book I, AdiParva, Section 71-72.
Mahabharata (English translation-Kisari Mohan Ganguly is available at sacred
texts.com), Book III, Vana Parva, section 43.
Ibid.
Devdutt Pattanaik,The Goddess in India; The Five Faces of the Etemal Feminine,
Pub. By Inner Traditions\ Bear and Company,-176 pages, p.66.
Rig-Veda (English translation-Ralph T.H. Griffith) Book X, Hymn-95, available at
sacred text.com (sacred text archive).
Bharat Muni, Volume I, Manmohan Ghosh, Ancient Indian treatise on the performing
arts written during the period between 200 BCE and 200 CE classical India and is
traditionally attributed to the Saga Bharat Muni, Asiatic Society of Bengal,
Calcutta,1951 and Aswani Bhatt, Glimpses of Natya Shastra.
Field Survey under the Major Research Project of Dr. Vinay Shrivastava, sponsored
by U.G.C. New Delhi entitled, A Study and Documentation of historical monuments
and its decorative features in medieval Bundelkhand.
Ibn Battuta, Travels in Asia and Africa 1325-1354,(English translation H. A.R.Gibb),
Pilgrims Publishing, Varanasi,1998, p.226.
Swati Mitra, Editor in Chief, World Heritage Series: Khajuraho, Archaeological Survey
of India, P-12.
Ibid, PP-29, 30, 31.
Ibid, PP-30, 31.
24
Angkor Wat A Wonderous Heritage

*Dr. Kusum
Angkor Wat is one of the greatest and finest monuments in the world located in
Angkor city that was founded in the ninth century and was an ancient capital of
Cambodia. The name Angkor derives from the Sanskrit word nagara (holy city)
which is nakhon in Thai and may have been pronounced nokor or Angkor in
Khmer.1 The city was the main centre of the Khmer Empire and generally accepted
dates for the Angkor period are 802 to 1432 A.D.2 Wat is a Siamese word meaning
temple. Angkor Wat complex comprising several other monuments like Angkor
Thom, Preah Khan, Ta Prahm, Preah Pithu etc. besides Angkor Wat is the premier
historical site in Southeast Asia and is now widely accessible to the tourists. Angkor
Wat complex is arguably eighth wondering of the world. It is located six kilometers
away from Siem Reap, the provincial capital of the state known by the same name,
320 kms north of Phnom Penh and 456 kms from Bangkok. Siem Reap the
small French Colonial style town is situated picturesquely along the banks of the
Siem Reap River. The sublime temple of Angkor Wat, weaving a mysterious spell
and absorbing Hindu/Indian culture, was built by Suryavarman II a brilliant
Khmer ruler, from 1113 A.D. to 1150 A.D.. It took more than 30 years to complete
the Angkor Wat. The Angkor area remained neglected and mostly abandoned after
the fall of Khmer Empire for centuries until a French naturalist Henri Mouhot3
discovered it in 1863. The historic site of Angkor was included in the UNESCO
World Heritage site list in 1992.
At the very first sight, Angkor Wat looks majestic and grand and provides a
thrilling experience to the visitors. While appreciating the Angkor Wat H.C. Candee
remarked, One can never look upon the ensemble of the Wat without a thrill, a
pause, a feeling of being caught up into the heavens. Perhaps it is the most
impressive sight in the world of edifices.4 Its beauty is astonishing and one is
struck by the wonder of the art and architecture of the temple. The materials used
in it include sandstone, timber, brick, stucco, laterite, fired clay tiles and metal. It
*Assistant Professor, Department of History, Vaish Arya Kanya Mahavidyalaya,
Bahadurgarh (Haryana)
25
has elevated gateways (gopuras), miles of majestic galleries, pillars, towers, basreliefs and wide moat. The temple is dedicated to Vishnu a Hindu God. The
colossus monument occupies a rectangular area of about 210 hectares surrounded
by a four-wall and a moat always filled with water. The balance, the proportions
and the symmetry are the beauty of the temple. The height of the Angkor Wat
from the ground to the top of the Central tower is 65 meters (213 feet). It has three
rectangular or square platforms (1-3) and each one is progressively smaller and
higher than the one below. Covered galleries with columns define the boundaries
of the first and second platforms. At the third level the platform supports splendid
five towers which are strikingly unique architectural features of Angkor Wat.
Notably, at the third level, only King and high priest were allowed. From
this level, one can feel the effect and enjoy the surrounding countryside. You feel
compelled to get to the wondrous group of the five domes (Towers), companions
of the sky, sisters of the clouds, and determine whether or not one lives in a world
of reality or in a fantastic dream.5 another characteristic of Angkor Wat is its
stone vaulted roof on galleries, chambers and aisles. Steps provide access to the
various levels and used link one part of the monument to another. Giant stone
lions on each side of the terrace guard the monument. The gateway central
entrance is so wide that the elephants, horses and carts could pass. Angkor Wat is
a replica of the universe in stone and the central tower, rising from the centre,
symbolizes the mythical Mount Meru, situated in the centre of the universe
providing an impressive sight in the world of edifices. The full view of the splendid
five towers of Angkor Wat is amazing and exceptional.
Towers of Angkor Wat Front View

26
Dr. Kusum
The monument, largely, is depicted in the form of bas-reliefs, paintings and

statues, the religious themes of Hinduism, Buddhism and also the might of
Suryavarman (II). In the gallery of bas-reliefs (north-west side) tales of Ramayana
are depicted in mural paintings. The lengthy epic is written in grand
heroic style and the theme centers on a series of adventures and ordeals of
Rama and the abduction of his wife, Sita, by the demon Ravana.6 The drama of
abduction of Sita by Ravana, rescue of Sita in a fierce battle of Lanka between
Rama and demon king Ravana is depicted forcefully. The central figures the
nimbling monkeys as warriors fighting on Rama side against Ravana bring out
beautifully the brutality and horrors of war. Similarly, the battle of Kurukshetra
between Pandavs and Kauravas is dramatically portrayed in an action-packed scene
at Angkor Wat in the gallery of bas-reliefs (South-West side). A well-known story
of Krishna lifting mount Govardhana is also narrated. He is seen supporting the
mountain for several days before Indra admits defeat. Churning of the ocean of
milk in the East gallery is another attractive panel. The myth is based on Bagavata
Purana and centres on Gods and demons who have been churning the ocean of
milk for 1,000 years in an effort to produce an elixir. The figures are drawn with
such consummate skill that you feel the strength of the muscles as they pull the
coiled serpents body. The beautiful scenes of heaven and hell are also engraved
along with scenes of punishment and suffering and leisurely pursuits in celestial
palace. Yama riding on a buffalo is represented. Several key events connecting
Buddha from childhood through attainment of Enlightenment is also depicted
artistically in several bas-reliefs at Angkor Wat. In the south gallery, a battle scene
of the Khmer army of the king Suryavarman-II, portraying of a splendid triumphal
procession over their enemies is beautifully sketched. Female beauty of the asparas
carved out is bewitching. A 17th century Cambodian poet Pang wrote, These
gracious figures, filling you with such emotion that eye is never wearied, the soul
is renewed, and the heart never sated! They were never carved by the hands of
men! They were carved by the Gods, living, lovely, breathing women.7
Angkor ranks as the chief wonder and cultural masterpiece of the world
today, one of the summits to which human genius has aspired in stone. There is no
such monument to a vanished people anywhere in the world.8 Angkor deserves to
be saved. For Cambodians, it is the essence of life and that is why the towers of
Angkor Wat appear on their national flag as a symbol of unity in recognition of a
glorious heritage. The financial needs to preserve Angkor are too great for nation
like Cambodia. It is only through integrated planning and international cooperation;
the historic monuments can be protected and saved. Fortunately, during dictator
Pol Pots (1975-1978) reign of terror that left up to two million dead, the temple,
however, by and large, was saved. Now the Cambodian Government has the support
of the outside world and several international organizations (including India) have
responded to the financial needs and technical advice for some 40 temples in
Angkor area that are accessible to visitors. Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)
27
was involved in the restoration work of Angkor Wat from 1986 to 1992 and
assurance for continued help in future.
Indeed, there is no such wondrous monument anywhere else in the world as
Angkor Wat, and it is enjoyable to visit historical monuments in Angkor the last
great opulent capital of Khmer Empire. The best time to visit Angkor is during the
cooler months between November and March. Tourists are advised to keep to the
well-worn out paths for the fear of landmines. For individual tourist, motorbike or
Tuk-Tuk is the cheap and the best mode of transport from Siem Reap to the Angkor
complex. There are direct flights to Siem Reap International Airport from various
destinations and the city is also well connected by roads. People going to Angkor
must also see National Museum at Phnom Penh, the finest collection of Khmer art
giving an historical insight to the countrys past. Accommodation in hotels and
restaurants in Siem Reap, varying from modest to quite basic is available. To visit
Angkor is to realize The tremendous power of Indian culture that it spread its
wings to other countries not due to military prowess but by virtue of their luminosity
and spiritual power. It is also time for historians to conduct a serious research as
to who were the Indian architectures who built such beautiful monuments to mans
faith and energy in Cambodia and other South-Asian countries.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Dawn F. Rooney, Angkor, Odyssey Publication Ltd. and Air photo International Ltd.,
Hong Kong, 2002, p.17.
Ibid., p.24.
Henri Mouhot Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China (Siam), Cambodia and
Laos, Oxford University Press, 1989, p.8.
H. Churchill Candee, Angkor : The Magnificent, the Wonder City of Ancient Cambodia,
Kindle Edition, 2008, pp. 68-9.
Ibid., p.68.
Dawn F. Rooney, Op.cit., p.57.
Osbert Sitwell, Escape with Me! An Oriental Sketchbook, London, Macmillan, 1949,
p.90.
Etienne Aymonier, Khmer Heritage in the old Siamese Provinces of Cambodia with
Special Emphasis on Temples, Inscriptions and Etymology, White Lotus Company
Ltd., 1878 (Thailand).
28
India And Early West

*Dr. Anjani Kumar Jha
Introduction: The ancient cultures of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Persia have not
survived and their present cultures no longer fro an unbroken chain linking part
with present. Modern, for example, are almost completely dissociated from the
civilization which flourished on the nine thousand of year ago. But in India today,
Hindus seek inspiration from concepts similar to those originally advance by their
ancestors. Social institutions and relationships, language and literature, are far
more continuous than even those of Greece and Italy. Vedic literature and the
Jataka, Jewish chronicles, and the accounts of Greek historians all suggest contact
between India and west. The main settlements of Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and
Lethal and considerable distances from each other. A number of seals of Indus
Valley design and workmanship have been found at various rites in the Euphrates
and Jigjigs areas. Close scrutiny of the seals found in Mesopotamia and a
comparison with seals from various regions of western Asia positively indicate
that they war either manufactured in the Indus cities or were close copies of Indus
types.1
In the Acadian tongue, Indian cotton was expressed by ideographic meaning
negotiable cloth Assurbanipal (668-626 B.C.) cultivated Indian Plants including
the Wool-bearing trees of India when the Greeks first raw Indians, the letter
were dressed in Wool grown on trees Herodotus mentions Indian cotton, and
the first account of cotton grown outside the western boundaries of India was
given in 350 B.C. by Theophrastus, who described the Wool - bearing trees of
Kyle 9Bahrein) stating that cotton was cultivated in India as well.2 When perennial
cotton plants - originally native only to India - were first grown in western Asia is
a matter of conjecture but since there is known to have been contact between
Mohenjo-Daro and contemporary civilizations in Babylonia, it seems likely that
the cotton of the Indus Valley were distributed along the Persian coast and as far
up the Persian Gulf as perennials could be successfully grown.3Commercial
intercourse between the Indus and the Tigris-Euphrates Civilizations is also
demonstrated by the Harappa manufactures found in Mesopotamia, Semi-precious
*Shivaji Nagar, Bhopal, M.P.
29
stones, such as aragonite came from Gujarat or even the Nilgiri Hills; foodstuffs
and metal from Rajasthan or Baluchistan; and shank shell from Southern India.
All there reached Mesopotamia during the last hap of the third millennium B.C.
on the other hand; white marble seal, an edge, pottery rings, and horned figures
are some of the items imported from Sumer into the Indus region. Archaeological
researchers have also brought to light Indus remains; belonging to 2000 B.C. 1000 B.C. in southern Jurymen is Soviet Central Asia.4
Indirect contact between ancient India and Egypt through Mesopotamia is
generally admitted, but evidence of a direct relationship between the two is at
best fragmentary and inconclusive. There are also similarities between places
names in Bengal and Egypt5, and recently an Egyptian Scholar, El Mansur, has
pointed out that in both Egypt and India and worship of Cow, Sun, Snake, and
river was common. Of all the Egyptian objects and motifs indicating some contact
between Indian and Egypt during the Indus valley period, the cord pattern
occurring in a copper tablets in the Indus Valley and on three Egyptian seals is
the most striking link between the two countries.6 Where direct or through
Mesopotamia, there is concrete evidence of a network of trade linking up the
whole area from the Tigris to the Indus and the Oyez and its extension west of
the Euphrates as far as the Nile.7 The Oriental Institute near Baghdad ex-cavated
at Tell Arab a green steatite vase of typical Sumerian workmanship, portray-ing
a humped bull in front of a manger. As Gordon Child puts it, in the third
millennium B.C. India was already in a position to contribute to the building up
of the cultural tradition that constitutes our spiritual heritage as she notoriously
has done since the time of Alexander.8
The demonolatry of Babylonia with its malignant serpents came to be known
in India, and their Babylonian names were preserved in the Atharva, Veda. The
serpent Teammate against whom the Atharva Veda prescribes a charm, and who
bears a non-Sanskrit name, appears to resemble closely the Assyrian dragon Tamest.
The Indus civilization itself was thoroughly individual, deeply rooted in Indian
soil, and was already forming the basis of modern Indian culture.9During the second
millennium B.C. the continuous area of civilization extended from the alluvial
valleys to cover most of western Asia and India, with an outpost as far distant as
China. The political history of Mesopotamia, however, for the two thou-sand years
before it came under Persian domination, is full of military conflict. Information
concerning Indian contacts with the West during this, the later Indus and period is
not precise, although documents from Babylonia and Asia Minor testify to some
interchange. Recently, in the Babylonian texts of the kings of Akkad and in lexical
texts, Lemans has identified two names. Magana or Makah and McLuhan, with
Macron in Baluchistan and with western India respectively.10 the names of kings
recorded in the Casita documents (ca. 1760-1600 B.C.) recall Indo-Aryan deities.
It was the Casitas who introduced into Babylonia the use of the horse for drawing
chariots, and the late Babylonian name for a horse, Susie, seems to be derived
from the Sanskrit asva.11
30
Dr. Anjani Kumar Jha
Common Cultural Heritage :A fragmentary handbook on chariot racing

found in the documents at Benghazi Koki, the Hittite capital in Asia Minor, further
endorses the Indo-Europeans common cultural heritage. Many of the technical
terms used for so many circuits of the course are very close to Sanskrit. For example,
aikavartanna travertine, panzavartanna, shattavartanna, is used for one, three,
five, and seven laps of the race. In Sanskrit, Varian am means a turning. the Hittite
deities, the Bull god and the Mother goddess, Gars tang is most arrested by the
obvious parallelism with the symbolism and the ritual of the Indian god Siva, a
result for which, however surprising, we are prepared by the inclusion of Muttra,
Verona, and Indra among the deities of Mittani.12 During the acme period the
Tell-el-Amanas tablets mention Aryan princes, such as Birdies of Yeoman and
Suwardata of Kiblah, in Syria and Palestine. The numerals and divine and personal
names referred to are actually the oldest specimens of any Aryan speech known to
scholars and, significantly, they are in this form very nearly pure Indian, being
much more akin to Sanskrit than to any Iranian dialects.13
The Phoenicians of the Levant, important in the ancient world as traders,
explorers, and craftsmen, were also in contact with India.14 the Phoenicians were
immigrants to Syria from the Persian Gulf. They set up harbor towns and guarded
them jealously throughout their history. The Phoenicians, who first seem to have
imported it from Syria, found this source exhausted by the eighth century B.C. It
was then that they turned their attention to India as a fresh source of supply and
organized expeditions for that purpose.15 Logs of Indian teak have been found in
the Temple of the Moon at Mug heir built during the sixth century B.C. under the
Chaldean Empire, and in the palace of Nebuchad-nezzar (604-562 B.C. Tophus
(ape) in Hebrew, is kopi in Sanskrit; alephs (ivory) in Hebrew, is tibia in Sanskrit;
and the Hebrew alums (sandalwood) is probably from the Sanskrit Volga. In tracing
similarities in literature, scholars, moreover, have noted the curious resemblance
between the Maha-Ummagga Jataka16 and the story of the judgment of Solomon.
During the reign of Solomon (973-933 B.C.) the position of Palestine, situated is
easily accessible proximity to India, western Asia, and Africa, became much clearer
than before. Solomons father, David, during his campaigns, had occupied EzionGaber on the Gulf of Azkaban, Solomon retained this position Ezion-Gaber, or
the neighboring port of Eolith, was the point of embarkation for India and the Far
East, and he who possessed it and Palestine commanded the bridge which joined
three continents.17 The recent finding in 1963 of a round stone-seal from Pando
Rajah Dhabi in Bengal and the identification of its script and pictographs with the
Phaetons pictographs and Linear A scripts point to the possi-bility that the Indians
of Bengal were in trading contact with the inhabitants of Crete during the second
half of the second mille-nnium B.C.18 .Rawlinson, find Buhlers arguments
somewhat unsatisfactory. It has been generally held that the Brahms script was
derived from a foreign source, although there are wide disagreements as to the
identity of that source. Since the discovery of the seals at Mohenjo-Daro, however,
31
scholars have begun speculating on the possibility that this alphabet may have
developed from an earlier ideographic form of writing used in the Indus Valley
itself. Excavations in the Indus Valley have already led to a revision of the earlier
view that Indian art had originated from a foreign source not much earlier than the
third century B.C.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
16.
17.
18.
V. Gordon Childe, New Light on the Most Ancient East, p. 169,

Herodotus, the Histories, III, 106.
J.B. Hutchinson, R.C. Silos, and S.G. Stephens, The Evolution of Gossipy, p. 88.
Racquets Hawkes and Sir Leonard Woolley, History of Mankind, I, 396.
S.K. Ray, Pre historic India and Ancient Egypt; and S.M. El Missouri, Art-Culture of
India and Egypt.
A.L. Pulaski, Cultural Heritage of India, I, p. 155.
Childe, New Light on the Most Ancient East, p. 170.
Childe, Independence, Convergence and Borrowing, p. 19.
Childe, New Light on the Most Ancient East, pp. 183-84.
H.D. Santali, Indian Archaeology Today, p. 69.
Pulaski, Cultural Heritage of India, I, p. 148.
John Gars tang, The Hittite Empire, p. 205.
V. Gordon Childe, the Aryans, p. 19. The precise manner in which the kings of Mitanni
and the Vedic Aryans were connected will remain obscure until further inscriptions
are brought to light through archaeo-logical excavations.
The case for its Indian origin is reinforced by the discovery of several pieces of ivory
at Bahrein in the Persian Gulf, probably of the sixth or seventh century B.C. See G,E.
Bean, Early Greek and Oriental Ivories, Journal of Hellenic Studies, LXVIII (1948) 1.
Aha-Amiga Akaka, no. 546.
Cecil Roth, A Short History of the Jewish People, p. 21.
Michael Ridley, the Seal of Aetna and the Minoan Script.,
32
The Ancient Police System In India

*Dr. Pankaj Singh
The role of police in any civilized society is self-evident. The traditional role of
police is to maintain law & order and curb the crimes. Organized police performs
threefold task on behalf of society: it protects, it integrates and it develops. The
police in society is what grammar is to language. Just as words by themselves do
not make any sense and they have to held together and given direction by grammar,
without which no thoughts can be properly expressed-and it is only through grammar
that ideas can be fully developed - , similarly it is the police which holds the individuals
together in society, gives them direction in their work and helps them along their
path development.
The birth of policeman in man is to be traced from the earliest times when
man started emerging from his savage animal hood and, using his power of
reasoning and thought, realized the need for self-implement and the benefits of
family and corporate life. It is the policeman in man which he guided him through
the vicissitudes and sufferings over thousands of years and helped him to develop
both individually and as an integral part of the society.1
An organized police force is, therefore only a projection of the police
functions of the society which is but the sum total of the police functions of all
individual members of the society. Organized police relieves every individual
member of the society from having to discharge his police duties in his day today
life so that he can carry out his own constructive work uninterruptedly.
The ability of society to confront successfully the innumerable challenges
every day from nature and from internal and external sources is entirely dependent
on its power to maintain its internal order that is on the way its police functions
are performed. If a society becomes corrupted, it loses its internal cohesion and
hence its power of resistance and will collapse when a succession of challenges
threatened its existence without the guiding hand of the organized police, it will
be impossible to maintain the cohesion of a growing and complex society; and
*Assistant Professor, Department of History, Dr. Hari Singh Gour Central
University, Sagar, Madhya Pradesh
33
without the restraining hand of the police groups forming the society will fall
apart and the society will disintegrate. Police in society is life grammar to language.
It is the police which holds the individuals together in society, gives them direction
in their works and helps them along their path of development.2
The word Police is derived from the Greek word Politeia or its Latin
equivalent Politia. The other derivatives of these Greek or Latin roots are Polity
and Policy. The Latin word policy means course of action adopted by a
government, business, individuals etc.
Politeia stands for citizenship or state or adminisstration of government.
The Latin root Politia stands for state or administration of civilization.
Another derivative of the world Politeia is Police. The meaning of the
word Police is the system of regulation for the preservation of order and
enforcement of law. Laws may be necessary for the control of internal order and
personal inter course between different members of the society. All these come
under term Police.3 According to Oxford Dictionary the civil force responsible
for maintaining public order. Organized police performs threefold task on behalf
of the society: it protects it integrates and it develops.4 The police in one form or
another has existed in the society from the earliest times and the police must always
remain in the society so long as society wants to remain civilized and progressive.5
The organization of a police department was one of the important aspects of
administration in ancient India. It was the duty of the state to maintain peace, law
and order and protect all by deterring evil-minded persons from commission of
crime and deviation from the normal path of duty.6 The department of police helped
the state in maintenance of public order and protection of persons and their property.
The organized administrative system and judiciary was based on efficient
police system. Sukra is of the opinion that punishment was introduced to prevent
the wicked from commission of unlawful acts. It has been said that the most
common activities police force embrace uniformed patrol, criminal investigation
and identification, prevention and detection of crime.7
The ancient police system in India was based on the principle of local
responsibility and mutual cooperation. In the village which formed the basic unit
of administration, security and peace was a matter of collective responsibility and
shared by every resident of the village. The village chief appears to be mainly
responsible for the preservation of law and order in the village. In case of murder
or theft inside the village he had to trace out the culprit, perhaps with the helps of the
village people and hand him over to the kind. The village council was required to
detect crimes committed within their jurisdiction. The smallest administrative unit
being the village the policing arrangements of villages were under supervision of the
headmen8 (Gramani). Gramani was the main channel of royal authority, being entrusted
with local administration. His powers were probably more civil than military.
Mention may also be made of the Laws of Manu wherein we find references
necessarily vague, to police systems in India. The chief duty of kind according to
these laws was to restrain violence and punish evil-doers. He had to maintain
34
Dr. Pankaj Singh
patrols, fixed posts and spies. All the kings subjects were required to assist him
in criminal administration.9
The Arthashastra, written by Kautilya in about 310 B.C., gives an interesting
account of the elaborate police system of his time. Kautilya in his Arthsastra
mentions 18 great officers of the state and calls them Astadasa Tirathas.10 These
officers are: 1.Mantrin, 2.Purohita, 3.Senapati, 4.Yuvaraj, 5.Dauvarika,
6.Antarvansika, 7.Prasasta, 8.Samaharta, 9.Sannidhata, 10.Pradeshta, 11.Nayaka,
12.Pauravyavaharika, 13.Karmantika, 14.Mantriparishad Adhyaksha,
15.Dandapala, 16Durgapala, 17.Antapala, 18.Atavika, out of these 18 officials
many were discharging police and military function.
The Dauvarika, who was the warden of the police was keeping strict vigilance
in the management of the royal palace and was considered a very important officer.
While Dauvarika was responsible for the maintenance of law and order of outer
life of the palace the Antravansika was in charge of the peace & security in its
inner life. The Prasasta was a military-cum-police officer and he was in-charge
of the munitions. The Dandapala, the Durgapala and the Antapala were the military
officers but where discharging a good deal of police functions, they being in charge
of the peace and order of the country at large.
The Dandapala in latter times known as Dandaparika, when he became out
and out a police officer; so also was the case of Durgapala, who in later times
became known as Kotapala, and subsequently as Katuala or Kotwal, Durgapala
was the same as Purapala who was the head of the city administration with the
duties of collection of revenue and maintenance of law and order by means of
police, secret agents and watchman.11 Kautilya describes the administration of
criminal law as Kantaka Sodhana of criminal law as thorns, which means the
eradication of the dangerous element by criminal laws and police regulations.
The police system under Ashoka may be summarized as follows: The
Mahamatras who were the highest executive office in the province were responsible
for the overall peace & order. Under them the Pradesikas were employed for the work
of collection of revenue, maintenance of peace and order and administration of justice.
Maurya period had not ceased to function at least in Southern India. Important officers
of the period performing military & police functioins were Dandanayak,
Mahadandanayaka, Gaulmika, Senagopas et c. peace, order, and security of the realm.
During the period of imperial Gupta the administrative institution attained
considerable development and political concepts underwent important changes.
The administrative institution under the Guptas was, therefore, considered
sacrosanct and they carried with them the reflection of the divine ideology of the
king. But the administration of the country was highly efficient.12 From the
inscriptions of the period we find various departments and offices of state and it is
know from those records that some of the high posts were hereditary in character
while civil and military officers were very often held by the same person. Dandika,
Chaurodharnika, and Dandaparika were police officers. Dandika probably had
both judicial and the police function while Chaurodharnika and Dandaparika
35
had only police duties and they were apparently serving under the Dandika.13
Inscriptions of the later Gupta period refers to police officers like Chatas and
Bhatas who were also probably working soldiers during the time of war.14 The
police department was run by the Dandapasikas who in some records is known
Dandodharnikas. This officer is found in the charter of many important dynasties
of India, namely the Palas the Pratiharas and the Parmaras etc.15
Dandin also throws welcome light on the activities of the urban police
department. Watchman usually wandered about the town on routine rounds and
also in search thieves. Roads and highways were carefully watched and ladies of
suspicious character were seized by them while on duty. Besides the important
places, cemeteries were also guarded by them in order to detect the criminals and
antisocial elements.16 Hence, if society is to endure, if human progress has to be
maintained both in the spiritual and in the material fields, the society must secure
for itself an organization to which it can delegate its police functions to be exercised
in accordance with the laws and conventions formed by the society, with firmness
and kindness, with the sense of justice and with the real and spirit of a missionary.
Police in one form or other has existed in society from the earliest times and there
are reference to the police must remain in society so long as society wants to
remain civilized and progressive.
Reference:1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Mullick, Bholanath, Police : A Philosophical Analysis; Allied Publishers, New Delhi,

1969, p.11.
Mullick, Bholanath, Police : A Philosophical Analysis; Allied Publishers, New Delhi,
1969, p.20.
Ibid, pp.22-23.
Ibid, p.20.
Police Trough the Ages, Indian Police Journal, Centenary Issue(1861-1961),
Government Publication, New Delhi p.9.
Manusmritti, VII.14, 18, 22; Matsya Purana 227.9.
Encyclopedia Social Sciences, XI-XII, p.185.
The Police in India, Govt. of India, Govt. Press, Information & Broadcasting Public
Division, Delhi, 1958, p.1.
K. F. Rustomji, History of M.P. Police Department, Bhopal, M.P, 1965, p.4.
Pankaj Singh, Police Administration in Chhattissgarh: With Special Reference to
Raipur District (1947-1975), Unpublished Research Work, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla
University, Raipur,2008, p. 4.
Ibid, pp. 4-5.
Ibid, p. 5.
Ibid, pp. 5-6.
Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol.III, pp.93-100.
Epigraph Indica, Vol.IX, p.6
Daskumaracharitaram, Dandin, Translated by Ryder, 1927, pp.63-196.
36
Use of Intoxicants By Early

Mughal Emperors
*Dr. Chand Singh Mor
Intoxicants have been a part of mans life from times immemorial. Even in Vedic
times man used to take Somrasa and Sura. However,drinking Sura was looked
down upon. Drinking of wine is prohibited by the Kuran. However, Mughal
Emperors were used to intoxicants.
Babar (1526-1530) the founder of the MughalEmpireis claimed to have not
started drinking until he was twenty-three years old. However, this family had
affinity to alcohol. His father Umar Shaykh Mirza had been a great drinker. His
uncle Sultan Ahmed Mirza and Sultan Muhammad Mirza died in their early forties
due to heavy drinking.1
Babar himself had carefully avoided drinking due to the influence of his
devoutly religious teacher Khwaja Qazi. In his childhood Babar has no desire to
drink, despite having been offered wine by his father and others. His decision to
start drinking was the result of both genuine curiosity and a great deal of
contemplation Describing one drinking session, shared with his close companions,
he commented with characteristic honesty we drank on the boat until late that
night and left the boat completely drunk ...., I did not remember anything but
when I go to my tent I vomited a lot.2 Babar clearly enjoyed drinking wine parties
once penning the verse.
Only the drinkers knows the pleasure of wine,
What enjoyment thereof can the sober have?3
Babar found great pleasure in drinking though the act weighed heavily on
his conscience. He, however renounced drinking before the historic battle of
Kanwaha with Rana Sangram Singh (1527). Babar solemnly vowed temperance
in thefront of his troops in an effort to access a new source of power, that which
sprang from moral authority and spiritual purity. He records the event in his memoir
*Govt. College, Gohana, Haryana
Use of Intoxicants By Early Mughal Emperors
37
Tuzuk-i-Babari Having sent for gold and silver goblets and cups with all other
utensils used for drinking parties, I directed them to be broken and renounced the
use of wine purifying my mind. The broken utensils were distributed among the
poor and the darvesh.4Babar never indicated that he broken his pledge.
Babars son and successor Humayun (1530-1540, 1555-56) was more addict
to opium than wine, Humayun openly admitted to drug addiction I am an
opium eater.5Humayuhs drinking is mentioned only on one occasion, wherein
he has glass of wine because he is upset about his brother Kamrans betrayal in
leading rebellion against him. 6In the book Akbar published in 1919, Vincent
Arthur Smith describes Humayun as someone who rarely drank but who made
himself stupid with opium.The excessive doses of opium were perhaps the reason
for his erroneous thinking. For the reason, he was defeated and expelled from
India by his formidable antagonist Sher Shah Suri (1540-45).7
Akbar (1556-1605) was the real author of Mughal restoration and architect
of the empire. Yet, he was not free from this vice in his early youth. He drank very
heavily and was once saved from the terrible state of drunkenness by Raja Man
Singh during his Gujarat campaign.8Akbar too had been an opium user: leaning
of the murder of his close friend and biographer Abul-Fazl, Akbar neither shaved
nor used opium in his grief.9 His brother Muhammad Hakim and all three of Akbars
sons struggled with addiction to alcohol; two sons died (Murad and Daniyal) young
as the effect of alcohol and the third, the future emperor Jahangir (1605-27) was
at one point imprisoned by his father in an effort to dry him out.
Jahangir used a similar justification in his own memories, describing regular
wine parties in which his courtiers were expected to drink with him, becoming
intoxicated with the wine of loyalty. Jahangir memories contain several references
to regular Thursday night parties and describe court event in which wine bowls
and intoxicants were given to whoever wished and his servants made happy on
goblets of joy.10
Jahangir was unique in mixing alcohol and opium. As a result of double
intoxication Jahangirs brain was dried up causing him to make irrational decisions,
such as ordering capital punishment for minor offenses.Jahangir openly
acknowledged his struggles with alcohol although he remained a permanent and
committed drinker and drug user. His court poet composed the couplet for him. I
have two lips, one devoted to wine and the other apologizing for drunkenness.11
His main addiction appears to have been to alcohol, recalling a period wherein
he drank Twenty cups of doubly distilled spirits per day. As a result of this
heavy drinking his hands shook so badly that he had to have his attendants lift his
cup for him to drink from. 12After multiple warnings from physician telling him of
the need to significantly decrease his habit, his greatest concession was to decrease
his alcohol consumption by about one fifth. When he decreased his alcohol
consumption while proportionally increasing his use of opium.13At his death,
Muhammad Hadi wrote that Jahangir lost his appetite and developed an aversion
38
Dr. Chand Singh Mor
to the opium that had been his constant companion for forty years refusing to
take anything more than a few cups of wine. 14
Foreigners soon learned that alcohol could ease their entry to the Mughal
court. In 1616, the English Ambassador Sir Thomas Roy offered gifts of wine to
officials of state, governors, the crown prince Khurram, even the emperor himself
in order to facilitate acquisition of trading rights. Alcohol was a marker of imperial
control and power, the gift of wine could breach hierar chies, obtain favours and
smooth the process of negotiation.15
Shahjahan (1627-58) is not known to have been a social drinker, there is
only a single sad reference, recorded in Jahangirnama and Shahjahanama of the
alcoholic king Jahangir forcing his abstemious son, the future emperor, to drink.16At
Shahjahan weighing ceremony, his father encouraged him to start drinking wine,
arguing that even doctors believed it was beneficial in moderation. Shahjahan, as
son of a publicly acknowledged addict, later used the opportunity of the Deccan
campaign, when the prince was thirty years old, to mimic Babars publicly pious
rejection to draw on new spiritual and moral strength in his military campaign.
Yet rumors swirled in the emperors later years, a european observer commented
that Shahjahan had begun to drink heavily, turning good fellow and requesting
casks of grape wine from the merchant community.17
When Aurangzeb (1658-1707) became Mughal emperor in 1658, he
prohibited drug and alcohol consumption within the empire. As the most religiously
devout Mughal ruler he did not personally partake in any intoxicants during his
reign, including alcohol and opium. Apparently while still a prince and serving as
governor in the Deccan, Aurangzeb fell in love with a dancing girl with whom he
would often drink wine. Following her death, he vowed never to drink again and
thank God for ending the girls life as it removed the temptation to commit the sin
of inebriation. 18
Despite Aurangzebs effort, it is nearly impossible to find a record of anyone
who actually subscribed of his policies when his son and eventual successor
Shahalam was sent to Kabul his tutor reported to Aurangzeb that the prince had
taken to drinking, for which the emperor ordered his immediate retain.19
Aurangzebs reforms, included a prohibition on the sale of alcohol. He
permitted Christians to continue to make and consume alcohol but they faced
imprisonment if they were caught selling it. According to Manucci, Hindu or
Muslims caught selling intoxicants rushed for harsher punishment, the arm and
one leg would be cut off as a result, many nobles took to distilling spirits in their
own homes and drinking secretly.20The more the emperor tried to enforce control
over intoxicant use, the more consumption moved into the private sphere.
To sum up we can say that Babar and his great grandson Jahangir, wrote
memories of their lives. Much like Babar, Jahangir is incredibly candid about his
use of drugs and alcohol. However, where Babar primarily recounts the pleasures
brought about by intoxicant use, Jahangir speaks of the problems of addiction.
Use of Intoxicants By Early Mughal Emperors
39
Babars focus was on averting a potentially dangerous situation, Jahangirs is one

the realization of it. After becoming the emperor Aurangzeb an obstinate Sunni,
tried to remove the use of intoxicants but not succeed.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Babar, The Baburnama, Prince and Emperor, Trans. Wheeler M. Thackston (New
York : Modern Library Classics, 2002) p.154.
Lisa-Balabanlidar, Imperial Identity in the Mughal Empire, Published I.B. Tauris &
Co. Ltd, London 2012, p.90.
Babar, op. cit., p. 154.
Ibid. p 378-81.
Gulbadan Begum, The History of Humayun, trans. Annette Beverage, Low Prince
Publications Delhi, p. 131.
Stephanie Honchell, Pursuing Pleasur, Attaining Oblivion. The Roles and Uses of
Intoxicants at the Mughalcourt, Thesis (Master of Arts) Dept. of History, University
of Louisville. p. 29.
www.tribuneindia.com/1998/98 oct 31/Saturday/head5.htm
Ibid.
Lisa- Balabanlidar op. cit., p.91
Ibid.p.92
Ibid. p.91
Jahangir; Tuzuk I Jahangiri, trans. Mathuralal Sharma Radha Publication: 2000,
p. 172
Ibid.
Quoted from Stephanie Honchell, op. cit., p.63
Quoted from Lisa Balabanlidar, op. cit., p. 93
Jahangir op. cit., p. 171
Quoted from Lisa Balabanlidar, op. cit., p. 93.
Stephanie Honchecl, op. cit.,p. 67-68
Ibid. p. 72
Ibid.p. 69
40
10
Prose Literature In Early Medieval India

*Inder Jeet Ranga
Prose literature has a main place in Indian Sanskrit literature. It has been in
vogue since the Vedic age. In the beginning, Sanskrit prose writings were not
many in numbers. After sixth century CE, we find that numbers of books were
written in prose. It may be divided in two major categories i.e. fable and romance.
Prose
Fable
Romance
khyyik
Kath
(Historical
basis)
(Purely Poetic
Creation
Popular Tales
Beast fable
Fairly tales
Buddhistic
NonBuddhistic
There are several stages in the evolution of fables a form of literature. Stories
or tales are used as a source of entertainment or amusement. The form of the fable
is essentially dictated by its origin. The story is naturally related in prose, but
moral is fixed in the memory by being put in verse form.1
The popular tales, beast fables and fairy tales may be three forms of fables
in classification. After short stories, come the longer, more elaborate, and artificially
narrated stories in the works of great master like, DaG in, BG and Vsavadatta
etc. These romances either are based on historical facts or are purely imaginary.
According to Amara2, types of prose romances names are khyyik and Kath.
* Assistant Professor, Govt.C.G.Colloge, Sector II , Chandigarh (Punjab)
41
Works on Prose- DaG in, a great Sanskrit writer, the author of Kvyadara
and the Daakumra-charita was BG as compeer.3 The geographical data in
Dasakumra-charita also seem to point to a date anterior of Harshavardhana.4 So
DaG in flourished in the seventh century CE. By the study of Kvyadara and
Daakumra-charita, it appears that he was an inhabitant of South India.
The Daakumra-charita or Adventure of the ten princesses of DaG in, a
prose romance, is a work of khyyik type, while his Kvyadara is a fine
specimen of art in poetry. The Daakumra-charita is of great interest for cultural
history.5 It contains story of common life and reflects a corrupt state of society.
But this is an incomplete text, its beginning/introduction (Pravaptak) and end/
conclusion (uttarapi>>aka) are not from the pen of DaG in, yet it ranks among the
masterpieces of Sanskrit literature.
Subandhu may have flourished later than DaG in but earlier than BG a. He
wrote Vsavadatta before CE 608-09, as it is referred to by Jinabhadra6 in a Bhshya
finished in that year. Subandhu may be placed in the beginning of the seventh
century CE. We know nothing about the life of the writer and not find his any
other work mentioned anywhere. Vsavadatta, has a brief romantic theme, relates
the story of Prince Kandarpaketu, the son of king ChintamaG i and princess
Vsavadatta, daughter of king of Kusumapura. This is a fine Kath- a story of
love and romance. He possesses mastery in the use of words and expressions
having two meanings. Subandhu was a great writer of India and pre-eminent master
of Gadya-Kvya (prose).
BG a or BG abha>>a, is the author of Harshacharita and Kdambar,
which are respectively an khyyik and a Kath. He is the first poet/author,
about whose life and age we know very much. BG flourished under king
Harshavardhana of Kanauj (606-47). He was a BrhmaG and a court-poet of
Harsha. He wrote Harshacharita7, the first prose historical Kvya, is a biography.
It seems that this work is complete after study. It is not probable that this is the
actual end of the work or that the poet left the work incomplete. Rather we are to
assume that the end is lost to us.8 It is a unique work in Sanskrit literature.
The Kdambar, on the other hand, is a Kath9, a story of love and romance.
It remained incomplete due to death of BG while he was working on it. However,
it was continued and completed by his own son BhshaGabha>>a or Bha>a
Pulina.10The theme of this book is a fascinating love story of Chandrapda and
Kdambar, it shows through successive deaths and re-births. Running parallel
with the main story, we also find the love-episode of Pundarika and Mahveta.
One-side European scholars criticize the work of BGa, and other side Indian
scholars praise him. BGa <1 s appearance in prose was like Kldsa in
poetry and drama.11 As a work of history, the Harshacharita is of limited value
but the Kdambar is too much value through many folds with reference to manner
and customs of that time in particular to religious life of aiva.12 Indian critic/
scholars recognize and appreciate the extra-ordinarily rich creative work of BGa.
42
Inder Jeet Ranga
We do not find proper Gadya-Kvya after BG abha>>a, about four centuries

from seventh century to tenth century CE, work was done in classical-epics not in
prose. Annda, a disciple of Bha>>a Vidhyadhara wrote Mdhavnala-KmakandalKath. This work came, not earlier than 11th century CE. Probably this work was done
in honour of Bhoja13, during the period of his reign. However, we know nothing
definitely about his time. But it belongs to the most popular stories of India.
Dhanapla (c.1000 CE) son of Servadeva14, wrote the Tilakamajar, prose
stories or romance, composed in imitation of BGs Kdambar. Dhanapla was
impressed by his brother obhanas advices and became Jaina.15 He was a courtpoet of king Bhoja of Dhr16 and he tried to impress the king by teachings of
Jaina religion. VdbhasiAha, real name Odayadeva, another Digmbara Jaina,
wrote Gadya-ChintmaGi in the eleventh or twelfth century CE. He closely imitates
the Kdambar of BG in his work. It describes the life of king Satyadhara and
his son Jivandhara.17 King Chittaraja patronized So hala (eleventh century CE).
He wrote Udayasundarkath (1025-50).18
The fables and fairy tales occupy a very important place in the history of
Indian literature. The old tales are reflected in the Jatakas and Avadna. These
fables are a treasure house of political and practical wisdom. These tales were the
media of imparting useful knowledge to keep the youngsters away from the paths
of evil. The short stories in Indian literature may be divided in three major parts
i.e. the popular tales, the beast-fables and the fairy tales. The popular tales again
may be sub-divided into Buddhistic and non-Buddhistic.GuGdhyas Brihatkath,
an important work among popular tales, is written in Paich Prkrit, a dialect
spoken in the northwestern parts of India. A great loss in Indian literature is the
disappearance of this book in original form, a work that was ranked beside the
Mahbhrata and the RmyaGa.19. Most probably, he was in the Satvhana court
between the first and fourth century CE.20.
One version of the Brihatkath is the Buddhasvmins lokasaA graha
(composed between the eight and the ninth century CE), the manuscripts of which
are from Nepal. After comparing with other two versions, it shows that this one is
more faithful to the original than the two Kashmiri version.21
Second of the three versions, Kashmiri Kshemendras Brihatkathmajar
is based on the story of Brihatkath. He wrote this work in about 1037 CE.22 The
main story has been given in concise and abridged form. It contains about 7500
verses23 from original Brihatkath. The incidents mentioned by the author in the
work, are remarkable for their excellent verse. But scholars have not very much
appreciated the work. Somadeva, a BrhmaG of Kashmir between 1063 CE to
1081 CE, writes Kathsaritsgara, ocean of streams of the stories.24 It is divided
into 124 chapters, called taraEgs or waves25 to be in keeping in mind title of the
work. Independent of these is another division into eighteen books called lambakas.
He states the real basis of this work to have been the Brihatkath Kshemendra
and Somadeva worked independently of each other. But Somadeva in the course
of his narration tells much more than what Kshemendra and Buddhasvmina did.26
43
Brihatkath occupies a great place in popular tales. This work was very
important, interesting and popular. DaG in, Subandhu and BGa mention the
Brihatkath as early as seventh century CE. Dhanajaya writer of Daarpaka
has placed the work equallent to the RmyaGa and Mahbhrata.
Trivikrambha>>s Nalachamp (915 CE) and Somadeva in his work
Yaastilakachamp praised this work.27 So many Indian scholars have praised the
work of GuGadhya.The most ancient book of the fable extant28 is the Pachatantra.
This work, popular collection in narrative form, is a remarkable storehouse of fairy
tales and beast fables. But this work is not available in original form, and the authorship
and the exact date of this work is not known. The Pachatantra is the question of Nti
(right Conduct) its composition for the instruction of the sons of a prince.29
Later on, the Pachatantra attributed to VishG uarm, written in five parts
in clear lucid style with a mixture of prose and verse. These parts deal with Mitrabheda (separation of friends), Mitra-prpti (winning of friends), sandhi-Vigraha
(war and peace), Labdha-nasa (loss of ones gain) and Avarikshita Kariya (hasty
action).30 The importance of this work may be judged from the fact that this book
has been translated into over fifty-five language of the world31 This is the first
book of Indian literature, which was published in English.32
The Hitopadea is another beast-fable literature written by NryaGa PaGita.
The author gives his name as NryaGa, whose patron was Dhavala Chandra, as
one manuscript of the work is dated 1373 CE.33 According to Keith, its date cannot
be later than the eleventh century CE.
After a brief discussion of ancient literature, it is clear that literature is not
the amount of information but a combination of knowledge and wisdom.
Knowledge comes from the books but wisdom comes from introspection and
scruples, i.e. sense of right and wrong, which is important for our entire existence.34
Great literature has its own advantage. It has permanence co-extensive with human
life and passion and aspiration. The science of yesterday is no longer science: it
has already become history. Literature is always literature. True literature
represented in the works of poets and dramatists. True literature can never become
stale, or out of date.35 A vast and voluminous literature is intimately linked up
with the study of Indias past. Literary activities became facts of history. The spirit
of the age found in expression in relating literature. Literature of the early medieval
India as a source, for the study of history brings both interesting and significant
results; it reveals a vast body of material, and at the same time, it shows the definite
limitations of such material as a basis for historical knowledge. These are the
great sources to construct the history of Early Medieval India.
References
1
2
3
AB Keith, A History of Sanskrit Literature, Oxford: University Press, p.244.

Amarakoa, I Vi, 5-6.
V. Raghavan, Sanskrit Kvya Literature: A General Survey S.K. Chatterji (Ed.),
The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol. V, Language And Literature, Calcutta: The
44
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
Inder Jeet Ranga

Ram Krishna Mission Institute of Culture, 1978, P.223.
Collins, The Geographical Data of the RaghuvaA a and Daakumra-chartia, p. 46.
M Winternitz, History of Indian Literature, Vol. III, Part I, (Classical Sanskrit
Literature) Tr. from the German with Additions by Subhadra Jha, Moti Lal Banarashi
Das, 1963, p. 393.
G.V. Devasthali, Literature in RC Majumdar (Ed.), The Classical Age, p. 316.
Ed by P.V. Kane Tr. by E.B. Cowell and F.W. Thomas Hindi Tr. by V.S. Aggarwal.
M. Winternitz, op. cit., p. 405.
A. B. Keith, op. cit., p. 319.
M. Winternitz, op. cit.
But Pulinda or Pulina according to S.K. Chatterji (Ed.), , op. cit., p. 223.
V.Raghvan, op. cit.,
M. Winternitz, op. cit., p. 409.
-ibid, p. 375.
G.V.Devasthali,Language and Literature in RC Majumdar (Ed.), The Age of Imperial
Kanauj, p. 187.
Pandey and Pandey, Sanskrit Shitya k Alochantmaka Itihsa, Meerut: Sahitya
Bhandar, 1986, p. 276.
Ibid, pp 277-78.
M.A. Mahendale and A.D. Pusalker, Language and Literature in RC Majumdar
(Ed.), The Struggle for Empire, p. 313.
Pandey and Pandey, op. cit., p. 279.
AB Keith, op. cit., p. 266.
V. Raghvan, op. cit, p. 227.
M.A. Mahendale and A.D. Pusalker, op. cit., p.314.
M Winternitz, op. cit., p. 352.
Gaurinath Shastr, A concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature, Moti Lal
Banarashi Das, 1974, p. 136.
Kath Sarita Sgara, xxxii.
AA Macdonell, A History of Sanskrit Literature, Moti Lal Banarashi Das, 1976, p.
319.
M.A. Mahendale and A.D. Pusalker, op. cit.
Pandey and Pandey, op. cit., pp. 310-11.
A Weber, op. cit., p. 211.
AB Keith, op. cit., p. 244.
SC Raychoudhary, Social, Cultural and Economic History of India (Ancient Times),
Delhi: Surjeet Publication, 1984, p. 221.
ibid
AL Basham, The wonder that was India.
op. cit., p. 263.
University News, June 21-27, 2010, p 10.
J.N. Mudra and CL Sahni, Advanced Literary Essays, eighth edition, Bareilly:Prakash
Book Depot. p.387.
45
11
Study of The Inscriptions of The Jagannath

Temple of Puri :
Unveiling New Facts of Odisha History
*Ashok Priyadarshi
The history of Orissa (Odisha), very often, has become obscure due to wrong
interpretation of inscriptions. This paper is a careful restudy of the important
inscriptions on the wall of the great temple of Lord Jagannath of Puri which reveals
the authenticity of the famous popular tradition connecting to the succession history
of Suryavamsi dynasty of Orissa. Gajapati Kapilendradeva & his son
Purusottamadeva of this dynasty are well-known in Orissa, because they not only
have ornamented the pages of history as two great kings of Orissa, but also have
established themselves as popular heroes of a number of legends & interesting
stories. Popu-lar traditions say Purusottamadeva was the youngest son of his father.
Gajapati Purusottamadeva has written in his Bhubaneswari Stotra as
Kapilendra Nandanoaham Tadanugraha Maatra Labdha Saamraajyah. It
means, I am Kapilendras son and due to his sympathy have got the empire and
throne. It is clearly under-stood that Purusottama was not the legal successor of
Gajapati throne. It is known from Maadalaa Paanji (Jagannath temple chronicle
of medieval period) that Kapile-ndra had an elder son named Hamvira who once
revolted after Purusott-ama became the King.1 These two evidences show us that
Purusottama was not the eldest son. In this context historians as well as researchers
have drawn many pictu-res of probability. In Maadalaa Paanji it is mentioned that
Raatra aagyaan hoila,
Purusottama raae rajah heba.
Taahaasuni rajah bada bismaya paai tabada hele.
E Anke badadeule aakaashabaani helaa 2.
According to some historians of Orissa, the weakness towards sub-wife or
concubine (Phul-bibaahi) made Kapilendra to take this indecent step. In order to
*Faculty of History, Baripada College, Baripada-2, Mayurbhanj, Odisha
46
Ashok Priyadarshi
check the complaint of subjects & courtiers, as a trick, he propagated this as Lord
Jagannath order. Historians like Dr. N. K. Sahu has written, It is rather strange
that Kapilendra set aside the claims of Hamvira and other princes for throne and
chosen his successor Purusottama who was probably the youngest prince and son
of a Brahmin lady.The story might have been created to give religious justification
to the rather unexpected decision of Kapilendradeva stating that it was a will of
Lord Jagannath.3
Historian Dr. K. C. Panigrahi also mentioned the dream tale of Maadalaa
Paanji as a clever technique. To him Lord Jagannaths Will, expressed in dreams,
was a clever means of propaganda.4
Historian Pravat Mukherjee also opined the same when he says It is
almost certain that the popular belief in iispension of Jagannath in Purusottamas
favour enabled Purusottama to gain the throne. But the popular belief, in a miracle,
sealed the fate of Hamvira.5
Broadly speaking almost all the historians mentioned this tale of Maadalaa
Paanji as a clever means. Some discussers clearly blame the money-thirsty servants
of Srimandira (Jagannath temple of Puri) to be involved in the intrigue. Dr.
Gaganendra Nath Dash, in his Janashruti Kanchi-Kaveri, has written this in
Oriya language.6
Here Dr. Dash also rejects the dream-tale of Maadalaa Paanji. It is sure that
due to the extraordinary sayings in Maadalaa Paanji these scholars do not give
the prestige of a pure history. But it will also not be right to give the prestige of
history to each & every thought. So we must honestly examine this deed of
Kapilendra without any sentiments.
There are five Oriya inscriptions of Kapilendra found in the Jagannath temple
wall. These inscriptions can help us for the solution of our problem.
The date of 1st inscription is 9th December, 1438.7 It is engraved in the 4th
year of Kapilendra reign. Here no designation is attached with his name. It is an
insignia. Exemption of salt tax is declared in this inscription.
The date of the 2nd inscription is 12th April, 1452. It is written in the 19th
year of Kapilendras reign. Here, for the first time, Goudeswar is attached to his
name. After defeating Mallika Parisha, Gajapati donated Pundarika Gopa saree
to Lord Jagannath.
The date of the 3rd inscription is 12th December, 1464. It is written in the
31st year of Kapilendras rule. Here, Goudeswara, Nabakoti, Karnata &
Kalabargeswara titles have been given to Pratapa Kapileswara. For our discussion
this inscription is very useful. It says
Sri Purusottama Katakara dakshina ghare maajanaa mandapare
Mahaaraajaa bijekarithibaa samayare ehaa lekhaaibaaku Sri chhaamuru nirdesh
helaa- He Jagannatha. Mora baahaara o bhitara samasta kathaa jaanu. Mora
nijar boli jete jaahaa dhana, ratna baa anyaanya padaartha achchi, se sabu ta
tora, Ya tharu aahuri mulyabaan kaunasi sampad yadi mo paakhare thaae, tebe
tu kaha- taahaa ehikhyani mu brahma-haatare teki debi. E bhumi khanda mora
Study of The Inscriptions of The Jagannath......
47
nuhen, tora. Tu jaahaaku anugraha karibu, mora se - xxx...xxx...(words not clearly

read).
But the historians do not pay emphasis at all to this inscription and blindly
blamed the statements of Maadalaa Paanji. They cannot believe on the religious
minded ruler of that age. Only prof. R. D. Banarjee has but wrongly mention-ed
about this inscription as Another inscription was incised in the 31st Anka on
12th December, 1464 which records that the king held court in the audience hall
of the southern block of rooms and regi-stered vow to bestow all precious things
possessed by the king on Brahmins.8
Needless to say, the real meaning of this inscription is something else.
Especially it is not a grant or donation, rather a Praarthanaa (prayer). Voice of a
pathetic self-reverence is experienced here. E bhumikhanda tu jaahaaku anugraha
karibu (this land depends upon your sympathy) tells us about Kapilendras
thoughtfulness for the successor of his empire.. It can be said that the 3rd inscription is incised two or three years before his death. At that time Hamvira and his
son Dakshina Kapjleswar Kumar were reigning in the south.9
Since then the question of depriving Hamvira of the Gajapati throne has
surely come to Kapilendras mind for some reason. It is not a secret record and
was written on the temple for the knowledge of the public. The writer of the then
Madalapanji mixed his own imaginations with the meaning of the inscription and
wrote E Pruthi kaahaaku aagyaan heba, mu taahaa jaanibi. Sehidina raatra
aagyaan hoilaa. But, why should Kapilendra be responsible for this accounts
of Maadalaa Paanji ? If Madalapanji had been written at the order of the kings,
then each page of Maadalaa Paanji must have been free from the low & satirical
terms likeGinipua (to Chodagangadeva) Khaparachata & Sindhichora
(to Kapilendradeva) etc etc.
Now the question arises how such a decision of betraying Hamvira and a
moral courage of engraving the same decision on the walls of Jagannath temple
came to Kapilendras mind? Had Hamvira revolted against his father? Really, we
know from Maadalaa Paanji as well as from histories about a revolt in the Deccan.
Historian R. D. Banerjee has written After fighting long wars with Bahamanis
of Bidar and Vodeyars of Vijayanagar, he was faced with powerful rebels in his
own country.10 Dr. N. K. Sahu writes Even his eldest son Hamvira who had
fought a number of battles for him at last joined hands with the rebels.11
Of course, some historians opine differently on the reason of the event. They
write that when Kapilendra deci-ded to make Purusottam as his successor Hamvira
became rebellious. But Dr. K.C. Panigrahi thinks that his son Hamvira revolted
first and then Kapilendra chosen Purusottam. He writes The revolt of Hamvira,
aided by his son, could have been the cause of his fathers partiality towards
Purusottam.12
Anyway, it is agreed upon by all historians that Hamvira had led the revolt.
After a career of military expedition Kapilendra at last breathed his last on the
Ashok Priyadarshi
48
bank of the river Krishna. Just before this expedition he has incised his fourth
inscription on the wall of that temple which is more important than the third one.
It is exactly as follows 4th Lipi // Left side of Sri Mandir wall //2ft 8 inches x 9
inches // 6 line //35 Anka, Mesa, Krishna Chaturthi, Wednessday // 1467, April 25
1st line
2nd line
3rd line
:
:
4th line
5th line
6th line
:
:
:
Birashri Gajapati Gaudeswara Pratapa Kapileswaradeva

Maharajankar Vije rajye.
Samasta 35 Srehi Mesa Kr. 4 Budha Bho Jagannatha toha sevak e
Manta janaauachchi raaijajaaka e saanta maananka muin
Paaikaraautaku Kari.
x x x x baalakaalu posi aanili emaane mote sabuhen chhaadile.
Emaananku jaahaa anurupe bihibi niyojibi.
Bho Jagannatha ekathaa mohara dosa adosa bichaara.
( Reading by Pandit S.N. Dash ; Dating by M.M. Chakrabarty )

Prof. R.D. Banarjee writes, It records a pious wish on the part of the king
and cannot be fully understood on account of damage. Mr. Chakravarty informs
us in a note that the Zamindar of Kundajori rebelled in the 35th Anka year according
to the Madala Panji and was helped by many of the Kapilendras officers.13
Dr. Pravat Mukherjee writes, In his Jagannath temple inscription dated 1467
he addressed the deity complaining against the refractory conduct of some of his
subordinate chiefs. 14 He again says, In his fourth inscription (i e. the 35th Anka)
in the Jagannath temple the king addressed Lord Jagannatha complaining against
the conduct of some vassals (Samanta) of the kingdom15
Dr. N.K Sahu writes, One of his inscriptions dated in 35 Anka reveals that
he was forsaken by some of his trusted people and he promised in the name of
Jagannath to punish them.16
Dr. K.C. Panigrahi writes, One of his inscriptions in the Jagannath temple
at Puri dated A.D. 1464 states that he had been forsaken by his former soldiers
and servants. Therefore, he entreats Lord Jagannath to allow him to treat them as
they deserve.17
Dr. Gopinath Mohapatra writes, In the thirty-fifth regnal year he prayed to
the Lord, whether he should punish the subordinate kings for their rebellious
activities.18
It is to be observed that the word Sa anta is meant as Zamindar, vassal
king, courtier, Samanta, servant or soldier by each and every historian. So it is
worthless to say that king had teamed up (reared up) any Samanta or Zamindar
from childhood. It can be utilized only to son, grandson etc. It is more reaso-nably
meant for those sons & grandsons rather than the samantas. If they act badly
towards the sovereign, they will be expelled from the kingdom and all their property
confiscated.19 If there is such a pre-incised code of law for the samantas then
what is the reason for expressing worriedness by the king (emperor).
Study of The Inscriptions of The Jagannath......
49
So the word Saanta is not referred to the samanta (vassals) but to the
prince. In the statement of Emaane mote sabuhen chhaadile or they went against
me a deep pathos & disillusionment is expressed which is not meant for any
vassal-officer. So we must investigate the truth independently & carefully from
the 35th Anka lipi (inscription) of Kapilendradeva to arrive at any historical
conclusion.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
Mohanty, A.B (ed), Maadalaa Paanji (Oriya), Prachi Samiti, 1940, pp. 47-48
Ibid. p. 46
Sahu, N.K., History of Orissa, Calcutta, 1978, p. 237.
Panigrahi. K.C., History of Orissa, Cuttack, 1981, p. 208
Mukherjee, P., History of the Gajapati Kings of Orissa, Calcutta, 1953, p. 36
Dash, S.N., Janasruti Kanchi-Kaveri (Oriya), Cuttack, 1972, p. 38.
Chakrabarti, M.M., Dates of Inscriptions, Calcutta, 1980
Banerjee, R.D., History of Orissa, vol.1, Calcutta, 1930, p. 301.
Mukherjee, P., op. cit., p. 39.
Benerjee, R.D., op cit., p. 304
Sahu, N.K., op. cit., p. 236.
Panigrahi, K.C., op. cit, p. 208
Benerjee, R.D., op. cit., p. 300
Mukherjee. op. cit, p. 36.
Ibid, p. 46
Sahu, op. cit, p. 235
Panigrahi, op. cit., p. 203
Mohapatra, Gopinath, Jagannath in History & Regional Traditions of Orissa,Cuttack,
1982, p. 103
19. Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal (JASB), Vol. XIII, p.104, also vide Mahatab,
H.K., Orissa Itihasa(Oriya), Part-1, Bhubaneswar, 1977, p. 311
50
12
Historiography of Tuluva Dynasty

(Vijayanagara Empire)
*Dr. B.C. Rakesh
Man is a rational animal from the ages. The necessity of the man is the source of
his achievement. Knowledge of History is every important tobuild a meaningful
future. Man of the particle age of period would be a primary source to the History
as society being a absurd thing. Here individual will become a society. Therefore
a systematic study is necessary to find a good subject. In olden days History was
studied traditionally, but in the modern days scientific study of History is an
urgent. Research of History studies the place, scope impotence Meaning aims and
objectives, etc, of the Historian idles subject matter. History covers the study of
the developments and under developments of the man from the ages.The country
which forgets the past doesnt have the future, so History stands unique among
the other subjects.
The writing of History took a scientific and systematic from in the 19th century.
It is a History of written History. An art of writing History concerned to Tuluva of
Vijayanagara has grown remarkably. A.D, 1900 to 2000, different kinds of writings
was brought to light. Writing ofa Regional History as Provincial, National and
World, for example. Vijayanagara kingdom has been studied that it was founded
by, kuraba community or Vishnavas or others. If we take it in two languages some
historians say that Vijayanagara kings were kannadigas others say that they were
form Andra, and Tamilnadu, but in the modern days histories studied is broades
way. And it is researched in a wider meaning irrespective of state, region or
community. On these bases Vijayanagara kingdom and its History has been placed
in Indian History it is not restricted to only History of Karnataka. Vijayanagara
kings kept the region safely for three hundred years. In this paint of view all
modern Historian and thinkers presented History with a wide vision.1
It can be said that writing of History began form the age of Greeks. Here I
few definitions of History have been presented from different scholars
* Assistant Professor of History, A.R.M. First Grade Colloge, S, Nijalingappa
Lay-out, Davanagere, Karnataka.
Historiography of Tuluva Dynasty (Vijayanagara Empire)
51
philosophers and customs and many more. According to Koutillya History contains
myths morals and customs and many more. According to Aristotle, History gives
logical informational of objective study of the research. Karl Marks History of
existing society of the peoples fighting etc. finally I can conclude the experience
of a Historian itself is History As J.J.Gragans observation, Historiography is
not History. It is the History of History. Historiography is a distant discipline and
branch of study.
The work of formation of History and Historians are unshakable sources to
produce and present the History by understanding the present and the past History.
The main aims and objectives of the Historians are to collect the knowledge expand
the boundaries or limits of the writing of History. History is not like a study of
politics Sociology, Art or Any other theoretical and subjective subject. It is a product
of intensive research. So it has got a special place in the History of human beings.
History is a blend of knowledge and experience therefore many scholars have
produced Historical books which have studied in detail and analyzed them, this is
the main objective of the study.
In the present study all the works, books and articles published so far from
A.D. 1900 to 2000 are used as the sources. Along with this the important works
concerned to Vijayanagara have also been taken. A list has been prepared to help
and make easy to our further study as. The title of the book. Auditors, authors,
publishers year of publication, parts and pages have been prepared first this helped
for my systematic study. Rather than this suggestions and advisees of the scholars
have been and as the sources of the study. Original source are the pillars of the
History without this will bebaseless. While discussing about the Tuluva dynasty
originals and the facts have been taken in to account. According to the age, period
the study is checked and libellees.
Some books are available on Art of writing History. Such kind of books is
firstly, Development of South Indian Historiography an essay on Vijayanagara
Temple in Karnataka by Dr. S.N.Shivamurti, Dr. Nayakwdi has written
Vijayanagara: AHistiriographical Critic, Prof. Shaik Ali and K.S.Sivanna wrote
something briefly on Vijayanagara History is the history of Karnataka. Many more
work Articles, paper and journal by deferent writer Dr. Venkatarahnam, DR. M.B.
Padma, Dr. K.P. Iranna, Smt. Mahadevi Hagergii, Burneard J.Halm, R.J.
Collinghood and Herbert Butterfield etc. These stawlworts have given tremendous
sources of Historical knowledge to the modern and young scholars. The above all
books are representing the art of writing History but they dont focus on Tuluva
dynasty in particular. They are referred to show how these works focused on the
books of Kannada writing about Tuluva dynasty.
The political background of Tuluva dynasty rule begins form the king
Narasanayka and it ends with the death of Sadasivaraya in 1570 A.D. Earlier
Narasanayka was the minister of Narasimha. He totally destroyed of 2nd Narashima
and occupied the throne of the dynasty. Narasanayaka grew very strong that at the
52
Dr. B.C. Rakesh
end of his rule he did his wish to make Krishnadevaraya as his successor, but he
wanted his son to be the king. The detail explanation about the relation with
Portuguese. Kalinga invasion, Srilanka and last days of Krishnadevarya is discussed
in detail 1565 A.D. Talikote war, death of Ramaraya and this in 1570A.D.with
death of Sadasivaraya. Tuluva dynastyof Vijayanagara was totally ruined. The
History of the Vijayanagara Empire ends here.2
History is not a study of political events in the past. It is totally a study of
Civilization. Science and Technology based research of History had taken place
in the 18th century only. From the past 20 years History women has become special
field of the study. In a certain period, Economical and Social History were forgotten,
for the sake of influential political History. But in the hands of modern research
scholars even local and minor administrations have been focused. Some very much
interesting questions like why were the Vishnava Temples destroyed, why were
Shaiva Temples not Destroyed, This kind of questions are being tried to be solved
by the young research scholars.3
Art of writing History itself has become History before 19th century there
was less impotence for that real exaction of History had been taken place. A
Historian should know the both present and past to present the glorious History of
the past. Herodotes, Thucydides from Greek and Sencer Cato, Livi, Cornilious,
Tucitus from Rome are the important Historians of the art of writing History.
From 1757 AD to 1947 AD, there was a harvest of History in India. Robert Armeya,
James mill, Mount Stuvert Elphinstone, Mecauley. K.P.Jayswal, R.G. Desai, Sir
Jadunath Sarkar, Damoder, M D Habeeb, Dr. P.B.Desai have given their own
contribution to the History of the Mankind.
Here thearticles written on Tuluva dynastybetween 1900 AD to 1950 AD,
has been covered it is very difficult to give a good scope and touch to the articles
on Vijayanagara Empire. There I tried to introduce books published in the age
mentioned above A Forgotten Empire by Robert Cavell published on 1900 has
been discussed in detail.Along with this Jeerna Vijayanagaradarsham by
Ramaswami Ayanger, PampaYatre by V. Seetaramaya. Vijayanagara Kingdom
by P.B. Desai, Kanaka dasarukanda Vijayanagara by Betageri Krishnshrma, History
of south by B.G. Chimmalagi and Bharata Dharshana by Javaharlal Neharu, and
Vijayanagara by V.Ragavendra Rao has been studied in detail in this study.4
The present study covers the articles written on Tuluva dynasty in between
1951 to 1975 AD. It is very difficult to give a good scope and touch to the articles
on Vijayanagara Empire. There I tried to introduce books published in the age
mentioned above. Vijayanagara Samrajyad Kalanikshepa by Ramrao,
Vijayanagara Samrajyad Chritre by Hunumantray, kannadaNudi by
Shrinivasamurty, Kannada Nadina Charitre by Shreekanthayya, Saletore,P.B
Desai, sajeeva Samskruti by Krishnaraya, Krishnadevaraya by Trivikrama,
Vijayanagara Kale mattu Sahitya by Pulumati Shyamarao, Pravasi Kanda India
,Vol-2H.L.Nagegowda, Bharatiya Shilpa Shivaram Karanta, Karnataka
Samskruti Sameekshe by Tipperudraswmi.5
Historiography of Tuluva Dynasty (Vijayanagara Empire)
53
1976 to 1989 A.D. There I tried to introduce books published in the age mentioned
above. Hampe by Filiyoja, Karnataka Samskruti Parampre by Muguli, Karnataka
Veeragallugalu by R.Sheshashatri, Vijayanagara Vastu Shilpa by B.R.Gopal,
;Karnataka Charitre ByM.B.Muddachari, Krishanadevarayana Dinachari by
M.V.Seetaramayya, Karnataka Janajeevana by Betageri Krishna Sharma, Sri
Kshetra Tirupati by Adya Ramacgari, Pracheen Karnatakada Raniyaru by
Channaakka Eligar, Bharatada Pracheena Nanyagalu by A.M. Annigeri, Ithehasa
Mattu Samskruti by A.V. Narasimamurty.6
1990 to 2000 A.D. has been covered. There I tried to introduce books published in
the age mentioned above. Karnatakadalli Sati Paddati by B.S.Shet, Karnataka
Niravari Artashastra, by T.Govindyya, Ballary Jelleya Stalanama by K.M.
Veerabadra Sharma, Vijayanagara Kalada Samajada Kelavu Anista Paddati by
BasavarajayyaMathad, Hampi Parampare by T Parameshwr, Karnataka Vastu
Shilpa Mattu Chitrakale by S. Rajashekhar, Vijayanagara Kalada Sainy Vyevaste
Mattu Yudda Neeti by S.Y. Somasheker, karnatakada Kotegalu,Vol-1 by
Chanabasappa Patil, Hampiya Smarakagalalli Janapada Amshagalu by
Chaluvaraju, Karnatakadalli Videshi Nanaygalu by M.Narashimamurthy .7
The Tulu kingdom of any subject is depending on its broad and wide studying
field. The Tulu kingdom of History is growing and widening day. But here works
written on Tulu kingdom have been recognized. Having studied the limited subject
of Tuluva kingdom Kannada Literature the time has been fixed from 1900 to 2000
A.D. by giving a picture of Vijayanagara kingdom. The light of the Tuluva kingdom
is for coasted. The present study has covered the Historical work. In the present
study the progress of growth of writing / Article belonging to Tuluva dynasty of
Vijayanagara Empire , its nature vision, methods, scope and different Historical
thoughts has been presented.
Reference
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Suryanath U. Kamat, Historiography of Karnataka, Mythic Society, Bangalore, 1991.

Pp13to 17.
K.A. NilakanthShashtri, History of South India, From Prehistoric times to fall
of Vijayanagara, 1955, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002),
Lakshmana Telagavi, JeernaVijayanagara Darsnam, Kannada University Hampi,2006.
Pp 15 to 36.
Rakesh B .C Vijanagara Kalada Hitihasa lekana Kale Tuluva Vamsha Phd Thesis.
Karnataka University Dharwad 2008. Pp 145 to 180.
Ibid pp. 185 to 200.
Ibid pp 210 to 235.
Ibid pp240 to 265.
54
13
Merchant Community &The Economic

Prosperity in Medieval Karnataka
(Special Refrence to Hoysala Dynasty)
*Shiva Kumar C.L
Merchants of south India formed trade guilds in order to organize and expand
their trading activities. Trade guilds became channels through which Indian culture
got exported to other lands.From 11th century to the 13th century.Trade community
is one of the important organizations. Conventionally, historians have called this
community guilds .In relation to the associations of the traders; too we prefer
touse the same less colourful expression organization to indicate this association.
This will be closer to reality and will preclude the possibility of misunderstandings
arising out of unlikely comparisions.Sometimes those who followed aparticular
trade or dealt in a particular item of trade formed organizations of their own, such
as these of fruit merchants, jewelers, oilmerchants, cloth merchants and others.
Several trade guilds operated in medieval southern India such as
Gatrigas,Nakara Mummarindandas, Ayyavole500, Ubhayananadesigal,
Settis,Settiguttas, Biravaniges, Gaveras etc.,1.
Ayyavole Ainnurvar (Five Hundred Lords of Ayyavole)

This was the most important and powerful Trade communities. Ayyavole dominate
trade organization of the south. The Ayyavole-500 were variously known as
Ayyavole Ainnurvar, Virabalanju and Nanadesis.It had its origin in Ayyavole or
Aihole in Bijapur district,Karnataka state in 8thcentury. But became a powerful
organization in twelfth and thirteenth centuriesin tamilcountry. From Tamilnadu,
it spread to costal Andhra and kerala and from Karnataka it spread to Royal seem
and Telingana. 2 The Ayyavole merchants called themselves children of
Ayyavalapura Parameshwara Makkal,Bhagavatiya Makkal etc.The Ayyavole
*Asst. Professor In History, Govt.first Grade College, Udayapura-Karnataka
Merchant Community &The Economic Prosperity......
55
association included the Gaveres, Gatrigas, Settis, Settiguttas, Settipura, Nanadesis,

Nadu, Nagaras and others.
The Ayyavole merchants were a class of wandering merchants,visiting all
countries,villagescities,towns withvaluable articles in their bags.They used
assess,buffaloes and carts for transporting goods. The articles they traded
topaz,cardamom,cloves,sandalwood,Camphor,saffron and such perfumes
anddrugs,grains,elephants and horses.3 It is clear from the some inscriptions that
Ayyavole Ainnuruvar association consisted of several merchants who dealt in
various items of merchants in far off places.They were rich and had connections
with the ruling class of south india.Theayyavole association become so well known
that by the period of the chalukyas of kalyan merchants in all parts of south india
claimed to have come from.Ayyavole or looked to the five hundred as their ancestors
in order to participate in the goodwill of the Ayyavole merchants.4
Nanadesis : Another one important trade communities is the body known
as the Nanadesis, which played significant role in mediveltrade.The Nanadesis
merchants were the persons who conducted trade in different lands, theNanadesis
were a powerful autonomous corporation of merchants whose activities took no
account of political boundaries. They visited all countries in the course of their tree
and they visited all countries in the course of their trade and they enjoyed a respected
and privileged position everywhere. They had their own mercenary army for the
protection of the merchandise in their warehouse and in transists.5The Nanadesis
were man of honour and boundless charity who spent a part of their profit from
trade on public benefactions without distinction of caste, sector religion.6
Nandesis were the merchants who were mainly engaged in foreign trade or
long-distance trade. They built temple in Burma in the 13th century and made a
grant of gift to that temple. They not only financed of temple, but also lent money
to the kings. Thus the rulers did their best to protect the associations.7
The Nanadesis undertook some public works like excavation of tanks of
erection of temple. For instance, the Anuru(chikkamagalurdist)8 inscription refers to the
nanadesis of Avanur who excavated a tank and erected a temple in which some Garudas
installed the deity.Sometimes they were witness to some endowments. Forinstance,
Kachamachanalli (Tumkur District)9 inscriptions of 1180 refers to the grant of Nagachari
tank as Netra-patta to Pociyakariyanayaka,whofied in battle in the presence of Brahmanas
ofkudatur and Nanadesis of the town on here ditary basis.
MummaridandaThe Mumaridandas was another corporation of trade
community who claimed to have come from the line of the 500 chiefs of
Ayyapurai.e..Ayyavole. They had their headquarters at first in Dvaravathipura and
subsequently at Kurgod in Belarry District,which was like second Halebeed to
them.Mummaridandas were one of the prominent group of merchant community
of medivelKarnataka.Mumaridanda may be translated as the avante grade holding
the Danda or Stick.10Hiremath described Mumaridanda as a trade organization,
which associated closely with the Ayyavole Ainnurvar,in order to give due respect
to the main organization.11
56
Shiva Kumar C.L
They seem to have conducted their trade activities in weekly fairs and towns.
Merchant associations in MedievalKarnataka maintained their own mercenary
armies to protect their merchants in transist or their ware house. They were
designated Mummaridanda,Manaivirar etc.12They may have been hired by traders
to ensure protection for itinerant groups and for caravans and also to gurantee.The
safety of trading settlement. In the beginning they were hired for protection but
later engaged in various form of trade themselves. By 11th and 12th century they
were mentioned frequently along with Ayyavole Ainnurvar,but in a subordinate
relationship to them.13
Ubhayananadesis: The Ubhayananadesis were probably a group that traded
both within the country and vaddavyavahari (great merchant) and
Mahavaddavyavahari (senior great merchant).Ubhayananadesis appear to have
traded in various items such as oil,arecanut,betel-leaf,paddy,coconut,sarees and
jaggery.They were procured in the weekly fairs. Some of the prosperous
Ubhayananadesis spent a part of their income on religious institution and public
works.14For instance, the Doddagaddavalli (Hassan dist)15inscription of 1168 refers to
chief of Ubhayananadesis viz.,kamaranayaka who made a grant of six gadyana for the
maintenance of water shed for a period of four months during summer on the highway.
Mahavaddavyavaharis-Another one category of merchants called
Vaddavyavahari and Mahavaddayavahari. We saw in above section that the
Nanadesis and Ubhayananadesis or Mahavaddavyavaharis.These merchants are
known from documents investing their income both on religious institution and
on public works.The inscription of Shravanabelagola (12 th century). 16
Doddagadavalli17and Bastihalli (Hassan dist) refer to the erection of temples and
basdis and endowments made by them for maintenance, renovation and worships
of the temples.
Desi desi is an another merchants community.It has been interepted as Sreni
or association of dealers.18It is accordingly,invariably used for the merchants who
came from outside and so it could be the association of interstate or international
traders. It is also possible that desi is the distorted from of desasamsha which
according medhatithi19 means a combination formed by persons professing the
same faith or path even though inhabiting different countries and belonging to
different castes.20
As mentioned earlier,in the early medivel period trade was conducted through
borter and in a limited way.During the hoysala period trade assumed greater
significance as a result of a large number of factors which we have discussed
above.Usually tax on land tax was collected in kind.Besides this, increased volume
and range of trade enabled to meet the requirements of the state such as in
ornaments,elephants,horses and precious goods.This led to greater interdependence
between the state and the merchants.21
The state and its agencies took keen intrest in settingup markets like weekly
fairs and providing facilities to traders.They even established watersheds and
resthouse with the growth of trade especially foreign trade the nature of economy
Merchant Community &The Economic Prosperity......
57
underwent profound changes.There was greater influence of trade and market on

the economy.Hoysala country came to have customs houses where on officer called
sunkadaadhikari or perjunkaadhikari levied toll on the goods that were from one
place to another place.22
The Settis,Settiguttas,Gavers, and Gatrigas are more trade communities are
in Medivel Karnataka.
All above we observed keenly, trade had its impact on society. The economic
prosperity of the merchant community made them to invest their capital not only
on trade and commerce but also on land, temple and other areas. In this
waymedieval economy of Karnataka in south India underwent changes with the
growth of trade and commerce. The association of trading communities
institutionalized trade and thereby improved the economy of the state. Further they
were occupiedan important positionand they were involved in public works like
land reclamation, templeconstruction, water tank construction and establishment of
weekly fair and other trade networks certainly enjoyed all the privileges.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
South Asian Studies Journal,Issue 18,p.78

Dixit-Guilds under the Chalukyas of Kalyana(Ed),p.87
Appadorai.A-Economic Condition in Southern India (1000-1500 AD) Reprint,Vol1,Madras,1990,p.394-395
Dixit-O.p.Cit,p.88
Sastri KAN-The Cholas,Reprint,Madras,1984,p.597
Arokiaswamy.M.-The KonguCountry,Madras 1956,P.288
Kulke Hermann &Dietmar-A History of India,Newdelhi 1991,P.125
E.C.VI.Cm.73 (OS),Blore 1901
E.C.X.Gb.41 (OS),Blore 1905
Hiremath.B.R-Shasanagalali Karnatakada Varthakaru,Dharwar,1989,p.41
Hiremath-O.P.Cit,p.97
Gururajachar-Some Aspects of Economic and Social Life in Karnataka (1000-1300
AD) Mysore,1974,P.118-119
E.I.Vol.V.No.3,Reprint,Newdelhi, 1984
E.C.X.Kl.124b,Blore,1905
E.C.VIII.Hn.33(NS),Mysore, 1984
.MAR(Annul Report of The Mysore Arecheological Dept.),AK.3,Blore 1938
E.C.VIII,Hn.28(NS),Mysore,1984
Jain.V.K.-Trade and Traders in Western India,Newdelhi,1990,P.41
Ibid.,p.42
Ibid.,p.42
Hall,Kenneth.R-Trade and Statecraft in the Age of the Cholas,Newdelhi,1980,P.3
Appadorai.A-O.P,Cit.,P.397
58
14
Devaraja Cult, South East Asia And Use of

The Cult By The Mighty Ahom Rulers For
Their Political Sway In Upper Assam During
Their Period (1228-1826) :
A Comparative Study
*Debo Prasad Gogoi
Introduction - Devaraja cult means (either 'god-kingor king of the gods) cult,
instituted at the beginning of the ninth century, though its precise nature has been
debated, was presumably suaive nevertheless, and for a number of kings of Ankor
it represented for them the sanitation of their role. The ruler thus became a
Charkarvartin, or the universal ruler, allegedly the living embodiment of the
Devaraja, or the divine essence of Kingship.1
The Devaraja cult of Cambodia also assimilated the older Nga-serpent
tradition; the linga temple of the Devaraja frequently became later the tomb of the
divine ruler. Because of this, secular nature it became the court religion of
Cambodia for 250 years. In maritime south East Asia, it implies that kings were
originally divine beings who descended to earth for the benefit of mankind, but
returned to heaven as soon as their task was accomplished. This in turn required,
however, the performance by the deceased kings success of the appropriate rituals.2
Sukafa, the leader of the Shans who laid the foundation of the Ahom kingdom
in Assam is said to have left Maulung in 1215A.D. and struggled a lot in the year
1253. He established Saraidew as the first capital of the Ahoms. At the time of
his migration to Assam Sukafa and his followers were not converted to the
Buddhism as their counter parts like khamtis, Phakials etc.3 After the accession of
Sudanpha or Bamuni Kunwar, the Ahom had followed the policy of divine theory
of kingship and this was a significant development in as much as it sought to
project the heavenly image of the Ahom kingship so as to justify the despotic and
absolute nature of the Ahom monarchy. 4
*Asstt. Prof. Deptt. of History D.R. College, Golaghat, Assam
Devaraja Cult, South East Asia And Use......
59
Influence of Devaraja Cult In South East Asia During The Medieval Period
And Some Issues
The significance of the idea of divine kingship is rather a ritual statement. But this
statement, though it may not have worked magic for the political fortunes of rulers,
may be important enough in its own way as an expression of cosmological belief.
Further, the agrarian societies lacked the modern idea of an impersonal state
commanding.5 There are various sorts of evidence of the divine sanction for
kingship. One example is the Indo Chinese linga cult, where the lingas were given
the names of kings who endowed them in combination with Sivas title Isvara. As
we have seen, the Chams had such cults at Mi-son, with a Bhadreshara and
subsequently Sanbhubhadresvara. In Ankor, above all, many lingas and statues of
gods were endowed by kings and by members of the royal family and the great
men of the land.6
Mainland South-East Asia

Ankor (Comdia) and Devaraja Cult- JayavarmanII,the legendary king of Ankor
had revived the ancient Devaraja symbolism of universal kingship occurred after
his occupation of Hariharalaya(819-820).With the solicited aid of a learned
Brahman teacher named Hiranyadam ,trained in India, he was subjected to mystical
rituals to transform himself into a manifestation of Siva.The ruler thus became
Chakravartin, or universal ruler, allegedly the living embodiment of the Devaraja,or
the divine essence of Kingship.7The Devaraja cult of Cambodia also assimilated
the older Naga serpent tradition, according to which the royal consort in the form
of a female transfiguration of the god of the soil had nightly intercourse with the
divine king at the top of a sacred pyramidal tower. The linga temple of the Devaraja
frequently became later the tomb of the divine ruler.8 The actual authentication in
political terms of the pretensions of Devaraja statues was the work of
Indravarmani(877-889) and his son Yasovarman i(889-900).indravarman,a cousin
of the nonentity jayavarmaniii, inherited several statues lying outside the bounds
of the older domain of Jayavarman ii, and he also subjected the allocation of royal
fiefs to thoroughgoing re-examination.9 The Devaraja cult helped bridge political
rifts and the always troublesome episodes connected with the shift of rulers.
Symbols of authority were impressively maintained, and priestly offices at court
were transmitted by hereditary succession.10
Devaraja Cult And Vietnam (Champa)-Vietnam, which inherited the more
secular Chinese traditions, was a different case, but there were similar ideas at
work: the rulers were not perhaps seen as gods, but they had spiritual or quasidivine characteristics often expressed in Buddhist terms.11
Dvaraja Cult And Pagan Burma- Although the evidence is convincing
that Tharavada Buddhism on the pattern of the Mons and the Sinhalese was the
official religious system in pagan Burma,its character was by no means pure nor
60
Debo Prasad Gogoi
was its position exclusive. Thiluin himself was not fanatically Buddhist in religion.
The coronation and the court ceremonies at pagan were carried out, as at Ankor,by
Brahman priests, principal difference being that the Siva cult was not in evidence
in Burma and that Vishnu was subordinate to Buddha.12
Maritime South East Asia-Compared with mainland south East Asia, we
notice many difference in maritime south East Asia as far as the divinization of
kings is concerned. Living kings were not generally regarded as gods. It implies
that kings were originally divine beings who descended to earth for the benefit of
mankind, but returned to heaven as soon as their task was accomplished.13Whatever
their status during life, kings were sometimes worshipped as gods after their death.
This suggests that the king was a deity who temporarily stayed on earth in the
guise of a human being but returned home when his task was accomplished.14King
Kitranagara of Singhasari in East Java consecrated himself as the Jina. Aksobhya,
King of Jayanagara, the second ruler of Majapahit(1309-1321),is said to have
been deified as both Vishnu and Jina. Amoghasiddhi, and other kings and queens
were deified in a similar manner.15
Did the Ahoms bring any religion at the time of their foundation?-A
question most asked, is what major religion, if any, Tai of Assam, now better
known as the Ahom had brought with them to the Brahmaputra valley in thirteenth
century. The interpretations are not unanimous. It is found that they were partly
Buddhists, partly animists, partly Tantric Buddhists and finally of course, adhering
to their own Tai traits, they followed ancestor worship with other gods and sprits.16
Was Devaraja cult there in Brahmaputra Valley? -The King was the
head of administration and thus occupied the commanding position in the state.
The Bedaganga Rock inscription of Bhutivarman mentions two religious titles
also: parama-daivata(the supreme divinity) and parama-bhagavata(the devout
vaishnava). Divinity was attached to kingship, which is indicated by the fact that
all the kings of Kamrupa, till the last of the palas traced their descent from god
Vishnu. The Kings were addressed as Devas and in their prasastistis, they were
frequently compared with gods like Hari, Hara, Indra, Vishnu and Brihaspati. 17
Thus it becomes clear that there are two probable reasons through which The
Ahom had learnt about the Devaraja cult .1) It is well known that before the great
exodus of the tai in the thirteenth century, almost all the Tais lived together in
southern china and Northern Vietnam complexes and some others in northern
extremity of Burma and Thailand, it is not unlikely that during that period, held
the same religious beliefs, customs and practices in common. And such they had
brought with them the concept of Devaraja cult. 18 .When the Ahoms first landed
there, an Ahomisation process was emerging. but with the annexation and
absorption of the Chutia state and the petty Bhuyan chiefdoms at first and followed
by the Koch kingdom later, the Ahomisation process had to give way to the
Hinduisation process that gained momentum and accelerated only after the political
consolidations of the Ahoms.19
Devaraja Cult, South East Asia And Use......
61
How Far The Ahoms Had Used The Devaraja Cult So As To Justify The
Despotic And Absolute Nature of The Ahom Monarchy.
Divinity was attached to Ahom kingship,and his person was considered sacrosanct
and invincible. In the latter part of the Ahom rule, the concept of divine origin of
Kingship assumed a perverted form, so much so that a prince having any physical
blemish, say even for being pock-marked, was not allowed to sit on the throne.20
For the early Ahom rulers heaven had a different meaning. Their ancestor marched
down from that high region to the Low Countries. In the Brahmaputra valley alone,
they were looked upon as born of the gods.(deo hans)by the local people because
of their easily discernible physiques 21The theory was locally developed in Assam
by the time of Lara raja in the latter part of the seventeenth centuryA.D. 22
The Hindu influence- For the first two hundred years, there was no
appreciable departure in the religion of the Ahoms. They continued to follow
their traditional religion with the blood sacrifices in their ritual religious
celebrations, observations and performances.23 The transition towards Hinduism
was due to the wake of a plural society which was slowly emerging out of the
Ahom conquests, expansions and absorptions that largely owed to some historical
accidents than that of any religious zeal.24
The Brahmanic cult of the Hindu religion was the first to make intrusions in
the Ahom royalty during the reign of Sui-dang-pha alias Bamuni kunwar(13971407).He was the first Ahom to have adopted the coronation rites by ascending
the Singarighar. This was a significant development as it sought to project the
heavenly image of the Ahom kingship to justify the despotic and absolute nature
of the Ahom monarchy. 25
It becomes clear that though Ahom had migrated from South east Asia ,
perhaps they were inspired by the Devaraja cult of their place of origin to some
extent. But it should be mentioned that for the Ahoms, divine theory of kingship
implied as long as the king was alive. There is no any evidence of the fact that
King became a God after his death. More so, initially Ahom Kingdom accepted
the Kingship theory with a view to protect their monarchical form of government.
When they became the absolute power in the Brahmaputra valley, they were
inclined to Hinduism and with that the passage of time, divine theory of kingship
took a new form which in the long run created so many good and bad results for
the Ahom kingdom as a whole.
Debo Prasad Gogoi
62
References
1
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
J.F. Kady,South east Asia: Its historical development , 2nd edition, Surjit Publication
2006, p.289
DG.E Hall, A Comprehensive History of South east Asia, McMillan Press Limited,
London, 1955, p.326
Edward Gait, History of Assam, 2nd Edition, Ajanta Printers, Calcutta, 1926,p.78
J.F. Kady, south east Asia:its historical development, 2nd edition,Surajit Publication
2006,p.290
Nicholas Tarling (ed.) From early times to 1800 century,Cambridge History of South
east Asia, Vol I,Cambridge University Press,1992, P.324
Ibid, p.329
j. F. Kady, South east Asia: its historitioncaI development, 2nd edition.surajit public
ation 2006, P.89
Ibid, p.90
Ibid,p.91
Ibid, p.92.
Nicholas Tarling(ed) From early times to 1800 century, Cambridge History of South
East Asia,Vol1,Cambridge university press,1992,p.325
J.F,Kady,South east Asia: its historical development,2nd edition,Surajit publication
2006, p.119
Ibid,p.318
Ibid,p.329
Nicholas Tarling(ed) From early times to 1800 century, Cambridge History of South
East Asia,Vol1,Cambridge university press,1992,p.327
Ibid,p.328
Ramesh Buragohain(Ed.),The Lost Trails: A study on the Tai people of North east
India Vol.I, Eastern Tai Literary association, Tai Sahitya Sabha, First edition,1994
p.59
Dr. S.L. Baruah,A Comprehensive History of Assam, Munshilal Manoharlal Pvt
Ltd. New Delhi, 3rd eddition1985,p.136.
18.Ramesh Buragohain(ed),The lost Trails : A study on the Tai people of North east
India vol,1,Eastern Tai Literary association,Tai Sahitya sabha,First edition,1994, p.56
Ibid, p.63
Dr. Padmeswar Gogoi,The Tai and the Tai Kingdoms: With a fuller treatment of
the Tai Ahom Kingdom in the Brahmaputra Valley, Department of
Publication,Gauhati University, Guwahati, First publication,1968 p.542
Ibid,p.543
Ibid, p.544.
Ibid, p.544
Ibid, p.64
63
15
Dalit Gurus In Rama Bhakti

*Jagjeet Kaur
Rama is the famous deity among the people of India as he is having a very good
image among the people that at the time of his kingship there was all happiness,
peace and prosperity among the people and he was a true person. There are many
Gurus popular in different parts of India who are famous for their worship of
Rama. Rama is described in Ramayana that is why the people are used to read the
Ramayana in the daily life and on the special occasion in the family. Among the
famous Guru who preached the name of God are Ravidas, Kabir, Dadu, Namde,
Sena and Tukaram. The specialty of all these Gurus is that they were the disciples
of Ramananda and they all were Dalits because they belong to the lower caste
which was discriminated by the people of the upper caste. These Gurus are
worshiped by the people of India in different parts of India on the very high level;
even there are different sects popular on their names like Ravidasiye, Kabir Panthi,
Dadu Panthi, Saini etc. These Gurus gave the principle of Rama bhakti to all their
disciples
It is believed that Ramananda took the cult of bhakti (of Rama) originating
in the south to the north. The sect of Ramananda, also known as the Ramayata
Sampradaya, traces its origin to him. Nevertheless, among the traditional list of
his pupils figure both those associated with the saguna stream, such as Anantananda,
Narahari and the radical reformers of the nirguna bhakti movement, such as
Dhanna, Raidas, Pipa, Kabir and Namdev for whom Rama was the name of an
attribute less, formless Almighty and not an incarnation of Vishnu or the son of
Dasaratha.1
The Adhyat Ramayana has the status of a scripture for the Ramanandis and
seems to have been composed by one of his later followers who incorporated into
it some pre existing texts such as the Ramahrdaya and the Ramgita, modeled on
the pattern of Bhagavad-Gita. A significant development reflected in the Adhyatma
Ramayana is the emergence of a community of Rama devotees. The company of
*Assistant Professor (History), P G Government College, Sector-11, Chandigarh
(Punjab)
64
Jagjeet Kaur
Rama devotees was an important channel leading towards salvation. Various

characters of Rama story repeatedly speak of the merits of keeping the Company
of Rama devotees.2
It has been argued the congregational religion is a characteristic of lower
middle class and artisan groups. Whether it is a class characteristic or a product of
the social ferment of the late careful instigation. This period saw a number of
significant social and economic changes at the lower rungs of the caste hierarchy.
Their protest against the existing social and religious establishment is articulated
by the nirguni saints such as Kabir and Raidas who rejected the institutionalized
inequality of caste, ritual and idolatry and mocked at the pretentiousness of the
priestly classes. Brahmanical circles too had to take note of these changes and in
the fourteenth century Visvesvara Bhatta wrote the Smriti Kaumudi in which he
specifically stated that his predecessors had written at length on the dharma (rules
of righteous conduct) of the three higher Varnas giing little attention to the dharma
of the sudras, therefore he would clearly expound the dharma of the last Varna.
Among the Adhikaras of the sudras he discuss the Sudras right to the performance
of various rites including brahmayajana and his capacity of attaining the knowledge
of Brahman. The sudras were authorized to recite Siva and Vishnu mantras (With
the omission of the sacred Om) and the thirteen lettered Rama Mantras. This
period also saw the composition of a number of Ramanas in the vernacular
languages such as the Bengali Ramayana of Kshatriyas (fifteenth century), the
oriya Ramayana of Balaramdasa (sixteenth century) and Tancatta Eluttaccans
free translation of the Adhyatma Ramayana in Malayalam (sixteenth century).3
The universal accessibility of Rama was quite in harmony with the Vaishnava
tradition as it evolved in the early centuries of the Christian era and was articulated
in the Bhagavad-Gita, which played both a hegemonic and a liberating late. This
was continuing through the medium of the worship of Rama too. The process was
particularly significant in the context of the social turmoil of the late middle Ages.
An analysis of the Bhagavata Purana shows that the Bhagavata Vaishnava
movement was led by those ascetics and poets who may or may not have belonged
to the Brahman caste but were down from within the established Brahmanical
socio-religious order. They were generally poor, either by choice or circumstances
and hence their main attack was directed against the abuse of wealth and edict
ritualism and not against the caste system which they accepted but regarded as
irrelevant for attaining salvation. The text of Ramayana innovates the story about
Valmiki, not found in the Ramayana of Valmiki or other works, according to which
Valmiki was a Sudra, who on the advice of some sages began to repeat the name
of Rama backwards as Mara Mara for his protection and kept on doing so an
anthill (Valmiki) grew around him. This give him the name Valmiki and he become
a great sage and devotee of Rama. Rama who taught the low caste female ascetic
Sabari about the nine modes of devotion open to all men, women and even animals
had no hesitation in beheading the Sudra ascetic Sambuba for austerities.
Dalit Gurus In Rama Bhakti
65
There is some controversy whether the Adyatma Ramayana was later than
Kabir or contemporaneous with him. It shows no awareness of Kabir. However,
Tulasidasa who began writing his Rama Charita Manasa at Ajodhya in 1574 and
completed it at aranasi, could not have ignored the socio-religious movement led
by the low caste nirgunisaints, situated as he was in the very city which had
witnessed the radical teaching of Kabir, particularly as these saints spoke of God
as Rama but refuted the idea of incarnation and idoloty.4
Kabir rejected the caste and criticized the Brahman and Muslim priesthood
and revolt against the Brahmanas (Brahmanas Kula), one should worship a
Brahman even if he is without any merit or qualities (silaguna hina) and a sudra
should not be honoured even if he is full of merit and learning. Such remarks are
not accidental but scattered throughout the text and stem from Tulasis belief in
the exalted position of the Brahmanas and the importance of the Varna dharma.5
Tulasi Dasa regarded caste as irrelevant to the pursuit of Rama bhakti but
not in social matters and in the final analysis it is the Ramacharitamanas which
came to have deep and abiding influences on the minds of the common people.
Ravidas was a chamar was also a disciple of Ramananda. Dadu was cotton
cleaner by profession, his worship is addressed to Rama, but it is restricted to the
Japa or repetition of his name, and the Rama intended is the deity, as negatively
described in the Vedanta theology temples and images are prohibited. According
to his teaching:-6
1. Whether Ramas will that will happen then why you worry for no reason.
2. Dadu loved Ram incessantly, he partook of his spiritual essence and constantly
examined the mirror which was within him/
3. He subdued the imperfection of the flesh and overcame all evil inclinations; he
crushed every improper desire, wherefore the light of Ram will shine upon
him.
Sena a barber was the third of Ramanandas disciples. He was a devout
worshipper of Vishnu.Kabir was a weaver. In his teachings.7
1. Rama is not obtained of Gold but with the price of heart.
2. He argued with Qazi that which book you read all such pandering the book and
killed, no one has obtained true knowledge; give up the book adore Ram.
3. He who bath at Tirtha will not go to paradise, by the belief of the people
nothing is affected, Ram is not ignorant.
4. I know that reading is good, but better than reading is meditation; the attachment to Ram I do not give up, though people revile me.
5 As the stars in the morning passes away, so the world passes away, these two
letters (Ram) do not parses away.
Kabir says Hear, O man and brother; without the name of Ram no one has
obtained salation.8
Kabir uttered strong denunciatory words against the caste system.
66
Jagjeet Kaur
Kabir is in the line of succession of those religious reformers who advocated

bhakti or loving devotion to God as the only means of finding God and thus
achieving salvation. Therefore, bhakti is the foundation on which Kabir bases his
spirituality or piety. In connection with this, he speaks often of repeating the name
of Rama which is in the style of Rama bhakti. Kabir frequently speaks of drinking
the elixir of Rama, which is characteristic of expressing the deep satisfaction that
is obtained by ecstatic union with God.9
To conclude here it can be said that these Dalit gurus got much more
popularity and attracted disciples of their own in comparison to the Gurus who
belong to the higher caste.10 As Rama was secular and the people in this sect are
given the instruction to worship the name of Rama all the time and devoted whole
of their life for the sake of Rama bhakti.
Reference:
1
J.S. Grewal (Ed),History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization,

Oxford University Press, 2006,Reprint 2009 P-.128
2. Ibid P-128
3. Ibid P-129
4. Ibid P-130
5. Ibid P-131
6. H.H Wilson (Ed) Religious Sects of the Hindus, Erust R. Rast, Susil Gupta
(India) Pvt. Limited, Calcutta P-65
7. G.H.Westcott, Kabir and The Kabir Panth Susil Gupta (India) ltd., 1953. P-30
8. Ibid P-47
9. Kabir: The Apostle of Hindu-Muslim Unity, Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi, 1977.P-269
10. Ibid P-224
67
16
Perception of Women In Braj Literature:

The Spiritual Context
*Gagandeep Kaur
Braj literature contains the literary works of Braj bhas-ha. Braj bhasha was the
richest form of Hindi in the medieval age. It was the language of Braj region. The
Braj region located in the vicinity of Delhi and Agra and included the places like
Itawa, Aligarh, Mathura and Brindaban.1 In the modern set up, the Braj Pradesh
includes within its fold some parts of Haryana, some parts of Rajasthan, Gwalior
area of Madhya Pradesh, whole of western Uttar Pradesh, and the plains of
Kumayun and Garhwal.2 It acquired a literary character during the 15th and 16th
centuries when it received on the one hand, religious patronage through
Vallabhacharya and on the other hand, a place of honour in the courts of local
chieftains as well as Muslim Kings.3 During this period the propagation of this
language was brought about chiefly by Surdas4 and other Ashtachhap writers. In
Braj literature Surdas, Parmananddas, Kumbhandas, Krishnadas, Nanddas,
Chaturbhujdas, Govind Swami and Chhitswami are known as Ashtachhap or the
eight seals or diestamps because the poems they wrote are regarded as standard
works of Braj bhasha.5 Among them the first four were the followers of Acharya
Vallabhacharya and the later four were the disciples of Goswami Bitthalnath the
son of Vallabhacharya.6 These writers were the faithful devotees of Lord Krishna
whose worship is advocated in his human (Saguna form) emphasizing various
episodes in his life. 7
This paper is attempt to highlight how Ashtachhap writers of Braj have
perceived women to explain spiritual path. They represented gopi as the prime
preceptor on spiritual path.8 All the Ashtachhap writers have expressed their Bhakti
through the image of gopi. Surdas by making gopi as the Guru of spiritual life
announced that if anybody, male/female, worship the Lord Krishna with bharta
(husband) bhava will get salvation without doubt.9
*Assistant Professor, Guru Hargobind Sahib Khalsa Girls College, Karkali

Sahib, Patiala, Punjab
68
Gagandeep Kaur
xksih&in&jt efgek] fcf/k Hkxq lkSa dghA

They considered themselves as wives of Lord Krishna.10
Surdas and Nanddas choose the voice of gopi to express their ideas and
thought in Bhramargit. In Bhramargit11 the exchange between the gopi and Udho
is used to reveal the supremacy of Prem Bhakti over Gyan Bhakti. Udho has
been made the mouthpiece of Gyan Bhakti. He tries to dissauage gopi from the
path of Prem by an appeal to their intellect. Contrary to this, gopis are generally
not inclined to enter into a logical discourse or intellectual inquiry. She said to
Udho that her only concern is to love the Lord Krishna.12
But Nanddas gopi is rather logical.13 She answered to the each question of
Udho with logic. She answered to Udho that as there is no comparison between
diamond and glass similarly Prem Bhakti is more important than Gyan and Yoga.14
At the end the gopi score a victory over gyan on behalf of bhakti (loving
devotion).15 Thus these writers have idealized the love of gopi for Lord Krishna
and held it up as an example for a devotee to God.
Here it is interesting to note that all Braj writers were male but to explain the
spiritual path they choose the image of gopy (female image) Why? Her yearning
for union and agony of her separation immediately enter into soul and stir powerful
vibrations there. Gopis are depicted as suffering extreme misery in Viyoga of
Lord Krishna.16 Gopis because of their devotion to Lord Krishna enjoys his
company.17
vkt esjs /kke vk;s jh ukxj uan fdlksj]

/kU; fnol /ku jkr jh ltuh /kU; Hkkx lf[k eksjA
eaxy xkoks pkSd iqjkoks canuokj ltkogq iksj]
uannkl izHkq lax jl cl dj tkxr djgwa HkksjA
Gopis are so absorbed in love for Krishna that they are even prepared to
forsake the traditional restrictions placed on them by society and family.18
From above description it becomes clear that in Braj literature spiritual part
is defined through female imagery by making gopi as ones guide on spiritual
path. Yet while recognizing her importance in society, Braj writers accepted a
lower status for her as compared to that of man. Her salvation lies in the service of
her husband.19
According to them it is the duty of a women to serve her husband, whether
he is old, sinful, or of a low character, foolish or diseased. The path of service to
her husband was, for a devoted wife also the path of salvation for her.20
bfga fcf/k csn & ekjx lqukSA

One can notice a number of contradictions that arise in their portrayal of
women. How can this contradictory picture be reconciled? It may be argued that
these writers were not conformist, for they did not conform to the views and values
of their society regarding women and expressed deep sympathy with them. But
Perception of Women In Braj Literature: The Spiritual Context
69
they could not become rebels as they failed to protest against the existing
inequalities towards women because of the influence of their society
References1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Bindu Mattoo, New Horizons (A Socio-Economic Study of the 16th Century India),
Sanjay Prakashan, Delhi, 2003, p. 158.
Encyclopedia of Indian Literature, Vol. I, Sahitya Academy, New Delhi, 1987, p. 578.
Savitri Sinha & R.D. Mishra, Development of Hindi Languages, ed., Nagendra,
Indian Literature, Delhi, 1968, p. 590.
Bindu Mattoo, Op.Cit. p. 5.
F.E. Keay, A History of Hindi Literature, Award Publishing House, New Delhi, 1980,
p. 72.
Ibid. p. 30.
Bindu Mattoo, Op.cit. p. 36.
xksih izse dh /otkA
ftu xksiky fd;ks cl vius mj /kfj L;ke Hkqtk AA
Parmananddas, Parmanandsagar, ed., Govardhana Nath Shukla, Bharat Prakashan
Mandir, Aligarh, 1958, Pad 825, p. 289.
xksih&in&jt efgek] fcf/k Hk`xq lkSa dghA

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------A
tks dksm Hkjrk&Hkko n; /kfj gfj&in /;koSA
ukfj iq:k dksm gksb] Jqfr&_pk&xfr lks ikoSAA
frudh injt dksm tks] oànkou Hkw ekgA
ijlS lksm xksfidk xfr ikoS lak; ukfgaAA
Surdas, Sursagar, ed., Nanddulare Bajpai, Nagari Parcharni Sabha, Kashi, 1972, Pad
10/1793, Vol. I, pp. 523-24.
10 ^d`.knkl* izHkq jfldjkb ifr fxfj/kj uojx fi;

lqlusfg jhAA
Krishandas-Pad-Sangrah, Pad 228, ed., Braj Bhushan Sharma, Vidya Vibhag,
Kankroli, 1963, p. 82
11 In Bhramargit Krishan sends Udho to Braj after he has gone to Mathura. Udho has
taken the message of Krishan to gopis. The gopis in their distress and disorientation
directed their laments to a passing bee by confusing both Udho and bee as messengers.
Because of this these poems are called Bhramargit.
12 /kkS izhfr ubZ fur ehBhA

Surdas, Sursagar, Pad 10/4290, Vol. 2, p. 424.
13 Hazari Parsad Dwivedi, Granthawali, Vol. 4, Rajkamal Prakashan, New Delhi, 1981,
p. 106.
14 X;ku tksx lc deZ rsa ijs izse gh lkpA

gkSa ;k iVrj nsr gkSa ghjk vkxs dkpAA
Nanddas, Nanddas Granthawali, ed., Brajratandas, Nagari Parcharni Sabha, Kashi,
1957, p. 164.
15 John Stratton Hawley, Surdas : Poet, Singer, Saint, Oxford University Press, Delhi,
1984. p. 102.
70
Gagandeep Kaur
16 esjkS eu xksfoan lkS ekU;kS rkrs vkSj u ft; HkkokS gksAA

tkxr lksor ;g mRdaBk dksm cztukFk feykoS gksAA
Parmananddas, Parmanandsagar, Pad 529, p. 180.
17 vkt esjs /kke vk;s jh ukxj uan fdlksj]

/kU; fnol /ku jkr jh ltuh /kU; Hkkx lf[k eksjA
eaxy xkoks pkSd iqjkoks canuokj ltkogq iksj]
uannkl izHkq lax jl cl dj tkxr djgwa HkksjA
Nanddas Pad Sangarh cited from Deen Dayalu Gupta, Ashtachhap Aur Vallabh
Sampradaya, Vol. II, Hindi Sahitya Samalan Parkashan, Prayag, 1970, p. 638.
18 dsfga ekjx eSa tkm l[kh jh] ekjx eksfga fclj;kSA
uk tkukSa fdr S x, eksgu] tkr u tkfu ij;kSAA

viukS fi; <w<fr fQjkSa] eksfga fefycs dks pkoA
dkVks ykX;kS izse dkS] fi;] ;g ik;kS nkoAA
cu Mksaxj <w<fr fQjh] ?kj ekjx rft xkmA
cw>kSa nzqe izfr csfy dksm] dgS u fi; dkS ukmAA
Surdas, Sursagar, Vol. I, Pad 10/1111, pp. 508-09.
19 ukfj ifrczr ekuS tksbZAA pkfj inkjFk ikoS lksbZAA

Surdas, Sursagar, Vol. I, Pad 10/800, p. 430.
20 bfga fcf/k csn & ekjx lqukSA

diV rft ifr djkS iwtk] dgk rqe ft; xqukSA
dar ekugq Hko rjkSxh] vkSj ukfga mikbA
rkfg rft D;kSa fcfiu vkbZ] dgk ik;kS vkbAA
fcj/k v# fcu Hkkxgw dkS] ifrr tks ifr gksbA
t ewj[k gksb jksxh] rtS ukgha tksbAA
;gS eSa iqfu dgr rqe lkSa] txr esa ;g lkjA
lwj ifr] lsok fcuk D;ksSa] rjkSxh lalkjAA
Surdas, Sursagar, Vol. 1, Pad 10/1016, p. 485.
71
17
Mahad Ji Scindia: Vakil-E-Mutalik

*Dr. Narendra Rathod
The Emperor Shah-Alam urged that Mahadji Scindia should take the responsibility
of making arrangements about the state. He decided to give Mahadji Scindia the
responsibility of two posts Vakil-E-Mutalik and Mirbaxi. MahadjiScindia wished
the post of Vakil-E-Mutalik should be given to the Peshwa. In fact, Mahadji Scindia
said that he would write to the Peshwa at Pune, and abide by their orders. But the
murder of Afrasiyabkhan had created chaotic conditions. So they could not afford
to wait for orders from Pune. On Nov. 30, 1784 Mahadji Scindia and the Emperor
Shah-Alam reached within ten miles of Ignore. At this place, the Emperor held a
big durbar on Dec 1, 1784 and appointed Shrimant Peshwa on the posts of Nayab-EMunab Baxi-Uh-Mamlik1As per the written condition it was decided that Mahadji
Scindia should manage the daily administration, he was offered Nayabgiri by the
Badshah Shah-Alam.2 On Dec. 3, 1784 Mahadji Scindia and Shah Alam reached
Helna, ten miles away, and on Dec.-4, 1784 the Emperor held a grand Durbar and the
highest title that is conferred upon the Civil servants in the state, was gladly bestowed
upon him.3 All things, such as Khillat, Kalagi Turban horses, elephants etc. which go
with that post were conferred upon Mahadji Scindia by the Emperor Shah-Alam.4
Nana Fadnis was jealous of Mahadji Scindias title as Vakil-E-Mutalik. This caused a
tension between Nana Fadnis and Mahadji Scindia. Nana Fadnis thought that Mahadji
Scindia was trying to build his own empire in the North.5
The desire of the Marathas to control Delhi was fulfilled and Mahadji became
the supreme power of imperial administration.6 No doubt MahadjiScindia got the
title Vakil-E-Mutalik and the powers and the honour that accompanied it but in
the discharge of his duties Mahadji Scindia had to face many odds and difficulties.
He had to bring round those rebel Mughal Sardars who had pocketed large
Jahangirs and did not render him any service in return. He had to force them to be
loyal to the Emperor. That was his primary duty.7This was an arduous and difficult
job. So he incurred the enmity of many persons. Besides these things, many other
*Head of the Department of History, Vasantrao Naik Govt. Institute of Arts &
Social Sciences, Nagpur, Maharashtra
72
Dr. Narendra Rathod
problems confronted Mahadji Scindia. One urgent and important job was to control
all the territories held by the Emperor from the princes as well as the Rajput kings who
had the forts and important stations in their charge. These noblemen under the Emperor
had no desire to obey Mahadji Scindia.8 All could see the title of Vakil-E-Mutalik and
the honours bestowed on Mahadji Scindia. But none could realize the difficulties and
the dangers that confronted him. Even the Court of Pune had noidea. In fact the honours
were a mere show. He had to shoulder responsibilities, but he had little powers. Not
even an inch of land was gifted to him in recognition of his services. If he was expected
to shoulder the responsibility of administration as the representative of the Emperor
then Mahadji Should have got full control of the forts, station camps, treasury and the
lands of the Emperor. But the reality was otherwise was hardly any source of income,
but Mahadji Scindia had to shoulder many responsibilities.9
Mahadji Scindia all work as an administrator immediately on becoming VkilE-Mutalik and saw to it that things went well. Mahadji Scindia decided to teach a
lesson to the rebel Sardars and seized the forts and stations from them and
established his own rule.10
The Seal of Mahadaji Scindia As Vakil-E-Mutalik
A function about the robes of Vakil-E-Mutalik : 22 June 1792.

When Mahadji Scindia came to Pune from the North India, 1792. Mahadji
Scindia went to the palace of the Peshwa and said to Shrimant SwayMadhava
Rao Peshwa. Many did not consider it a great honour.11 There was a good deal
of discussion about whether to accept the honour or not. It was agreed that the
Peshwawere the servant of the Chatrapati of Satara etc. Because Mahadji
earnestly urged the SwayMadhava Rao Peshwa and he decided to accept that
honour.12 Permission was sought from the Chatrapati Maharaj of Satara and 22 June
was decided as the date of the function. Accordingly the function about Vakil-E-Mutalik
was celebrated on 22 June 1792.13The function has been very nicely described by
Visaji Narayan Wadakekar in his letter sent to Parshurambhau at Tasgaon. This letter
Mahad Ji Scindia: Vakil-E-Mutalik
73
has been published on page No. 4622, part nine, of Etihasic Lekh Sangrah.14 Mahadji
Scindia was brave as well as faithful. His loyalty to the perswas always remained
undivided In Pune, at the time of the celebration of the tittle of VaKil-EMutalikMahadji Scindia stood up in the court with the shoes of SawaiMadhav
Rao Peshwa in his hands to show his fidelity to the Peshwa. This gesture of loyalty
was interpreted as hypocrisy by the people of Pune because the ministers at Pune
were prejudiced against Mahadji Scindia. But this event proves the faithfulness
of Mahadji Scindia beyond doubt. 15 This was the motto and object of his
service,Mahadji Scindia received the robes and honour of Vakil-E-Mutalik from
the Badshah of Delhi but he did so on behalf of the Peshwa.
Unparalleled diplomacy, tenacity and determination, realization of the
importance of having a well-trained army, with up to date knowledge of gunnery,
giving of military training on western lines, and realizing that traditional military
training like Ganimi is of no avail in fighting with western soldiers all embracing
capacity, spotless character, virtue assimilation, defiant in difficulty, foresight etc.,
these were the rare qualities that MahadjiScindia possessed.
Reference:1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Unpublished Secret and political Department diary No.-31, Letter No.-44, P-1046
(Bombay).
Unpublished Gulgule Daptar, No-190, P-195, No-191, P-196 (Sitamau).
D.B. Parsnis, Delhi Yethil Marathyachi Rajkarne Vol. 1, Nirnay Sagar Chapkhana
Mubai 1913, No-133, P-132, No-106, P-109.
G.S. Sardesai Mahadji Shinde Yanchi Kagatpatre Alija Darbar Press Bombay No503, P-692.
D.B. Diskalkar, Shindeshahichi Ramkarna Vol. 1, Satara Itihas Sansodhak Mandal,
1934, No-121, P-53-54.
Unpublished Secret and Political Department Diary No-31 letter No-44, P-1046
(Bombay).
G.S. Sardesai Marathi Riyasat Uttar Vibhag Vol. 2, Damodar Sawalaram Ani Mandli
1921 Mumbai P-94.
Dr. Shivdatta Barhatt Jodhpur Rajya Ka Itihas,Rajasthani Hindi Granth Academy
1982, P-87.
Unpublished Gulgule Daptar, No-190, P-195.
D.B. Diskalkar Shinde Sahahichi Rajkarne Satara Itihas Sanshodhak Mandal 1934,
Vol. 1, No-91, P-39.
D.B. Parsnis, Delhi Yethil Marathyachi Ramkarna, Nirnay Sagar Chapkhana 1913,
Vol. 1, No-109, P-111.
G.S. Sardesai, Mahadji Shinde Yanchi Kagatpatre Alija Darbar Press Bombay, No503, P-692.
Khare W.W., ItihasLekh Sangraha, Vol-9 Kurnadvada Bahu Nana, Chapkhana 1908.
Sen, S.N., Calendar of Persian Correspondence Vol. VII (1985-1787).
Kelkar N.C. Maratha Va English Shri Printing Agency Pune-1918.
74
18
Description of European Travellers On

Maharaja Ranjit Singhs Empire
(1819-1832 A.D.)
*Sarita Rana
Maharaja Ranjit Singh was not only a brilliant solider and pre-eminently successful
military general but was also endowed with a rare genius for organization. He
envisaged and enforces a system of administration which marked a substantial
improvement over that of the Sikh, Mohammedan or Rajput Chieftains who
preceded him or were his contemporaries. Several European travelers visited the
Punjab during the last decade of the reign of Maharaja Ranjit Singh and covering
a phase of about 19 years from 1820-39. They came from different countries with
different purposes and have left very useful information about the Maharaja in
their travel accounts.
The present paper is an attempt to analyze the works of three of them: William
Moorcroft, Victor Jacque Mont and Alexander Burnes. Their account relate to
many aspects of life in the Punjab during the early 19th century. William Moorcroft
(1819-25) was a British veterinary surgeon to the Bengal Army.1 His idea was to
penetrate into Turkistan, to the country of the breed of good horses which it was
his great ambition to domesticate in India. Coupled with this purpose was the idea
of exploring the possibilities of establishing commercial intercourse with the transHimalayan districts.2
Victor Jacque Mont possessed the requisite background for scientific
investigation in India. Born at Paris in 1801, he received good education in France
showed his interest in natural history at an early age.3 Jacque Mont left Paris in
August, 1828, and reached Calcutta in May 1829 and cordially received by William
Bentinck the Governor General, Jacque Mont was able to visit the dominions of
Ranjit Singh with the help of William Bentinck.4
*Head, Assistant Professor, P.G. Department of History, Dasmesh Girls College,
Mukerian. (Punjab)
Description of European Travellers On Maharaja......
75
Alexander Burnes was a British and sent to Lahore in 1831 by British

Government on a complimentary mission. He was to take from the King of England
to Maharaja Ranjit Singh five dray horses of a size never before seen in India.5
It was his desire to see new countries and information on the north-western frontier
of India was important to the British Government. Thus, the purpose of Burnes
mission was not merely diplomatic but commercial and political.6
Moorcroft, Jacque Mont and Burnes go into the historical background of
Maharaja Ranjit Singh. He covers in about 22 pages the history of the Sikhs from
Guru Nanak to the proclamation of the British Indian Government, protecting the
Cis-Satlej states in 1809. According to them Maharaja Ranjit Singh appears as a
successful ruler. For example Moorcroft noticed that Sansar Chand, once a powerful
ruler, was a Vassal of Ranjit Singh and had to go to his court once a year.7 The
Raja of Mandi was to frightened of his Sikh master that he did not allow Moorcroft
to pass through his territories unless the secured permission from the Maharaja.8
The Raja of Kullu was fined 80,000 rupees for having facilitated Shah Shuja
retreated to Ludhiana and 5,000 rupees for giving co-operation to the British against
the Gurkhas.9
Jacquemant remarks that Ranjit Singh was a skillful diplomat and an
absolutely independent monarch and possessed the greatest, power in Asia after
the British.10 In Jacque Monts estimation the total revenues of Ranjit Singhs
government were amounted to nearly 3 crores of rupees. And it was quite difficult
to estimate the value of the particular things.11 The revenue of Kashmir, as estimated
by him, was about forty laces of rupees. The tax on shawls brought in about twelve
laces of rupees.12
Burnes was interested in the members of the ruling class in the Kingdom of
Ranjit Singh, particularly in the influence they could exercise over his actions.
His observed that the rulers of the original Sikh principalities had been subverted
or neutralized and he also impressed by the position acquired by the Jammal
brothers Dhain Singh, Gulab Singh and Suchet Singh. But he remarks that none
of them had any real influence over Ranjit Singh, they managed to give this
impression to the people in self interest.13 There were two other eminent individuals
newly raised to position as noticed by Burnes, Khushal Singh and Faqir Aziz-uddin.14
Unlike Jacque Mont and Burns Moorcroft had given the impression that the
vassals of Ranjit Singh so tired of his high handedness that almost all of them
wanted to come under British protection.15 From the observation of European
travelers Maharaja Ranjit Singhs had over his Jagirdars appears to have been
equally strong. A word from the Maharajas lips could reduce a noble to a beggar.
Moorcroft formed a very high opinion of the Cavalry of Maharaja
Ranjit Singh: Not a single horse neighed or was restive or vicious in the
slightest degree, or was uneasy at mounting or diverged from the path,
though the Maharaja affirmed that they had not been ridden sometime
76
Sarita Rana
past. 16 Jacque Mont found the Maharajas troops better than his
expectations in every respect. He observed that infantry men were dressed
in tight trousers, a white Jacket and little blue turban. They were armed
with a sword and a flintlock bearing a bayonet. 17 But over all Jacquemont
was not impressed by the regular cavalry of Maharaja. But Maharaja had
twenty five thousand well disciplined troops and with so small a force he
makes his neighbours tremble. 18
According to Burnes the strength of Ranjit Singhs army was about 25,000
men of these the regular infantry consisted of 25000 men; the regular cavalry
and artillery could be rack owned at 5,000 with 150 guns; and the irregular
troops, which were also cavalry, fell little short of 50,000 men.19 The regular
infantry, which was trained like a European infantry was fully equal to the troops
of the army of the East India Company. Burnes states that Ranjit Singhs battalions
maneuvered with regularity and precision and they were all accounted and
dressed, but they were destitute of discipline, the most essential quality of a
solider.20 Moorcroft and Jacque Mont do not present a happy picture of the
administration of justice in Kashmir. Moorcroft states: The Sikhs seem to look
upon the Kashmirians as little better than cattle, the murder of a native by Sikh is
punished by a fine to the government of from sixteen to twenty rupees of which
four rupees are paid to the family of the deceased if a Hindu, and two rupees, if he
was a Mohammedan.21
Jaequemont has given an account of some urban centers and the province of
Kashmir. He states that throughout the whole viceroyalty of cashmere, there is
no tribunal to settle private disputes upon the basis of equity.22 He remarks that
Amritsar was the largest city of the Punjab with a population between 1,00,000
and 2,00,000. It was a rich and an affluent city, with a lot of commercial activity.
It has the holy city of Sikhs with the Golden Temple. But, significantly The Rome
of the Punjab has no pope.23 Burnes remarks, Kashmir appeared to be illadministered Maharaja himself was unhappy over the administration of
Kashmir. Talking to Alexander Burnes in 1831, he observed that thought he
had received 36 lacs of rupees from Kashmir, it governors were highly
incompetent and corrupt: All the people I send to Kashmir turn out to be
rascals.24 The people of Kashmir, according to Burnes, were oppressed by
Maharaja did not like to send competent governors.25
The court of the Maharaja was of special interest to these travelers.
Jacquemont describes it as a singular one. 26 The Majaraja used to sit on a
plain golden arm chair, while his countries, with the exception of Hira Singh
sat upon his carpet. 27 About the religious attitude of the Maharaja Jacqumont
got the impression that he had no personal views on religion. He states that
Majaraja was a Sikh by profession a sceptic in reality. Nevertheless he
visited Amritsar to pay his homage every year, and made pilgrimages even
to the tombs of Muslim saints. Yet these pilgrimages offended n one of the
Description of European Travellers On Maharaja......
77
puritans of his own sect. 28 Jacquemont also refers to their dress their tolerant
attitude in religious matters and to the presence of the fanatical Akali29 or
Nihangs30 . Burnes observed that there were very few Sikhs beyond the river
Jehlam and even in the area of their greatest concentration their proportion
in the total population was only about one third. However, the number of
Sikhs was increasing at the rate of about 5,000 a year due to their ascendency
as a nation. They were frank and courageous and their bravery was rooted in
their religion. 31 All the travelers talk highly of the Faqir brothers.32 These travelers
were impressed by the ascendancy of the Maharaja over his countries by his mental
alertness. To Moorcraft the Maharaja was very communicative and familiar and
conversed, with apparent absence of all reserve, upon a variety to topics his study
military arrangement and his healthy.33
To Jacquemont, Ranjit Singh appeared to be benevolent despot, a cautious
politician and a skillful diplomat. He was deeply impressed by the Maharajas
intellectual curiosity. His conversation is like a night mere. He is almost the
first inquisitive Indian, have seen.34 Ranjit Singh asked him about India, England,
European and Napoleon Bonaparte, made enquiries regarding the military
revenue resources of France, discussed hell, paradise, soul, devil and God.35
Burnes alone talks about the economy of the dominions of Ranjit Singh. He
estimated the total population at about 30 lacs, of which only 5 lacs were Sikhs.
According to Burnes Ranjit Singh was old looking, talkative, inquisitive, modest
and yet forceful.36
Personally brave, Ranjit Singh was a skillful diplomat and wary politician.
All the three abovesaid travelers talk highly about Ranjit Singh and cover a wide
range of themes. They talk about Ranjit Singh, his country his possible successors,
his army administration revenue and justice. Like Jacquemont was a scientist
who combined his scientific investigation with interest, in the polity and economy
of the dominions of Ranjit Singh in the context of his relations with the British as
a colonial power. In the case of Alexander Burnes the purpose of his visit to the
dominions of Ranjit Singh was professedly commercial and political. He was
interested in the polity and economy of the Kingdom of Lahore and the possibilities
of its becoming a market for English goods.
References
1
2
3
William Moorcroft and G. Trebeck, Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan

and the Punjab in Ladak and Kashmir in Peshawar, Kabul and Kunduz and Bokhara
from 1819 to 1825, Vol. 2, Punjab Languages Department, Patiala, 1970, (reprint first
published, 1837), p. xix.
Ibid. pp. xvi, xx.
Victor Jacque Mont, Letters from India: Describing a Journey in the British Dominions
78
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
Sarita Rana
of India, Tibet, Lahore and Cashmere During the Years, 1829, 1830, 31 under the
order of the French Government, Vol. 2, Edward Churton, London, 1834, pp. I & V.
H.L.O. Garret (tr & ed), The Punjab A Hundred years Ago as Described by Jacquemont,
V (1831) and Soltykoff (1842), Punjab Government Record office, Monograph No.
18, Languages Department, Punjab, 1971, p. 1.
Alexander Burnes, Travels Into Bokhara, Vol. 3, Oxford University Press, London,
1873, (first published in 1834), p I, VIII & IX.
Ibid., p. I & XI.
Moorcroft, Travels, I, pp. 76-78.
Ibid., pp. 27-28
Ibid., p. 107
Victor Jacquemont, Letters II, 140-41. The Chief of Ladakh requested Jacquemont to
use his influence with the Maharaja to get the arrears due to the treasury of Lahore
cleared.
Ibid., p. 40.
Ibid., p. 78.
Alexander Burnes, Travels, II, pp. 284-85.
Ibid., I, p. 22.
Moorcroft, Travels, I, p. 79, 103-107.
Moorcroft, Travels, I, pp. 58-59.
H.L.O. Garett, Journal, p. 52.
Jacquemont, Letters I, II, pp. 183-401.
Burnes, Travells, II, p. 287.
Ibid., III, p. 296
Moorcroft, Travels, II, p. 442.
Jacquemont, Letters II, p. 156.
H.L.O. Journals, pp. 27-29.
Burnes, Travels III, p. 156.
Ibid., III, p. 298.
Jacquemont, Letters, II, p. 15.
Moorcroft, Travels, I, p. 57.
Jacquement, Letters, I, p. 399.
W.H. Mcleod, Historical Dictionary Of Sikhism, Oxford, 1995, p-27.
W.H. Mcleod, Historical Dictionary Of Sikhism, Oxford, 1995, p-153.
Burnes, Travels, I, p. 45.
Moorcroft, Travels, I, p. 57.
Ibid., pp. 59-62.
Jacquemont, Letters I, p. 36
Jacquemont, Journal, pp. 40-41.
Burnes, Travels, I, pp. 21-29, III, 150-156.
79
19
Mass Mobilization In Eastern

Uttar Pradesh Before 1942:
Examining The Role of Students And Institutions
*Dr. Uma Shanker Singh
A movement acquires a mass character only when it expresses the creative genius
and energies of the people. When people cutting across different strata participate
in a movement, we call it a mass movement. According to E.J. Hobsbawm, the
History of the common people as a special field of study begins with the history
of mass movements in the eighteenth century. He believes that Michelet is the
first great practitioner of grassroots history: the great French Revolution is at the
core of his writing.1
This paper deals how institutions and students were helpful in mobilizing
the masses in Eastern U.P. before the commencement of Quit India Movement of
1942. The article also gives some evidences of mass mobilization in the Punjab.
The genesis of modern institution in Eastern UP could be traced back with the
establishment of the Sanskrit college at Benares in 1792. This college was started
to train legal advisors for the British.2 The Orientalists versus Anglicists debate
between 1782 and 1835 was significant.3 The controversy ended in favour of
anglicists who were in favour of English education.
The years that followed 1854 found the establishment of the Department of
Public instruction in all provinces, universities in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras
and steady increase in the number of schools and colleges all over India. Allahabad,
Benares and Lucknow developed as an educational centre in Eastern UP. The
institutions grew in number and strength with the new territorial acquisitions in U.P.
Shifting of capital from Agra to Allahabad in 1857 forced government to start new
institution to train additional India personnel needed for administration. In 1872, a
college was started in Allahabad, and in 1887 Allahabad University was approved.4
Joseph E. Dibona describes the stages of growth of some educational
institution in U.P.5 The foundation-stone of Banaras Hindu University was led on
* Teaches In PGDAV College, University of Delhi, Delhi
80
Dr. Uma Shanker Singh
February 4, 1916 by Charles Baron Hardinge of Penshurst who was Viceroy and
GovernorGeneral of India.6 This historical event took place in presence of Sir
James Meston, Lieutenant Governor of UP and the office bearers of Hindu
University Society. Many great people gave lecture on this occasion. Gandhi spoke
on anarchical methods and repressive administrative measures adopted by British
ruler. The audience appreciated his lecture very much.7 Mrs. Annie Besant, Mr. J.
Krishnamurti, Dr. Bhagwan Das and Madan Mohan Malaviya were instrumental
for Banaras Hindu University.
Earlier they had worked together to build up the Central Hindu College.
Mrs. Besants dictum was, touch not the kings penny, for it is always very
dangerous to do so, and she refused to take any financial assistance from the
government for her school and college although Lt. Governor after Lt. Governor
asked to accept government assistance.8 Mrs. Besant purpose in founding this
school and college was to instill in the minds of the youth of the land, pride in
their past, love for their religion and to rouse their self-respect, so that they may
be a free people.9 In 1916, Central Hindu College was transferred to the Banaras
Hindu University.
This was the time when Mahatma Gandhi with South African experience
(1893-1914) was trying to make a place for himself in the Indian politics. He was
acting as a greatest risk manager of the 20th century with his tools eg. Non-violence
or ahimsa and Satyagraha. It was personally constituted, deeply-felt and workedout philosophy owing something to Emerson, Thoreau and Tolstoy.10
Indian politicians before Gandhi had tended to oscillate between moderate
mendicancy and individual terrorism basically because of their social inhibitions
about uncontrolled mass movements.11 Gandhiji was evolving such as a model so
that it could be acceptable to all including business groups as well as to the locally
dominant sections of the peasantry. Rowlett Satyagraha, Khilafat and noncooperation movement gave opportunity to Mahatma Gandhi to become father
figure overnight. According to Manmath Nath Gupta, he was very astute, clever
and knew his job very well. He had a very good knowledge of popular psychology.12
In 1920 he visited Benares quite a few times. A meeting of thirty thousand people
took place in Town Hall. The audience included doctors, teachers, girls, women
and other Hindus and Muslims.13 They were from petty bourgeois and proletariat
classes. Rich men like Shiv Prasad Gupta, the owner of Aaj and the famous writer
Babu Bhagwan Das were presents in the meeting. Gandhiji asked students to
leave government schools and colleges to take part in non-cooperation movement.
He asked every one not to cooperate with the government.
Later Maulana Mohammad Ali, Shaukat Ali, Swami Satyadev, Motilal Nehru
and Jawaharlal Nehru also visited Benares and encouraged the people to take part
in the freedom movement.14 In leadership of Acharya Kripalani first batch of 4050 students left B.H.U. and started Gandhi Ashrama to propagate the freedom
movement in Eastern U.P. Taking inspiration from Gandhiji, Shiv Prasad Gupta
and Dr. Bhagwan Das started Kashi Vidyapith on 10th Feb 1921. The main aim of
Mass Mobilization In Eastern Uttar Pradesh......
81
this institution was to train the students for political freedom of India. To produce
good literature Shiv Prasad Gupta started the Jnana Mandal which issues the
daily Hindi paper Aaj from Benares. This paper helped in propagating the freedom
movement among the masses.15
Later Birbal Singh left B.H.U. with 70-80 students to join the Kashi
Vidhyapith. National schools on the pattern of Vidyapith were also started in
Ahmedabad, Bihar, Pune, Calcutta and Lahore. National schools were started in
each districts of U.P.16 Kashi Vidyapith in Benares became the fulcrum of freedom
movement in Eastern U.P. Shiva Prasad Gupta, Dr. Bhagwan Das, Sri Prakash,
Acharya kripalini, Shri Birbal Singh, Lal Bahadur Shashtri, Tribhwan Narain Singh,
Kamalapathi Tripathi, B.V. Keskar, Acharya Narendra Deva, Dr. Sampurnanand,
Chandra Shekhar Azad, Yagya Narayan Upadhyaya, Shiv Vinayak Mishra, Krishna
Chandra Sharma, Yogeshwar Bhattacharya, Rajaram Shashtri, Algu Rai Shashtri,
Chandrasekhar Pandey, Ramnath Lal Sunman, Vishwanatha Sharma, Bajrangbali
Gupta, and Vichitra Narain Sharma were prominent leaders, teachers and students
of Kashi Vidyapith movement in Eastern U.P. They frequently visited the villages
and tried to up rise the masses about the congress programme under the leadership
of Mahatma Gandhi.
Prior to the passing of the Charter Act of 1853, few Indians were interested
in politics. They started the earliest political body on October 31st and called it the
British Indian Association. The India League was started by Mahatma Shishir
Kumar Ghosh in 1875. Anand Mohan Bose established the student association.17
Surendra Nath Banerjee was of the opinion that the seed of politics must be sown
among the students community in the interest of the country.18 Later students were
actively associated with the freedom movements and their services were utilized
by the Indian National Congress and other parties. The object of attaining
independence from an alien rule was so predominant in the minds of those students
who came forward to join the National Movement with all their energies, some
even at the cost of their studies, career and lives.19
Although students had started taking part in national politics since 1905 but
Gandhis non-cooperation movement in 1920-21 re-inspired them on large scale.20
Thus the student movement received a new lease of life. For an important section
of the students there was no going back to the old life of stagnation. Political
struggle, they realized was a whole time occupations. This period, therefore saw
the birth of many students organization in different parts of the country.
In the Punjab, Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha was established by Bhagat
Singh and his friends, in Bengal there grew up two organizations: The All Bengal
Students Association (ABSA) pioneered by the Anushilan party and Bengal
Provincial Students Association (BPSA) set up by the Jugantar party.21
Years rolled away with increasing number of students for attaching
themselves to one party or the other in all provinces. All India congress of students
was organized to coincide with Lahore Congress of December 1929.22 After that
close contacts developed between congress sponsored youth leagues and nonVolume III, Number 12, October-December 2014, ISSN 2277-4157
Dr. Uma Shanker Singh
82
congress groups eg. Naujawan Bharath Sabha (hereafter NBS) or Young India
Party. The NBS was founded in 1926 as a revolutionary nationalist youth
organization by Bhagat Singh, leader of the Hindustan Socialist Republican Army
(hereafter HSRA), and Munshi Ahmed Din, future leader of Punjab CSP.23
Starting in 1928, recruitment to the new-formed congress volunteer corps or
Hindustani Seva Dal (hereafter HSD) resulted in the entry of large numbers of
radical youth cadres into the congress.
Later the HSD was organized on a national scale under the supervision of
Bose and J. Nehru, then general secretary of the AICC.24 Its purpose was to provide
the congress with a disciplined mass cadre in anticipation of an anti-government
agitation such as the congress left desired. Its composition reflected both the
radicalization of congress youth and the growing politicization of the educated
lower middle classes. Swami Sampurnanand, who had a background of close
contact with prominent communist and radicalist, acted simultaneously as the
chief provincial organizer of the U.P. youth league, NBS and HSD, and was later
a founder-leader of the UP CSP.25
The civil disobedience movement of 1930s made another call on the service
and sacrifice of the students.26 They gave a good account of themselves in this
struggle also. When the leaders were clapped behind prison bars, the students
found themselves in the wilderness. This underlined the importance of an all India
body for the students. Accordingly All India Students Federation was set up in
1936 and its first conference was held at Lucknow under the president ship of Mr.
Jinnah, Pandit Nehru inaugurated the conference.27 It is interesting to note that it
was at this conference that besides political activities, a programme for the welfare
of the students was chalked out.
The different provincial students organisations were directed by the AISF
to set up college and school unions for the first time. Problems like mass literacy,
reduction of fees etc. also received attention. All these activities helped in enhancing
the political consciousness among the masses and prepared them for the final
upsurge of 1942.
Such movements have been very important in European, Asian and American
history. It holds relevance even today when we see Arab Spring in West Asia and
in Northern African countries.28 In India, the Anna Hazare movement is being
largely seen as a manifestation of the mass movement in recent times.29
References1
2
3
4
5
E.J. Hobsbawm, On History, (London, 1997), p. 203.

Anil Rajmwale, History of Student Movement in India, (Delhi, 2001), p.6.
V. Sankaran Nair, Role of Students in Freedom Movement, (Delhi, 1990), p. 1.
Op. cit
Joseph Dibona , Change and Conflict in the Indian University, (Bombay, 1973), p.
21.
Mass Mobilization In Eastern Uttar Pradesh......

6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
83
S.L. Dar, and S. Somaskandan, History of the Banaras Hindu University, (Varanasi,
1966), p. 350.
Shri. Prakasa, Oral History Transcript, Acc No. 103, Nehru Memorial Museum and
Library (hereafter NMML, pp. 9-10).
Op. cit
Ibid. p. 6.
Sumit Sarkar, Modern India (1885-1947), (Delhi 1983), p. 179.
Ibid, p. 180.
NMML, Manmathnath Gupta,, oral history transcript, acc. No. 174, p. 8.
Ibid. pp. 10-11.
NMML, Birbal Singh (Acharya), Oral History transcript, Acc. No. 149, p-1.
Sri Prakasa, op.cit., p. 29.
Birbal Singh, Op.Cit. p. 5.
S. K. Ghosh, The Student Challenge around the World, (Calcutta, 1969), p.27.
Surendra Nath Banerjee, A Nation in Making: Being the reminiscences of fifty years
of public life, Calcutta, 1963.
The Dynamics of Student Agitation, Vishwa Yuwak Kendra, (Delhi, 1973).
NMML, J.P. Papers, 1st Installment, File No. 154, p. 183.
V. Karnani & P. Xes Ozha: What is wrong with the student movement in India, J P
Papers, 1st Installment, File No. 154, NMML, p.184.
S.C. Bose, The Indian Struggle, 120-42, (London, 1964) pp. 164-5.
Zareer Masani, Radical Nationalism in India, 1930-42: The Role of the All India
Congress Socialist Party, Unpublished thesis, University of Oxford, Microfilm, Acc
No. 2355, NMML, p. 13.
P. Sitaramayya, The History of the Indian National Congress, Vol. I, (Bombay, 1935)
p. 359.
U.P. Police, Political whos who (Lucknow, 1936) on the following: Kedarnath, N.K.D.
Vashishta, K.D. Malaviya, K.N. Ramanna, G.S. Chaube, P.Y. Deshpande, R.P. Gupta,
Thakur Malkhan Singh, Gopinath Sinha, Ranvir Singh, Surendra Nath Pande, C.B.
Kantak, Chandrashekhar and Sampurnanand.
J.P. Papers (1st Installment), op.cit. p. 184.
Ibid. p. 184.
Michael L. Ross; Will Oil Drown the Arab Spring? Foreign Affairs, Vol. 90, No. 5,
Sept/Oct 2011, pp.2-7.
Vinay Sitapti: What Anna Hazares Movement & Indias New Middle Classes Bay
about each other, Economic & Political Weekly, Vol. XLVI, No. 30, July 23-29, (2011),
pp. 39-44.
84
20
Systems of Land Tenure in India:

A Critical Study On The Zamindari System of Bengal
*Sukumar Barai
Introduction: Land is a gift of nature. We produce several things from the land.
In ancient times of India, the land belonged to the almighty or the society. Although
the land is tilled by the individual farmer, the ultimate ownership of it rests in the
govt. that changes revenue from the individual farmer. Land tenure system has
improved not only to the govt. but also to the society at large.1 The land tenure
system may reduce the standard of living of the peasant by imposing on him
exorbitant rents or high interest rates; it may deny him the incentive or the
opportunity to advance and it may check investments because it offers him no
security. It may lead to the prevalence of farms which are too small to be efficient
units of production or too large to cultivate intensively.2Basically, the British
introduced three systems of land tenure in India, these are
1. The Zamindari System, 2. The Ryotwari System and 3. The Mahalwari System.
In this paper I would like to highlight mainly on the Zamindari System and
its evolution, motives and lastly a critical assessment.
Zamindari System: The British domination over Indian land started in the
17th century and by the end of that century the British rule extended over large
areas with the fall of Mughal Empire and subjugation of local power. The British
inherited the institutional form of agrarian system from the Mughals.3 the British
superimposed a system over the existing pattern in tune with British customs and
lows relating land. Different land tenure systems were introduced in various part
of British India, as the British annexed different parts of India in various periods.
The main land tenure system of British India was Zamindari System. In this type
of land tenure, the middle man or the landlord is the owner of the land and he
realized land revenue from the small farmers and pays it to the Govt. He got a
*Asstt. Professor in History, Dr. MeghnadSaha College, Itahar, U/ Dinajpur,
W.B.
Systems of Land Tenurein India: A Critical Study......
85
particular percentage of the land revenue realized from the farmers.4 In such System
of land tenure, the farmers do not have direct relation with the Govt. They are
subjected to all sorts of exploitation. This system of land tenure had certain qualities
as well as drawbacks.
Evolution:The Zamindari system was introduced by Cornwallis in 1793
through the Permanent Settlement Act. It was introduced in provinces of Bengal,
Bihar, Orissa and Varanasi, Which roughly covers 19%the area of British
India.5From 1772 to 1793, the entire administration of Bengal was under the control
of East India Company and at this point of time a new kind of economic system was
introduced called Annual Bidding System and under this system the land was divided
into estates. The powers to collect taxes from these estates were sold in bidding.
The agreement was the whole revenue has to be paid after winning the bid. This
system led to administrative confusion as the collector of taxes changes regularly.6
Motives: T. Enbree is of the opinion that Lord Cornwallis introduced the
Zamindari System because of his prejudices in favour of the land owning classes
to which he himself belonged. 7. Besides, it was saved of botheration and expense
involved in periodic revision of revenue. Another aim was to create a class of rich
and powerful landlords who from motives of self- interest, would be deeply
interested in the continuance of the British Dominion and would support the
company in every hour of trial.8The revenue collectors, who overnight became
landlords, clearly understood that if they were to exist as a class, it was their duty
to strengthen the hands of the Govt.9
An important aim was to divert the money capital accumulated in the hands
of the new class of urban rich into agricultural channels. Cornwallis trusted the
Zamindars to reduce the country to an agricultural land, to draw more and more
people away from indigenous trade, commerce and industry.10It was expected to
secure a twofold objective. Firstly, it would keep India an agricultural country, a
raw material appendage to British industry and a market for Britishs industrial
goods. Secondly, the agricultural crisis hampering expansion of govt.s revenue
could be solved by investment of capital in the field of agriculture.11
Critical Assessment: Diametrically opposite opinions were expressed on
the merits and demerits of the Zamindari system and Permanent Settlement which
gave birth to it. Marshman hailed it as a bold brave and wise measure12 while
Beverage condemned it as a great blunder as well as Gross injustice.13Unlike
this British counterpart, the Indian Zamindar was not so much interested in
agricultural production as in making money. This had disastrous consequences
for the cultivating riots.14 The cultivator had definite rights in the soil over and
above a number of communal privileges in regard to homestead plots to the pasture
and forest lands, bunds, tanks and to the pick of fields left unoccupied.15 The
Zamindari System, however placed the riot completely at the mercy of the
gentlemen farmer who did not hesitate to export the last ounce of blood. Abad
season enriched the landlord because his revenue was remitted but it ruined the
tenant because he lost the crop and was still obliged to pay both rent and the tax.16
86
Sukumar Barai
Thus the beggarly race of peasants who, though nominally free born British
subjects, were more degraded and less cared for than the slaves of Cuba or the
serfs of Russia.17The system failed to define and protect the rights and privileges
of the tenants.. Even then, the poverty of the people, their passive character, and
the extreme difficulty of proving by legal evidence18 before a distant court what
was customary, rendered this protection illusory in practice.
The Zamindari System had another noteworthy effect in the subdivision of
rights in land. The Zamindars leased out their interests and the middleman out in
turn, thus creating a long chain of intermediates-The Talukdar, The Patindar,The
Dar Patindar between State and the actual tiller of the soil.19 According to the
S.M. Hussion, a member of Floud Commission, the net income of the Zamindars
increased from Rs 20 lakhs in 1793 to 832 lakhs in 1940.20 The System, unjust
and oppressive as it was, deprived the Govt. of intimate knowledge of rural
condition- the plight of the cultivator or the state of agriculture.. Placed in such a
position, the Govt. found no urge to undertake any measure for the improvement
of agriculture or the agriculturist.21 Cornwalliss hope that the new landlord would
be known as the benevolent landlord of a covenanted tenant was belied. It kept
the riots at or below the subsistence level which not only restricted the internal
market, but also dried the very fountain which could have been a source of
producing economic surplus for investment and development.22
Prof. B. M. Bhatia rightly holds the system responsible for the series of
famines that occurred after its introduction. In the sphere of production, the system
led to the separation of agricultural capital from labour engaged in the cultivation of
land. The actual tiller lacked the resources to invest while the Zamindars, who had
the resources, were just not invested in the improvement of land.23This left no change
for the agricultural labourers to enjoy the fruits of his own efforts, destroying all
incentive to agricultural improvement. Agriculture naturally declined causing a series
of famines in the countrySuch a set up could have hardly promoted peace and stability
in the country but always carried the potentialities of violence, individual or
collective.24This system actually altered the balance of rural society in Bengal. The
Zamindari System was one of the great wrongs- one of the most enormous blunders
by which 20 million small holders were dispossessed of their rights and handed
over, bound hand and foot, to the tender mercies of a set of exciting rack- renters.25
Conclusion: The Zamindari System produced a most outstanding and
sustaining institution of the colonial Bengal as well as India. Actually Zamindari
System became an institution. In spite of the oppressiveness and other limitations,
this institution has played a significant and omnipotent role in the life and society
of our country. He commented that a Zamindar House had been sustained more
than 150 years, but an elected government not more than 2 years. This is very
interesting.26 The Zamindars were the fore runner of the public works.They created
many hats (Markets).They were the chief patrons of classical music and fine arts
etc. From this point of view we may conclude that there were many dark sides of
the Zamindari System and as well as many positive sides. If we study the Zamindari
Systems of Land Tenurein India: A Critical Study......
87
System in this objective outlook then whole discussion would be in historical

perspectives.
References:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
Pal Nalini Mohan Some Social and Economic Aspect of Land System of BengalThe Book Company, Cal, 1929, Page -17
U.N.O., Land Reforms- Defects in Agricultural Structure as Obstacles to Economic
Development-1951- Page-5
Kaushal G. Economic History of India-1757-1966.-Kalyani Publishers-New Delhi2001, Page-96
Islam Sirajul Bengal Land Tenure; The origin and growth of intermediate interests
in the 19th century-K. P.Bagchi& Company-Cal-1988-Page-2
Banerjee A. C. The Agrarian System of Bengal (1793-1935) Vol-2, K. P.Bagchi&
Company-Cal-1981-Chapter-7
Kaushal G.,Op.cit-Page-97
EmbreeAinsile ThomasCharles Grant and British Rule in India-Columbia
Univ.Press1962 Page-114
Mukherjee R.K. ,Land Problem of India Longmans green & Co.1933-Page-405
Datta R.P.,India Today-Manisha-Cal-1979-Page-233
Census Report , 1951-Vol-6 Part-2-Page 439
Preamble to the Regulation 2 of 1793- Quoted in Mukherjees Land Problems of
- India ,Page-405
Marshman John Clark History of India- Vol- 2 CUP-1871- Page-35
VeveridgeHenr,Comprehensive History of India, Vol- 2, Atlantic Pub. -1990,Page-631
Roy Tirthankar,The Economic History of India -1857-1947-OUP-2004 Page-37
Mukherjee R.K.,Op.Cit. Page-220
Banerjee T.K. & Roychowdhury Debesh(Edited)-Colonial India;Ideas and
- Movements- Progressive Pub.Cal-2001-Page-11
Gopal Ram, British rule in India, Asia Publishing House-Page-36
Sarkar S.C. & Datta Kalikingkar Modern Indian History Vol-2, Indian Press, 1967- Page 365
Banerjee T.K. & Roychowdhury DebeshOp.cit.-Page- 15
Driver PeshotanNasserwanjiProblem of Zamindari and Land Tenure Reconstruction
inIndia New Book Co.-1949 Page -63
Roy Tirthankar ,Op. cit. Page -39
Gopal Sarvepalli,Permanent Settlement in Bengal and its Result G. Allen & Unwin.1949, Page-25
Bhatia B.M.,Famines in India -1860-1945, Asian Publishing House, 1968,-Page 18, 19
Banerjee A.C. ,Bengal Ryots;- Their Rights and Liabilities-K.P.Bagchi & Co.-1977Page 73
Gopal Sarvepalli, Op. cit. - Page-26
McLane R. John, Land and Local Kingship in Eighteenth Century Bengal- CUP1993-Page- 225
88
21
Parsis of India Distinctiveness

Within Assimilation
*Ms. Zarin Ratan Sethna
Introduction- Parsis are a micro-minority in India, but although miniscule in
numbers, the community is unique in many ways. The paper endeavors to trace
the circumstances that led Parsis to evolve a distinct identity in India. For this, I
will be tracing the historical journey of Parsis from Persia, their original homeland,
to India, their adopted homeland. The primary focus of the paper will be on sociocultural assimilation of Parsis within the mosaic of vast Indian population and
their simultaneous efforts in maintaining exclusivity and distinctiveness.
Backdrop- Parsis are descendants of ancient Persians (now Iran). They are
the followers of Zoroastrianism, a religion propagated by Prophet Zarthusthra/
Zoroaster, believed to be worlds first revealed, prophetic, monotheistic faith.
Zoroastrianism flourished in Persia for several centuries but by 7th century
A.D., the mighty Persian Empire weakened due to several factors and was invaded
by the Arabs, who followed the policy of forceful conversion of their subjects to
Islam. To escape religious persecution and to preserve their ancient faith, some
Zoroastrians began migrating out of Persia.1 In the 8th century A.D., some Persian
Zoroastrians migrated to Gujarat, India. Since these people came from a Fars/
Pars, a province in Persia, they came to be known as Parsis in India.2
Kisse-I-Sanjan- The earliest documentation of the story of Parsi migration
is Kisse-e-Sanjan3, (henceforth Kisse) a 16th century, quasi-historical poem written
in Persian by Bahman Kaikobad. The poem describes the circumstances that led
to migration and how Parsis landed first in Diu, where they stayed for 18 years
and later proceeded to Sanjan, a kingdom in Gujarat, which was then ruled by
King Jadhav/ Jadi Rana. The poem goes on to describe how the migrants were
granted asylum by the King, on the promise of fulfilling certain conditions, how
the grateful community adhered to the promise and how Parsis prospered and
*Associate Professor & Head of Psychology Department, Patker-Varde College,
Goregaon (W), Mumbai, Maharashtra
Parsis of India Distinctiveness Within Assimilation
89
spread in various towns in Gujarat.The purpose of elaborating on Kisse is that

Parsi community believes that conditions under which the asylum seekers were
granted permission to stay in India laid down the ground of their socio-cultural
adaptation and assimilation in India.
The poem says that King Jadhav/ Jadi Rana summoned the leaders of
Zoroastrians and asked them to describe their faith and the purpose of their visit.4
On being satisfied with their answers, he agreed to grant them asylum on these
conditions.5
1. They must give up their native language and adopt Gujarati as their mother
tongue.
2. The women must wear saari like the Gujarati women.
3. The refugees must disarm.
4. The refugees must perform their marriage ceremonies after sunset as was the
custom in Gujarat.
Parsis agreed to these conditions they may not have had much choice
otherwise and were subsequently allowed to make India their new home.
There is a popular legend about the arrival of Parsis in the court of Jadhav/
Jadi Rana. The community believes that when Zoroastrian refugees presented
themselves in the court of King Jadhav/Jadi Rana, the King offered their leader a
bowl full of milk, signifying that his kingdom was already too populated to
accommodate the foreigners. In reply, the wise leader removed his gold ring and
slowly slipped it into the milk, implying that just as the gold ring settles in milk
without disturbing it, so will they settle amongst the native population and just as
the gold adds to the value of milk, so will they contribute to the kingdom. The
King was impressed with the reply and granted asylum to the refugees.6 The ring,
symbolizing an enclosed circle, clearly demonstrates the desire of the Parsis to
maintain their distinctiveness within the native population. The community derives
its identity by consciously striving to maintain exclusivity in spite of culturally
assimilating within the Indian social milieu.
Socio-cultural assimilation and distinctiveness: Language- As mentioned
earlier, according to Kisse, adopting Gujarati as their mother tongue was one of
the conditions for granting asylum to the Persian refugees. By agreeing to adhere
to these conditions, they also laid the foundation of the socio-cultural assimilation
of their community in India. Language is one of the most important external markers
of ones roots. Giving it up for a foreign language shows both, the desperation of
the Persians as well as the extent of their willingness to become the part of Indian
social fabric. However, the Gujarati spoken by Parsis has a completely different
accent and is very different from standard Gujarati. For example, while ave chhe
is standard Gujarati for coming, Parsis would say avech, thus combining the
two words. Similarly, muku chhoo (keeping) becomes mukuch and laavu chhoo
(bringing) becomes lavooch. As can be seen, Parsis took many liberties with the
syntax of the language and added a distinct flavour to it.7
90
Ms. Zarin Ratan Sethna
Parsis also added some new words to the Gujarati vocabulary, like fuliu
(small bowl) instead of vatki and kansiyo (big bowl) instead of vatko.8 Similarly,
some words are frequently used but are in themselves meaningless, like, marere9,
much the way we use O dear. Even a simple no is said as naire nai instead of
na as Gujaratis would say.
How, when and from where these new words and accent originated will
probably never be known, neither is that the endeavor of the present paper. What
is notable is that although Parsis adopted Gujarati as their new mother tongue,
they twisted it enough to make it sound distinctly unique. This Parsi accent is
often exploited by films to add a comic flavour to a character. However, this in no
way indicates that Parsis corrupted the Gujarati language. In fact, Parsis immensely
contributed to Gujarati journalism, press, media and theatre.
Although Parsis adopted and evolved their own trademark Gujarati language
in daily use, they did not compromise the language used in religious rituals. Thus,
Zoroastrians still pray in ancient languages, chief among them being Avesta, Pahalvi
and Persian. These languages are used in all religious recitals during weddings,
navjotes10 and death. Thus, while Gujarati helped Parsis to assimilate within their
immediate surrounding in Gujarat, Avesta and Pahalvi helped them to retain their
exclusiveness within the religious realm. Socio-cultural assimilation and
distinctiveness: Dress- Dress, like language, being an obvious indication of identity,
would make Parsis distinctly stand out among Indians. By adopting the Indian
style of dressing, Persian women would merge seamlessly within the Indian/
Gujarati society. Parsi women took to wearing saaris in the Gujarati style, with
the pallu11 coming in the front. However, the style was modified in terms of material
used and the draping pattern. For example, while Gujarati women keep their pallus
up till waist length, Parsi women extend it below knee level. In fact, till about half
a century ago, Parsi women extended their pallu right up ankle level. This is
evident from the portraits of Parsi ladies made during the British period. Saris
worn by Parsis also typically have richly embroidered borders. Hence, the corner
of the pallu formed a beautiful triangular design when extended below knee length,
giving it a very elegant touch. However, the most famous contribution of the Parsis
to the world of saaris is the Gara. A gara is a fully embroidered saari on a material
known as tanchoi. Both, gara and tanchoi are closely connected to China. During
the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Parsi merchants had flourishing trade
with China. The story goes that three brothers from Joshi family of Surat learnt
the art of weaving a new kind of material in China, from a master craftsman by the
name of Choi. They named this material as Tanchoi (tan meaning three in Gujarati
and Choi in the honour of their teacher).12 Tanchoi became popular among Parsi
women, who used it for making saris. A typical tanchoi saari would be heavily
embroidered, which is known as gara. The purpose of detailing the Parsi saari is
to show the modifications made by Parsis in the customs adopted from Gujaratis.
Socio-cultural assimilation and distinction: Customs and ceremoniesJust like the saari, married Parsi women also adopted the practice of wearing red
Parsis of India Distinctiveness Within Assimilation
91
bangles. Here too, there were certain modifications. While Gujarati women wear
several thin, red, glass bangles, Parsi women typically wear a single large, thick,
and red, glass bangle, known as a patla.
Parsis adopted the custom of decorating the doors of their homes with torans
and rangolis. In fact these easily identify a Parsi home in a cosmopolitan locality.
The torans tied on Gujarati homes are usually made of plastic beads and designs
usually depict traditional Hindu/ Gujarati symbols like the swastika. Parsi torans
are made of glass beads and may have more of floral and bird patterns. The rangolis
made on Parsi doors are known as chawlk. These design boxes are available ready
made in shops selling typical Parsi goods and have a variety of designs. Every
Parsi home will have these chawlk adorning their doors and on auspicious
occasions, these are more elaborate and colourful.
The custom of welcoming a new bride, groom or a new born baby by breaking
a coconut at the doorway to word off the evil too was adopted from Gujaratis.13
Along with coconut, Parsis also break an egg; unthinkable for most vegetarian
Gujaratis. With respect to food too, Parsis added meat or egg to almost ever
vegetable, making a perfectly vegetarian dish as non-vegetarian as possible. Some
typical Parsi dishes, which raise curiosity among the non-Parsis, are potato par
idu or bhinda par idu (meaning eggs spread on potato or ladies finger). Religious
exclusivity- It is widely believed by the Parsi community that they left their
motherland, Persia, to escape religious persecution and save their religion from
the invading Arabs. Even if it may be assumed that there were other reasons for
migrating to another country; preserving their ancient Zoroastrian faith was chief
among them.
Throughout their stay in India, Parsis have followed the policy of strict
religious exclusivity. Neither have they actively attempted to proselytize their faith
nor have they encouraged willing non-Parsis to enter their faith. In fact, inter-faith
marriages too have been prohibited and although with changing times, the
community has been accepting inter-faith unions, it is mostly reluctantly. The
religious places and religious rituals too have remained out of bounds for nonParsis. Perhaps, having gone through turbulent experience in Persia under the
Arab conquerors, which followed the policy of forceful conversion to Islam made
the fleeing Zoroastrians paranoid about all non-Zoroastrians.
By prohibiting the entry of non-Parsis in a Zoroastrian place of worship and
not allowing any non-Parsi to participate in religious ritual, Parsis maintained the
religious exclusivity for which they presumably migrated to India. The community
believes that this is the reason they have been able to preserve their ancient faith
for over a twelve hundred years in a foreign land. The religious scriptures are
adhered to as closely as possible and the community also follows the Zoroastrian
calendar14 for observing festivals. Birthdays and anniversaries too are celebrated
according to the Zoroastrian calendar.
Ms. Zarin Ratan Sethna
92
Conclusion- The paper has attempted to depict how the Parsi community
has strived to maintain their distinctiveness in spite of socio-cultural assimilation
into the Indian society. Whether Parsis were compelled to adopt some customs
from their host communities, whether they willingly adopted some of them in
order to merge seamlessly within their adopted motherland or the customs gradually
became a part of Parsi lifestyle as a result of centuries of co-habitation, will never
be known with certainty. What is remarkable is that while adopting several social
customs, subtle modifications were made. These modifications eventually became
the Parsi trademark, which set Parsis apart from non-Parsis. Perhaps this is the
reason why a miniscule community has been able to survive and preserve its ancient
heritage, culture, tradition and religion among the vast majority.
References1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Boyce, M., The History of Zoroastrianism, Volume I, Leiden/Koln; E.J. Brill, (1975),
pg 3, 4; Hartz, P. World Religions- Zoroastrianism, Third edition, InfoBase publishing,
(2009), New York, pg 8, 10.
Nanavutty, P. The Parsis. Director, National Book Trust, (1977), New Delhi, India.
pg. 41.
Kaikobad, B., Qissa E Sanjan. Originally in Persian and translated into English by
several writers (1559). The Latfuddaulah Oriental Research Institute, Hyderabad,
1964, Pg. 42, 43.
Kaikobad, B. Qissa E Sanjan. 1559. Originally in Persian and translated into
English by several writers. The Latfuddaulah Oriental Research Institute, Hyderabad,
1964, Pg. 37, 38.
Kaikobad, B. Qissa E Sanjan. 1559. Originally in Persian and translated into
English by several writers. The Latfuddaulah Oriental Research Institute, Hyderabad,
1964, Pg. 40, 41.
Axelrod, P. (1980) Myth and identity in the Indian Zoroastrian community. Journal of
Mithraic Studies, Volume III, 152, 153.
Driver, P. D. (1980) (Gujarati) Gujaratma Parsionu Aagman ane temno Guajarati
Sanskrutima faalo. Quality printers, Navsari, Gujarat, 36, 37 and 58.
Driver, P. D. (1980) (Gujarati) Gujaratma Parsionu Aagman ane temno Gujaratni
Sanskrutima faalo. Quality printers, Navsari, Gujarat, 36, 37 and 58.
This word is sometimes used to run down someone or something, but mostly as a
joke.
Navjote is a ceremony in which a child is initiated into Zoroastrianism.
The end of the saari.
Desai, K. The Tanchoi and the Garo- Parsi textiles and Embroidery. Godrej, P.J. &
Mistree, F. P. (2002) Zoroastrian Tapestry- Art, Religion and Culture. Mapin Publishing
Pvt. Ltd., Ahmedabad.pg. 577-595.
Maneckshaw, B.J. (1996) Parsi Food and Customs. Penguin Books, India (P) ltd.
New Delhi, pg 21.
The Zoroastrian calendar is called Yazdezardi, and it began the day of the coronation
of Yazdezard, the last Zoroastrian King of Persia.
93
22
Tribes of Cauvery River Plain

Area of Karnataka
*Dr.N.Prakash
The place where Karnataka, Kerala and Tamilnadu meeting, was having thick
forest. Here majority of tribal people living. Briefly, Gudaluru taluk of Nilagiri
district of Tamilnadu, Vainadu of Kerala and Virajapet, Heggadadevanakote,
Gundlupet Taluks of Karnataka are specially recognized as the area of Tribal
people.1 In Karnataka state more tribal people are living in Virajapet taluk of
Kodagu. As per the census of 1921, in the Karnataka state there are 0.79% tribal
people, in Kodagu there are 8.23% and in Virajapet there are 14.13% tribal people
were living, among these Eravas, Soligas, Jenukurubas and Bettakurubas are more
important.
Eravas : There are four groups amontEravas. 1) Pani Eravas, 2) Panjari
Eravas, 3) KageEravsadn 4) Badaga Earvas. Erava is the name of a tribe, it
represents a caste. Among Eravas, most of them are agriculturists and they are
bonded laboures. They are living in small numbers at Virajapet,
Heggadadevanakote, Piriyapattana, Hunsur, Madikeri and Somavarapet area
villages. There population is more in Virajapet of Kodagu. The research done on
Eravas so far states that, these people who speak Erava language, came from
Vainadu and old Mysore area to Kodagu and since generation they working as
bonded labourers.2
Eravas are originally agricultural workers. In their folk songs agriculture is
family work. But there is not proof which justifies that they were independent
agriculuturists. There are enough evidences available in Erava Folklore, whyich
justifies that they were working as labourers under the control of landlords. Since
beginning, Eravas was working in others land. Therefore they got the name as
Adiyaru or Adiyan. In a folk song of Eravas there is a mention about that a Erava
Kalachitta Balamaga has fought with Godly man to get land for agriculture.
*Lecturer in History, Evening College, University of Mysore, Mysore
Karnataka State
94
Dr.N.Prakash
Kadu Kurubas And Jenu Kurubas : The important tribes of Karnataka,

kadu Kurubas and Jenu Kurubas are spread throughout the Mysore district,
especially in Bandipura, Hunsur, Pririyapattana, Nagarahole and
Heggadadevanakote forest area.The Kuruba word comes from kuri or kori.
Shepherd who was watcher of sheep was called in Tamil as kurumban. In Kannada
as kuruba. There is a meaning as mountain for ko or ku word. There is a
meaning as height for kuru. Therefore the word kuruba means man living in
hilly area. May be they got this name because they went in search of livelihood
and went to forests, hills, grassland etc.3in ancient Tamil epics the kurubas were
called as maleyaru that means those who live in hilly region. In the census of
1931 Madras region, it is compared kurubas with olden days kings Pallavas, and
they called Pallavas as kurubas. At the beginning of this century, kurubas were
engaged in jobs like agriculture, watching sheep, wool weaving etc. but in many
places of Mysore taluk they call kurubas as kadu kuruba and jenukuruba who are
living tribe type of social life. The places where these kadu kuruba and jenukuruba
are living is called hadi In each hadi 20 to 30 families are living. They construct
huts by using bamboo and grass available in forest. They use roots, leaves and
recently ragi, jower, rice as food items. Kadu kurubas claim that they know 47
types roots, 90 types of fruits for eating purpose and 60 types of leaves for the use
as medicines.4
Buchanan in his travelogue gives the details of Kadukurubas who are living
in Mysore area.5Kadukurubas are a natural tribes in Karnataka. They live in poor
condition by constructing huts outside the village. Some people work as labourers
in the field belongs to village people; the remaining people collect firewood, roots
in the forest. They use roots as food and sell the firewood to villagers for money.
They are expert in sending back him elephants who come from forest by using
fire brand torch made by bamboo tree. The tigers never care for their fire brand
torch and attach on their huts. They rear dogs also and use them in hunting.
Sometimes they work for farmers in cutting teakwood in forests, knitting bamboo
baskets etc.
Urukuruba and kadukuruba division show that the kuruba community
undergone socio-cultural change. Urukurubas came out of the social system of
original tribes and joined the mainstream of culture; but Kadukurubas even today
they remains and are living in between the cultural stage of kadu and uru.
Soligas : Majority Soligas are living in Kollega, Chamarajanagar,
Biligiriranganabetta, Mahadeshwarabetta, Yelanduru, Heggadadevanakote and
Hunsur of Mysore district. Among Soligas 89.89% people speak Kannada. These
people are living in Mahadeshwara hills and Biligirirangana betta. Hills are in
high stage and get heavy rains, and they have thick forest. This geographical
environment has very well influenced Soligas life. This area contains red and
black mixed soil and it is not even. Therefore it is not more suitable for agriculture.
Soligas habitation normally contains 10 to 20 huts. There is no particular name
Tribes of Cauvery River Plain Area of Karnataka
95
for this habitation. Sometimes they suffix padu word based on the hills they are
living or main person of that habitation. padu means the lower place in between
two hills.6
Now days the social status of Soligas are changing. But still they are living
by depending on the traditional work like hunting. Collecting roots. There is no
justification available that they involve in agriculture or animal husbandry. Roots,
fruit, vegetable are in plenty in the forest where these people are living. Padubale,
jackfruit which are growing in this forest are favourbale food of these people.
They offer these fruits to the diety during Biligiriranganajatre, a periodical festival
at Biligirirangana betta.
In Buchanan travelogue, the details are available aobut the language, dress,
and family system of Soligas. In Biligirirangana betta and Mahadeshwara hill
surrounding forest area, the Soligas are involved in kumribesaya or kochhu and
shifting cultivation slash and burn cultivation etc. he discussed.7 Even during
these days Soligas are engaging in collecting Beleregenasu, noreyagenasu,
kayambugenasu and solanagenasu roots which are available during all seasons,
Men, women and children are doing this job for their food collection purpose.
Soligas who are living in forest area, are expert hunters and they depends on
forest animals for their food. They hunt, cock, hen, deer, Indian stag, antelope,
rabbit, pig etc. animals. They follow different technique to hunt different animal.
Honey collection is another hobby of Soligas. They go in groups for honey
collection. They work together and they share the collection among all the people.
References:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
N.P. Shankaranarayana Rao, Paniyara Samaja Mathu Janapada Itihasa, Akshara

Prakashan, Heggodu. 1994. PP 7-8
P.N.Harish, Eravara Samskruti, Upa Sams krutiya Male, Karnataka Sahitya Akademi,
Bangalore, 1993, Pp 82-94.
Gustar Oppert; on the original inhabitants of Bharatavarsa or India. Oriental Publishers
Delhi, 1972. P- 126.
A.C.Lalitha; Kadukurubara mathu, Jenu kurubara Samskruti, upa Samskruti Adhyayana
yojane, Karnataka sohithyaakademi, Bangalore, 1993, p- 16
Fenacis, Buchanan.H; A Journey from Madras through countries of Mysore. Canara
and Malabar, London. 1807, p- 128
ChandruKalenahalli; soligara Samskruti, upa Samskruti Adhyayana Male, Karnataka
Sahityaacademy Bangalore, 1993, pp- 42-44
Fenacis, Buchanan.H; A Journey from Madras through countries of Mysore. Canara
and Malabar, London. 1807, P-177.
96
23
Naujawan Bharat Sabha:

A Study of Militant Mass Movement
*Dr. Harmandeep Singh Sohal
The formation of NaujawanBharatSabha in March 1926 by BhagatSingh and his
comrades was the result of mammoth study of revolutionary socialist literature.
The impact of Russian revolution (1917) and writings of KarlMarx,
FrederickEngles, Lenin, Gorky, and Trotsky supplied the vision and method of
struggle to the revolutionaries against imperialistic British rule in India. Members
of Sabha such as Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Yashpal, BhagwatiCharanVohra,
Dhanvantri and Ram Chandra started militant mass movement instead of armed
struggle to spread revolutionary propaganda among the people to achieve the
swaraj of the country. Naujawan Bharat Sabha stood firmly against British
imperialism with bigger aim and programme. Members of Sabha strongly
questioned and opposed all sort of imperialism and oppression. They had a concrete
vision about the content of the liberation struggle and aftermath of its success.
The main objective of Sabha was not merely to achieve political independence
from foreign rule but at the same time, to free their country economically and
socially both from external and internal exploitation and discrimination in order
to remove all kinds of disparities from the society.
Naujawan Bharat Sabha worked as an open mass based organization with a
definite programme and ideology. It mobilized the commoners particularly peasants
and workers against British imperialism and attracted a large section of people of
Indian society towards them. The Sabha had two fold objectives, social and
political. The social objectives comprised the popularization of swadeshi good,
simple living, the inculcation of the sense of brotherhood and stimulation of interest
in Indian languages and civilization.1 The Sabha also had a definite political
programme and these social objects of the Sabha became a cloak for the
dissemination of revolutionary ideas.2 The political programme of Sabha included
*Assistant Professor of History, Sewa Devi S.D. College, Tarn Taran (Punjab).
Naujawan Bharat Sabha:A Study of Militant Mass Movement
97
establishing a complete independent republic of the labourers and peasants of

the whole of India, to infuse a spirit of patriotism among countrymen, to express
sympathy with and to assist the economic industrial, social movements and to
organize the labourers and peasants.3
The first period of the activities of NaujawanBharatSabha ran mainly from
March 1926 to April 1927. Several public meetings were held during this period
and complete independence figured as a prominent issue.4 The Sabha was above
communal politics and stood committed to secularism. Each member was made
to sign a pledge that he would place the interest of his country above those of his
community.5 Sabha organized social dinners where people of all castes and creeds
were invited for meal to strengthen the feeling of unity among them. The Sabha
described KarlMarx and FrederickEngels as the greatest men of the world instead
of Buddha and Christ. Its members raised two slogans InquilabZindabad and
Hindustan Zindabad to infuse the spirit of patriotism among countrymen and
commemorated the death anniversary of KartarSinghSarabha.6The first phase of
activities of Sabha was confined to its headquarter Lahore only.7
The year 1928 was full blossoming for Naujawan Bharat Sabha when it
established their contacts with Kirti Kisan party.8A Youth conference was held on
11-13 April 1928, where both parties participated and decided to form a central
body called Naujawan Bharat Sabha, Punjab with its new headquarter at Amritsar.
Soon, many branches of Sabha were opened in Lahore, Amritsar, Jalandhar,
Ludhiana, Montgomery, Multan, Sargodha and Sialkot. Apart from Punjab, Sabha
also opened its branches in Bombay Bengal, Central Provinces, Rajputana, Karachi
and Peshawar.9 The Manifesto of Naujawan Bharat Sabha was published on 6
April 1928 with a clear motto Revolution by the masses and for the masses.10
In June 1928, Bhagat Singh and Sukhdev formed Lahore student union which
was to serve as an auxiliary to Naujawan Bharat Sabha and as a recruiting ground
for the Hindustan Socialist Republican Army.11 The Sabha also started its newspaper
called Naujawan in October 1928 in order to mobilize the labourers and peasants
against British imperialism.12 Apart from it, Sabha published three momentous
pamphlets, The Wealth of Nations, India and the Next War and Bharat Mata ka
Darshan under a Tract Society to propagate spirit of nationalism among masses
and appeal to the young men of India to follow the example set by the youths of
Italy, Ireland, Turkey, Japan and China in their struggle for independence for their
respective countries. These writings also enumerated the economic and social ills
and the exploitation under the British Raj which had made the people of India
impoverished, backward in every respect and uneducated at a mass scale. They
also criticized the prevailing system of justice prevailing for the people of India.13
The Sabha also published Independent Tract Series with its eight tracts. These
tracts exposed the brutal nature of British rule in India and at the same time
economic and social exploitation of Indians by British and Indian masters.14
98
Dr. Harmandeep Singh Sohal
Apart from literature, Naujawan Bharat Sabha held several meetings, protests
against the government policies and celebrated various days in order to spread the
spirit of patriotism among the Indians. It is significant to note that when government
officials made every effort to suppress the activities particularly in Amritsar, Sabha
become more popular among commoners.15 Sabha actively supported peasant
agitations in order to mobilize them against British imperialism. In a meeting on
23 May 1928, at Jhaman (Lahore), the Sabha collaborated with the Congress in
stirring up the agrarian agitation over the failure of wheat harvest.16 Naujawan
Bharat Sabha also actively supported the BardoliKisanSatyagrah in June 1928
and treated it as Kisan revolt against British exploitation.17Actually, Sabha took
up the demands of the peasantry, fought for their agrarian and economic grievances
and inculcated in them a passionate love for freedom. It made them conscious of
their political role in the freedom struggle and emphasized that the problem of
winning freedom was also their problem because they were the most oppressed
and brutally exploited classes in the British regime and hence they must get
organized and prepare for the popular revolution.18The Sabha along with Kirti
Kisan Party mobilized the peasants on the issue of land revenue and demanded its
complete remissions. The Sabha also resisted almost all anti-working class policies
of the government. It opposed the Trade Disputes Bill which was appeared in the
assembly in August 1928.19
The Sabha took prominent part in spreading propaganda for the workers
and peasants conference at Lyallpur under the chairman of Ram Chandra. He
recommended the nationalization of wealth, a social revolution, the organization
of workers and peasants to resist exploitation by capitalism and made specific
demands for the assessment of the land revenue on the principles of the income
tax Act, the unrestricted Indianisation of the army and the withdrawal of the British
army from India.20 The Sabha was the main body responsible for the Boycott of
Simon commission at Lahore on 30 October 1928.21 In the second provincial
conference of Naujawan Bharat Sabha in Lahore from 22-24 February 1929, under
the president of Sohan Singh Josh, complete independence was declared to be the
creed of the youth of India and a revolution of workers and peasants was
advocated.22 However, Sabha criticized the Congress demand for Dominion Status
and advocate the demand of complete Swaraj, but it activity participated in the
Civil Disobedience Movement.23
To infuse the spirit of patriotism among people, Naujawan Bharat Sabha
celebrated various days such as Meerut Day on 20 March 1930, Revolution Day
on 10 May 1930 where Lokram Sharma made a very objectionable speech on this
occasion.24 The leaders of Sabha also observed 30 June 1930 as BhagatSinghDay
in Punjab.25 The Sabha exhorted the youth to go and work in the villages like the
Russian youth. They needed to explain the real meaning of the forth coming
revolution in India. Villages were to be made to understand and feel that the new
revolution would not be confined to merely changing the rulers; it would mean
Naujawan Bharat Sabha:A Study of Militant Mass Movement
99
the establishment of a completely new socio-political order. It would therefore, be

a revolution of the people and by the people. In other words, it would be a Swaraj
for 98% of people26.On the other hand, Punjab government declared Sabha a
dangerous organization for British rule in the country and finally declared it an
unlawful organization on 23 June 1930.27 After that, it functioned under a new
name as Hind Naujawan Sabha.28 After Gandhi Irwin Pact, it again started its
work on previous name.29The Naujawan Bharat Sabha strongly demonstrated
against the execution of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev and blamed M.K.
Gandhi for their deaths.30Sabha was again declared unlawful a 10 September 1934
and started its work under a new name as Punjab Socialist Party with its aim to
establish a socialist regime in India.31 Later Punjab Socialist Party become Congress
Socialist Party affiliated with All India Congress Socialist Party.32
Thus, from 1928 to 1931 were the peak years for Sabha and its members.
Naujawan Bharat Sabha successfully aroused the patriotic feeling among the people
and created favourable circumstances for the national leadership to fulfill the most
awaited dream of Independence of the country from British rule.
References
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Home Department, Political, File No. 498/1930, National Archives of India, 1930,
p.1.
SatyaM.Rai, Punjabi Heroic Tradition (1900-1947),PunjabiUniversity, Patiala, 1995,
pp.85-86.
VirenderSandhu, Yug Purush Bhagat Singh TeUnhan De Bazurag, BhashaVipaag,
Punjab, 1975, p.196.
Kamlesh Mohan, Militant Nationalism in the Punjab (1919-35), Manohar Publications,
New Delhi, 1985, pp.82-89.
Home Department, Political, File No. 498/1930, NAI, 1930, p.1.
Yashpal, Sinhavalocan, Vol. I, Lokbharti Prakashan, Allahabad, 1951, pp. 92-93.
S. IrfanHabib, To Make the Deaf Hear: Ideology and Programme of BhagatSingh
and His Comrades, Three Essays, Gurgaon, 2007, p. 45.
Comrade Ram Chandra, History of the Naujawan Bharat Sabha (ed.) Malwinderjit
Singh Waraich, Unistar, Chandigarh, 2007, p.55.
KamleshMohan, Militant Nationalism in the Punjab (1919-35), p.81.
P.M.S.Grewal, Bhagat Singh: Liberations Blazing Star, Leftward Books, New Delhi,
2007, p.43.
D.N.Gupta (ed.) Bhagat Singh: Select Speeches and Writings, National Book Trust,
New Delhi, 2007, p.XIII.
KamleshMohan, Militant Nationalism in the Punjab (1919-35), p.87.
OmeshSaighal, Shaheed Bhagat Singh: Unique Martyr in Freedom Movement, Gyan
Publishing House, New Delhi, 2002, p.20.
SukhbirChoudhary, Growth of Nationalism in India (1919-29),Vol. II, Trimurti
Publication, New Delhi, 1973, pp.74-75.
SacchaDhandara (Amritsar), 15 September 1929, p.4.
Home Department, Political, File No. 130 and K.W. II, NAI, 1930, pp.38-39.
100
Dr. Harmandeep Singh Sohal
17 Comrade Ram Chandra, History of the Naujawan Bharat Sabha, pp.56-57.

18 S. IrfanHabib, To Make the Deaf Hear: Ideology and Programme of Bhagat Singh
and His Comrades, p.46-47.
19 Ibid. pp.48-49.
20 Home Department, Political, File No. 173/VIII, NAI, 1930, p.44.
21 M.M. Juneja, Biography of Bhagat Singh, Modern Publisher, Hissar, 2008, p.59.
22 Home Department, Political, File No. 130/K.W.II, NAI, 1930, p.43.
23 S. Irfan Habib, To Make the Deaf Hear: Ideology and Programme of Bhagat Singh
and His Comrades, pp. 60-65.
24 Home Department, Political, File No. 498/1930, NAI, 1930, p.5.
25 KamleshMohan, Militant Nationalism in the Punjab (1919-35), p.93.
26 S. IrfanHabib, To Make the Deaf Hear: Ideology and Programme of BhagatSingh
and His Comrades, p. 67.
27 S. Ram, Saheed Bhagat Singh: Patriotism, Sacrifice and Martyrdom, Commonwealth
Publishers, New Delhi, 2005, p.71.
28 Comrade RamChandra, Naujawan Bharat Sabha and Hindustan Socialist Republican
Association/Army (H.S.R.A.), Published by Author, New Delhi, 1986, p.129.
30 The Tribune, Lahore, 9 April, 1930, p.1.
32 Ibid. p.222.
101
24
Public Associations of Orissa And Its Role

For The Search of Orissian Identity
*Krushna Chandra Das
From the beginning of dated history, Orissa maintained her political identity,
economic prosperity, over sea commerce and cultural efflorescence till her political
independence was lost in 1568. It was almost the last Hindu Kingdom of India to
fall to the Muslims. The British became the rulers of Orissa in 1803 and different
parts of Orissa had to go through frequent vicissitudes in respect of their annexation
to different political units, created by the British form time to time, for exigencies
of administration. This study is an attempt to analyze the search for identity of
Orissa and culmination in the constitution of most of the Oriya speaking areas
into a separate province in 1936. The Oriyas prior to 1936 remained under four
provinces namely Bengal, Madras, Central Provinces and Bihar always formed a
minority under the respective Governments. The expression of an united national
life, based on the affinity of language and community was very much threatened.
The people of Orissa, on their part had neither required consciousness nor any
forum to demand territorial readjustment in the perspective of racial, social and
cultural homogeneity, till the later part of the 19th century.
Public association is as group of people expressly organized around a
particular interest such a trade unions, political parties or learned societies and
family and state. It is a determinate social unity built upon common purposes.1
Men, therefore have built associations in order to further their various interest
like political, economic, social, educational,scientific, literary, religious,
professional and so forth. Thus, associations are functional groups that are brought
into existence for various but well defined purposes and that strives for the
fulfillment of the purpose by collective action and functioning. The middle class
intellectuals and scholars of Orissa protected the interests of the Oriyas, attempted
social reforms, promoted education, removed backwardness and dispelled
*Lecturer in History, Kalinga Institute of Social Sciences (KISS), Bhubaneswar,
Odisha
102
Krushna Chandra Das
ignorance through organizations and associations which fostered national

consciousness and arousing.
The holy war or crusade against social evils was organized by the intelligent
minority through socio-religious movements and newspapers and periodicals. The
Brahmo Samaj was established at Cuttack by Mahesh Chandra Ray in
December 1864.2 The Utkal BrahmaSamaj was established by Prof. Haranath
Bhattacharya at Cuttack in 1870.3Brahmo movement also spread to other parts of
Orissa owing to the efforts of Madusudan Rao, Dinanath Bhattacharya, Nanda
Lal, Rajmohan and Biswanth Kar.4 The Cuttack Youngmans Association
organized in 1869 aimed at arranging debates to carry on social reforms. Laxmi
NarayanChoudhary played an important role in its foundations. In 1882, the
Cuttack College Students Association and in 1888, the Orissa Graduate
and Undergraduates Association were set up to give a fillip to social reform
movement. They condemned caste system, demand of dowries, child marriage
and advocated widow remarriage.5 Many of the alumni of the Cuttack College
played an important role in the oriya renaissance and formed the progressive
element in the intellectual life of the people.6 They took keen interest to foster
socio political consciousness through meeting, discussion and circulation of paper
and information.
But there was a great drawback or limitation of advancement of these new
ideas due to the dichotomy in the advance of idea and the lack of institutional
transformation. Gradually, Orissa developed a number of institutions to give shelter
to the new ideas. Yet, Orissa was far behind than its neighbours in the growth of
political organizations. In 1870, Ravenshaws attempts to unite all the associations
with a view to forming the Orissa society failed. In 1872 Ganjam Utkal Hita
Vadini Sabha was founded by William Mohanty at Berhampur. The people of
Cuttack. Puri and Balasore warmly welcomed the foundations of Indian
Association at Calcutta by Surendranth Banerjee but no regular branch of it was
found in Orissa. However, a number of organizations emerged in different parts
of mutilated Orissa to champion the cause of Oriya people. They are Utkal
Bhasaunnati Bidyani Sabha (Balasore),Utkal Bhasa Uddipani Sabha
(Cuttack), Utkal Ullasini Sabha (Cuttack), Cuttack society, Cuttack Debating
club, Cuttack Youngman literary Association, ShikshaBidhika Sabha. 7
Temperance and suppression of Bribery Association, Utkal Mitabadini Sabha
(Berhampur),Orissa Peoples associations etc.
Towards the later part of the 19th century, there was a great awakening among
the people of Orissa who rose from deep slumber to be united racially, economically
and culturally. Before the foundation of Indian National Congress a regional
association called Utkal Sabha had come up in Orissa like that of National
conference of Calcutta 1881. Mahajan Sabha in Madras and Bombay Presidency
Association in Bombay, Utkal Sabha started in 1882 with Gauri Sankar Ray as
the Secretary. In the beginning its main objective was the consideration of the
Public Associations of Orissa And Its Role For......
103
best means of introducing localself-government. In a large public meeting at

Cuttack on 30 June 1882, the speakers expressed their gratitude to lord Ripon for
his benevolent measure and desired that the people should elect their representatives
to their local bodies in order to make them more effective and enable.8
The public associations was invigorated with the return of M.S. Das to
Cuttack at the instances of Sir Richard Girth to start legal practice.9His long absence
from Orissa naturally kept him out of touch with Oriya movement. But Gouri
Sankar Ray an eminent leader during the course of language agitation could give
authentic picture of problem of Oriyas to M.S. Das. Soon he got himself deeply
involved in the socio-political life of Orissa. A man of great moral courage, selfrespect and determination. He was deeply influenced by the philosophy of Edmund
Burke and John Stuart Mill.10. He was convinced that the renaissance in Orissa
could not be possible unless the enlightened middle class took keen interest in
political activities. At once, he was looked upon by the people of Orissa as the
savior or messiah.11
The primary objects of Utkal Sabha were three fold (i) to participate in the
sessions of Indian National Congress (ii) Agitation for the amalgamation of Oriya
speaking tracts with Orissa and to make it a separate province and (iii) to protest
against the elimination of Oriya language. On 21 May 1883, the Utkal Sabha
passed a resolution demanding the appointment of Indians as sessions Judges
with power to try the European offenders.12. It further decided to send a petition to
the Governor General for acceptance of Ilbert Bill.13 It also criticized the conspiracy
of Anglo Indians against Ripon for having passed the Ilbert Bill. Thus, while
Local-self Govt. created a spirit of civic sense, the Ilbert Bill. Thus, while Localself Govt. created a spirit of civic sense, the Ilbert Bill controversy taught the
people the lessons of organization.14
After the foundation of Indian National Congress, Utkal Sabhawas requested
to send delegates to the first session of the Indian National Congress in 1885. On
3rd March, 1886, a meeting was held at printing company at Cuttack to unanimously
accept the resolution passed by the Congress. It also adopted a resolution to send
elected representatives to legislative Council instead of nominated one. M.S. Das,
Golak Bose, Kalipad Banerjee, Hari Ballava Bose, Bhagaban Chandra Das, Bala
Gopal Rao Panthuolu were elected by Utkal Sabha to represent in the Calcutta
session of the Indian National Congress. They very much wanted to champion the
cause of Oriya language against the derogatory remark of Rajendra Lal Mitra, but
the Indian National Congress being an all India body could not take for discussion,
questions, affecting any particular province, unless questions had assumed the
proportion of a national problems and issues.15
On 10 th may, 1895, a meeting of the citizens of Cuttack under the
chairmanship of Madhusudan Das passed a resolution to amalgamate all Oriya
speaking tracts under one administration. On 20th June, 1895, Utkal Sabha sent a
memorial to Lord Elgin, viceroy of India and asserted that the denial of the people
104
Krushna Chandra Das
of the use of their mother tongue is the worst form of ragging and is yet unknown
even in the most despotic form of government. Once Setton-Kerr suggested that
the Oriyas are to be given more jobs in order to dispel the fear of the people that
Bengalis are preferred due to their conversant with the rules and laws of British
administration.16Gradually, a number of Oriyas entered into government jobs in
different capacity. Much before the Indian National Congresss decision to regard
the industrial and political movements as indissolubly linked together. Utkal Sabha
had taken up the task under the dynamic leadership of Madhusudan Das.17
The modernization of Orissa leaped ahead with the birth of Utkal Union
Conference (Utkal Sammilani)in 1903 due to the efforts of Madhusudan Das.
This was the culmination of the organizational acumen of Oriyas in 19th century.In
aftermaththus the establishment of associations opened the eyes of the people and
widened the mental, moral and intellectual outlook. The spread of education, the
establishment of press, circulation of vernacular and English newspapers,
publication of books and journals, the extension of communication and transport
facilities, socio-religious reforms movements and above all the establishment of
several public associations hastened the process of awakening. Madhusudan Das
with his education, intelligence, aristocratic gait and above all his keen interest
shown in public affairs was emerging as the natural choice of the people to provide
leadership in their quest for an identity of Orissa and the creation of a separate
province.
References:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Maclver, Community, A Sociological Study. Page-23.

Utkal Dipika, 18.12.1869.
Utkal Dipika, 09.02.1870
N. Smantary, History of Oriya literature (Oriya) 1964, PP-171-172.
Samvat Vahika 08.01.1888.
P.Kar, Indian National Congress and Orissa. Page-17.
Utkal Dipika. 23.07.1870 and Annual Administrative Report of Bengal 1871-1872
Page-20.
S.N. Das, Deshprana Madhusudan (Oriya) Page-62.
Ibid Page-63
S. Mohanty Madhusudan Das (New Delhi) 1972, Page-28.
Ibid
P. Sitaramaya, History Of Indian National Congress. Vol-II, Page-11.
Two Bachelor of Arts-The Oriya Movement. PP-30.31.
Seton-Kerr-letter to govt. of Bengal on 19.10.1860.
N.R. Ray (Ed), Public Associations in India, Calcutta 1884, P-200.
105
25
Jharkhand Movement:
Internal Colonialism And Tribal Identity
*Supriya Sonali
Introduction:-Internal colonialisation is a notion of structural political and
economic inequalities between regions within a nation state. The terms is used to
describe the uneven effect of economic development on a regional basis, otherwise,
known as uneven development, and to describe the exploitation of minority
group within a wider society.1 Despites the withdrawal of colonial power from
third world countries, forms of oppression that might well be termed. Colonial
still persist in many of them the oppression wrought by nationalist third world
governments whose regimes fail to respect the rights of indigenous minorities.
For ethnic and regional minorities in many third world countries, the arrogance
and injustice of these governments matches and after exceeds - those of the
departed European colonial regime.2. The third world people found that after
independence they had simply traded one set of oppressors (white) for another
(brown and block). The result is today many third worlds states, most of them the
direct or indirect result of national liberation wars themselves, are now fighting
against national liberation movements within their borders.3.
1.1 British Character of Colonialisation:The economic exploitation of India had been one of the strongest raison detre the
British raj and the Litmotive of Indian nationalism and freedom movement.4
India was the foundation stone of the British empire Lord Curzon had written
in 1894: just as De tanquevile remarked that the conquest and government of
India are really the achievements which have given to England her place in the
opinion of the world, so the prestige and the wealth auising from her Asiatic
position are the foundation stones of the British.
*Research Scholar History Ranchi University Ranchi, Jharkhand

106
Supriya Sonali
Again in 1989 he wrote:-India is the pirot of our Empire. If the Empire loses
any other part of its dominion we can survive, but if we lose India, the sun of our
Empire will have set.The ultimate aim of British colonialism was to exploit the
rich and untapped socio-economic resources of the country and drain them off to
make the British Empire prosper.5
To understand the Jharkhand movement properly we must understand how
uneven development of the area or of the different segments of the society is
creating problem of international colonialism in the model of South Africa, where
the exploiters and the exploited are not connected with any social link though
staying within the same geographical area. In India underdeveloped area is
exploited by the developed areas as colonies, as are the underdeveloped by the
developed people.There are three main factors of internal colonialism. The first
ingredient of internal colonialism is the cast system which despite all denials
broadly determines the division of labour within the country and still definitely
indicates our mental attitude to physical work. These there ingredients fused
together created internal colonialism and among the numerous internal colonies
spread over India, Jharkhand represents the biggest and the most previous internal
colony just as India used to be in the British Empire.6
Jharkhand movement has been the oldest autonomy movement in the post
independence India. The British not only crushed the indiquenous peoples hundred
years of resistance movement of colonize Jharkhand but gradually prepared the
ground for turning it into an internal colony of the neighboring nations.. Jharkhand
movement has been seen as the immediate outcome of the development.7It was
the British East India company that set the ball of territoriality of Jharkhand rolling
with the receipt of the grant of Dewani (right to collect tax on behalf of the Emperor)
of Bengal Bihar and Orissa from the Mughals in 1765. Colonial rule thus prepared
the ground for the popular search for a territorial identity of the region in accordance
with the demand of their political autonomy.8
What has been written about the colonization of India by the British, applies
fully to the colonization of Jharkhand by India and particularly by north Bihar.9
The exploitation of Jharkhand by north Bihar and Government of India is similar
to the exploitation of India by the British. The exploitation of Jharkhand has
increased in post independence India due to developmental projects benefiting
migrant from north Bihar.10
1.2. Uneven Development of South Bihar (Jharkhand) And North Bihar :

The first known use the concept internal colonialism was in a 1957 book by Leo
Morquard, regarding South Africa.11. An internal colony supposedly produces
wealth for the benefit of those areas most closely associated with the state, usually
the capital area. The members of internal colonials are distinguished as different
by a cultural variable such as ethnicity, language, or religions.12
The same is
the condition of the people of Jharkhand is general and of Chotanagpur in particular,
Jharkhand Movement : Internal Colonialism And Tribal Identity 107

which alone constrains 50% of Indias coal, 100% of Indias copper, 40% of
Bauxite. The areas contain almost all the steel plants. Bokaro, Rourkela, and
Jamshedpur all power plant of Damodar Valley Project, and the Hirakund dam of
Orissa. There is no dearth of development but only at the cost of people there.13.
Added to this is a sizeable amount (over 50 lakh acres) of forest land taken away
by the government (under the Indian Forest Act, 1878, 1927 and the Bihar Private
Forest Act 1927) in the name of scientific management of forest which in fact has
turned out to be a gross mismanagement. Today 50-60% of best tribal land in the
Chotanagpur hill area is in non-tribal lands.14
There are provisions of 80% reservation for tribal and local people in training
and jobs but the fact is that nearly 90% of the training (in general education,
engineering and medical) facilities and jobs are filled by an external population.15
The new industries and power projects mentioned above required personal.
Moving in of a new specialized personal is quite understandable but even in the
areas where no such specialization was needed, people from outside came in on a
large scale, for the decision making power went with the specialized areas, and
this also included the political power. During the Jharkhand movement, a report
was submitted to the home minister, Buta Singh by Dr. Ram Dayal Munda in
which he explain the unbalanced development of the region. Dr. Munda in his
report noted that... the hill area of Chotanagpur having been provided less
opportunities than the northern plains area. This discrepancy is reflected in all
areas of development. The following chart depicts some of the investigated areas
to prove the point :-
Table-1
SI. No.
Major Items
Chotanagpur
Rest of State
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Contribution to revenue by
Expenditure of revenue in
Irrigated land of the total
Electrification (rural)
Paved roads per 1000 km
70%
20%
5%
5%
5 km
30%
80%
50%
40%
20 km
Source : Munda, R.D. (1990), The Jharkhand Movement : Retrospect and

Prospect, p-13.
The most alarming feature of the development process is that even from the
merge funds allotted for this region, less than 30% reaches the real beneficiaries.
Seventy percent is pocketed away in the process of finalising the paper work by a
15-20% of the superimposed personnel which has no sense of obligation and
belonging for this area.16
The COJM had also mention in his report... the thirty nine district of Bihar
ranked in 1990 on nine parameters of development by the Bihar Government, the
108
Supriya Sonali
COJM in its report had noted that : the SRCs plea of adverse economic impact is
the crux of the problem, the economic exploitation of Chotanagpur-Santal Pargana
and its developmental backwardness have been well-documented. This is the main
raison detre for the Jharkhand Demand. This has an obvious reflection on the quality
of life in the two regions. The people of the Chotanagpur area are increasingly
sliding down below the poverty line despite their being sincere and hardworking.
This is most apparent in the newly developed industrial and urban areas including
the district headquarters, like Ranchi, Dhanbad and Jamshedpur where the local
people are systematically margialised or sandwiched into the slum aeras.17 Without
getting jobs the tribal men and women sell themselves to the contractors to be exported
anywhere, from Punjab to Tripura for working brick kilns, or digging earth18 and
also in search of better living condition there are some who have tried to move out
to far places like Punjab, U.P., Delhi, Assam and other place but there too their
prospect remains the same to be disintegrated into the slum there.
1.3. Internal Colonialisation And The Movement :

It has been noticed in the history of this area that people have always reacted strongly
whenever they have been subjected to exploitation and have been driven to
desperation. In essence capitalism believes in the name of free competition, in the
brute concept of survival of the strongest which means the non-survival of the less
strong. The capitalist solution of the underdeveloped nationalities is their extinction.19
Conclusion :-The tribal movements in this part of the region have not ceased
to occur even after the departure of colonial power. Infect, after independence,
movements with political overtone and much articulation have increasingly
surfaced against the glaring inequality and deprivation. So the nature and dimension
of the movements have now changed with the accentuation of deprivation and
economic exploitation.. Some of these movements, of course, ultimately forced
the post colonial government to find and easy way of evading the crux of the
major issue of the people involved in the movements by doing out politicoeconomic powers to the tribal elite.20
The struggle of the Dalits, the people of internal colonies, the tribals and the
socially downtrodden against imperialism and the ruling class can develop any
time and transcend into a real notional liberation movement in the country. 21
References :1.
2.
3.
Internal Colonization access date 5/4/2014 file:///c:DOCUME~ ADMIN~/LOCALS~1/

Temp/Rar-EX05.703/Internal colonialism - ...
Fourth World Colonialism, Indigenous Minorities And Tamil Separation in Sri Lanka,
Bryan Pfaffenberger (Virginia University), Bulletin of Concerned Aslan Scholar, Vol.,
16. 1984 access date 5/4/2014 file:///c:DOCUME~ ADMIN~/LOCALS~1 /Temp/RarEX05.703/Internal colonialism - ...
Hecter, Michael (1975), Internal Colonialism : The Celtic Fringe in British National
Jharkhand Movement : Internal Colonialism And Tribal Identity 109
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
Development, Berkeley : University of California Press. access date 5/4/2014- file://

/c:DOCUME~ADMIN~/LOCALS~1/Temp/Rar-EX05.703/ Internal colonialism - ...
Singh, Amar. Kumar., (2003), Jharkhand Katha : Swadeshi Colonization, In Munda,
Ram Dayal, Mullick, S. Basu., Jharkhand Movement, Indigenous People Struggle
for Autonomy in India, IWGIA, Copenhagen, p-274
Paul, M.C. (1990), Colonialism and Tribal Movement in India, Ini Chaudhari,
Buddhadeb (Ed.), Ethno politics and Identity Crisis, Inter India Publication, New
Delhi, p-298.
Roy, A.K., (2003), Jharkhand: Internal Colonialism, Munda, Ram Dayal, Mullick, S.
Basu,, (Ed.), Jharkhand Movement....., Op.Cit, pp-81-82.
Mullick, Sanjay, Basu. (2003), Introduction, Op.Cit, p-iv.
Ibid, p-v
Singh, Amar Kumar, (2003), Op.Cit, p-274.
Ibid, p-274.
Leo Maquard (1957), access date 5/4/2014 file:///c:DOCUME~ ADMIN~/LOCALS~1/
Temp/Rar-EX05.703/Internal colonialism - ...
Abercrombie, Nichdas, Stephan Hill & Bryan S. Turnes (2000). The Penguin Dictionary
of Sociology, 4th edition, London : Penguin Books, file:///c:DOCUME~ ADMIN~/
LOCALS~1/Temp/Rar-EX05.703/Internal colonialism - ...
Roy, A.K (2003), Op t, pp-82 - 83
Munda, Ram Dayal, (June, 1990), The Jharkhand Movement: Retrospect and Prospect,
A Report Submitted to Home Minister, Buta Singh, Jharkhand Co-ordination
Committee, Ranchi, pp- 8-9
Ibid, p-10
Ibid, Unbalanced Development, p. 13.
Ibid, p-14.
Roy, A.K. (2003) Op.Cit, p-83
Roy, A.K., (1994), Op.Cit, p-84
Paul, M.C., (1990), Colonialism and Tribal, Op.Cit, p-307
Roy., A.K., (1994), Op.Cit, p-85
110
26
Where A Barrister Became Mahatma :

A Historical Review
*Dr. Abhishek Kumar
Introduction:-We know Gandhiji as a politician, a philosopher, an applied social
scientist, a grassroots social worker, a political mobilizer, a revered national leader,
an educationist and a saint or much more.We feel that his personality was the rare
mixture of simplicity and complexity. Mahatma changed the world he lived in and
gave a new direction to what is now known as Gandhism. People always debate
on his concept and the way of working, for example we know that he is treated as
the father of Indian nationhood, at the same time we may say people considering
him an impractical and a man who mixed politics with economics and religion. I
April 1893 Gandhiji went first to South Africa and returned in October 1901.
Again November 1902 he went back there and finally came to India in 9th January
1915. Through this paper, we may find out the causes of changing a Barrister to a
Mahatma. Because it is our self- experience that force us to change.
Journey To South Africa:-We talk about a person who sacrificed his career,
his families pleasure and above all his life for the sake of humanity and Love. We
see his achievements and entire personality from different dimensions. He was at
once saint and revolutionary, politician and social reformer, economist and man of
religion, educations and Satygrahi, devotee alike of faith and reason, Hindu and interreligious, nationalist and Internationalist, man of action and dreamer of dreams.1He
was a great reconciler of opposites and he was that without strain or artificiality.
Rabindranath Tagore called himMahatma,Subhash Chandra Bose Father of the
Nation, Lord Mountbatten one man Boundary force, Hindu fundamentalists Pro
Muslim, Jinah Pro-Hindu and western Churchill called him Naked Fakir.2
Gandhiji Sailed for England on 4th September, 1988 to Study Law andbecome
a barrister. He was called to the Bar on 10thJune, 1891 and was enrolled in the
High Court of England the next day. Then he sailed home. After his return to
India he started practice as a lawyer at first in the High Court at Bombay and a
*Gayatri Niwas, North of Biwah Bhawan, Ward No- 10, PO &Dist- Madhubani,
Bihar.
Where A Barrister Became Mahatma : A Historical Review
111
Little later in Rajkot but did not make much headway in the profession.As sir
Stafford Cripps has remarked He was no simple mystic, combined with his
religious outlook was his lawyer-trained mind, quick and apt in reasoning. He
was a formidable opponent in argument.3
Gandhi went to South Africa in April 1893 and stayed for a whole year in
Pretoria in connection with the case of Sheth Dada Abdulla who was involved in
a civil suit with his near relative Seth Tyeb Haji Khan Mahammad who also
stayed in Pretoria. The years stay in Pretoria proved to be a most valuable
experience in Gandhijis Life. Gandhi started his journey to South Africa with his
own concept about every part of life. He had shown his character even during his
journey in the ship. When the Captain called me I came out Just as I had gone in.
He saw my innocence. I was disgusted at my weakness and pitied myself for not
having had the Courage to refuge to go into the room4
When his ship reached to the port of Natal the scenario was very different
for him. He writes As the ship arrived at the quay and I watched the people
coming on board to meet their friends, I observed that the Indians were not held in
much respect. I could not fail to notice a sort of snobbishness about the manner in
which those who knew Abdulla-Sheth behaved towards him, and it stung me.
Abdulla Sheth had got used to it. Those who looked at me did so with a certain
amount of Curiosity, My dress marked me out from other Indians. I had a frockcoat and a turban, an imitation of the Bengalpugree.5 However he settled there
with his own Ideas, althoughit was large number of difficulties over there.
According to him I would suggest that those who wish to have a full idea of it
may turn to my History of Satyagraha in South Africa. It is however, necessary to
give a brief outline.6
A Decisive Incident:- And the incident happened that totally changed Gandhi
from a lawyer to a social reformer, on the way to Pretoria when the train reached
Martizburg, the Capital of Natal, at about 9 p.m. the incident happened Gandhi
writes The constable came. He took me by the hand and pushed me out. My
luggage was also taken out. I went and Sat in the waiting room, Keeping my handbag with me, and leaving the other luggage where it was. The railway authorities
had taken charge of it.I began to think of my duty. Should I fight for my rights or
go back to India, or should I go on to Pretoria without minding the insults, and
return to India after finishing the case? It would be cowardice to run back to India
without fulfilling my obligation. The hardship to which I was subjected was
superficial-only a symptom of the deep disease of colour prejudice. I should try, If
possible, to root out the disease and suffer hardships in the process.7
Winning For What:-Gandhiji tried hard for his case and Dada Abdullah
won. He writes My joy was boundless. I had learnt the free practice of law. I had
learnt to find out the better side of human nature and to enter mens hearts. I
realized that the true function of a lawyer was to unite parties riven asunder. The
Lesson was so indelibly burnt into me that a large part of my time during the
twenty years of my practice as a lawyer was occupied in bringing about private
112
Dr. Abhishek Kumar
compromises of hundreds of cases. I loss nothing hereby not even money

andcertainly not my soul.8 Gandhiji was overjoyed at the success of his first case
in South Africa and concluded that the whole duty of an advocate was not to
exploit legal and adversary advantages but to promote compromise and
reconciliation.9As a result of this realization of the paramount importance of acts
in Dada Abdullas Case, Gandhiji was never known afterwards to brush aside our
slur over a fact however inconvenient or prejudicial it might seem. From this and
several similar experiences Gandhiji learnt to regard law not as an intellectual
legerdemain to make black appear white and white black, but as Codified ethics.
The profession of law became to him the means to enthrone Justice, not entangle
justice in the net of law.10
What Education Means:-The serious issue of Childrens education occurred
in January 1897 when Gandhiji Landed at Durban with three children (two sons
and a sisters son). As he possesses his own idea about education, he was worried
about where to educate them. He writes Had I been without a sense of selfrespect and satisfied myself with having for my children the education that other
children could not get, I should have deprived them of the object-lesson in liberty
and self-respect that I gave them at the cost of the literary training. And where a
choice has to be made between liberty and learning who will not say that the
former has to be preferred a thousand times to the latter.11
Gandhiji started to experiment his own concept of education that gradually
changed into the concrete concept of education later called Basic-Education,
Apart from this, he has also done the works regarding community upliftment likesanitary reform and famine relief. Gradually he changed himself as a true social
worker and a Satyagrahi. One thing is very important to notice here is that at the
period of Gandhiji there were many people suffering from injustice used to happen
in South Africa. But the character Gandhiji shown against the oppression is totally
unparallel. furthermore, as his views about truth and non-violence crystallized
and matured, he came to the conclusion that to earn ones livelihood from a
profession, which finally made an appeal to the policeman or the Jailer to enforce
the decrees of the Courts, and thus derived its ultimate Sanction from physical
force, was a denial of Ahimsa.12
Accordingly, in 1910 Gandhiji entirely abandoned the practice of law and
henceforth devoted his entire time and energy to the service of the community.
After his imprisonment in 1922, during his first civil disobedience movement In
India, he was disbarred by his Inn; he would not apply thereafter for reinstatement,
as he regarded himself as a farmer and a handicraftsman, who had renounced the
profession of law deliberately many years before in South Africa.13
During his living in South Africa Gandhiji read few of those books that
influenced him to change his attitude towards surroundings and his own life. In
1894, Gandhi read a book The Kingdom of God is within you written by Tolstoy,
from which he realized how to settle the Conflict between people and the Solution
based on non-violence, He also read other books of Tolstoy like How shall we
Where A Barrister Became Mahatma : A Historical Review
113
escape? The slavery of our times and The first step. Another writer who
influenced Gandhi was John Ruskin. Ruskins books A joy forever and its price
in the market and unto this last. The immediate result of reading these books
was the establishment of Phoenix Settlement. (Later on Tolstoy farm) from which
Gandhiji started his long journey of social reforms even in India. We can see the
importance of Gandhis life in South Africa when he says In South Africa fight
for Satyagraha by the Indians stretched to 8 years.14 we searched the word
satyagraha during that struggle and used very first time for the same cause.15
Mahatma never gave up his faith in Ahimsa and Truth. Being a person with
different ideas or we should say strong character Gandhi became stronger by the days.
Conclusion:-It is indeed very-very difficult to depict the impacts of South
Africa on Gandhi, but the shadow that has been tried to make through this paper
is- If we separate the periods and attainments of South Africa from the Life of
Gandhi, it would have different picture altogether. It is South Africa where Gandhi
Spent about twenty valuable years of his life, experienced the issues regarding
communities, experimented his Ideas about different aspects of life and got early valuable
Conclusions that was about to prove in his struggle in India. As we know that fire is
always there in a matchbox, only thing we have to do is to just rub them and it works.
Gandhi had the Courage and potential of being true legend, but it is South Africa that
made a Barrister with a gentlemens spirit to a social-reformer or Mahatma.
References-:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Mishra, Anil Datta, UnderstandingGandhi: Speeches and writings that reveal his mind
and mission, New Delhi, Concept, 2012 P.14.
Mishra, Anil Datta, Reading Gandhi, Delhi, Pearson, 2012, P.1
Gandhi M.K., Homage to The Departed,SarvaSevaSangh Publication, P.146
Gandhi M.K., My Experiments with Truth, Colourful Books International, Delhi, P.112.
Ibid P.113
Ibid, P.135
Ibid P.119
Ibid. P.-141
Mehta Ved, Mahatma Gandhi and His Apostles, Penguin Books, 1983, P.-101
Pyarela, Mahatma Gandhi- The Early Phase. No.-1, P.-313
Gandhi M.K. my Experiments with truth, colourful Books International, Delhi P.202
Polak, Brails ford and Lord pethick Lawrence, Mahatma Gandhi, Penguin Books,
P.78
KherSunit B, The Law And the Lawyers. Navajivan publishing House, Ahmedabad,
1962, P.11
His first part of struggle continued form 1893 to 1901.
From the introduction of Gandhis book History of Satyagrah in South Africa
Navjevan, Ahmadabad.
114
27
Education of Scheduled Caste Women In

Punjab: A Case Study Of District
Ferozepur Since 2001
*Shefali Chauhan
According to Mahatma Gandhi, True education is that which draws out and
stimulates the spiritual intellectual and physical faculties of the children.Education
is considered to be an important tool for improving the status of women among
the Scheduled Castes. Aggregate statistics often paint a dismal picture of the low
literacy rates and schooling among the Scheduled Caste. This paper presents level
of education dropout rate in Punjab and District Ferozepur in the year 2001.
Who Are Scheduled Caste- According to ND Kamble those people
belonging to the last Varna namely the Sudra and Avarnas include many Caste
groups which have suffered social and economic inequity since the ages,
particularly those people who were outside the Varna System were known as
Avarnas or Panchnas or Antyajas. They were external in the sense that they were
required to stay outside the village settlement.
Scheduled Caste means such castes, races or tribal parts or groups within
such castes, races or tribes, as are deemed under Article 341 to be the Scheduled
Castes for the purpose of the constitution of India.The expression Scheduled
Castes was first coined by the Simon Commission and embodied in the Government
of India Act of 1935. While the castes were listed systematically in the 1931 census
of India, the terms Scheduled Castes (SC) were applied to these castes for the first
time in the Government of India. Act of 1935. Then the Government of India
published a list of Scheduled Castes under the Government of India (Scheduled
Castes) order 1936.
*Senior Research Fellow, Department Of History, Punjab University

Chandigarh, Punjab
Education of Scheduled Caste Women......
115
Historical Background of Education of Scheduled Castes In Punjab

The Christian missionaries, who did extensive work in the sphere of the spread of
modern education in India,were inspired mainly by a proselytizing spirit,to spread
Christianity among Indian people.Raja Ram Mohan Roy was the pioneer of
progressive modern education in India.Numerous organizations such as Brahmo
Samaj in Bengal,Arya Samaj in Punjab, RamakrishnaMission, Aligarh
Movement,Chief Khalsa Diwan worked towards the establishment of educational
institutions, both for men and women.1
As large number of converts came from depressed classes the missionaries
were the first to draw the government attention to their miserable condition and
disabilities. Missionary work among the lower castes greatly impressed some Hindu
observers and fear of losing large numbers to Christianity encouraged educated
Hindus into increased activity.For instance LalaLajpat Rai, the Arya and nationalist
Punjabi leader, declared in the public speech in about 1912 that the possibility of
losing the untouchables has shaken the intelligent section of the Hindu community
to its very depths and he went on to urge Hindus to forestall the movement towards
Christianity by improving the condition of these classes2. Lajpat Rai gave
expression to sentiments felt throughout the Arya Samaj, and it joined the battle
for the lower castes, allegiance not only with Christian missionaries but also with
Sikh and other religious groups3 (Ganda Singh 1965 :Ch. 43;Jones 1968).The
Arya Samajis developed new egalitarian forms of behavior, but only in small groups
and in major towns, like Lahore; and for them largely in bold, public denials of
social inequalities, in essentially symbolic interdining with the lower castes, and
in admitting them into the schools being built by the Arya Samaj.4
Education of Scheduled Caste Women in Punjab

Coming to women the relevance of womens education to social, economic cultural
and politicaldevelopment of the individual family,community and nation is
universally acknowledged.Apart from direct development benefits of education
for women,improvement in overall social and economic indices,smaller families
and reduced infant mortality,improved quality of life,enhanced economic
productivity and improvement in the family health,are some of the areas which
benefit from improvement in female education.But unfortunately women in India
are the last in the line for education, jobs,credits and sometime even food (Mangat
and Kaur1997).5 In India one of the notable features of literacy is that females lag
behind males.Here,75.9 percent males are literate while only 54.2 females can
read and write (census of India 2001).This gender gap in literacy is much wider in
case of Scheduled Castes where only 31.03 percent females were literate against
48.89 percent males ( census of India,1991).6
The following table presents the literacy among the Scheduled Caste Women
in Punjab and District Ferozepur in the year 2001.
Shefali Chauhan
116
Education of Scheduled Caste Women In Rural And

Urban Punjab In The Year 2001
Punjab 2001
Punjab Rural
Punjab
Urban
% Rural % Urban
Total
Literate
Illitrate
Primary/Junior Basic
Matriculation & Above
Higher Secondary
Non Technical diploma
not equal to degree
Tec Diploma not equal
to degree
Graduate and above
2,510,378
981,916
1,528,462
343,661
120,267
34,440
562
803,995
374,995
429,000
114,673
60,551
24,982
461
75.74
39.11
60.88
67.50
23.62
4.91
0.11
24.25
46.64
53.35
53.29
28.14
11.61
0.21
2,149
2,222
0.42
1.03
8,035
12,263
1.58
5.70
Source: Special Tables on Scheduled Castes Punjab, 2001, Educational level by

age and sex for population age 7 and above for each caste separately table SC.8 .
Education of Scheduled Caste Women In Rural And

Urban Ferozepur In The Year 2001
Ferozepur 2001
Ferozepur
Rural
Ferozepur % Rural % Urban

Urban
Total
Literate
Illitrate
Primary/Junior Basic
Matriculation & Above
Higher Secondary
Non Technical diploma
not equal to degree
Tec Diploma not equal
to degree
Graduate and above
145,455
33,654
111,801
11,623
1,783
482
13
42,625
13,995
28,630
4,470
1,450
623
07
77.33
23.13
76.86
82.92
12.72
3.44
0.09
22.66
32.83
67.16
65.07
21.11
9.07
0.10
50
60
0.36
0.87
66
260
0.47
3.78
Source: Special Tables on Scheduled Castes Punjab, 2001, Educational level by

age and sex for population age 7 and above for each caste separately table SC 8.
Findings:There are thirty-seven Scheduled Castes notified in the State of
Punjab. All ofthem were enumerated at census 20017at present thirty nine. The
Education of Scheduled Caste Women......
117
percentage Scheduled Caste femalepopulation ofPunjab is 75.74 and 24.25 in

urban areas.The percentage of total rural female literate in Punjab is 39.11 and in
urban 46.64 which is more due to more educational institutes and accessibility in
urban areas Coming toDistrict Ferozepur where the total percentage of rural female
population is 77.33 and in urban 22.66.
Coming to percentage of Primary education in Rural Punjab and in urban it is
67.50 and 53.29 whereasin Rural and UrbanFerozepur it is 82.92 and 65.07 indicating
that girls were sent to school more in primary classes in Rural as well as Urban
Ferozepur as compared to Punjab.Talking about the matriculation level which is
23.62 in Rural and 28.14 in Urban Punjab and in Ferozepur 12.72 ,21.11 respectively.
Conclusion- In national life,education in its broader sensebegins at home and that
if a country wants healthy,upright and unselfish citizen,the quickest, surest and easiest
way is to educate the most powerful of all influences- the mother at home. Their education
system should be so developed that they may have the power to see clearly, the power to
imagine vividly and the power to think independently.District Ferozepur which rest on
the border of India and Pakistan lag far behind.The level of education or awareness was
found very less as the above data shows the number of literates in rural and urban
Ferozepur is far less and the dropout rate after primary classes is more indicating that
people send their daughters to school till they attain primary education and after that
they are rarely provided higher education due to economic crises or the male dominated
society which does not allow her to be independent or go out to study after she attains
puberty or else married at an early age or has to take care of the siblings and home when
her mother goes out for work. To sum up we can say education among the Scheduled
Caste women in the district is low which means that Scheduled Caste women suffers
dual disadvantage i.e., being Scheduled Caste and being women. Indian opinion at
least in Punjab, still discountenances the idea of bringing up girls to earn an independent
livelihood in a trade or profession
References1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Desai A.R, Social Background of India Nationalism, Bombay Popular Prakashan,

Bombay, 1984,pp 139-142.
Oddie,G.A , Protestant missions, caste and social change in India (1815-1914),Indian
economic and social history review 6 ,p 283-84(quoted in Satish Saberwal,Mobile
Men :limits to Social Change in Urban Punjab, Indian Institute of Advanced Study in
association with Manohar Publications, New Delhi ,second edition 1990,p 9.
Ganda Singh, ed. Bhagat Lakshman Singh:autobiography,Calcutta: Sikh cultural
centre,1965,quotted in Satish Saberwal p-9
Ibid p-9.
Shalini Sharma and B.K Agarwal Educating Dalit Women for Development: A study
in Hoshiarpur District of Punjab ed Harish k. Puri,Dalits in Regional Context,Rawat
Publications Jaipur and New Delhi,2004 p 258.
Ibid.
Source: Office of the Registrar General, India pp 2-5
118
28
State Policy And Development of

Sericulture In Jammu And Kashmir In
The Pre Independence Period A Probe
*Ashima Chargotra
The rearing of silk worms on mulberry trees for the production of raw silk is
known as Sericulture.1 Historical evidence shows that silk was discovered in China.
However, the Chinese could not keep their monopoly forever and gradually, the
industry was said to have spread to Tibet, then from Tibet, and it spread to India
and Persia. In India, in the beginning Bengal was the main centre of sericulture.
However, with the passage of time, the silk was produced in other parts of the
country like Karnataka, Tamil-Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir,
Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar and Orissa. So far
as the development of silk Industry in Jammu and Kashmir is concerned, it appeared
that silk was produced in Kashmir from ancient time. According to the Sanskrit
literature, Rjatarangin by Kalhana, Nlamata Purana2 and the works of
kshemendra (Desopadesa, Narmamala and Darpadalana etc) establish that
sericulture was being practised in Kashmir.
It was said that in Zain-ul-abidins times (1420-70 A.C) sericulture existed
in Kashmir.3 A dispute about the possession of a ball of silk between two claimants
in a court in the days of Sultan Fateh Shah4 (1486-93 A.C) indicates that the silk
industry was carried by the people. During the reign of Mirza Haidar Dughlat5
(1541-51 A.C), Among the wonders of Kashmir, was the abundance of mulberry
trees cultivated from which silk was obtained. Abul Fazl6 notes: The mulberry
was little eaten; its leaves were reserved for the silkworms. The eggs were brought
from Gilgit and Tibet. In the former, they were produced in greater abundance
and were more choice. Jahangir says: There are mulberries everywhere. From
the foot of every mulberry tree a Viner creeper grows up the mulberries of
*Research Scholar- Department of History, University of Jammu, Jammu
(J&K)
State Policy And Development of Sericulture......
119
Kashmir was not fit to eat, with the exception of some trees grown in gardens but
the leaves were used to feed the silkworm. They brought the silkworms eggs
from Gilgit and Tibet. The Mughals organised the industry but details are lacking.7
In 1855, silkworm disease broke out in Europe. In 1860, two Italian experts
obtained from Kashmir twenty-five thousand ounces of seed which requested
improvement in the industry. Maharaja Gulab Singh had entrusted silk production
to his chief Physician Hakim Azim. A period of decay set due to the destruction of
the crop by a Pebrine disease. After a year or two, a Kashmiri went to Kabul and
collected a few seers of seed and brought them skill fully in walnut shells to avoid
detection by customs officers. This renewed silkworm industry was established in
Kashmir.
A.R. Khan8, the author of book entitled, Geography of Jammu and Kashmir
mentions that the Silk Industry in Kashmir was established in 1898 at Srinagar.
From internet (Introduction to Kashmir forum org blog) we get information that
in 1892, Thomas Wardle reorganized the industry and brought it on modern lines
and the industry received further impetus with the establishment of Department
of Sericulture.In 1889, R.B. Mukherjee, 9 was in charge of the Silk Industry in
Kashmir. He recommended that the Durbar should continue to grow silk at the
following places: Chatrar, Bicinwar, Karrari, Cheerpur, Litpura, Kantpura, Lasjan,
Banaheri, Dawnsu Sarai, Haft Chanar, Raghunath pura. Mr. Mukherjee was of
the opinion that the introduction of silk eggs from Japan, led to diseases in Kashmir.
He also made efforts to overcome the diseases of sericulture which were destroying
the silk industry. In 189010, it was found that the silk-worn crop for this year does
not seem at all promising. The outturn of the crops in the three, nurseries were
very small and so far, the crops were a failure. In 1891, 11 the three state nurseries
at Losjan, Raghunath pura and Cherpur were handed to the villagers. In 1892, 12
Mr. C.B Walton was appointed as the Director of Sericulture and under him the
industry made considerable advances. Under his supervision, Kashmir seeds were
reared in places like Shupyan, Chirat and other villages which were far away from
the places where the imported seeds were being reared. In the beginning of 189413,
the operations were under the charge of Babu Rishibar Mukherjee, the Chief Judge
of Kashmir, a brother of Babu Nilambur Mukherjee. Mr Walton died in 190414
and he was succeeded by Mr. H.D Douglas, then Assistant Director of Sericulture.
Walton was succeeded by Mr. H.D Douglas as director of the department in 1905.15
However, in 191316, Kashmir Sericulture Industry was hard hit by the
disastrous fire which destroyed six filatures and about the whole stock of cocoons.
In 1914,17 the working of the department was seriously affected due to the outbreak
of First World War. In 1915,18 a remarkable revival began, owing to various causes,
such as the war, the shortage of the European crops, heavy purchases by America
etc.. The history of the Jammu and Kashmir Silk Industry in the year 191619 was
one of progress and adaptation. In 1917,20 Mr. M.L. McNamara continued to hold
charge of the Kashmir sericulture as Director, Silk Factory Srinagar and Mr. Hari
120
Ashima Chargotra
Krishan Lal continued to hold charge of the department as Director of Silk Factory,
Jammu. In 1918,21 the Directors of Sericulture, Jammu and Kashmir, remained in
charge of the mulberry culture work in their respective provinces except in the
Southern Division of Kashmir, where the work formed a separate charge under
Mr. A.M Peychaud.In 191922 Mr. McNamara, Director of Sericulture, Kashmir
was absent on leave in Europe for more than six months.23 During his absence, the
officiating charge of his office was held by Mr. H.S Gills. In 1923 24 the mulberry
culture works both in Jammu and Kashmir, remained under the control of the
Directors of sericulture in their respective provinces, except in the Northern
Division in Kashmir, where work formed a separate charge under the Director of
Horticulture Kashmir.
In 1924, the situation became critical when on July 20, 1924; twenty - five
of the twenty seven labour leaders were arrested on the charge of fomenting trouble
in the factory. This was followed by a general strike of the workers. Maharaja
Hari Singh made serious attempts for the development of sericulture. In 1925, 25
M.L. McNamara and Harkrishan Lal were Directors of the Jammu and Srinagar
Silk Factories respectively. In 1926,26 the silk market was dull which was because
of the decline in the price of cotton, coal strike in England, decline of silver in
Asia etc. During 1930-33,27 The Department of Sericulture was adversely affected
by the world - wide economic depression.
The Gagribal Silk Worm Seed House, Srinagar distributed silk worm seeds
in Kashmir. In 1933-34, this Seed House provided eight hundred and seventy nine (879) kilograms of seed to the people. While in the next financial year (193435), this house supplied one thousand thirty eight (1038) kilograms of seeds to
the people. The seed required for the Jammu Sericulture was imported as usual
from the Europe. In the year 1935,28 the state Government continued the policy of
getting Mulberry trees planted by the zamindars in their own interests, was the
most economical and effective way of propagating the growth of sericulture.During
1936,29 one hundred nineteen touring officers were supplied with tent equipage
and camp furniture along with farashes from the central stores at Jammu and
Srinagar. The year 1939,30 witnessed a marked improvement in price of Sericultural
Products. This was due to the outbreak of Second World War. However, there was
a keen demand for the raw silk throughout the year. The international turmoil
created a favourable situation for the Silk Industry. In 1940,31 there was marked
improvement in the prices of raw silk and silk wastes and all products of the silk
factories, the silk wastes, remained in great demand.
In 1944, the State Government distributed, one lac thirty three thousand
four hundred and nine (1, 33,409) mulberry trees in Kashmir and twenty three
thousand one hundred seventy-five (23,175) in Jammu province. However, as a
result of the outbreak of the Second World War and involvement of the state into
the war, the Government of Jammu and Kashmir could not formulate new policy
and programme for the development of sericulture in Jammu and Kashmir. Though,
the rules framed before the outbreak of War, governed the Sericulture Department
till 1947.
State Policy And Development of Sericulture......
121
References1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
Hussain Majid, Systematic geography of Jammu and Kashmir. Rawat Publication,

Jaipur and New Delhi, p-176.
Dr Ved Kumari, the Nilmat Purana Vol.I ( a Culture and literary studfy of a Kashmir
Purana), J&K academy of Art Culture and Languages Srinagar, Jammu . Kitab Ghar
Maulana Azad Road, Srinagra 190001.
W.R. Lawerence, The valley of Kashmir.Gulshan books, 2005, p-367
The square silver coins of the sultans of Kashmir. J.A.S.B. Vol.LIV No-2,1885.p.111
The Tarikh-i-rashidi, English Translation by Colonel H.S. Jerrett.Vol.II p-349
The Buzuk-i-Jahangiri, English Translation by Refers and Beraridge,Vol. II, 1914,p-146.
Khan A.R, Geography of Jammu and Kashmir, Gulshan Books, Residency Road,
Srinagar; Kashmir, P No 93.
Report on the Administration of the Jammu and Kashmir state for the year 1889 90.
P 42.
Report on the Administration of the Jammu and Kashmir state for the year 1890. P 51.
Walter, R Lawrence, the valley of Kashmir Gulshan Books, 2005, P-367.
Pandit Anan Koul, Geography of the J&K uptodated and Introduction. P.N.K Bamzai.
Gulshan books Residency Road, Srinag, P.83
Report on the Administration of the Jammu and Kashmir state for the year 1930-33
P 25.
122
29
Surya Sen And The Chittagong

Uprising of 1930
*Sankar Kumar Das
In the annals of the freedom movement of India the sensational saga of the
Chittagong Uprising of 1930 is an episode of tremendous significance and of
unique importance for its peculiar features and much pervading strikingness. The
Uprising occurred at the time when the wave of Gandhi-led non-violent Non-cooperation Movement raging hard all over the sub-continent. Strangely enough it
was at this time at Chittagong at the south-east corner of the continent there occurred
a violent revolutionary outburst with the sole and pointed mission to drive the
mighty British from the country by armed force, and this outburst proved to be a
curtain-raiser for an extremely intense wave of terrorism in Bengal. That is why
when they attacked on the Police Lines they shouted Gandhiji ki Jai; and when
the armoury was captured they proclaimed Gandhiji ka raj ho Gaya. Bearing
this in mind Gandhi in his Speech at Friends House London, September 12, 1931,
said: They ( the Chittagong revolutionaries) are burning to attain the freedom to
which India is entitled which is Indias birthright.1 Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose
also sees no stark difference between violent and non-violent methods when the
purpose is to install a National Government.2
The genesis of the Chittagong Uprising had a solid pre-history and a sound
background of revolutionary philosophy. During his college days at Berhampur
in the district of Murshidabad of the undivided Bengal Surya Sen, the leader of
the Uprising had clear connections and associations with the leaders of the
Anushilan Samiti and the Jugantar Dal. It was from these associations Sen learned
the first lessons on the philosophy of revolution. Aurobindo Raja Ke, Mukti
Kon Pathe and Bartaman Rananiti opened his eyes towards the nature of the
demoniac colonial rule. Akhandanandaji Maharaj of the Ramakrishna Mission
Vidyapith initiated him to Vivekananda-philosophy of revolutionary nationalism.
Professor Satish Chakravarty of the Berhampur college acquainted him with the
*Assistant Professor, Department of History, University of North Bengal,
West Bengal.
Surya Sen And The Chittagong Uprising of 1930
123
revolutionary ideals and activities of the Irish revolutionaries, and Carbonari activities
of this Italian nationalists and also of the Narodnik activities of the Russian Revolution.3
Surya Sen returned to Chittagong from Berhampur in 1917, and he joined
the Umatara High English National School as a teacher in Mathematics. In 1923
Sen formed a revolutionary society named Suluk Bahar.4 From this time onwards
Sen became popular as Masterda. Very soon young revolutionaries like Ananta
Singh, Ganesh Ghosh, Loknath Bal, Ambika Chakraborty, Binod Bihari
Chowdhury and others thronged around him, and they all dedicated themselves to
revolutionary activities. It is particularly noteworthy and striking that the last named
revolutionary Binod Bihari Choudhary was alive till 2013 still bearing his 1930revolutionary fiery spirit of patriotism; and it is that Choudhary whom all
Bangladesh pay her heartfelt glowing tribute for his love and adoration and life
long sacrifice for the honour of the Motherland, Sonar Bangla. Bandi Jivan of
Sachindranath Sanyal, a U.P. revolutionary was to them a text book of revolutionary
movement. Kazi Nazrul Islams Bidrohi was one of their favourite pomes. They
sang very often Bala bir chira unnata mama sir / sir nehari amari natasir ai
sikhar himadrir. Besides they read Jharer Kheya of Rabindranath Tagore
particularly the lines of the poem:
Voyagers, row on /This is the call :
Over is the period of thy anchorage at the port.
Trading of age-old amassment
Will not do any more.
Now deceits swell up/ runs out the store of thy cherished values.
That is why the helmsman call out/ March on ahead voyagers.
The prevailing mood of national frustration of the early 1920s prompted
the revolutionaries in northern India to organize armed revolution to overthrow
the colonial rule with a view to establishing a Federal Republic of the United
States of India. Then what was the necessity of armed uprisings? Sen answered
point blank that their activities would make the deaf hear that their deaths and
arrests and trials would make the people aware of their mission and ideology and
movements. All these would fire the imagination of the revolutionary- minded
youths, and then they would rush into various terrorist groups in a steady stream.5
In this respect Surya Sen once told one Ananda Gupta, one of his associates:
Most of us (the revolutionaries) will have to die in the process but our sacrifice
for such a noble cause will not go in vain.6
It was on this solid foundation of the philosophy of revolution Surya Sen
decided to challenge the British power through a series of raids in Chittagong.
The Easter Rising of 1916 provided Sen a model and example for the attack on
the Chittagong Armoury. On April 18, 1930, a group of revolutionaries, most of
whom still in their teens, attacked the armouries of the police and Auxiliary Force
in Chittagong with slogans such as Inquilab Zindabad, Down with Imperialism
and Gandhi Raj a Gaya. The action was carefully planned and executed. The
124
Sankar Kumar Das
revolutionaries dislocated telephone and telegraph communications and disrupted

movement by train. It was then Surya Sen hoisted the National Flag and proclaimed
a Provisional Revolutionary Government. Then late at night the revolutionaries
looking for a safe place marched towards the Chittagong hill ranges. The villagers
gave them food and shelter and enabled them to survive for about three years.
Surya Sen was finally arrested on February 16, 1933, and then tried and hanged
on January 12, 1934. Many of his comrades were caught and sentenced to long
terms of imprisonment. With these tragic episodes the high drama of the Chittagong
Uprising came to a tragic end.7
The Chittagong Uprising left an immense impact on the Government and
also on the people of Bengal. The Uprising stunned the colonial power, and as a
result it had to pass a good number of Acts and proclaimed a number of Ordinances
to curb the rising disturbances of the revolutionaries. Again Mir Ahmad, Fakir
Ahmad, Tunu Mia and quite a few other boatmen carried Masterda and his
comrades from place to place from shelter to shelter with all love and admiration
for their services for the countrys freedom.8 I conclude the article paying my
homage and pranams to the heroes of Chittagong Uprising and also to the people
of Bangladesh and particularly to Bnagabandhu, the hero of heroes, who were
probably highly influenced by the fighting spirit of the Chittagong Group of rebels
who always bore in mind the glorious saga of the Uprising as a precious gem.
Truly speaking, during the Liberation Movement of 1971 Bangladesh people
enacted the Chittagong drama of 1930 with all courage and confidence that the
bloodshed and sacrifice of heroes would surely bring the rosy dawn of Liberation.
References:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Speech at Friends House, London, on September 12, 1931 in CWMG,

Vol.-48.
Subhas Chandra Bose, The Indian Struggle, Netaji Collected Works Vol.-2 (Calcutta,
1981), p.335.
R.C.Mazumdar, History of Freedom Movement in India, Vol.-III, Second Revised
Edition 1988, Calcutta, p.408; Uma Mukherjee, Two Great Indian Revolutionaries
Rash Behari Bose & Jyotindra Nath Mukherjee with A Supplementary Essay on Surya
Sen and Indian Republican Armys Chittagong Revolution (1930-1941), First Days
Edition, 2004, Kolkata, p.232.
Manini Chatterjee, Do and Die : The Chittagong Uprising : 1930-34, Picador, 2010,
pp. 29-33.
Ibid, p. 11.
Anand Gupta, The Immortal Surya Sen, in Nitish Ray(ed.), Challenge: A Saga of
Indias Struggle for Freedom, Peoples Publishing House, New Delhi, 1984, p.89.
Manini Chatterjee, Do and Die : The Chittagong Uprising : 1930-34, Picador, 2010,
pp. 125-152.
Ibid, pp.315-328.
125
30
K.F. Narimans 1937 Episode:

A Study of Its Impact On
National Movement In Princely Mysore
*Yashodha.N
Introduction
The most important freedom fighter, and famous congressmen Khurshed Framji
Nariman, is also known as Veer Nariman was one of the second generations of
Parsi stalwarts in the Indian National Congress. He was elected President of the
Bombay Provincial Committee and then mayor of Bombay. In 1930 he was
influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and organised the Civil Disobedience Movement
in Bombay. He attempts to re-establish himself in the Freedom Movement through
the Congress activities. He presided many public meetings and addressed the
audience filled with his excitement speeches.
Congress debates began through meetings, A large number of people
participated in every meetings which was conducted by Congress. Later Congress
was grown tremendously all over.1 At this time Nariman entered to Bangalore to
preside local conferences organised by Congress.
Objectives, Scope And Nature of Nariman Incident

Many Writers and Intellectual people define the Nariman incident as they known
as.., given below.
Dr.N.B. Khare brands Sardar Patel as a terror and the all powerful in the
congress since the Nariman incident.2
The intellectual and Veteran Freedom Fighter Mr. H.S.Doreswamy was also
inspired by K.F.Nariman Episode when he was a student in Intermediate College.
*Research Scholar, Manasa Gangothri, Mysore University, Mysore,

Karnataka
126
Yashodha.N
So it is the evident from this study who participated in the public meeting, he
listened Narimans excitement speeches.
He remarks the episode, It was a very powerful speech. While Nariman
was speaking, the police dragged him off stage. All hell broke loose, and an enraged
crowd resorted to street fighting. Soon after, the students of the intermediate college
observed a bandh in protest.3 In this time a lot of political events promoting
nationalism in Mysore state.
A Public Meetings Were Organised In Princely Mysore

The State Congress appointed a Council of Action and the Council toured the
whole Mysore State and condemned the prohibition orders, the attitude of the
Dewan and propagated the idea of responsible government at public meetings
organised all over.As national Movement was getting board based and reaching
various sections of the community and increasing its variegated activities, many
big and small organisations were founded to serve as front units of Congress.
These organisation rendered yeomen service to mobilise youth and later all become
banned. When The Mass Awakeners union was also founded in 1937. At this
same year K.F.Nariman who came to attend its conference in Dec. 1937. He was
also banned from addressing the assembly.4
Nariman Incident
Towards the end of Oct 1937, K.F.Nariman was invited to preside over the All
India Local Self Government conference. In view of his objectionable speeches
delivered at Mysore and other places, Bangalore City Police sent report to the
district magistrate for the issue of prohibitory orders against Mr. K.F. Nariman
from making any speeches in the limits of Bangalore City. A prohibitory order
under section 39, Mysore police Regulation issued by the District Magistrate was
served on Mr.Nariman on the 24th when he undertook not to attend the meeting.5
K.F.Nariman came to Bangalore in 1937, Oct, 24thonwards to deliver public
speech. In the same day a public meeting was held at Banappa Park near the road
of Kempegowda. He was prohibited by Government. But Nariman came to the
meeting to make a speech without taking this prohibited orders.6
When the meeting took place at Banappas Park in the evening, he suddenly
made his appearance on the platform and began addressing the students. He wanted
to address the students on Students as the future citizens. He said that though
his speeches were considered as violent, no prohibitory orders were passed in any
of the places except Bangalore. A few minutes after he started addressing the
students, the police came and removed him under arrest for having disobeyed the
order of the District Magistrate. Then suddenly mob attacked the Police and they
were subsequently dispersed by force.7
K.F. Narimans 1937 Episode: A Study of Its......
127
Police guessed this and immediately arrested him when he stepped on stage.
As a result people were disaffected by this act. Exasperated people were shouted
down. There was a seen disturbance over there.8
There was a crowd of several thousands had gathered to hear Nariman. Even
as Nariman went up the Ideas to speak, Police Inspector Basappa took his arm
and pulled him down the stage. The crowd was enraged and irritated by this act of
Basappa and protested as one man. They threw a stone on police. Riot took place.
The police had difficulty in escorting Nariman into their van. He was arrested,
taken outside the borders of the state and released.9
Enraged Students Started For National Activities

The Nariman Episode of 1937 created unprecedented awakening among the youth
of Bangalore.
In sympathy with the sufferings of the students of Bangalore some students
of the High School and Middle School of Doddaballapur struck work on 26th
October and went in procession with the photo of Mr. Gandhi in the town. In the
evening, a meeting under the president ship of Mr. K.Changalaraya Reddi was
held. About 3,000 people attended.10
Thus, The Intermediate College Students also attended the public meeting.
That incident ignited the fire within the participated people and Students. Soon
after the students of the Intermediate college observed a bandh in protest. The
Student was an active participant. That was the beginning for students involvement
to National Movement. They were inspired with this incident. And they havent
looked back since then.
An Uncontrollable Mob Was Started In Princely Mysore

Ban was imposed on K.F.Nariman, on his addressing the public meeting of
Bangalore on Oct, 24th. He was man handled by the police while arresting him.
This was followed by lathi-Charge and firing to disperse unruly mob which
protested against the arrest. Bangalore was very tense for almost a week from
Oct, 24th when there was firing and one Gundappa was killed and several others
were injured. Many people were arrested in this incident.11
As a protest against this ill-treatment of one of the guests of the state, hartal
was held in Bangalore. A peaceful crowd had gathered in front of the city
Magistrates court in Bangalore. The Inspector general of police not only abused
the people in indecent language but also ordered firing, finally resulting in the
death of one Gundappa of Cobbonpet. The police also entered the intermediate
college premises and beat up students and teachers. This naturally enraged the
students and police feared that the students would attack the Dewans residence
Carlton House Which was near by. There was disturbed atmosphere in Bangalore
for a few days. The police had to secure military assistance to establish law and order.12
128
Yashodha.N
The straits times reports, Following the arrest of a prominent Congressman

K.F.Nariman, who also is a former Mayor of Bombay, trouble started, 60 were
sent to hospital at Bangalore when the police fired on a large crowd.13
On the 26th also some of the rowdy elements were going over the City. On
the 27th, the district Magistrate, Bangalore, passed an order under section 144
Cr.P.C. prohibiting the holding of meetings and assembling of five or more persons
in or near any public place in Bangalore City for a period of one week. The Military
was sent back the same night.14
His Arrest Made More Strengthened Congress Activities

Nariman conflict was one of the effective nationalism impact on Congress Activities
in princely Mysore. Many Congress leaders were held some congress meetings;
they discussed about the present situation in the City and decided to reconstitute
the present constitution of the City Congress Committee. Condemning the
Government action leaders delivered public speeches in the meetings and expressed
sorrow for K.F.Nariman arrest. They delivered exhorted speech to the public to
fight for their rights and if necessary to be prepared to go to jail.15These type of
the congress activities in the native states relating to took certain important decisions
in The Congress sessions like Haripura Congress.
It was decide that congressmen in the states could start independent
organisation to the carry on the movement in their respective areas. In this meeting
it was decided to start an independent organisation called Mysore Congress.16
The meetings delivered message to the people is that the present day system
of Government should be changed. The congress would take part in removing the
poverty in the state and would try to reduce the high salaries of the officers and
establishment a responsible Government under the aegis of the His Highness the
Maharaja and make Mysore a model State under the Congress rule and concluded
to the people should earn Swaraj under their own rulers.17 For to achieve this
many activities were organised by Congress and finally it led to National
Movement. As a result India became Independent country in next coming days.
These type of Congressmens censured activities also disturbed economic
condition in princely Mysore. Many meetings were held in Bangalore city and
were addressed by many congress leaders and exhibition of a Khadi and Swadeshi
were also organised by them. These organisation encouraged people to wear khadi
and Swadeshi clothes. These types of mind set within each and every people led
them to participate into the Freedom Movement.
Conclusion
Thus the incident of Nariman year 1937 was like a chain incident and closely
connected to coming strikes led to national movement. And it was a year of passing
fast changes in Princely Mysore and Mysore Congress. The nationalist minded
students, working class people participated in this public meeting.
K.F. Narimans 1937 Episode: A Study of Its......
129
From this event, those people who attended the public meeting including
Students and working class people became a part of National Movement and this
episode was a great turning point in Indian National Movement. Those inspired
people exposed to the Nationalism and they were ready to give their shoulders to
Congressmens activities and they joined their hands with Congress National
Movement. The people dedicated themselves and played a dominant role in Quit
India Movement (1942). They took the movement so successfully each and all by
showing Individual Heroism. And this kind of awareness helped them to achieve
freedom in British India and establish responsible Government in Princely Mysore.
Totally 1937 episode was acted as a link to historical events in Indian History.
And its a great inspiration for further historical incidents.
References1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
D||U.Suryanath Kamath Private Collections, In the written letter from Nanjappa(Hasan

dst), Box no3, Karnataka state Achieves, Mysore P-240-41.
Sardar Patel, Satyagrahi to Statesman, (1875-1950), National Archives, An Exhibition
of Documents and Photographs 2nd, May, 1975.
Show Case No.3- Congress Ministries (Apprehension about Socialist), Sardar, A
Terror. (N.A.I. Khare Collection, Khares autobiography My defence.)
The Hindu, Article, His Experiments with Truth, 30-Sept-2002, Monday.
Karnataka State Gazetteer of India, Bangalore Rural District vol 18, Karnataka (India),
Suryanath U Kamath, Director of print, Stationary and publications at the government
press, 1989. Pp- 106-108.
S-36, Secret Files, Special Branch Abstract, No.44/37, Saturday, 30thOct, 1937, P-202.
Bengalurina Itihas, Ba.Na.Sundara Rao,VasantSahityaGranthmala Jayanagar,
Bangalore, 1985. P-572.
S-36, Secret Files, Special Branch Abstract, No.44/37, Saturday, 30thOct 1937, P-202.
Bengalurina Itihas, Ba.Na.Sundara Rao, VasantSahityaGranthmala, Jayanagar,
Bangalore, 1985, P-572.
D|| H.S.Doreswamy, From Autocracy to Peoples Government, Sahitya Mandira,
Bangalore, 1993. P-23.
Karnataka State Gazetteer of India, Bangalore Rural District vol.18, Karnataka (India),
Suryanath U Kamath, Director of print, Stationary and publications at the government
press, 1989, P-108.
Bangalore, 1993, Pp.23- 24
The stairs times, 26 Oct 1937, P-11, (Article also available on microfilm reel NL
4150- Lee Kong Chain Reference Library-on shelf).
Abide.,
Bangalore, 1993, Pp -24-25.
130
31
Intricacies of Nationalism In India

*Babaljit Singh Sandhu
In the modern world nationalism is that metaphysical idea which has twofold
idee-force, on one hand it can be emerge as a progressive and liberating force
and on other hand it can be unreasonable and reactionary faith. The nationalism
as state of mind can historically be analyzed as a sequence of changes in shared
psychology in which a community collectively respond to their circumstances. It
emerged in a social world at a certain stage of evolution of the life of the community
when certain socio-historical conditions, both objective and subjective matured.1
E. H. Carr define the nation as a human group who has the idea of common
government, closeness of contact between all its members, more or less defined
territory, common language, common interests, common feelings or will.2 But
nations are complex phenomena that are shaped by a collection of cultural, political
and psychological factors. Politically a nation is that where nationality is a state
of mind corresponding to a political fact.3The sentiments of patriotism are a
psychological interpretation of the concept of nation. This inherent uniqueness of
the concept of nation provides the terrain to become the nationalism double-faced.
Internationally, it leads to a lively sympathy with all fellow members within the
nationality; internationally, it finds its expression in indifference to or distrust and
hate of fellow men outside the national orbit.4
Gyanendra Pandey in his article Nationalism and Communalism writes
about the genesis of communalism that communalism and nationalism, as we
understand them today, arose together, the age of communalism was concurrent
with the age of nationalism they were part of same discourse.5 Ideologically
nationalism is unblemished happening of Indian awakening but by the primordial
pulls of caste, religious community and so on6 and it also engendered the political
assertiveness of groups with common culture, identity and interest7 to wit
communalism- is an affirmation of religious community as a political group.
The failure of non-cooperation movement projected communalism as chief
flogging horse of Indian Nationalism. It was not confined to religious minorities
* Assistant Professor At GHG Khalsa College Gurusar Sadhar Ludhiana, Punjab.
131
more over the Dalit leader Dr. B. R. Ambedkar cast off Congress and Gandhian
reforms as crocodiles tear to gain political benefits. He was not opposed to Swaraj
or self rule, but asked, tell me what share I am to have in the Swaraj.8It is very
clear to us that various types of nationalism were not mutually exclusive but
mutually interactive before Independence.9
Nationalism rests on the assumption that a nation must have a past. It also
rests on another assumption, no less fundamental, namely that a nation must have
a future.10 The nationalism had different meanings for different groups of people.
In Indian past from 1192 AD Muslim dominated the India but now they were very
perturbed about congress hegemony in future. Contemptible past of the Dalits
geared up them claiming their rights of citizenship which Congress failed to
guarantee despite of Gandhis reformist endeavors. 11 In 19 January 1946
M.A.Jinnah said, Why are we fighting for Partition? Why are the Muslim men
and Children prepared to shed their blood for Partition? If we fail to achieve it, we
shall be reducing to the status of Sudras.12 There are 700 shrines hallowed by the
touch of the feet of the Sikh Gurus in the Punjab13 it convinced the Sikhs to claim
the region as Sikh homeland. In that political scenario they also looked from another
angle that If Pakistan was to come out of compulsion because Mr. Jinnahs demand
could not be resisted, why not give an independent state to the Sikhs also?14
The distrust of various communities or political parties, except Congress,
was that the dominant political party would severely circumscribed by the need to
protect the interests of their class or religion in society. The use of Hindu religious
symbols by the Congress leaders compelled the others to reconsider their past
history, culture and religion. MA. Jinnah said Hindus and Muslims belong to
two different religious philosophies, social customs and literature They have
different epics, their heroes are different, and they have different episodes.15 Claude
Mark Ovitz raises the question, Did religious division necessarily have to lead to
territorial partition? and argues that the crucial reason of territorial partition was
the conceived concept of state whether unitary or federal. Abandoning the vision
of Gandhi, who envisaged independent India as a federation of village communities,
the Congress leaders declared themselves in favour of the construction of a strong
and centralized state. Nehru and Patel did not want to surrender important powers
(with regard to finances or communications) to provinces or group of provinces,
as demanded by the Muslim League. Nehru and Patel preferred an amputated
India, but with strong central power, to a confederacy with weak central
government.16
If the Congress wanted centralized state, it was Muslim League which
encouraged autonomous Muslim provinces (created by Government of India Act
of 1935) to push forward its demand of separate nationhood and later converted it
into separate sovereign state of the Muslims.17 They used violence a continuation
of politics by other means. The borderline between power and violence is thus not
always clear-cut (violence here meaning the use of physical force which can be
a threat to life, limb or property). A violent coup d etat can be launched for a
132
Babaljit Singh Sandhu
political end, and there may be resort to violence in desperation, where rational
persuasion has gone unheard.18
Jinnahs adamant refusal to any other interpretation of culture than his two
nation theory and Congresss snub for two nation theory closed the door of such
constitutional developments which would provide safeguards to all communities
in Indian multicultural society and, mainly, could prevented the territorial Partition.
The renaissance humanists highlighted culture as mental cultivation. The classic
definition of culture was provided by English anthropologist E.B. Taylor in his
work Primitive culture: Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge,
belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by
man as a member of society. A society composed of people; the way they behave
is their culture.19In spite of that cultural nationalism drew its strength from two
sources: resistance against colonial culture and struggle against the indigenous20but
it made its corresponding community to self and identity conscious. Indian society
is conglomerate of various religion as well as traditions. So the nature of Indian
society is defined as multicultural which incorporated a number of interrelated
themes; it underscores the need to have a stable identity, emphasizes the
contribution of cultural communities to fulfillment of this need and brings out the
link between identity and recognition. It stresses the importance of cultural
belonging and legitimizes the desire to maintain difference.21
In multicultural society the politicians main concern will never be the public
interest, on the contrary, to enjoy the exercise of power and can be expected to
maximize it if given the opportunity to do so. The factional disputes are evidence
for a conflict of interests in the society is unavoidable. The failure of Cabinet
Mission Plan - The ultimate attempt of the British to reach an agreement between
the League and the Congress within the framework of a confederal system22 - can
be seen in this context.
Penderal Moon asserted that M.A. Jinnah putting Pakistan forward from an
esoteric fancy into a powerful political slogan, and further, under Gandhian
leadership the Congress made mistake that it could and did represent all Indians
including Muslims, which provided great impetus the menace of Muslim
separatism.23 Moon has also confirmed that a general lack of political wisdom and
statesmanship on the part of the Congress during years 1937-1942, made Pakistan
a fait accompli.24 According to Bipan Chandra, nationalism was a real valid and
legitimate consciousness where as communalism was a false consciousness25 .He
further argues that nationalism had no control over the economic and social
conditions which were conducive to growth of communalism and he saw the
success of communalism as a punishment for these weaknesses.26 Mushirul Hassan
holds virtually identical views that religious nationalism of the Hindus, Muslims
and Sikhs triumphed over tepid enthusiasm of Congress secular wing. The outcome
was a catastrophic event Indian bloody vivisection.27From different angle R.J.
Moore scrutinized the problem as an effect of the influence of the British Policy
on the relationship which existed between the Congress and the Muslim League.
133
British constitutional safeguards had the potential to shape both forces of Muslim
separatism and of the Indian nationalism. But during the years of provincial
ministries Congresss Unitarianism within federal structure affected its relation
gravely with Muslims.28 Paul Brass summarized the reason of Muslim separatism
as a product of Muslim political elites which played a major role in winning support
for separatism.29
If nationalism is an ideology, the conflict between secular nationalism and
religious nationalism can be seen a conflict between ideologies as Karl Mannheims
concept of total conception and particular conception of ideology.30 It was a
real expression of political disagreement between Congress and Muslim League.
The difference was between to attach ultimate value to the individual and to attach
the ultimate value to the community or was between Universalist morality and
relative morality. It is historically important that history gives a picture not of
politics as beyond good and evil, but of a good beyond politics which politicians
can acknowledge, and thereby bring their own task into perspective.31 The both
parties engaged of sheer lust of power. No doubt both sides talked in moral terms
and claim to be acting in defense of their rights. So these appeals were only made
because it was psychologically useful to convince the people, right was on their
side. These appeals were used as a ruse for the multitude to hide the naked search
for power.
References
1.
A.R. Desai, Social Background of Indian Nationalism, Popular Prakashan, Mumbai,

2010, p xxix
2. Ibid, p. xxx
3. Hans Kohn, Western and Eastern Nationalism, John Hutchinson & Anthony D.
Smith (ed.), Nationalism, OUPNew York,1994, p. 162
4. Ibid p. 263
5. Gyanendra Pandey, Nationalism versus Communalism in Partition of India Why 1947?
OUP, New Delhi, 2012, p 61
6. Ibid
7. Louis Dumont, Religion, Politics and History in Indian Sociology, Manton, Paris,1970,
p.89
8. Shekhar Bandyopadhyay,Nationalist Movement In India: A Reader,OUP, New Delhi,
2009, p. xxv
9. J.S. Grewal, Religious Nationalism in Colonial India, D.N. Jha(ed.), Society and
Ideology in India, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt Ltd., New Delhi, 1996, p.
398
10. Elie Kedourie , Dark Gods and Their Rites in Nationalism, John Hutchinson &
Anthony D. Smith (ed.), Nationalism, OUP New York,1994, p. 208
11. Sekhar Bandyopadhyay, Nationalist Movement In India: A Reader, OUP, New Delhi,
2009, p. Xxxiii
12. Dawn, 19 January 1946
134
Babaljit Singh Sandhu
13. Harnam Singh, Punjab the Homeland of the Sikhs, Lahore, 1945, p.33.
14. Indu Bunga, The Sikhs and the Prospect of Pakistan, Kaushik Roy (ed.), Partition
Of India: Why
1947?, OUP, New Delhi, 2012, p. 193.
15. Debadutta Chakravarty, Muslim Separatism and the Partition of India, Atlantic, New
Delhi, 2003, p. 57.
16. Claude Markovitz,A History Of Modern India 1480-1950,Anthem Press, London,
2002, pp. 483-486
17. R.J. Moore, Escape from Empire; The Atlee Government and the Indian Problem,
Oxford, 1983, p.53
18. Dorothy Emmet, The Moral Prism, The Macmillan Press London, 1979, p. 19
19. Melville J. Herskovits, Cultural Anthropology, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.,
Calcutta, 1958, pp
306,317
20. K.N. Panikkar, Colonialism, Culture and Resistance, p. 58
21. Rajeev Bhargava, Amiya Kumar Bagchi, R. Sudarshan, Multiculturalism, liberalism,
and democracy, Oxford, New Delhi, 1999, p. 1
22. Claude Markovitz, A History Of Modern India 1480-1950,Anthem Press,2002, p.
478
23. Penderel Moon, Divide and Quit, New Delhi, 1998, pp. 287-290
24. Ibid p. 274
25. Bipan Chandra, Communalism in Modern India, New Delhi, 1984 p. 21
26. Ibid p. 295
27. Mushirul Hasan, Partition Narratives, Sectional Presidential Address , Indian History
Congress, 62 session, December 2001, Bhopal, pp. 359-360
28. R.J. Moore, The Crisis of Indian Unity, Oxford, 1974, pp. 13-14
29. Paul R. Brass, Language, Religion and Politics in North India, Cambridge, 1974, p.
178
30. Lyman Tower Sargent, Contemporary Political Ideologies-A Comarative Analysis,
Wadsworth Sengage Learning, Belmont, 2009, p. 7
31. Dorothy Emmet, op cit, p. 30
135
32
Development of Higher Education In J&K

And Its Impact (1889-1947)
*Dr Vinod Choudhary
In April 1889, the Government of India took the administration of the Jammu &
Kashmir State and, set-up a Council of Regency in the state. However, in practice,
the BritishResidentinKashmir had become omnipotent in all the matters concerning
the administration of the State. Now, the Government of India resolved to introduce
reforms in the State that were conducive to their interests and aspirations, both
within the State and outside it. Thus, the State Council intended to launch an era
of reforms in the State and the Education sector received their intention. Most of
the princely states in the Punjab had their own colleges and producing educated
young men to share the responsibility of the administration of their respective
states.1While up to 1905,there was not even a single college in the State of Jammu
& Kashmir to impart higher education to the state-subjects. The States people
who intended to acquire higher education had to go either to the Punjab or to the
British provinces.. Therefore, the State Council intended to impart higher education
to the masses here and there itself in the State. In this concern, on April 20, 1903,
Raja Amar Singh, the Vice- President of the State Council wrote a letter to the
British Resident in Kashmir and the Director of public Instructions. It was as
follow:
..it is really a pity that while much smaller States such as Bahawalpur,
Kapurthala, Patiala, etc,have their own colleges and trained their masses to share
the responsibility of the administrations of their respective states, for the State
Service, the Jammu and Kashmir State has none and to carry on its administration
depend on the outsiders for educated men, who cannot be expected to have an
abiding interest in the welfare of the State, and they make the State poorer by the
amount they draw as their salaries during their service.2 The Director of Public
Instruction of the State of Jammu and Kashmir wrote to the Education Member of
the State that the time had come when a college should be established at Jammu
*Lecturer, History, Govt Hr Sec School Muthi (J&K)
136
Dr Vinod Choudhary
immediately. He expressed confidence that a number of students of the State would

seek admission in this college.3
In 1905, during the visit of the then Prince of Wales (later on the King George
V) to Jammu, Maharaja Pratap Singh announced the setting-up of a college at
Jammu in memory of the Princes visit to the city.In the beginning, the college
was located in the Ajaibgarh building (museum). On April 20, 1907, the Maharaja
formally inaugurated it. 4 In 1912, the college building was shifted to the new
building erected outside the city on the north side of the river Tawi.5Sh. R.N.
Mukerjee served as its first officiating-principal. However, within three months
of its establishment, Professor F.A. Dadina was appointed its principal. He was an
M.A., and Barrister at Law. In 1912, the State Government brought marked
improvement in the supervision of the college by appointing Mr. S. Robson, as its
principal, who was formerly principal of the Government College Lahore.6
As regard the setting-up of Srinagar College, the Director of Public
Instruction, Jammu and Kashmir, on March 16, 1899 communicated to the Judicial
Member of the State, in the following words:
.the scheme of a college in Srinagar may be postponed for the time being
till we make ourselves sure regarding sufficient annual supply of matriculated
scholars from the State High School in the City.7
However, the Kashmiri Pundits had obsession for acquiring higher education
that they could receive only at Lahore, which was not only hot but also day and far
distant.. Finally, in 1905, she personally came to Srinagar at the time of the
inauguration of Sri Pratap Hindu College, Srinagar. The College affiliated to the
Punjab University Lahore. The State Government Provided a grant in aid of rupees
one thousand five hundred per month and donated the land for the construction of
college building.8 Despite the sponsorship, Sri Pratap Hindu College Srinagar
could not meet the expenses, with the result it failed to maintain the efficiency as
required by the Punjab University Lahore. Consequently, the college stood in an
imminent danger of disaffiliation by the University. Consequently, Dr. A. Mitra,
the Minister of Education, expressed his anguish to the Maharaja through the
Prime Minister. He writes:
His Highness the Maharaja Sahib Bahadur was anxious that the college
should be revived. To increase the grant would be of no use, and the only other
alternative was for the state to take up the institution, make it a State college with
absolute control, and bear the full expenses. Accordingly the Chief Minister and
myself explained the situation to Col. Ramsay, who agreed with the proposal, on
the condition that the control of the college is absolutely transferred to the State.9
The authorities of the Central Hindu College Benaras approved the proposal
of the State Government.The Board of Trustees authorized Mrs. Annie Besant to
hand over the college to the State authorities on a receipt of rupees twenty thousand
in lieu of the cost of the building, furniture, erected and supplied to college. The
State Government finally took over the charge of the college in a formal ceremony
on July 19,1911 and the college was renamedas Sri Pratap College, Srinagar.10
Development of Higher Education In......
137
The State authorities realized that the literary activity had been almost
negligible in colleges; the State Government took steps to inculcate literary taste
in the students. For this purpose a magazine of the Prince of Wales Collegeknown
as The Tawi saw the light of the day in which an opportunity was provided to the
students to contribute their articles or narrate their experiences in the magazine.
In 1913-14, its first issue was published.11 Subsequently, in January 1916, the
magazine of the S.P College was also published. It was entitled Pratap.12 The
magazines, besides literary articles contained information about the working and
the activities of the colleges. It continued to create new posts in the teaching staff
of the colleges and to extend their affiliation to include more subjects at the graduate
and post graduate levels.
Till 1925, there were only two colleges in the State, the Prince of Wales
College Jammu and Sri Pratap College Srinagar. For some time, the State
Government did not set up any new college; however, continued to consolidate
and develop the existing ones. Maharaja Hari Singh realized that the two colleges
one each in Jammu and Srinagar were not sufficient and there was an urgent need
of opening more colleges in the State.
The rapid increase in the number of students attending Sri Pratap College
Srinagar confronted with the problem of accommodation. Therefore, in 1935-36,
it was proposed to open a new college of science in Srinagar, affiliated to the
Punjab university.13Accordingly, on September 1, 1942, S.P College was bifurcated
into Sri PratapIntermediated College and the Amar Singh Degree College.14For
the library of the newly set up Amar Singh Degree College Srinagar, S.P College
donated two thousand seven hundred and sixty three books. Besides, the State
Government sanctioned a special grant of rupees five thousand and a recurring
grant of rupees twelve hundred was sanctioned for purchasing books for the
library.15 In 1939-40, one aided Oriental College for teaching of Persian and
Arabic was set up in Srinagar. It prepared students for the High Proficiency and
Honours Examination conducted by the Punjab university Lahore.16 In 1944-45,
Karan Singh College was set-upat Mirpur in the name of Yuvraj Karan
Singh.17 In this college BazimAdab,a Hindi Parishad and a Punjabi Sabha for
holding debates and symposia were formed.18
With the aim of establishing a separate college for women in city of Jammu,
some important persons from Jammu formed a Mahila Education Society. In June
1944, the society with the assistance of the State Government founded a College
for Women at Parade Ground Jammu. Maharani Tara Devi, the only wife of
Maharaja Hari Singh donated rupees ten thousand for its establishment. The
subjects like English, History, Economics, Music, HomeScience, Hindi, Sanskrit
and Urdu were taught in the college from the day one. In the wake of partition of
the country in 1947, this College was closed and reopened in 1948. In 1953, it
was take over by the State Government and renamed Government College for
women Parade Ground, Jammu.19
138
Dr Vinod Choudhary
These colleges started passing out graduates, who rendered unemployed as

the Government services in the State had become a monopoly of the British Indian
subjects in general and the European in particular.20 These young graduates also
raised a demand that state subjects should have a preference over the non-state
subjects in the matter of state services, which later, ultimately culminated in the
promulgation of the definition of the hereditary state subjects. It provided
opportunities to the people to acquire government services. Undoubtedly, the
literary rate also increased in the State, gradually but slowly.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
JK OER, File No. 66 of 1899, p. 43.

Letter from the Vice President to the Resident of Kashmir, Letter No. 212, dated : 204-1903, pp. 75, 76. JKOER F.No.66 of 1899.
From Director of Public Instruction to the Judicial Member. Letter No. 2992, dated:
10-3-1899, JK OER F.No.66 of 1899, p. 33.
Seru, S.L., History and Growth of Education in Jammu and Kashmir (1872-1973),
Ali Mohammed & Sons, Srinagar, 1973, pp 84, 85.
A.R. of J&K State of 1912-13, p. 84.
Ibid.
JK OER File No 66 of 1899, Letter No 2992, dated10-3-1899, p. 33.
A.R. of Education Department of J&K State of 1911-12, p. 2.
JK Political Department, File No. 71/p-120 of 1910, pp. 39, 40.
A.R. of Education Department of J&K State of 1911-12, p. 2.
Ibid, 1913-14, p. 2.
Ibid, 1915-16, p. 5.
A.R. of J&K State of 1935-36, p. 49.
A.R. of J&K State of 1941-43, p. 188.
Ibid, p. 189
A.R. of J&K State of 1939-40, pp. 202, 203.
Seru, S.L., History and Growth of Education in Jammu and Kashmir (1872 to 1973),
Ali Mohammed & Sons, Srinagar, p. 137.
A.R. of J&K State of 1944-45, p. 109.
Chohan, A.S. Development of Education in the Jammu and Kashmir State (18461947), Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, 1998,pp.97, 101.
A.R. of J&K State of 1945-46, p. 134.
139
33
British ColonialismAnd Changes In The

Landscape of Malabar 1800-1947
*Udaya Kumar P.
The political ecology research is the attempt to understand how human and
environment interaction may be linked to the spread of environmental degradation.1
The colonial rule in India introduced many plantations and these plantations were
a double edged sword which showed the good and bad aspects of colonialism.
Plantation brought the skills of mechanization.2 Imperial impacts were inevitably
multidimensional, with many a legacy still influencing and shaping the modern world.3
The introduction of the plantations in Malabar brought the ecological
changes. World ecology has been profoundly altered by western capitalism, in
whose dynamic expansion other ecosystems were disrupted, first through trade
and later by colonialism. Not only did such interventions virtually reshape the
social, ecological and demographic characteristics of the habitats they intrude
upon, they also ensured that the ensuing changes would primarily benefit Europe.
The district is divided into two forest divisions, each under a forest officer.
Oneconsists of Wynad and Palaghat and the other of Nilambur teak plantations
and the surrounding natural forests. The district forest officers headquarters are
at Calicut and the duty of the officers was divided in hierarchical, were charge of
the fostering of the resources. The chief feature of the Nilambur division is the
magnificent teak plantations.The surrounding natural forests are rich in timber
trees, but the mature trees of the valuable descriptions have been mostly felled
though there is still plenty of fuel. The district forest officer has also charge of the
sale depot at Cullye.4
The madras forest act passed in 1882.Many have taken place since. Forest
has been reclassified. The authority of the Forest Department has been partly
transferred to the Panchayatand partly to the Revenue Deprtment which now
controls the Panchayat.By the excessive powers vested in the forest executive and
the grave consequence arising out of their mere displeasure the riot is now reduced
*Assistant Professor, Department of History, Govt. College, Malappuram,
Kerela
140
Udaya Kumar .P
to the position of living for the forests and for the Forest officials instead of the
forest existing and being conserved for his benefit. This amendment act therefore
takes away the power to keep for long essentials of ryots in other hands.
The emergence of plantation economy affected the eco system .It led to
deforestation and there by a decline in the livestock population .It also affected
the paddy cultivation. There are coffee estates, and the trees are from ten to fifteen
feet high and covered with blossom. The British cleared the forest for establishing
the plantations brought a profound impact in the landscape of the Malabar.With
the coming of Europeans, a flourishing timber trade also developed. . British
colonialism exploited timber for Britains industrial revolution. H. Smith was
appointed the plantation in Nilambur in February 26 by Connolly. Smith visited
Nilambur forest and saw the exploited scene of the western part of the Nilambur
forest. So he decided the plantation would be started there.5The first site for the
plantation was obtained by the government from the Trikkalayur devaswam. For
a royally upon feelings and on advance of Rs 8000 without interest the deal was
executed on 10th December 1840.the condition of financial difficulties through which
the devaswam was passing made matters easy for the government to effect the lease
deed. According to the treaty the government could get the property right of the
area. There were only the small resource of the forest under the local authority and
the rest were under colonial control and if the local authority cut or taking anything
from there and they have to give or pay Kuttikanam.The government acquired the
right over the land even from the minute local chieftains and concluded the treaties
with them and which empowered the government full power and authority to fell
timber from the soil hills as well as every right and liberty over the soil hills in the
same manner as if they are their own property until the same should be abandoned
by them for their own accord. One lease was signed with zamorin on the 10th of
November 1841 which gave control over the Nellikkuth forest .According to this,
or it gave the right the sarkar to fell within the limits of this forest and those trees
that are now standing as well as those that may hereafter grow or may be planted.
Every tree felled down should be brought and placed near on the bank of the river.6
The forest was notified in 1885 and as a reserved forest under section 25 of
the forest Act. In 1884 Mr. G.V. Dance, assistant collector commenced negotiations
with the zamorin for the surrender of the following rights viz to collect elephant
tusk, to capture elephants, to wash for golds (the Nilambur valley is noted for the
gold deposit).and the agreement was signed on 15th 0ctober 1885 in which the
right was surrendered. The price of the elephants captured will be fixed by the
district forest officers within one month after the capture. Teak forests have marked
influence on the structure of the soil. Large scale timbers were needed for big
buildings, houses and even for the cathedrals roofing, vault frames and scaffolding
which required the right size and shape timbers .so they sought the colonies and
found the Malabar. They introduced scientific methods to the planting, Dr. White,
the superintendent of cotton farm and Mr.Perrotet, superintend of botanical garden
of Pondicherry and reported a letter on 4th august 1842 that of 30000 seeds and
British ColonialismAnd Changes In......
141
10000 saplings were transplanted. Timber was used for shipbuilding, to fuel steam
engines in industry and transportation, and to make railroad sleepers for Indias
growing colonial rail network; these days large forest areas were opened and the
virginity of the forest was violated. Various spices and timber products earned
international reputation. From the 1770s until about 1860 fluctuating demand for
naval and military, timber represented the main significant commercial and demand
factor in British forest policy in India.7The forest policy of eighteenth century Britain
was determined primarily by the requirements of Oak for Lee Navy and merchant
marine. In the search for after sources for the ship timber, search was also made for
a species which might provide an alternative to oak. The assistance of East Indian
Teak (Malabar Teak) was found to be splendid candidate to substitute the oak.8
As a result of large quantities of Teak supplied to the Bombay Naval dockyard
for ship building and to the ministry of works department at wellington and other
places.9 Felling of trees were done indiscriminately and removal of valuable timber
was almost wholesale. Teak continued to be high demand for ship building.
All the forest land in India has confiscated by the Britishers was existed as a
public property. Forests had to be cleared for the railways, which in turn enabled
timber exploitation in deeper areas. Ecologically, deforestation resulted in soil
erosion, loss of biodiversity, problems of salination, rising water tables; abandoned
wells; drying or siltation of drainage channels, and the spread of malaria but only
in Malabar it was existed as the private property-that is the establishment of the
power on the forest. Malabar district taken in the first step towards the
commencement of system of forest management by the government of India. Some
forest regions become have not the owners, these were getting to the government
as Escheat, in that time, and only the lands were under the government as the
Escheats lands. With the introduction of Railways the demand for timber increased
considerable and the state organized a system of scientific forestry.10
Elephants have been captured in pit falls in Malabar from time immemorial,
but it was not till 1896 that their capture was systematically taken up in the
government forests in the Wynad. And it is customary to give written permission
to dig pits for capturing elephants and such persons who capturing and taming the
elephants have to bring the usual expenses. There were a government employee
to look after this process and who was in charge of granting the permission for
digging the pits. They had been the liberty to make new roads wherever they
wished. They also started the Mahogany plantations and the district forest officer
remarks about that. The foremost impact on ecology was the transformation of
landscape and its use of variety of crops.
Environment was central in shaping history. In Kerala the nature had an
important place in the life of the people in the form of sacred groves, and it was
the commonplace of environmental romanticism-the notion that natural resources
in pre capitalist social formations tend to be held in common. The very structure
of colonialism was based on the rule of difference As Skaria, opined, the civilizing
mission never could be erasing wilderness: it always had to be about subordinating
142
Udaya Kumar .P
the wild, construing the colonized as wild, and sustaining that construction.
Environment continued to pose itself as the biggest hurdle in the consolidation
process of the Britain. It has been noted that the colonial state constantly strove to
devise more and more sophisticated and efficient ways of not only extending its
control but also extracting revenues, resources and labour. The colonial capital
and technology worked hand in glove to exploit the rich natural resources of
Malabar. The private property rights in land had profound in the changes of the
human ecology of the area. The interdependency of agriculture; forest and the
man were collapsed after the sway over the land. The attitude of the people towards
the forest and their environment underwent drastic changes, why because of the
internal colonization during the twentieth century. From the 1930s onwards the
pretty capitalist planters from the Travancore region migrated to the highlands of
Malabar and in an enormously purchased and cleared the vast tracts of the private
forestlands. They transformed or destroyed nearly all the natural forest cover of
the region and converted the former jungle lands into commercial plots. The
colonial intervention in the ecology of Malabar was an everlasting impact, the
tremendous environmental changes that took place as a result of British colonial
rule, entire structure, landscape and the human ecology.
References
1.
Raymond L.Bryant, Power,Knowledge and Political Ecology in The Third World:A

Review, Progress in Physical Geography,1998,p.80.
2. Udayakumar.P, A History of Kerala Estate-A British Rubber Plantation of the Colonial
Period in Malappuram District,Un published M.A.Dissertation ,NSS College
Manjeri, ,2006,p.15
3. Deepak Kumar,Vinita Damodaran and Rohan Dsouza (eds),The British Empire and
the Natural World Environmental Encounters in South Asia,OUP,NewDelhi,2011,p.1.
4. File No.M 32M33M34,Manual of Administration of the Madras Presidency (Vol.II),(In
illustration of the records of the Government and the yearly administration of the
records in three volumes)printed by E.KEYS Government of India press, Madras,
1885, pp.105-06.Regional Archives, Kozhikode.
5. File .No.f.1103/29.judl,The Madras Forest (amendment)bill, Government of
india,Home Department,National Archives,New Delhi.
6. File No.M.25A, Logan, Malabar (RP) By charithram publications, Trivandrum, 1981,
p.56,Regional Archives,Kozhikkode.
7. Richard Grove, Green Imperialism colonial expansion, tropical island Edens and
the origin of Environmentalism, 1600-1860, CUP,New Delhi,1995,p.389.
8. C.A,Innes, Malabar Gazetteer (1908),Government of Kerala,Trivandrum,1997,p.241
9. See also, Buchanan, F, A Journey from Madras through the countries of Mysore Canara
and Malabar,vol.II(1807), Delhi,1988.
10. Report and Working scheme of Nilambur Teak Plantations.
143
34
The Punjab Hindu Sabha And Its

Ideology 1906 To 1910
*Jaswinder Singh
The Punjab Hindu Sabha was the first political organization of Punjabi Hindus
which provided leadership to the Hindu community and played a significant role
in the foundation of the All India Hindu Mahasabha. Lala Lal Chand was a leading
Hindu leader in the Punjab Hindu Sabha who not only directed its activities but
also formulated an ideology which became the foundation text of the Hindu Sabha
movement in the Punjab and had a serious impact on the Hindu Mahasabha and
the Hindu Sangathan movement during the 1920s. The present paper is aimed at
studying the foundation of the Punjab Hindu Sabha and its ideology.
I
The foundation of the Punjab Hindu Sabha in 1907 was a result of Hindu
consciousness in the Punjab brought about by social, religious, economic and
political factors in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. After the annexation
of the Punjab in 1849, the British government created new opportunities which
were exploited by the Hindus. The Hindus acquired English education, and soon
got a dominating position in the professions of law, teaching, medicine and
engineering.1 At the end of the nineteenth century, they had more than 80 per cent
superior appointments carrying a salary of Rs 75 or more per month.2 Hindus
were also dominating in trade and commerce. They had 60 per cent factories
registered in their names in Lahore.3 Apart from this, the educated Hindu middle
class strengthened its position by having close association with the Arya Samaj
which became a platform for addressing issues affecting the Hindu community.
The leaders like Lala Lal Chand, Swami Shraddhananda, Ram Bhaj Datt, Lala
Lajpat Rai, etc. became active members of the Arya Samaj and got experience in
social and political fields.
*Research Fellow, Deptt. of History, G.N.D.U, Amritsar (Punjab)

144
Jaswinder Singh
Communitarian consciousness was also witnessed among the Muslims during

the 1880s. Muslim organizations such as Anjuman Islamia, Lahore, and the
Anjuman Himmayat-i-Islam of Lahore were established.4 These organizations made
representations to the government seeking reservations of certain higher posts on
the plea that the Hindus controlled all avenues of advancement and Muslims were
being kept out.5 The government responded favourably and the Muslims began to
be given preferential treatment in recruitment under a secret policy.6 Seats in the
municipalities began to be reserved for them. Separate electorate was also
introduced to meet peculiar circumstances.
That the government was on the side of the Muslims became clear when the
Land Alienation Act was passed in 1901 which put restrictions on the transfer of
agricultural land to the moneylenders who were Hindus in the north-west.7 The
Hindus were further threatened when the Punjab Muslim League was founded on
30 May, 1906. It was followed by a Muslim League delegation that met with the
Viceroy on 1 October in connection with the proposed Morley- Minto reforms
and presented their case for government protection from the Hindu majority
community. The delegation also raised the issue of untouchable Hindus who were
actually not considered as part of Hindu society.8 These measures threatened the
Hindus. They held that Muslims had organized themselves on community lines
and soon they would have an All India Muslim political party. The Indian National
Congress did not represent the Hindu community in the Punjab as also across the
whole country. It had failed. They posed the question who spoke for the Hindu
interests?
II
The question of unification of Punjabi Hindus and a political party for the
Hindu community became important. It was in this context that Ram Bhaj Datt
called for the formation of the Hindu organizations which would protect Hindu
interests. He took the initiative and a Hindu Sahayak Sabha was founded in Lahore
at a meeting held on 4 August, 1906.9 The principal aim was to protect the interests
of the Hindus by stimulating in them the feeling of self-respect, self-help and
mutual cooperation10 The Punjab Hindu Sabha included members of the Arya
Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Theosophists, Sikhs and Sanatanists societies.11
After this, Ram Bhaj Datt, his wife Sarala Devi Chaudharani and his supporter
Rai Hari Chand of Multan began a campaign for the organization of the Hindu
Sahayak Sabhas and the unification of the Hindus. By September 1906 they formed
the Hindu Sahayak Subhas in Multan, Jhang, Gujranwala, Sialkot and Lyallpur.12
The campaign reached its culmination with the foundation of the Punjab Hindu
Sabha at Lahore on 16 December, 1906. Thakur Chand, a member of Punjab
Legislative Council and Rai Bahadur Lala Jai Krishan were appointed its President
and Vice-president respectively. Lala Lajpat Rai, Har Krishan Lal, Ram Bhaj Datt,
Rai Hari Chand and Ruchi Ram Sahni were members in the Executive Committee
The Punjab Hindu Sabha And Its Ideology......
145
of the Sabha.13 Its branches were established in all district towns. The middle
class Hindus responded to the call for joining the Punjab Hindu Sabha.14
During the years 1907-10, the Punjab Hindu Sabha strengthened itself and
became a political party of Hindus in the Punjab. The government proposal to
amend the Land Alienation Act of 1901, announcement of the decision of separate
electorate and the concerns about the coming census were the factors behind this
development. The issue of census was very serious. The definition of the word
Hindu to be used for the census of 1911 was made stricter by which the lower
caste Hindus were eliminated from the Hindu community, making a huge decrease
in its population.15 It agitated the minds of Hindu intelligentsia and created fear
among them. The Punjab Hindu Sabha protested against the government policies.
It expressed its disappointment over the issues of separate electorate, census and
the composition of legislative councils.
III
The ideology of the Punjab Hindu Sabha was formulated by Lala Lal
Chand, an eminent Arya samajist and a legal professional.16 In February 1909,
Lal Chand published a series of articles in the Panjabee in which he strongly
criticized the Hindu attitude of self-abnegation or self-denial towards politics
which always allowed the claims of Muslims to take precedence. Separate
electorate was the apotheosis of this attitude. Self-abnegation or the loss of
self-assertion was attributed to the Congress which always appeased the
Muslims and alienated the Hindus. If there is one thing which is strictly
forbidden within the precincts of the Congress it is the term Hindu. A
resolution may be passed to favour purely Muhammadan interests but the Hindu
is tabooed there.17 Congress followed a dual set of values, ignoring Hindu
interests while catering to the Islamic community. Congress is an organization
that makes the Hindu forget that he is a Hindu and tends to swamp his
communal individuality into an Indian ideal, thus making him break with all
his past traditions and past glory.18
Lal Chand held that the government was discriminatory towards the Hindus.
The government vetoed the Chenab Colony Act but retained the Land Alienation
Amendment because it was to benefit the Muslims. He stressed the way in which
the discriminatory policy of the government had worked against the Hindus. He
said, Being driven away from their livelihood on the land, they are also being
gradually ousted from the government services as a means of living. And barring
law and medicine, the only remaining source left is trade and industry where they
are making a struggle.19 The government policy hindered Hindu advance in the
services.
Muslims, even though a minority within British India, did not stand alone.
Millions of Muslims bordered Hindu India. Mere presence of the Muslims in the
world influenced the government. The Hindus were declining in number. Both
146
Jaswinder Singh
in theory and in practice the Hindus have already been reduced to a position as if
they formed 50 per cent of the population. They will soon be reduced to a position
of one-third as another community of one kith and creed with the rulers is rapidly
rising.20 After giving his viewpoints, Lal Chand suggested the course of action to
be taken by the Hindus. This is the plan I advocate and the course I propose to
adopt : the substitution of Hindu Subhas for Congress Committees, of a Hindu
press for the Congress press, organization of a Hindu Defense Fund with regular
office and machinery for collecting information and seeking redress by self-help,
self-ameliorations and petitions and memorials supplemented by agitation in the
press and advocacy through trusted leaders in matters both special and common
but dominated primarily by regard for Hindu interest.21 Such Hindu organization
could create unity. He also held that once Hindu unity was achieved, it would
bring about reconciliation between Hindus and Muslims. My own belief is that if
we succeed in establishing strong independent Hindu organizations, the Muslims
would in course of time join us in making common demand or redress of common
grievances.22
Lal Chand further held that the best response to the situation they were facing
was for Hindus to recover pride in them. The point I wish to urge that patriotism
ought to be communal and not merely geographicalTherefore, what is necessary
and required is to bear the communal interest always in mind and this will solve
the many difficulties which now present themselvesThe idea is to love everything
owned by the community. It may be religion, it may be a tract of country, or it
may be a phase of civilizationThis then is the fire I wish to rekindle. Here in
politics, in the sense I have explained, the desire is to secure better political
advantages and to safeguard the universal interests of the community as a
whole23
This programme formulated in pragmatic terms the interests of the
community and testified to the emergence of a Hindu nationalist consciousness
having political impact on Hindu leaders. Arya Samajist such as Bhai
Parmananda considered right from 1909, the possibility of a partition of the
North West India, the Muslims being granted Sindh and the north West Frontier
Province and the Hindus keeping the Punjab.24 This series of articles by Lala
Lal Chand gained the stature as the foundation text of the Hindu Sabha movement
in the Punjab and the analysis of the political situation provided therein
underpinned the organization of the Hindu Subhas across the province.
Christophe Jaffrelote described it as a Hindu version of the two nation theory.
It laid the foundation for Hindu politics as an alternative to the national politics
of the Congress. It was the result this ideology that the Punjab Hindu Conferences
were held between 1909-1914 which led to the foundation of the All India Hindu
Mahasabha in 1915.
The Punjab Hindu Sabha And Its Ideology......
147
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
Kenneth W. Jones, Arya Dharm: Hindu Consciousness in 19th Century Punjab,

Manohar, New Delhi, 2006, pp. 59-60; N.G. Barrier, The Punjab Government and
Communal Politics, 1870-1908, The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 27, No.3, May
1968, p. 531.
N.G.Barrier, Punjab Politics and the Disturbance of 1907, PhD Thesis, Duke
University, 1966, pp. 16-17.
Ian Talbot, Punjab and the Raj 1849-1947, Delhi, 1998, p. 28.
See Edward D. Churchill, Muslim Societies of the Punjab 1860-90, The Punjab
Past and Present, Vol. III-I, April, 1974, pp. 69-91.
Barrier, Punjab Government and Communal Politics, p. 534.
Ibid.
See Peter Hardy, The Muslims of British India, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
1972, p.152.
Kenneth W. Jones, The Negative Component of Hindu Consciousness in the Punjab,
Indo-British Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, September 1993, p. 62.
Tribune, August 24, 1906.
Tribune, September 8, 1906, September 9, 1906.
Tribune, December 19 and 23, 1906.
K.L. Tuteja, O.P. Grewal, Emergence of Hindu Communal Ideology in Early Twentieth
Century Punjab, Social Scientist, Vol. 20, Nos.7-8, July-August 1992, p.12.
See Christophe Jaffrelot, The Genesis and Development of Hindu Nationalism in
the Punjab, Ibid., PP. 29-30.
For his biographical details see Christophe Jaffrelot, Hindu Nationalism: A Reader,
New Delhi, 2007, 39.
Lala Lal Chand, Self-abnegation in Politics, Central Hindu Yuvak Sabha, Lahore,
1938, pp. 2-7.
Ibid. pp. 112-13.
Ibid. p. 4.
Ibid., p. 12-13.
Ibid.,pp.,121-125.
Ibid. p.124.
Ibid. p. 103.
Bhai Parmananda, The Story of My Life, S. Chand, New Delhi, 1982, p., 36.
148
35
Swami Vivekananda:
A Look Into Religion Through Modern Theory
*Tanmoy Kundu
Religion has no Business to formulate social laws and insist on the difference
between beings, because its aim and end is to open and let in many a flood of
light. Swami Vivekananda
Swami Vivekananda has upholded the statue of assimilation of every religion
in not only India but also throughout the world. His sole ambition in life was to
worship men through the thread of religion. He was concerned with every problem
of the society that always troubles human mind and hinders at attaining the vision
of God. He was the first social thinker of India. 1 Vivekananda was also sympathetic
to the oppressed class i.e. poor China people by the feudal system and imperialism.
Swamiji spoke in favour of all type of works because all are equal and nobody is
different. According to Vinoba Bhave : The same Soul resides in each and all. If
you are convinced of this, it is your duty to treat all as brothers and serve mankind.2
Vivekananda understood that future generation is going to be led by the
labor - class and it will be seen in China first. He always said with his Guru,
Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, that, religion is not for empty stomachs. His theory
is fully given by in his The Das Capital. Though he was a materialist, he was
influenced by Hegels dialectical method. Hence Marxism is for the betterment of
the oppressed, poor labor class.
Vivekananda took religion as a weapon to save the society. To him, religion
is not some rituals to Gods. He believed that humanity is the religion. To serve
human beings is the highest religion on this earth. Hence he is the founder of
Vedantic socialism. On the other hand, to Marx, religion is the opium. He believed
that through religion poor class are oppressed by the rich capitalist class. To him,
ideology, such as religion is the false consciousness. He rejects religion. The
unrepresented people are highlighted by Vivekananda. These unrepresented people
are the lower class, the working class, lower caste of the society, the widow, the
*Part-Time Teacher, Khatra Adibasi Mahavidyalaya, Khatra, Bankura,W.B
Swami Vivekananda: A Look Into Religion......
149
orphan, the women etc. This subaltern group becomes the main focal point of
Vivekananda. And he has tried to give them an identity as human being. He says:
Forget not that lover classes, the ignorant, the poor, the illiterate, the cobbler,
the sweeper are thy flesh and blood, thy brothers. 3
On the other hand, Marx is worried only the proletariat class of specially
industrialized Europe as well as Germany. He is silent about where so many other
people such as lower class, lower caste, woman, and orphan are oppressed in the
society. That is why feminism is very crucial to Marx. Hence dichotomy between
Vivekananda and Marx are to be seen very clearly, yet their target i.e., to bring
progress for the unrepresented is the same. Both have thought a lot for the
unrepresented people rejecting capitalism i.e. individualism. He defines:
The doctrine which demands the sacrifice of individual freedom to social
supremacy is called socialism.4
In addition to Marx was an ardent socialist who believed in dialectical
materialism wherein there is a dialectical manner of confronting studying and
understanding phenomena and materialistic by its means of interpreting phenomena
and drawing up its theory. Dialectical materialism is a scientific approach opposed
to idealism which offers an interpretation based on religion. Marx believed in the
power of economic forces rather than the ideological apparatus to him, religion is
the opium to the working class by the ruling class. Marxism sees in religion the
exploitation of human ignorance and cruelty. On other hand, Vivekananda says: I
am socialist, not because it is a perfect system, but because I believed that better
than no bread. 5
Swamiji saw socialism as a ray of hope for the myriad of problems
confronting India. He viewed the course of the world history change in governance
between four castes: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vishay and Sudra in conformity to the
law of nature with the rise of Shudra, lowest class, Vivekananda identified
democracy and distribution of physical comforts and education. Swamijis concept
of socialism was not in way to disturb religion. He believed in elevation of masses
without injuring the religious sentiments and that social changes can be brought
forward only on a fairness of conduct character and spirituality.
There is no basic difference about the conception of socialism of Marx and
Vivekananda. But while Marx was too much interested in the economic base,
Vivekananda was concerned with all round development of the masses. Prof. K.
Venkata Reddy in his essay Vivekanandas Vedantic socialism tells:
No doubt Vivekananda from the past but countrys inheritance from the past
but he was not an obscurantist revivalist with undiscriminating admiration for all
that had come down from the past. To him, India meant the people and the people
meant the masses. Removal of poverty, eradication of literacy, restoration of human
dignity, freedom from fear, availability of spiritual and secular knowledge to all,
irrespective of their caste and class and the ending of all monopolize, religious
economic, intellectual, social and cultural- all the formed a part of of what he
derived from, his practical Vedanta socialism. 6
150
Tanmoy Kundu
The unrepresented people are highlighted by Marx and Vivekananda. But

Marx is worried only about proletariat class, especially industrialist Europe as
well as Germany. He is silent where so many other people of the society, such as
lower caste, women, and orphans are oppressed. Hence feminism is very crucial
to Marxism. On the other hand, the progress of the marginal class of the society
has become the central focal point of the meditation of Vivekananda. He has tried
to give these people as a new voice. These unrepresented people are the lower
class, working class, lower caste, the widow, the orphans, the women etc. For
Gayatri Spivak, they are categorized as subaltern who was coined by Antonio
Gramsci, the Italian Marxist critic. By subaltern, Gramsci meant the inferior rank
or the peasantry classes. The subaltern group becomes the main focal point of
Vivekananda. And he has tried to give them as identity as human beings. He says:
Forget not that lower classes, the ignorant, the poor, the illiterate, the cobbler the
sweeper are thy flash and blood, thy brothers. 7
To serve subaltern class, the weaker section of the society who have no
social no social voice, he has established Ramakrishna Mission. By establishing
this, he has given a new dimension to the role of monk and sanyasins who are
devoted to the service to men. They are also in the forefront in the work of relief
and rehabilitation whenever the country suffers natural disasters such as draught,
floods, cyclones and epidemics. Thus the unrepresented people are presented by
Vivekananda for the first time in Indian context. The Indian oppressed women are
the spot of Indian society. Vivekananda has tried to improve their condition. He
says:
We should give education to the women and it is out social duty and here
our duty ends. The women should acquire such kind of education so that they can
solve their own problems. There is no need to take help of the other person. None
should go forward and should not. 8
Among the poor Indian, Vivekananda had seen Shiva, the Trinity of India.
He realized problems and has made them of his own. He tried to solve all those
problems directly or indirectly. He tried to free all the unrepresented people. Marx
and Vivekananda, both have a hatred for the ritual base religion. To Vivekananda,
humanity is his religion. His religion is the love for the poor, for the man at large
scale. To improve the subaltern class, Vivekananda is a pathfinder of other
reformers. According to Suniti Kumar Chattopadhyaya:
Vivekananda seems to me s a person whose mind is stirred by the sorrows of
the fellow human beings, especially for the Indian people. His lectures against
the middle and rich class stir our mind. He has revealed the reflection of noble
souls who are hatred and backward. 9
Hence dichotomy between Vivekananda and Marx are to be seen very clearly,
yet their largest i.e., to bring progress for the unrepresented people rejecting
capitalism and its individualism. Vivekananda talked to India about socialism and
equality much before the ideas of Karl Marx was known to India. He was prepared
Swami Vivekananda: A Look Into Religion......
151
to call all those traitors who deprived the labor class of their rights. He told the
ideal idea of Vedanta which tells that no individual can be completely free unless
everyone is free from oppression.
The essence of Vedanta is that there is but one Being and that every soul is
that Being in full, not a part of that Being.10
References:
1.
Lokeswarananda, Swami. My India: the India eternal (1st ed. ed.) Ramakrishna Mission
Institute of Culture, Calcutta , 1996
2. Ramakrishna Order: Prabhuddha Bharata, Advaita Ashram, Uttarakhand, May, 1963,
pp. 172-73
3. Bhuyan, P. R. : Swami Vivekananda: Messiah of Resurgent India, Atlantic Publishers
& Distributors, New Delhi, 2003, P.163
4. Chakraborty, Mohit: Swami Vivekananda, poetic visionary, M.D. Publications, , New
Delhi, 1998, P-64
5. http://www.thestatesman.net/news/66751-letters-to-the-editor.htm,Time-10.55
pm,dt.08/08/2014
6. Prof Reddy. K. Venkata : Vivekanandas Vedantic Socialism, Triveni, Madras, 1992
7. Vivekananda, Swami: Swami Vivekanandas Rousing Call to Hindu Nation, complied
by Ek Nath Ranade, Vivekananda Kendra, Chennai, 1963
8. Vivekananda, Swami : The Indispensable Vivekananda: An Anthology for Our Times,
2006, Retrieved 8 July 2013
9. Swami Vivekananda Centenary Memorial Volume, 1963,Calcutta, P. 228-33
10. Vedanta Institute. Retrieved on 29 November 2013.
152
36
Small Scale And Cottage

Industries-Mysore State
*M.L.Revanna
Growth of Industries in Modern Mysore in the closing years of Nineteenth Century
and the beginning of Twentieth century brough over-all progress of the State. In
midst of this rapid industrialization programme the State did not neglect the concern
of the small investors, who were the major supplier of articles for local
consumption. There was a fear of Mysore loosing many of its traditional industries
as happened in British India. But the State was careful in balancing the multiple
growths of Industries both in large industrial sector and small scale Industries.
Small Scale and Cottage Industries form an important sector in, the industrial
economy of Mysore. They effectively prevent exodus of rural population. Small
Scale Industries can be a powerful factor in the rapid and de-centralized growth
of a developing economy1 The vital role of the small scale sector in the industrial
economy has been recognized, on account of its potential for creating substantial
employment opportunities at a relatively small capital cost, facilitating mobilization
of local resources of capital and skill and ensuring a more equitable distribution
of income.2
In spite of the large scale industries, the small scale industries have been
fighting hard to maintain their existence in the industrial development of Mysore.
If the country largely depends on agriculture it is not possible to ignore the small
scale industries. Both village and small scale industries in their different aspects
are integral and continuing element both in the economic structure and in the
scheme of national planningi3 They should be encouraged at present juncture
because the primary object of developing small industries in rural areas is to extend
work opportunities, raise income and standard of living and to bring about a more
balanced and integral rural economy. The Planning Commission defines village
industries as those that are concerned in the main with the processing of local
raw materials for local markets and with simple technique4
*Research scholar Post Graduate Dept. of History University of Mysore
Manasagangothri, Mysore Karnataka.
Small Scale And Cottage Industries-Mysore State
153
The handicraft products are not suitable for production on large scale, using
machinery and power. In case of handicrafts varying pattern and designs are the
rule rather than a uniform standardized production. Even though there is
considerable development in the organized sector, the State continues to be
predominantly agricultural and a relatively large income is secured through
agriculture. Even the industrial structure is characterized by the predominance of
cottage and small as given below.5
Year
Population
engaged in
small-scale
industries
(in thousands)
Relative % of
the total
population
engaged in
industry
Population
engaged
in large-scale
industries
(in thousands)
Relative % of the
total population
engaged in
industry
1931
1941
1951
2.68
2.11
3.29
Nil
73
76
Ni;
85
1.06
Nil
27
24
In 1936, a three-year plan for the development of rural industries involving

an expenditure of nearly 1.23 lakhs was sanctioned. Many centers were opened.
The industries that were started were lacquerware, improved pottery and coir
manufacture, smithy, mat weaving, oil seed crushing, tile making, and tanning
and leather work. For improving the methods of cotton weaving handloom
demonstrations were conducted and people were trained. The government tried to
extend demonstrations to some more centers. The Octroi duty for hand-woven
goods was abolished, in order to assist and improve them. Encouraging results
were got by the three-year programme. So, in 1940, under the budget provision of
Rs. 43,300 for the year, a sum of Rs. 13,300 was spent on the rural industries
which were already in operation and 19 more new industries were opened. To
assist the establishment of and to improve minor and cottage industries, a sum of
Rs. 30,000 was sanctioned. This was sanctioned in the shape of loans to twentytwo individuals. The minor and cottage industries which were helped were Rice
Mills, Powerspecial looms were sanctioned to students who successfully completed
their studies in the industrial school to enable them to start their own cottage
industries.
In 1945, the Diwan remarked : We have a variety of cottage industries in the
State which we can well be proud of and the task was to stimulate the production
of these cottage industries of a fairly uniform plan and to find markets for the
products of these cottage industries.6
So, the small scale industries are employing large percentage of the total
working force in industries. In a place like Mysore, particularly where agriculture
is the mainstay of the population, provision of subsidiary occupations is a great
necessity. They effectively prevent exodus of rural population.7. Due to the decline
in number of cotton spinners and weavers there was decrease in the number engaged
154
M.L.Revanna
in this. But by 1950, there was a revival because of the initiative and enterprise of
the government under the Visvesvaraya Scheme. The Handloom Industry is the
single largest industry in the Looms for the manufacture of gotta and tnakki%
coffee grinding, lacquer and brass industries and the manufacture of `dhava oil.
Small State providing employment to 2.5 lakhs of people.8 P. N. Dhar classified
the small scale industries into four categories namely (1) those employing less
than 10 persons and not using power, (2) those employing less than 10 persons
and using power. (3) those employing more than 10 but less than 20 and not using
power and (4) those employing. than 10 but less than 20 and using Power.
During 1950.orzanised efforts were made and a comprehensive plan for the
development of small scale industries was prepared. A Khadi Committee for the
development and control of Khadi production in the State was constituted in
September 1951. A team known as the Ford Foundation Team visited the State in
1953-54. After the visit of this team and on the basis of its recommendations, the
Small Scale Industries Board was established at the end of 1954.
The important object of the small scale industry development programm
was to broaden the base of entrepreneurship and to diversify the operational
capacities of the small units. The industrial policy of 1956 indicated clearly that
the small scale industries provide immediate large scale employment; they offer a
method of ensuring a more equitable distribution of the national income and they
facilitate an effective mobilization of resources of the capital and skill which might
otherwise remain unutilised. Some of the problems of unplanned urbanisation
could be avoided by the establishment of the small centers of industrial production
all over the country.9 If encouragement is given to small scale industries these in
turn may help to preserve a healthy balance between the rates of economic growth
in urban and rural areas. The small scale industry with proper safeguards willlead
neither to sweating nor to unequitable distribution but will result in a larger and
more widely distributed sharing of productive function and therefore to a more
equitable distribution of the produce of industry.10
The village industries are defined by the Planning Commission as those
that are concerned in the main, with the processing of local raw materials for
local markets and with simple technique.11 According to a definite plan in operation
for several years past, government rendered assistance in various ways for the
establishment and development of small scale industries in the State.12They were
helped by giving them cheap power supply, good tools and implements. These
factors helped them to improve the quality of the small scale industries and in
some cases helped to supplement the large scale production.13
The small scale industries suffered from difficulties in the field of production
in spite of the encouragement given to them. They suffered from the scarcity of
raw materials. Because of the number of financial difficulties they used cheap and
inferior type of raw materials and this in turn produced cheap goods and the quality
was affected.14 The production of the village goods was also another problem.
Small Scale And Cottage Industries-Mysore State
155
These village industrialists followed the age-old methods of production and

management. They suffer from lack of marketing facilities and lack of suitable
marketing organisation. The other problems are power transportation, quality
control, labour and management. The government took many steps to overcome
the problems of small scale industries. They advertise their products, provide
samples, and display them in show rooms. The Industrial Policy Resolution of
1950 had laid stress in bringing up small scale sector more or less to the level of
the large undertaking. Thus the government developed the small scale industries
which in many ways helped in solving the problem of unemployment.
Reference :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Puttaswamaiah, K.: Economic Development of Karnataka , Vol. I, p. 596.

Balakrishna, R. Industrial Development of Mysore, p. 60.
Second Five Year Plan, Government of India, NewDelhi p. 429.
Ibid.
The First Five Year Plan, Government of India p. 315.
Census of India, Mysore, 1941, .XX111. Part-II, pp. 364-384.
Address by the Dewan President Mysore Economic Conference, 26th May 1947, p.
78.
Balakrishna,R.: Industrial Development in Mysore , p. 60.
Report on the Handloom Industry in Mysore State. Government of Mysore p. I.
Puttaswamaiah, K. : Economic Development of Karnataka , Vol. I, p. 597.
Ibid.
The First Five Year Plan, p. 315.
Report on the Administration of Mysore1943-44, Government of Mysor, 1945.p.
113.
IndustrialisationScheme for Rural AreasThe All India Manufacturers Organisation
Bombay, 1949, p. 1.
First Five Year Plan of Mysore, p. 18.
Puttaswamaiah, K.: opcit, , p._600.
156
37
Role Of B.C. Dutt As A Conspirator To Build

The Foundation of The Royal Indian Navy
Mutiny In 1945-46
*Harendra Pal Gangwar
The year 1757 marked the begning of British power in India. Bengal was subjugated
in June 1757, after the battle of Plassey. Plassey transferred power to England and
the battle of Buxar in 1764 created rights.1
Frank Moraes wrote in the biography of Nehru
The great rebellion of 1857, which was touched off by a mutiny of
Indian soldiers, had seen India transferred from the rule of the East
India Company to that of the Crown. Now, by a queer irony, a mutiny of
the navy was to signalise the transfer of India from foreign dependence
to freedom.2
History is more than mare narration of bare facts.3 Behind the facts are the
actors who willed the events.
B.C. Dutt, full name Balai Chand Dutt was born in 1923 in a village near
Burdwan town of West Bengal.4 After being entered into the RIN on February 28,
1941, Dutts perception towards navy was changed. From the first day Indian
ratings of RIN were welcomed with an unfamiliar language like Son of a bitch5,
Bunch of sickly monkeys, bloody cross between pigs and goats, bloody Sissies.6
These types of words of officer made it clear that signing the bond for service in
the RIN was tantamount to signing away ones soul.7
Ever since the Sepoy mutiny of 1857, Indian servicemen had been kept
isolated from the mainstream of the countrys life. Political reliability was an
important factor with the recruiting officials. Except the British owned dailies
and periodicals, no other material was allowed inside the barracks or ships.8 The
*Research scholar (JRF from ICHR) Dept. of Ancient History and Culture
Mahatma Jyotiba Phule Rohilkhand University, Bareilly (Uttar Pradesh)
Role of B.C. Dutt As A Conspirator To Build......
157
British commander-in-chief Auchinleck, wanted to try the INA men for waging
war against the King Emperor and for plotting the overthrow of his Imperial
Majestys Government of India.9
What turned B.C. Dutt from loyal servicemen into rebels? In the Indian
army, British servicemen received preferential treatment. The discrimination was
crude, and was calculated to make the Indians feel inferior to the British.10
After the World War, soldiers of Royal Indian Navy were ordered to get
back India. They returned to the shore-based signal school, H.M.I.S. TALWAR in
Bombay. One day a friend of B.C. Dutt, Salil Syam, returned from Malaya with
strange tales of the Indian National Army. Syam asked for Dutts help in reaching
the letters and literature to Sarat Bose and Nehru.11 Dutt had suddenly become an
important messenger of significant tidings for his country. To the British authorities
Indian sailors were servicemen but to nationalist India these were mere mercenaries.
Without quite realizing it, Dutt became a conspirator.12
But any kind of anti-British work, agitational or otherwise, was extremely
difficult and risky because there were ratings of the security branch living with
them in the barracks. He gave himself a separate identity. For, he no longer
considered himself as mere ratings of the RIN. He considered himself as fighter
for the countrys freedom. He called himself Azad Hindi13 and the group or
organization of these men was called Azad Hindustan14. The gate of TALWAR
was also named Azad Hind Gate15. But how did he convince the ratings to join
the Azad Hindustan?
The main motive behind this party was to make friendly enquires about
their experiences in different theatres of war.16 India was enslaved by sword and
military and she was to be set free by sword and forces. To awake the ratings of
RIN he made them aware towards their rights. In a pamphlet having titled A
thought for the day17 he compared the conditions of British and Indian ratings.
The main motive behind this act was to awake them towards their rights and make
them realized that they were a slave that is why they were getting such type of
treatment.18 He made them understood that India could not be free unless they did
not know about their rights.19 In pamphlets he also narrated the glorious story of
the INA and its Neta Ji. He explained about their motive, heroic deeds and defeat
also. He told the ratings that glorious defeat is honourable than the cowardice
victory.20 Dutt appealed all the ratings to be considered themselves as Azad
Hindis from the day and act such as. He also added that there is no politics in it,
nor it is any concern of our religion. It is our birth right, which no power can
deny and no law forbid.21Dutt chose the Navy Day on December 1st 1945 as the
curtain raiser for the first act of sabotage because the civil population was invited
for the first time in the history of RIN to visit ships as well as the shore
establishments and the authorities wanted to present a Navy spick and span and
the ships dressed with flags and bunting.22
158
Harendra Pal Gangwar
Political slogans in foot-high letters were staring from every wall: Quit
India, Down with the Imperialists, Revolt Now, Kill the British.23 Nothing
ever like it had happened before. For the ratings the slogans mirrored their
feelings.After the Navy Day success, scores of ratings became their adherents24
and chain of events had been started. R.K. Singh a member of Dutts group sent
up his resignation. The news of Singhs defiance reached the barracks in due
course. To many ratings he became a martyr.25
Around 25 January, a week before FOCRINs inspection and march past, a
notice under the heading AGM No. 108 was found pinned upon the ratings
notice board. It was an innocuous-looking Admn. General Message but the text
was in fact an order to all ratings not to greet each other with good morning or
good evening but to say Jai Hind. 26 When commander kings attention was
drawn to this notice, he could take no immediate action but decided to put an end
to this sort of nonsense at once. This was his first visit to TALWAR. Dutt and his
group decided that this was an occasion for a better show than the one they had
put up for Navy Day. Jai Hind and Quit India were painted on the platform
from which the C-in-C was to take the salute.27 The sentries discovered the slogans
on the platform about 5 a.m. The officer came looking for him. When dutts locker
was opened for inspection, mimeographed copies of Indian Mutiny of 1857 by
Ashok Mehta, his diaries, the copies of the leaflet he had distributed and some
incriminating letters were discovered.28. There was a reference in his diary to a
Boss and an H.Q. and Our Whis Cam which he (Dutt) admits meant
Whispering Campaign. One of the papers found in his possession sets out the
necessity for revolution in the forces and concludes with these wordsThere are three ways of British administration over our country- I.C.S.,
Police and Forces. And the Forces are the main weapon for maintaining
their evil eyes in this holly land.29
B.C. Dutt was apprehended allegedly for this act of sabotage and placed
under close arrest on 2 February 194630. Dutts arrest, however, caused considerable
excitement in Talwar, and overnight he became a hero and martyr in the eyes
of its ratings.
His heroics before Commander King and the admirals committee inspired
many others on the Talwar to individual acts of sabotage. Slogans began to appear
on every wall. These vehicles were used to fetch, each morning, milk and rations
from a depot.31 Even commander Kings car did not escape attention. Slogans
reappeared on 6 and 7 February, and this time they were directed at the
Commanding Officer himself. The words Quit India was written behind Comdr.
Kings car and its tyres deflated.32 This undermined his prestige as a strict
disciplinarian. Added to his irritation was the stream of anonymous letters in the
form of ill-spelt threats he received ever since Dutts arrest. These were prompted
by the senders perception of the collapse of the British Raj.
Role of B.C. Dutt As A Conspirator To Build......
159
You are forgetting that the India is free now and if anything happening
to ldg/tel Dutt, think that will be the last few days for your death. You try
against to this and see the result. But dont blame anybody nobody will
come to save you. You baster, dont try to behave improperly. Jai Hind.33
These were the work of ratings inspired by Dutts activities over the last few
months, which led the mutiny.
References:1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
Dutt, B.C., Mutiny of the innocents, Bombay, 1971 page-12

Moraes, Frank, Jawaharlal Nehru (Bombay, 1964) 3rd impression, page-315
Dutt ,B.C., op. cit., page-15
Dutt, B.C., op. cit., page-22
Sr. No. 16 Volumes entitled Proof copies of typed stencils vol. I, page- 51(RIN
Mutiny, NAI, New Delhi)
Dutt, B.C.,op. cit., page-53
Dutt, B.C., op. cit., page-62-63
Dutt, B.C., op. cit., page-76-77
Bose, Biswanth, Rin Mutiny:1946, New Delhi, 1988, page-18
Sr. No. 16 vol. II, page-448 (RIN Mutiny, NAI, New Delhi)
Dutt, B.C.,op. cit., page-77
Sr. No. 16 vol. II, page-575
Sr No. 16 vol. II, page-576
Sr No. 16 vol. II, page-574
Sr No. 16 vol. II, page-574-5
Sr No. 16 vol. II, page-576 (extract from A Thought for The Day)
Exhibit D1: from CO to FOB, 1 December 1945, file no. NL 9930 (RIN Mutiny, NAI,
New Delhi) and also B.C. Dutt, op. cit., page-80
Das, Deepak Kumar: Revisiting Talwar: A Study in The RIN Uprising of February
1946, Delhi,1993, page-64
Report on the Royal Indian Navy Mutiny Commission of Enquiry op. cit., page-50
Sr. No. 16 Volumes entitled Proof copies of typed stencils vol. II, page-447(RIN
Mutiny, NAI, New Delhi)
Sr. No. 16 II, page-448
Hindustan Times (Bombay), 20 Feb- 1946, Times Of India, 21 Feb-1946.
Sr. No. 16 I, page-50(RIN Mutiny, NAI, New Delhi)
Das, Deepak Kumar, op. cit., page-65
160
38
King Jigme Singye Wangchuck

Modernization And Decentralization
of Bhutan
*Prof. Madhu Rajput
In history there can be few parallels to the reign of the fourth king of Bhutan
Jigme Singye Wangchuck, who ruled Bhutan for nearly thirty five years proving
the prediction of his late father Jigme Dorji Wangchuck, the Architect of Modern
Bhutan true. He had said about his son, If I were to make a prayer, I would only
say that in my sons time may the people of my country be far more prosperous
and happy than what they are today. I also exhort you all to pray likewise that
during my sons time this wish of mine is fulfilled. 1 His reign saw total
transformation, reformation and modernization being accorded highest priority in
his vision for the people and country. Keeping a protected eye on countrys cultural
and national heritage he steered the country firmly towards the national objective
of economic and social development, cultural promotion, environmental
preservation, good governance and decentralization of power.
The king emphasized on the principle of self reliance in the area of hydro
power sector in which agreements were signed with Government of India to
construct the Chukha Hydro Power Project. A number of other projects followed
such as Tala, Sankosh, Punatsangchu I and II.
Among the important landmarks during his reign is the Bhutan Citizenship
Act in 1985. It superseded but did not annul the Citizenship Acts of 1958 and
1977. These two Acts were the first steps of State and nation building process to
define Bhutanese nation and Bhutanese nationalism. The Act provided for three
categories of Bhutanese citizenship- by birth, by registration, and by naturalization.
Another administrative measure taken by the monarch to promote nationalism
and national identity came in 1989. An order issued under his signature read as
follows:
*Professor Deptt. of History, Lucknow University, Lucknow (U.P)
King Jigme Singye Wangchuck Modernization......
161
At a time when Royal Government has recognized the importance of

promoting DriglamNamzha and NamdroLugsoel (traditional etiquette) for
maintaining and strengthening our unique national identity in order to ensure and
safeguard the continued well being and sovereignty of the Bhutanese nation and
people. Royal family members, ministers and senior government officials together
with all other citizens of the country should therefore have no hesitation in
observing this practice and wearing our national dress during all formal occasions.2
He believed that the progress of the country can only be a reality when
modernity and decentralization of State power is made. The institution of
representative governance at village, district and national level were put in place.
He devolved executive powers to an elected Council of Ministers in 1998. He
always emphasized on peoples ability to address the problem facing their areas.
He has even remarked in his coronation address, As far as you my people are
concerned, you should not adopt the attitude that whatever is required to be by for
your welfare will be done entirely by the government. On the contrary a little
effort on your part will be much more effective than a great deal of effort on the
part of the government.3
The Constitution which was prepared envisages Bhutan as a Democratic
Constitutional Monarchy, declaring Bhutan to be a sovereign kingdom with
powers vested in people. It talks about the role of monarchy, stipulates fundamental
rights and duties, provides for two-party parliamentary system and outlines
provisions for citizenship. Article 2 of the Constitution declares the king to be the
upholder of religion and politics. The king is to protect and uphold the constitution
in the best interest and welfare of people..
In all, the Constitution has 35 Articles and the final authority to amend the
Constitution is vested with the people through optional or mandatory conduct of
National Referendum. The Constitution is supposed to be the final law, but judicial
review is conferred to the High Court and the Supreme Court. The Constitution
contains the spirit of good governance and equal development. There is a provision
of check and balances among the various branches of the government. Principals
of human rights and international law are recognized. No state force will be used
against a foreign state accept in self-defense. The Constitution of Bhutan has the
vision of His Majesty to give his country a political system which will fulfill the
aspirations of his people and provide good government. As His Majesty always
said, I have been saying for 30 years, that the destiny of the nation lies in the
hands of people, he further added, I have always made it clear that the people
are more important than the king. We cannot leave the future of the country in the
hands of one person, these are not mere words. The constitution will be the
fulfillment of our countrys destiny being placed in the hands of our people.
The document was a product of a careful study of merits and demerits of the
political system of other countries and has tried to absorb the best for the present
and future of the Bhutanese people.The Kings vision was materialized with
162
Prof. Madhu Rajput
Bhutans first ever National Elections, held on 24 March 2008. Democracy was
further strengthened when the second general elections took place in 2013. The
election Commission has played an exemplary role in educating people and
conducting the smooth general elections. Although monarchy is part of Bhutanese
society, people now are coming to terms that the country has moved from theocratic
times to democratic functioning.
Along with emphasis on development the fourth king placed importance on
the general happiness of his people as his first priority. The concept of Gross
National Happiness was placed over Gross Domestic Product. Even the Planning
Commission was renamed as Gross National Happiness Commission. His Majesty
aimed at creating a nationwide aspiration for collective happiness, which included
his vision of creating peaceful, prosperous and happy society along with the goals
of economic self reliance and balanced socio-economic development, which was
to be based on government-people partnership. The decentralizing of power was
the main thrust.
Gross National Happiness consisted of Good Governance, Preservation of
Cultural Heritage, Preservation of Environment, and Sustainable Development.
It took the fourth king a lot of ground work and thirty four years to introduce
democracy in his country. His approach was that of caution, slowly educating the
people on the merits of democratization and decentralization and drawing
comprehensive reforms in small steps.His Majesty established new constitutional
bodies such as the Election Commission in 2005 whose task was to prepare the
nation for the parliamentary democracy. Its activities included educating the
Bhutanese on voting procedure, election modalities, mock elections and then finally
the elections. A lot of guidance was sought from the Indian Election Commission.
On July 18th2008, the constitution was adopted with a provision that the king will
retire at the age of sixty five. This is the first of its kindin monarchial system
where the provision of retirement was inducted which is not known in the world
anywhere. The king himself abdicated the throne in 2006 and led by example.
According to him, When our people get sick, they need good doctors and
justice when they are wronged. Governance is good when the laws are good and
justice is dispenced.4
Development, according to him meant raising equitable living conditions of
the rural people by taking development closer to them even though it entailed
large investments because of their remote locations and scattered settlements.
During his address at the Silver Jubilee Celebration in 1999, he had said, In the
past thirty eight years our country has achieved unprecedented development and
the well being and quality of life of our people has been greatly enhanced. At the
same time we have been to strengthen our unique national identity through the
promotion and preservation of our culture and tradition. Another area from which
we can draw much satisfaction is our success in the preservation of our natural
environment which has become an outstanding example for the rest of the world.5
King Jigme Singye Wangchuck Modernization......
163
The fourth kings accomplishment in international relations was based on

twofold policy- one was to strengthen Bhutans relations with its close neighbor
India and the other was to create a new bond of friendship with the permanent
members of United Nations and other countriesIt was His Majestys vision and
diplomacy that relations with India always remained cordial while Indias aid was
constant and a big factor in developing the infrastructure in Bhutan.
The border talks with China are being held since 1984, although there has
not been any significant breakthrough. Bhutan is an active member of UNO, South
Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, and the platform of SAARC was
used by Bhutan to communicate with other countries on common issues sharing
geographical proximities. Bhutan has always emphasized that economic
cooperation to promote trade and joint ventures should be encouraged.
Environmental conservation is also one of the issues which it wants to extend
across national boundaries especially South Asia where it feels the region should
have one ecosystem.
It was during his time that the ethnic problem in the southern districts of
Bhutan flared up. The Lhotshampa community had grievances that they had been
affected by the policy of DriglamNamzha, the Citizenship Act and the immigration
laws and the Dzongkha being introduced as the national language were aimed at
reducing themto non-citizens of Bhutan.
Conclusion- The vision and the wisdom of His Majesty have seen his reign
in Bhutan combine religion and culture with development and modernity. He gave
peace to his country along with prosperity and happiness. He established a stable
government which underwent a change from monarchy to democracy. He gave
his country a strong foundation on which it can progress and build good relations
with its neighbours and be a model where the king and the people work together
for the welfare of the nation.
Reference
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Hasrat Bikrama Jit, History of Bhutan: Land of the Peaceful Dragon, Education
Department, Bhutan, 1980, p.139.
Translated from Dzongkha Source, Kuensel, Window to Bhutan 2007-08, Welcoming
the Winds of Change, Thimphu, p. 29.
King Sonam, Polity, Kingship and Democracy: A Biography of the Bhutanese State,
Published by Bhutan Times, Thimphu, Ministry of Education, Bhutan, 2009, p. 273.
Dorji Lham, TheWang chuck Dynasty, 100 Years of Enlightened Monarchy, Centre
for Bhutan Studies, Thimphu, 2008, p.97.
Speeches of the Fourth King, Published by Bhutan Times, Thimphu, May 2007, p.160.
164
39
Rituals of Birth Practiced In The Lakher,

Thadou and Old Kuki Societies In Manipur
*Dr.Priyadarshni M Gangte
Introduction:We are aware of the fact that in any society, modern or primitive,
the birth of a child is welcome. As universal phenomenon, till very recent past,
everybody is extremely welcome to have baby-son, likewise, the Meiteis or whoever
else in their societies including that of Haryana, when a boy is born, a metal plate
is beaten to indicate the happiness1of the family is found to be very much similar
to that of beating gong or drums of Chin/Kuki/Mizo/Zomi and some African
societies
(i) Lakher:-With the birth of a child the mother is made to confine herself
within the house for nine days if the child is a girl and for ten days for a male
child. This confinement period is called Nawkhutlong.2 While the mother is
confined in the house, the father whenever he goes for work; makes a bamboo
pin, and place it in the hand of the child telling it not to follow him. This is to
protect the child from having misfortune, e.g. getting quashed with stone or cut
with a Dao or an axe. The ceremony of ear piercing called Radeido3 is celebrated
on the ninth day for a girl child and tenth day for a boy child.
Every new born Lakher child has two names.4 unless the child is given two
names it is believed that misfortune may fall on the child because it is feared that
the God, called Khazanpa may forget the child. Likewise a girl child is given the
name after her grandmother or ancestress.5 It is also a fact that naming of a child
after a friend or fellow villager is considered an insult and is imposed fine on the
parents of the child by the chief and elder.6 On the Radeido day, the babys hair is
cropped and is kept short regularly until the child is eight or nine years old after
whom it is allowed to grow until it is long enough to be tied in a top knot or a bun
according to the sex. On the final cropping called Sarang the childs name is
given.7 On this day a fowl-propitiation is performed as part of the naming rite.
*Associate Professor, Department of History, And Co-coordinator, Human
Rights And Duties Education, Damdei Christian College, Motbung, Manipur
Rituals of Birth Practiced In The Lakher.......
165
And when the child is of two or three months old, another rite is performed called
Nawhri to protect him from all kinds of disease called hri and misfortunes.8
(ii) Thadous:-Similar to the Lakher belief in the ceremonies of birth and
naming of a child the Thadousalso has an interesting legend. On such legendary
belief the practice of the Thadous at the childbirth is that a provisional name is
immediately given to the new born child as soon as the child comes out of the
mothers womb simultaneously with the cutting of naval cord by a split of bamboo.9
This provisional name is associated with the superstitious belief that unless it is
done so, the Thilhas (evil spirit) may overtake the person attending to the mother
and the child. It is believed that if the Thilhas give name of the child ahead of the
attending mid wives the life span of the child is under the discretion of the Thilhas.
It is faith among the Thadous.
One interesting thing is the process of delivery of the child among the Thadou
group. A jar of ju is kept prepared with full maturity of fermentation for eight to
nine months.It is a fact that with the offer of the ju to the mother her entire bowel
contaminated by the pregnancy and child-birth gets completely cleansed. In this
regard there appears slight difference from the contention of Shaw who maintained
that the naval cord was cut with a knife or bamboo split. 10 However
Hutton.11differed from this contention and his views have been convincingly
proved. He maintained that the use of knife or any metal on occasions, such as,
child birth is considered as taboo among the Mizos. He gave similar belief prevalent
among Nagas as well as many other tribes e.g. the Moi of Annan, the Kayan of
Baorneo and Tinguian of Luzon.12 The restriction to the mothers not to leave the
house for some days among the Lakhers is also prevalent among the Mizos which
is called Naolaichan. It is done after three days after birth in the case of girl baby
and five days for the boy child. On this very day commences feeding of the child.
The mother gives food to the child from her own mouth as birds feed their young.
It is called Nao-an-mop.13
The next stage of birth rite is Naopui (Christening of the child) performed
at the residence of the maternal grandparents or uncle. According to Gangte,14on
this occasion the parents of the child take the following items with them.
i) One jar of rice-beer called jubel and
ii) One cloth called puondum (a black coloured with two lines of white colour on
the border, lengthwise).
The christening party comprises Tuchas (representatives drawn from female
relatives of the family such as aunts, sisters, etc.) and Bechas (representatives and
close friends of the family such as uncles, brother, good friends, etc.) leave for the
maternal grandparents or uncle of the child early in the morning. On their arrival
at the maternal grandparents or uncles house, the party is not allowed to enter
instantly.
166
Dr.Priyadarshni M Gangte
(iii) Old Kukis:-Among the tribes of the Old Kuki, the birth ceremonies
are much alike. In every clan there is a period during which the mothers movements
are restricted in some ways.15Among the Aimol, like the Thadous, the period is
also five days in case of a boy, and three days for a girl. Among the Anal and
Purum, three days in both cases. The Chothe, Kom and Vaiphei, the restriction is
for five days for both boy and girl. Among the Kolhen and the Chiru the period is
extended to ten days. As for the Tikhup restriction on the mothers movements
lasts only till disposal of the remnants of afterbirth by special persons who clean
up the house. Among the Aimol, the Thempu (priest) pours out a libation of Ju
and herbs in front of the house and invoke the childs spirit to take up its residence
within the inborn infant.16The name of the child is also given on this day which is
similar to the Mizo system of naming. On the birth of a child, the Anal system of
performing the birth rate is slightly different from others, in that the Khulpu
(priest) utters incantations, ju and fish are distributed to the whole village to
invoke the house hold gods (sakhua) so that the soul of the child is summoned.17For
a new born Chothe, the Thempu sacrifices a fowl and sip ju and incantates over a
piece of turmeric which is then thrown out of the houseAmong the Chiru, the
Thempu, on the tenth day, performs the sacrifice. Now the parents of the child eat
the cooked meat, only the flesh, the bones are not thrown or eaten by anybody,
and they are buried in the house. The Thempu smears the blood on the infants
forehead and navel, some of the feathers being tied with the hair of the child.18The
ear piercing ceremony is identical with slight variation among the old Kuki tribes
as observed by Shakespeare.19
Among the Kolhen, the ear piercing ceremony is held on the tenth day and
like the Chiru, name giving is also performed on this day. The maternal grandfather
is obliged to give the child a pair of brass-earrings, bracelets, leg ornaments and a
string of glass beads. In this connection, the name to be given is different from
that of Aimol and Chiru. The paternal aunt performs the ear piercing ceremony.
The Lamgang ceremonies are the same as those of Anal but the father is prohibited
from eating the flesh of fowls during the Sherh period and no other animal is
sacrificed during such period.20
While comparing with other Kuki groups, we are convinced to say that the
Purum customs are simple. The Thempu comes and mutters charms on the day of
birth and returns on the third day for confirmation of the name of the child with a
libation of Ju.21 TheTikhup, usually celebrates the child naming ceremony in a
feast on which the elders of the community are invited. A cock is killed for the
childs ritual part and ju also is served. In a poor family, where the parents cannot
afford for such feast, it could be postponed till the child attains the age of two
years old.22While some ceremonies keep the individuals involved forget the pain
and sufferings that arising out of the moments of delivery some others performed
on account of make-belief systems for invoking longevity for the mother and
child.23
Rituals of Birth Practiced In The Lakher.......
167
There is no elaborate birth rite performed in the case of Lushais and Zomis,
but they have some simple ceremonies at the time of birth and soon thereafter. It is
most probable that in the ancient days such birth-rites must have existed. The
brief account given by Gougin24mentions that the Zomi in general maintained a
high tradition in regard to birth, a natural reverence for those who by virtue of
birth become the chief of the village or a clan or a family that is to say the elders
get a respectable place in a society. This is an universal practice but in the case of
Zomi, we found this was exceptional.
Conclusion:Thus, from the preceding paragraph, we have come to know,
that these groups have certain birth rite which are significant, and when analyzed
deeply show some common traits which throws light upon their common origin.
References:1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
CNN IBN, 9:35 am (Breakfast News)- 11 (Monday) 9, 2006

N.E Parry, The Lakhers; Ferma KLM (Pvt) Ltd, Calcutta, 1932 (1976, Rep) p.384
Ibid
Ibid, p. 390
GiuseppiTucci, Tibet, Land of Snows,Alek Books Ltd, London, 1967, p. 154
N.E Parry, op.cit, p. 391
Ibid, p. 386
Ibid
T.S Gangte, The Kukis of Manipur,Gyan Publishing House, N. Delhi-2 1993, p.89
William Shaw, The Thadou Kukis, Shillong, 1020, p. 51
J.H. Hutton, Journal of Asiatic society of Bengal, N.S. XXIV, 1928, p. 51
Ibid
E.T. Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal Tribal History of Eastern India,
originally published by the office of the Superintendent of govt. Printing, Calcutta
1872, p.47
T.S Gangte op. cit, p. 105
J. Shakespeare, The Lushai Kuki Clans, London, 1912, p. 158
Ibid
Ibid, p. 159
Ibid
Ibid, p. 160
Ibid
Ibid, p. 161
Ibid
Ibid
T. Gougin, History of Zomi, Churachandpur, 1984, p. 43
168
40
Tribal Heritage of Orissa:

Some Reflection of Scheduled Tribe
*Dr. Jagnyaseni Chhatria
The English term tribe comes from the Latin word tribus,1 designating a
particular kind of social and political organization existing in all these societies.
Orissa is one of the lands of tribal treasurer in India. There are sixty two varieties
of tribes appear in the state(Table-1). According to Census of 2001,
demographically the Scheduled Tribe population of the State was 22.1% out of 3,
16, 60070 total population of the State.2
Heritage means what we receive (got) from our ancestors.3The tribal people
of Orissa are ever remembered for their rich heritage of folk-lore, dance, music
and various kinds of performing arts. Orissa tribal heritage is a significant part of
the socio cultural life of the State. To maintain a smooth running life they are
engaged in different textile, handicraft industries and mills.The people of the ethnic
groups of Orissa have their own traditional lineage like rituals, songs, art and
craft, festivals and dance forms etc.4 They enjoy a rich and varied cultural heritage;
the most powerful instance of this being in their music and dance, which are as
colourful as they are rhythmical.5 The changing seasons, religious customs, and
the traditional rhythms of superstitious belief are strong incentives for creating a
string of festivals to augment their importance to the tribal.6To strengthen the
tribal heritage, the marriage system of the tribes of Orissa is resemblance withthe
concept of Vedic or pre-Vedic civilization. To support this concept the sources
like Rig-Veda and the Puranas like Skanda Purana and folk-lore and legends have
provided enough information.7The practice of the marriage system even today is
characterized by the concept of social taboo like the dowry system. Such a concept
of dowry system was in function as Kanyadan, which was based on a kind of
food grain or the domestic animals like the cows etc.The supreme deity, who is
*Project Fellow (ICSSR), P.G.Department of History, Sambalpur University

Burla, Sambalpur, Orissa
Tribal Heritage of Orissa: Some Reflection of Scheduled Tribe
169
believed to be the creator of the world, is a mythical figure. Primarily the religion
of the tribes in Orissa is surrounded with the nature.8 From which the concept of the
present form of Sri Jagannath worship is belongs. The traditional architecture of the
tiny tribal houses, gable or dome shaped, has an eye-catching appeal of its own. The
houses of the Santal and Ho tribes have their walls decorated in pretty coloures and
painted with figures of animals, birds and flowers. The doors of the Kondh houses
are skillfully carved with traditional figurines. The Saora icons drawn on their walls
are highly appreciated. Among them, the dance and music is developed and maintained
by themselves in a tradition without aid and intervention of any professional dancer or
teacher.9 It is mainly through the songs and dances the tribes seek to satisfy their inner
urge for revealing their soul. The performance of these only give expression to their
inner feelings, their joys and sorrows, their natural affection and passion and their
appreciation of beauty in nature and in man. Among the tribes everyone is a musician
and poet. When happily inspired, they can coin a song then and there and sing it. Like
any others, when they see things of beauty and meet pleasantly, they exhibit this pleasure
and happiness by composing songs. The tribal people turn out excellent handicrafts
for their own use.10 The wood carving of the kondhs,metal works of the Bathudis,
bamboo basketry works among the Juangs and Bhuyans, are all symbolic artistic
creation. Among all the tribes conformity to customs and norms and social integration
continue to be achieved through their traditional political organizations.11The tributary
institutions of social control,such as family,kinship and public opinion continue to
fulfill central social control functions.12
Map.1
Concentration of Tribal Population (1991)
Bagata
Baiga
Banjara
Bathudi
Bhottad
a
Bhuiyan
Bhumia
Bhumij
Bhunjia
Binjhal
Binjhia
Birhor
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Name of
the Tribe
1.
SL.
No
.
825
8,128
1,19,92
9
11,276
1,78,21
4
1,09,53
8
2,46,57
3
3,04,13
7
1,71,07
4
12,843
1,556
4,806
Total
430
4,042
60,979
5,709
89.852
56,657
1,21,95
1
1,36,38
7
85,552
6,279
722
2,490
Male
Population
395
4,086
58,950
5,567
88.362
52,881
1,24,62
2
1,67,75
0
85,552
6,554
834
2,316
Female
919
999
967
975
983
933
1,02
2
1,23
0
1,00
0
1,04
5
1,15
5
930
Sex
Ratio
CENSUS 1991
18.5
7
26.7
7
24.1
3
13.7
9
21.1
1
9.27
35.3
7
7.81
33.3
8
26.4
3
26.6
1
29.5
1
Total
25.0
0
41.9
9
36.3
5
22.3
9
33.7
6
15.8
6
52.8
4
14.4
2
51.1
0
44.2
5
42.3
5
42.6
2
Male
11.42
11.32
11.68
4.78
8.09
2.14
18.17
2.64
15.80
8.99
13.04
15.27
Femal
e
Literacy Rate (excluding 06 Age group)
702
9,479
1,18,11
6
18,504
2,48,14
4
1,03,53
7
2,77,42
0
3,75,84
5
1,96,84
6
15,868
539
6,733
10
Total
362
4,807
59,635
9,294
1,25,10
2
51,247
1,38,88
2
1,88,58
4
98.289
7,972
258
3,331
11
Male
Population
340
4,672
58,481
4,210
1,23,04
2
52,290
1,38,53
8
1,87,26
1
98,557
7,896
281
3,402
12
Female
393
972
981
991
984
1,02
0
998
993
1,00
3
990
1.08
9
1,02
1
13
Sex
Ratio
CENSUS 2001
23.3
0
41.6
5
41.4
9
29.0
3
36.4
8
20.0
1
50.8
8
24.2
9
49,5
7
46.4
0
39.2
8
38..6
14
Total
29.9
7
56.0
6
57.2
1
44.5
2
51.0
9
30.9
0
66.1
8
37.3
9
66.2
6
63.4
8
51.9
0
52.2
9
15
Male
16.24
13.61
25.50
13.61
21.72
9.40
35.68
11.09
33.03
29.14
27.90
25.17
16
Femal
e
Literacy Rate (excluding 06 Age group)
Dr. Jagnyaseni Chhatria
6.50
45.4
5
6.50
25.9
7
11.1
8
5.93
9.64
20.6
9
35.3
4
30.8
1
19.6
9
19.6
9
19.0
4
12.5
2
24.3
8
34.5
2
34.5
2
38.9
8
17.9
8
35.8
8
19.5
9
23.2
9
46.6
7
52.2
3
50.0
0
27.8
4
20.2
3
33.0
2
39.5
2
71.0
7
63.2
7
51.5
8
51.5
8
46.0
2
38.4
1
38.9
6
56.1
6
56.1
2
72.1
2
46.2
4
64.4
3
44.4
6
14.6
9
46.1
5
32.1
7
37.2
4
16.9
0
12,6
2
21.1
3
30.0
0
53.5
9
46,9
6
950
35.6
0
32.3
2
25.3
5
987
45.2
3
45.3
5
57.3
5
31.8
7
50.1
9
32.2
3
1,040
647
1,025
1,185
972
1,096
1.011
1,023
950
1,005
134
994
1,020
1,020
15,62
3
999
1,015
987
1,027
993
958
4,780
11
7,798
96
4,559
3,855
36,689
680
134
3,92,03
1
141
5,216
6,972
6,972
15,831
3,689
94,864
686
7,07,24
1
1,60,25
3
6,705
4,598
17
7,606
81
4,688
3,516
36,284
665
141
3,90,07
3
275
5,832
6,832
20,815
15,831
3,691
93,467
695
6,88,40
2
1,61,33
9
6,998
9,387
28
15,404
177
9,247
7,371
72.982
1,345
275
7,82,104
19.38
10,462
10,804
41.339
31,454
7,380
1,88,331
1,381
13,95,64
3
3,21,592
13,7031
1.95
11.69
3.53
9.43
2.47
0.97
3.73
2.95
13.84
10.76
51.74
5.84
13,80
4
4.13
8.47
10.89
19.18
12.65
7.33
14.57
16.77
6.82
24.5
6
29.6
7
39.7
8
11.2
4
11.3
3
17.4
2
14.8
0
42.2
6
37.3
1
51.5
4
30.4
0
7.38
25.5
7
38.2
2
43.3
3
38.0
7
42.0
3
11.6
2
43.1
4
39.2
4
4.20
20.5
6
16.4
6
25.4
3
7.27
6.22
1036
8.94
25.9
1
24.0
2
34.7
5
17.3
0
26.3
5
14.4
6
23.5
1
1,03
0
28.3
7
26.1
1
20.1
7
28.9
5
26.6
8
1,10
5
599
1,02
3
854
808
1,03
1
972
1,00
4
1,33
9
1,00
1
1,08
8
1,10
8
17.1
9
1,05
9
913
4,86
1
1,04
6
1,13
5
973
999
1,00
1
3,840
103
10.046
866
5,145
2,777
33,099
1,798
889
3,50,76
4
26,522
7,181
4,482
18,345
9,198
26.80
86,105
1,744
5,62,52
4
1,33,09
9
2,890
3,475
172
9.281
1,014
6,367
2,367
34,039
1,790
664
3,50,37
5
24,370
24,370
4,657
17,320
10.080
4,721
82,302
1,536
5,77,85
0
1,33,27
2
2,887
7.315
275
19,867
1,880
11,512
5,471
67,138
3,588
1,553
7,01,139
50,892
13,662
9,139
35,665
19,278
9,582
1,68,407
3,280
11,40,37
4
2,66,371
5,777
BondoPoraja
Chenchu
Dal
DesuaBhumij
Dharua
Didayi
Gadava
Gandia
Ghara
Gond
Ho
Holva
Jatapu
Juang
KandhaGaud
a
Kawar
Kharia
Kharwar
Khond
Kisan
Kol
13
.
14
.
15
.
16
.
17
.
18
.
19
.
20
.
21
.
22
.
23
.
24
.
25
.
26
.
27
.
28
.
29
.
30
.
31
.
32
.
33
.
KalahLohara
s
Kolha
Koli
Kondadora
Kora
Korua
Kotia
Koya
Kulis
Lodha
Madia
Mahali
Mankirdia
Mankidi
Matya
Mirdhas
Munda
Mundari
Omanatya
Oraon
Parenga
34
.
35
.
36
.
37
.
38
.
39
.
40
41
.
42
.
43
.
44
.
45
.
46
.
47
.
48
.
49
.
50
51
52
.
53
.
54
.
5,843
2,57,82
9
25,915
31,147
3,96,56
1
30.853
13,226
1,491
1,491
13,585
1,458
7,458
6,526
1,41,92
7
28,607
1,989
10.313
19,235
5,093
4,04,86
4
12,321
3,017
1,27,82
0
13,415
15.101
2,00,38
9
15,982
6,528
745
564
6,742
653
3,650
3,245
73,966
14,529
962
5,575
10.498
2,392
2,01,94
1
5,994
2,826
1,30,00
9
12,500
16,046
1,96,17
2
14,871
6,698
746
586
6,843
786
3,808
3,281
67,961
14,078
1,027
4,733
8,737
2,701
2,02,92
3
6,327
937
1,01
7
932
1,06
3
979
930
1.02
6
1,00
1
1,03
9
1,01
5
1,20
4
1,04
3
1,01
1
919
969
1.06
8
850
832
1,12
9
1,00
5
1,05
6
14.6
6
38.3
0
13.5
3
27.0
1
26.8
5
26.9
9
20.8
2
6.08
26.7
6
21.6
8
15.0
0
17.2
2
46.6
9
11.5
5
11.2
6
22.5
2
26.0
2
14.0
0
34.9
6
15.3
9
18.1
8
24.2
8
50.2
3
22.2
2
39.7
1
38.6
4
42.1
6
32.6
4
7.91
43.3
1
32.4
2
27.4
5
27.0
5
66.8
8
19.9
6
18.8
6
37.3
4
39.6
2
19.5
6
47.1
7
25.1
1
32.4
3
4.53
26.5
7
4.09
14.7
3
14.9
1
10.8
8
9.52
4.26
12.0
9
11.2
7
5.66
7.80
27.2
0
2.32
3.31
9.95
9.61
7.58
23.0
4
5.81
6.5
12,646
3,08,93
1
23,364
28,833
1,80,25
2
32.279
17,549
1,050
130
17,131
3,017
8,905
11,164
1,22,53
5
22,525
1,280
11.340
34.160
5,366
4,99,11
0
9,642
6,129
1,53,93
4
11,692
11,958
2,42,26
6
16.245
8,923
542
74
8,507
1,446
4,517
5,620
60,975
11,081
639
5,720
17,125
2,726
2,50,78
8
4,795
6,517
1,54,99
7
11,672
11,875
2,37,98
6
16,034
8,626
508
56
8,624
1,571
4,388
5,544
61,560
11,444
641
5,620
17,035
2,640
2,48,32
2
4,847
1,06
3
1,00
7
998
993
982
987
967
937
757
1,01
4
1,08
6
971
986
1,01
0
1,03
3
1,00
3
982
995
968
252
1,01
1
21.0
1
54.2
0
21.2
0
46.9
4
39.5
9
51.1
7
38.4
2
5.49
9.28
37,9
6
37.3
3
27.0
0
70.2
2
11.7
3
24.6
0
32.8
3
42.4
8
34.8
6
50.6
9
27.0
6
35.5
5
34.9
8
65.7
5
39.0
2
62.3
5
51.5
6
67.7
0
53.7
7
8.47
9.26
52.5
0
52.7
9
38.1
7
85.1
8
17.1
9
38.1
9
44.8
0
59.6
9
45.7
9
61.1
9
39.7
4
49.2
6
7.84
42.7
7
10.2
0
31.2
3
27.6
4
34.4
9
22.6
5
2.61
9.30
23.8
6
22.7
1
15.6
4
55.2
5
6.36
11.3
8
20.8
2
24.8
2
23.9
3
39.8
7
14.3
1
21.9
7
1,595
70,32,21
4
Rajuar
Santal
Saora
Shabar
Sounti
Tharua
Generi
c
Tribes
etc.
Total
57
.
58
.
59
.
60
.
61
.
62
.
35,12,89
1
872
46,460
1,85,482
2,00,261
3,21,436
1,5431
6,121
1,73,127
35,19,32
3
723
49,791
1,88,063
2,03,249
3,08,346
1,603
5,187
1,80,209
1,00
2
929
1,07
2
1,01
4
1,01
5
959
1,03
9
835
1,04
1
34.4
4
25.0
4
38.9
2
21.0
0
25.5
8
24.4
7
17.9
6
16.9
6
6,76
10.2
1
33.5
6
56.4
6
34.4
2
40.1
6
37.5
6
28.9
7
27.2
1
12.1
2
10.2
1
12.5
7
2.69
29.3
1
11.2
9
10.7
7
7.86
4.17
1.54
81,45.08
1
47,090
453
92,734
4,42,537
4,73,233
7,77,204
2,803
7,271
3,17,301
40,66,78
3
24,175
222
46,338
2,20,335
2,35,739
3,93,386
1,409
3,647
1,55,626
40,78,29
8
22,915
231
46,396
2,22,202
2,37,494
3,83,818
1,394
3,624
1,61,675
1,00
3
948
1,04
0
1,00
1
1,00
8
1,00
7
976
989
994
1,03
9
37,3
7
44.4
8
55.7
5
44.3
7
35.4
0
41.1
3
40.4
6
37.9
3
30.9
3
17.9
6
51,4
8
56.4
1
72.1
6
59.7
6
41.1
2
56.7
4
55.8
6
55.2
0
46.5
6
30.9
5
23,3
7
31.7
9
39.5
9
29.1
3
19.9
0
25.7
4
24.7
5
20.5
3
7.35
7.35
Source:Census of India, 1991 & 2001, Scheduled Castes & Scheduled Tribes Research of Training Institute, Bhubaneswar,
Orissa 2008.
96,251
3,73,545
4,03,510
6,29,782
3,146
11,399
Pentia
56
.
3.53,336
Paroja
55
.
174
Conclusion:This research paper provides an ample interpretation to sketch

out the sixty-two tribes in Orissa,with their physiographiy, exogamous clans the
process of genesis and the socio-economic and cultural traits with regard to
globalized approach.Lastbut not the least it can be conclude that the life of the
tribes of Orissa are simple,gesticulation,attire,ritual,pious belief. Now a day under
the impact of urbanization,modernization,sanskritaization and industrialization,
important trait of life style are losing their stability,purity and certain changes are
substituted by alien once.
References1.
Behura, N.K., Tribal Societies in Orissa, Tribes of Orissa, Tribal and Harijan
Research-cum-Training Institute, Bhubaneswar, 1990, pp.10-11.
2. http://www.censusindia.gov.in,dt.08/12/2009,01.30P.M.
3. Das, H.C., Cultural Heritage of Orissa, Institute of Oriental and Orissan Studies,
Cuttack, 1993.
4. Field Survey from the month of January to February, collected information from twenty
one types of tribal groups, 2004.
5. Field Survey from Dt.11.12.2007 to 20.12.2007
6. http:// www.tribes of orissa.co.in, Dt.04/16/2008, 01.00 P.M.
7. See Rig-Veda, Ch-II, Verse, 133.
8. Behura, N.K., Op.Cit.pp.12-19.
9. Mohanty,B.B, Tribal Culture in Orissa, Tribes of Orissa, Tribal and Harijan Researchcum-Training Institute, Bhubaneswar, 1990, p.24.
10. Ibid, p.24.
11. Behura, N.K., Op.Cit.p.20.
12. Field Survey of my Research Work. Dt.14.09.2010 to 21.09.2010.
175
41
The Name Derivation of Cooch

Behar District
*Tarun Barman
Cooch Behar is, at present, one of the district of WestBengal. But present North
Bengal (including six District of North Bengal such as Cooch Behar, Darjeeling
jalpaiguri, Two Dinajpur and MaldaDistrict of Bangladesh such as
Rangpur,Dinajpur and Bogora).with the whole of North-Eastern region was known
as Pragjyotisha. The Pragjyotisha, we come across the name first in the Ramayana
where Pragjyotisha had been described as a city was built with gold and was ruled
over by a Danava known as Naraka.1 on the other hand the Mahabharata describes
Naraka as a great Danava, the son of Danu.2 The name Pragjyotisha is also
mentioned in the Kalhans Ra&jatarangini, Raghuvamsa, Maha Puranas and
Bishnupuranas.3 In ancient times Pragjyotishpur was called kamrupa.Even during
the reign of the last but one line of kings, the Khens about more than four and half
centuries ago, this part of the kingdom (Country) went by that name. In the work
of Ain-i-Akbari and Baharistan-i-Ghaibi references are found to the Koch Country
with in which there were to kingdoms KamataandKamrupa. Pran Narayan and
Mod Narayan,rulers of Cooch Behar in the 17th century, declared themselves as
rulers of Kamata,Comotay was the appellation on Blaevsmap(1650 A.D.) In
the Badsahnama and Sahajahannama, dated about the middle of the 17th century,
the Weston portion of the country, has been called Koch-bihar in place of Kamata
and the eastern portion Koch-Hajo in place of Kamarupa . In a sanad granted by a
Ruler of Cooch Behar in the 18th century, Bihar only occurs. In Renells map
(18th century) also the capital of the Kindom was styled as Bihar. In the treaty
between the East India Company and the Ruler of Cooch Behar in 1773, however,
the kingdom refers to as Koch Bihar and the capital Behar fort. Dr. Buchannan
Hamilton in his narrative written in the beginning of the last century mentioned
the name of only Bihar. Sir, William Hunter was of opinion that Nijbihar, was
*Research Scholar Department of Geography, Visva-Bharati University
Santiniketan,West Bengal.
176
Tarun Barman
the form recognized by the Durbar of Cooch Behar. In his statistical account of
Cooch Behar (1876), Hunter made an attempt to derive the name from the Sanskrit
Vihara, meaning recreation, especially applied to Buddhist monastery. According
to him the appellation at the case of the Raja who repudiates the theory of a Koch
descent is Nij Behar, the word nij own (peculiar) being applied to distinguish
the country from Behar proper. The present district Cooch Behar was so called
only after the Koch kings had come into power in the begging of the 16 th century,
long after the Buddhist influence had died out in Bengal.4After that Kamata
Kingdom become a Feudatory stare of Bengal in political relations with British
Government. Until January1950 it used to be a feudatory state in political relations
first with the British Govt. and then with the Govt. of India. On the 28th August
1949 an Agreement was contracted between the Governor-General of India V.P
Menon and High Highness the Maharaja Jagaddipendra Narayan of Cooch Behar,
which come to be known as the Cooch Behar Merger Agreement, in which His
Highness the Maharaja of Cooch Behar ceded to the dominion Government.
(Government of India) Full and exclusive authority, Jurisdiction and powers for
and in relation to the governance of the state and agreed to transfer the
administration of the State to the Dominion Government on the 12th of September,
1949. It was stipulated that from the 12th September, 1949.The Government of
India would be competent to govern the state in such a manner and through such
agency as it might think fit. 5After the Merger Agreement of Cooch Behar with
the state of west Bengal since the 1st January, 1950, it was included within the
formerly presidency Division. The district is it present under the newly created
Jalpaiguri Division. The Government of West Bengal Home (General
Administration) Department notification No. 998 G.A dated the 04th March 1963
created the Jalpaiguri division. 6 Now Cooch Behar is the north- eastern district of
the Jalpaiguri Division.The name Cooch Behar is a compound of two words:
Cooch and Behar. Cooch is a corrupted form of Coch or Koch, being the name of
an ethnic group of people inhabited a large in vast tract of land in the north-east of
Bengal. Behar or more properly Vihar denotes abode or sport. Cooch Behar
means, therefore, the abode or land of the Koches. 7The name Cooch Behar is
rather of recent origin. It was spelt as such by an order published in the Cooch
Behar Gazette,part-1, 1896(page-28) as-His Highness, the Maharaja Bhup
Bahadur having signified his approval of the use of the spelling, Cooch Behar
all other spelling of the word should be dropped.8
The Origin of the names Koch and Koch-Bihar:-There are different views
about the origin of Koch-Bihar; one that it means the abode or play ground of
the Koch people; another that is the place where Mahadeva dallied with a doughter
of a Koch.Similarly with koch; one derivation is that Ksatriyas took shelter in
the lap (Koch) of Bhagbati,being frightened by Parasurama; another that the root
is derieved from the shrunken condition(sankoch) of the Ksatriyas. In the Viswakosa sankoch is considered synonymous with koch; alternatively the word Koch
has been adapted from the kos portion of the name of the river Sankoch.It is
The Name Derivation of Cooch Behar District
177
also claimed that the root is from kubacha (signifying those who do not speak a
pure dialect) and mentioned in the Jatikaumudi and Yoginitantra.In the Yoginitantra
,the land is Kos, and in Plinys Indica Cosyriar inhabitants of the land below
the Himalayas. The Kochrace is referred to in the BrahmavaivartaPurana(Brahma
Khanda,Adhyaya 10) and in the Melbidhi of DebivaraMisra (15th century).Kochak
is the variation in the Kulakarika of DhrubanandaMisra. Most of the Mahomedan
chroniclers, however,are aware of the Koch race.9
The Origin of The Name Bihar:In the Rajopakhyana,it has been written
that the country was named Bihar because Jalpeswar(Siva wandered or played
there,the meaning of the word being wandering or play. Again,the monasteries
of Buddhist ascetics were generically known as Bihar. According to some writers
a Buddhist monastery was founded in the place called Bihar in the modern district
of Patna; and later, by inference, a vast surrounding area came to be known as
Bihar. There is no doubt that Buddhist
Doctrines were widely spread, and the places of worship of Mahakal at the
extremity of the town of Cooch Behar and in the Bhutan hills, the Yogi-ghopa and
Mangalchandi in Goalpara, Mangalchandiin the district of Kamrup,Yogijan in
Naogaon,thetample known as Chandikabihar and Singri in Durrung and those
in Khamti in Laksmipur,-are all relics of the Buddhist age. It is interesting to find
out an area of the town of Kalinga in the temple inscription of Bijaysendeva in
Debapara within the district of Rajsahi, in the old work Mangalchandi written by
Manik Dutt and in the copper-plate inscription of Ratnapala. According to some
historians, Kalinga was a centre of Buddha-tantrik practice and was situated at
the foot of the Himalayas.10
Bihar In Different Places : In the Rajavansavali which was written under
the orders of Kharganaryan, the Raja of Durrung, it is set down that the capital of
Raja Arimattawas in the town of Bihar.In the Kamrupa vansavali, a Bhuiya of
Bihar who was conquered by Bisvasinha,is mentioned.The county of Mithila is
known as North Bihar from the Buddhist age.Different places in Bengal and Assam
are known in different name.Chandika-Bihar in Durrung district, Halud Bihar
in the district of Rajsahi Subarna Biharin the district of nadia etc. The villages
Bihar` and Vasu-Bihar` near Mahasthangarh in the district of Bogora, are so
called in General Cunningham`s view, because they were sites of Buddhist
monasteries, and indeed it may be inferred that Bihar` does imply the former
existence of a Buddhist monastery.
Use of The Name of Bihar : In the sixteenth century SukhamFa,the Ahom
rulers,addressed Naranarayan the Ruler of Kumata as lord of Bihar. In an
inscription of the 17th century found in a temple in Nepal this country is also
referred to as Bihar. In the work The lives of Sankaradeva, Madhabadeva &
Damodaradeva written in the same country, there is allusion to The Kingdom of
Behar and The City of Behar. In a Sanad granted by a Ruler of Cooch Behar in
the 18th Century, Bihar only, occurs. In the Map of Major Rennel drown in the
same country, the capital of the kingdom has been styled Bihar.
178
Tarun Barman
The Modern Name of Cooch Behar :At the time the ruler of Bhutan
addresses the Ruler of Cooch Behar as Lord of Behar. In the Treaty between the
East-India Company and the Ruler of Cooch Behar in1773, however, the kingdom
is Kochbihar and the capital Behar Fort and subsequently in narrative of Dr.
Buchanan Hamilton written in the beginning of the last century we find only the
name Bihar. The history of the dynasty of the Rulers of Cooch Behar, the
Rajopakhyana, compiled in the middle of the 19th century, uses Bihar and Not
Kochbihar. Sir, William Hunter opined that Nijbihar was the form recognized
by the Durbar of Cooch Behar.11
Be this as it may, to avoid diversity, the state of Cooch Behar has since
directed, by an order published in 1896, that Cooch Beharshall be the spelling to
be used.12
Now the pronunciation and spelling of this district name is conflict matter.
References1.
2.
3.
Dr.DimbeswarSarma, KamarupaSasanavali Publication Board,Assam (1981), p-9

ibid, p-9
Khan Chowdhury A. Ahmed,Cooch Beharer Itihas,in Bengali, Modern book Agency,
Kolkata,pp-1, 2, 4
4. Ray.B, Census 1961 west Bengal-district census Handbook, Government printing
West Bengal (1966). P-3,
5. ibid, p-5
6. ibid, p-9
7. Dr. Nripendra Nath Pal, The Cooch Behar state and its Land Revenue Settlement N.
L Publishers, Siliguri(2010) ,p-3
8. Ray.B, Opcit.P- 3
9. Ghoshal Sarat Chandra, A History of Cooch Behar` State Press Cooch Behar, (1942)
P-5
10. Sahitya-parisat-patrika 1317 B.S,Part 17,Issue 4,page 255.
11. Ghoshal Sarat Chandra, A History of Cooch BeharState Press Cooch Behar, (1942)
P.P-7, 8.
12. ibid, P-8.
179
42
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laLd`r egkdkO; gSA in~eiqjk.k dh fok;oLrq ,sfrgkfld o ikSjkf.kd gSA
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je.kh; psVkvksa dks /kkj.k djus okyh fL=;ksa us ogka mlh iapo.kZ dh ijkx ls dqUn
vfreqDrdyrk] eks{kJh] dey] tqgh ekyrh] ukxdslj vkSj lqUnj iYyoksa ls ;qDr
vkksd o`{k vkfn cuk;sA8 eaxye; okrkZyki esa rRij yksxksa us cM+h rS;kjh ds lkFk
ukuk fp=ksa dks /kkj.k djus okys cknyh jax ds oL= QSyk;s] lSadM+ksa l?ku irkdk;sa
Qgjk;h x;hA9 tgka rgka ef.k;ksa vkSj lqo.kZ ls fpf=r rFkk vfrk; lq[knk;h Li'kZ
dks /kkj.k djus okys vklu vkSj lksus ds LFkku cuk;s x;sA10 lSadM+ksa Hkkstu kkyk;sa
*kks/k fo|kFkhZ&fla?kkfu;k ;wfuoflZVh] ipsjh cM+h >qa>quw] jktLFkku
kfk eksjksfy;k
ogka fufeZr dh x;h Fkh ogka dh Hkwfe ogha xqM+ ] ?kh] vkSj ngh ls iafDr dhp ls ;qDr
gksdj lqkksfHkr gks jgh Fkh] rks ogha dRkZO; ikyu djus esa rRij vknj ls ;qDr euq;ksa
ls lfgr FkhA12 ogha e/kqj vkgkj ls rÌr gq, ifFkd viuh bPNk ls cSBs Fks] rks dgha
fufpUrrk ds lkFk xksBh cukdj] ,d nwljs dks izlUu dj jgs FksA13 dgha lsgjs dks /kkj.k
djus okyk vkSj efnjk ds uks esa ?kwers gq, us=ksa ls ;qDr euq; fn[kkbZ nsrk Fkk] rks
dgha efnjk dh lqxfU/k dks /kkj.k djus okyh u'kk ls Hkjh L=h n`fVxr gksrh FkhA14
dgha ukVd gks jgk Fkk] dgha laxhr gks jgk Fkk] dgha iq.; ppkZ gks jgh Fkh] vkSj dgha
lqUnj foyklksa ls lfgr fL=;ka ifr;ksa ds lkFk hM+k dj jgh FkhA15 dgha eqLdjkrs
rFkk yhyk ls lfgr] foV iq:k ftUgsa /kDdk ns jgs Fks] ,slh nso&urZfd;ksa ds leku
os;k,a lqkksfHkr gks jgh FkhA16bl izdkj hM+k LFky dks gj n`fV ls euksjatd cuk;k
x;k FkkA
180
11
euksjatu ds dqN vU; izpfyr ek/;e

ouhM+k fo/kqrosk uked fo/kk/kj ds izlax esa mYys[k gS] fd og izenou esa hM+k
djus x;k] ftlesa hM+k ds vusd LFkku cus gq, FksA ml izenou esa vusd ljksoj Fks]
ftuesa LoPN ty Hkjk Fkk] ftuesa cM+h&cM+h ygjsa mB jgh Fkh rFkk ukoksa ds lapkj ls
og euksgj fn[kkbZ nsrs FksA17 fo/kqRosk dHkh mu osk dherh Qwyksa ij >qyrk Fkk] ftuesa
cSBus dks vPNk vklu cuk;k x;k Fkk] tks aps o`{k ls ca/ks Fks] rFkk ftudh mNky
cgqr YkEch gksrh FkhA18 dHkh mu lqo.kZe; ioZrksa ij p<+rk Fkk] ftuds ij tkus ds
fy;s lhf<+;ksa ds ekxZ cus gq;s FksA19dHkh mu o`{kksa dh >qjeqV esa hM+k djrk Fkk] tks
Qy vkSj Qwyksa ls euksgj Fks] tks f[kyrs gq, iYyoksa ls lqkksfHkr Fks vkSj ftuds kjhj
vusd yrkvksa ls vkfyafxr FksA20 dHkh mu fL=;ksa ds chp cSBdj hM+k djrk Fkk]
ftuds gko&Hkko lEink;sa] eqfu;ksa dks Hkh kksfHkr djus dh lkeF;Z j[krh Fkh] tks Qwy
vkfn rksM+us dh f;k esa yxs gq, gLrdih iYyoksa ls kksHkk;eku FkhA bl izdkj jk{klksa
dk jktk fo/kqRos.k vusd fL=;ksa ds chp cSBdj hM+k dj jgk FkkA21ouhM+k dk ,d
vU; izlax egkj{k fo/kk/kj dk gSA og vius vUr%iqj ds lkFk hM+k djus ds fy,
izenou esa x;k tgka dh ukf;dk,a deyksa ls vkPNkfnr Fkh] ftlds chp esa ukuk jRuksa
dh izHkk ls apk fn[kus oky hM+k ioZr cuk gqvk FkkA] tks jrue;h Hkwfe ls osfVr
Fkk] ftlesa ukuk izdkj dh dkfUr fodflr gks jgh Fkh vkSj l?ku iYyoksa dh lehphu
Nk;k ls ;qDr yrk&e.Miksa ls lqkksfHkr FkkA22
ineiqjk.k esa ouhM+k ds ,sls mYys[k fokn :i ls feyrs gSa] ftuesa mUeqDr
okrkoj.k gksrk FkkA izenou esa Luku hM+k ds ;ksX;] deyksa ls LkqkksfHkr euksgj
ukf;dk,a Fkh] LFkku&LFkku ij ikuhkkyk;s vkSj vusd dq.Mksa ls ;qDr lHkkx`g fo|eku
FksA23 tgka eUn&eUn ok;q ls u`R; djrh gqbZ ukf;dk;sa jktgal if{k;ksa lewg ls ,slh
181
tku iM+rh Fkh] ekuksa dksfdykvksa ds vkyki ls ;qDr l?ku oukas dh galh gh djrk
gksA24ml izenou esa v'kksd ekfyuh uke dh ukf;dk Fkh tks dey=ksa ls lqkksfHkr Fkh]
Lo.kZe; lksikuksa ls ;qDr Fkh vkSj fofp= vkdkjokys xksiqj ls vyad`r FkhA25 blds
vfr&fjDr og izenou >jks[kkas vkfn ls vyad`r rFkk mRreksRre yrkvksa ls vkfyafxr
euksgj x`gksa vkSj tyo.kkZsa ls ;qDr fu>Zjksa ls lqkksfHkr FkkA26
ty hM+k XkzaFk esa o.kZu vkrk gS fdlh le; nkkuu esno uked ioZr ij x;k]
tgka LoPN ty ls Hkjh okfidk esa dqeqn] uhy dey] yky dey] lQsn dey rFkk
vU;kU; izdkj ds dey Qwy jgs Fks vkSj mlds fdukjs ij ksap] gal] pdok] rFkk
lkjl vkfn i{kh ?kwe jgs FksA27 ml okfidk ij ije kksHkk dks /kkj.k djus okyh Ng
gtkj dU;k,a hM+k esa yhu FkhA28 muesa ls dqN dU;k,a rks nwj rd mM+us okys ty
ds QOokjs ls hM+k dj jgh FkhA29 dksbZ ,d dU;k lsoky ls lfgr deyksa ds lewg
esa cSBdj nkar fn[kk jgh FkhA30 dksbZ dU;k ikuh dks gFksyh ij j[kdj nwljs gkFk dh
gFksyh ls mls ihV jgh Fkh] vkSj mlls e`nax tSlk kCn fudy jgk FkkA blds flok;
dksbZ ,d dU;k Hkzejksa ds leku xkuk xk jgh FkhA rnuUrj os lcdh lc dU;k,a ,d
lkFk nkkuu dks ns[kdj tyhM+k Hkwy x;h vkSj vkp;Z pfdr jg x;hA31 nkkuu
hM+k djus dh bPNk ls muds chp esa pyk x;k rFkk os dU;k,a Hkh mlds lkFk hM+k
djus ds fy, gkZ ls rS;kj gks x;hA32 ,d vU; LFkku ij mYys[k vkrk gS fd
ekfg"efr dk jktk lgL=jfe us tyhM+k djus ds fy, ueZnk unh esa izosk fd;kA33
mrd`V kfUr dks /kkj.k djus okyh gtkjksa fL=;ka mlds lkFk FkhA34 mlus mRd`V
dykdkjksa ds }kjk ukuk izkdj ds ty;U= cuok;s Fks] rks mudk vkJ; dj lgL=jfe
ueZnk esa mrjdj ukuk izdkj dh hM+k dj jgk FkkA35
mlds lkFk ;U= fuekZ.k dks tkuus okys vusd euq"; Fks] tks leqnz dk Hkh ty
jksdus esa leFkZ Fks] fQj unh dh ckr gh D;k FkhA bl izdkj og ueZnk esa Hkze.k dj
jgk FkkA36 ;U=ksa ds iz;ksx ls ueZnk dk ty {k.kHkj eas :d x;k Fkk] blfy, ukuk
izdkj dh hM+k esa fuiq.k fL=;ka mlds rV ij Hkze.k dj jgh FkhA37 mRreksRre fL=;ksa
ls f?kjk] euksgj :idk /kkjd og jktk] fdlh L=h dh vksj ns[kdj] fdlh dk LikZ
dj] fdlh ds izfr dksi izdVdj] fdlh ds izfr vusd izdkj dh izlUurk izdV dj]
fdlh dks iz.kke dj] fdlh ds ij ikuh mNkydj] fdlh dks es[kyk ls cka/kdj]
fdlh ds ikl ls nwj gV dj] fdlh dks Hkkjh MkaV fnykdj] fdlh ds lkFk laidZ dj]
fdlh ds lkFk galdj] fdlh ds vkHkwk.k fxjkdj] fdlh dks xqnxqnkdj]fdlh ds izfr
Hkksag pykdj] fdlh ls fNidj] fdlh ds le{k izdV gksdj RkFkk fdlh ds lkFk vU;
izdkj ds foHkze fn[kkdj] ueZnk unh esa cM+s vkuUn ls hM+k dj jgk Fkk]38 fdlh L=h
us pUnu ds ysi ls ikuh dks lQsn dj fn;k FkkA39jktifjokjksa esa tyhM+k vkeksn&izeksn
dk eq[; lk/ku Fkk ftl le; Hkjr us lalkj ls fojDr gks nh{kk ysuh pkgh] ml le;
kfk eksjksfy;k
Hkh jke]y{e.k] o Hkjr dh fofHkUu jkfu;ksa us Hkjr ls tyhM+k djus dh bPNk O;Dr
dh Fkh] ftls Hkjr Bqdjk ugha lds o Hkjr us viuh HkkfHk;ksa o jkfu;ksa ds lkFk
tyhM+k lEiUu dh FkhA40 ftulsu ds egkiqjk.k esa Hkh tyhM+k dk o.kZu feyrk
gSA41
nksyk foykl nksyklq >qys dk mi;ksx Hkh vkeksn&izeksn ds :i esa fd;k
tkrk FkkA >wys Hkh aps&aps o`{kksa ls ca/ks gksrs Fks] ftudh mNky cgqr yach gksrh FkhA42
,d LFky ij mYys[k feyrk gS fd fdlh o`{k dh yVdrh yrk ij lhrk dks cSBkdj
cxy esa nksuksa vksj [kM+s gks jke&y{e.k mls >qyk >qykrs FksA43 nksyk kCn dk vU;=
Hkh mYys[k gSA44 izkphu Hkkjr esa L=h;ksa ds euksjatukFkZ nksykx`g fokskr% cuk;s tkrs
FksA45
nwr hM+k ineiqjk.k esa tqvk ;k nwr dkd ,d ukk ekuk x;k gSA jksnzHkqfr
uked czk.k iq= dks kL= o tq, dk ikjxkeh crk;k x;k gSA46 kqdquk czk.kh dk
iq= eqnwefr vR;Ur rstLoh Fkk] lqUnj Fkk] cqf)eku Fkk]47tq, dks fuUnuh; n`fV ls
ns[kk tkrk FkkA48 nwr dks vijk/k dh Js.kh esa gh ekuk tkrk Fkk o bldks leLr nkskksa
dk dkj.k49 crkrs gq, bldh fuUnk dh xbZ gSA
xks"Bh ,d izlax esa o.kZu gS fd fd"dqiqj dk Lokeh egksnf/k jkf= esa
egkeuksgj mRlax Hkou ls fk[kj ij pkdxksBh esa Hkkx ysrk gqvk lq[k ls cSBk
FkkA50 xzaFk esa kwjohj RkFkk fo}kuksa dh xksBh dk mYys[k vk;k gSA51 vU;= Hkh
ohjiq:kksa dh xksBh52 o ew[kksZsa dh xksBh53 dk o.kZu vk;k gSA ftulsu us Hkh dbZ
izdkj dh xksfB;ksa dk o.kZu fd;k gS ;Fkk& in xksBh] dkO;&xks"Bh] tyxksBh54]
xhrxksBh] u`R;xksBh] oh.kk xksBh55] dykxks"Bh56] fooklaokn xksBh57] laxhr xksBh]
okfne&xksBh o u`R;xksBh58] bl rjg bu fofHkUu xksfB;ksa esa fofHkUu fok;ksa ij
ppkZ,a gksrh Fkh o dyk i{k dks fofo/k jhfr ls izLrqr dj okrkoj.k dks LoLFk o
euksjatd cuk;k tkrk FkkA
clUrksRlo in~eiqjk.k esa clUr mRlo dks lhrk ds nksgn ds :i esa ftu iwtk
ds ek/;e ls of.kZr fd;k x;k gSA59 jketkukuqlkj egsUnzksn; m|ku esa fokky
oknukkykvksa vkSj izs{kd kkykvksa& nkZd x`gksa dk fuekZ.k fd;k x;kA60 mi;ZqDr
fooj.k ls ogh /ofur gksrk gS fd clUrksRlo Hkh vkeksn&izeksn dk ,d lqUnj ek/;e
FkkA m|ksrulwfj us bldk uoclUr mRlo ds :i esa mYys[k fd;k gSA61
euksjatu ds vU; lk/ku %&jktifjokjksa esa tUeksRlo o vU; dbZ egksRlo
euk;s tkrs FksA62 blds vfrfjDr laxhr] u`R;] o ok| Hkh euksjatu dk lk/ku FksA63
euksjatu ds ek/;e ds :i esa xf.kdkvksa dh izeq[k Hkwfedk jgh gSA xf.kdk jkT; dh
lEifk ekuh tkrh FkhA64 xzaFk esa xf.kdkvksa dk mYys[k vU;= Hkh gSA65 os;kvksa dks
vkeksn&izeksn dk ek/;e le>k tkrk FkkA66 fonwkd67o uV68 Hkh euksjatu esa lgk;d
FksA
182
183
lanHkZ lwph
1
2349141923
283335-
3641454647505154556062636465666768-
vkpk;Z jfoks.k % ineiqjk.k 24@67 % MkW- iUuk yky tSu] lkfgR;kpk;Z lEikfnr in~eiqjk.k
Hkkjrh; KkuihB izdkku] 18 bULVhV~;wkuy ,sfj;k] yksnh jksM+] ubZ fnYyh] 2004A
ogh
ogh] 24@68] dUnqd hM+k dk mYys[k vkfn iqjk.k45@183 esa feyrk gSA vkfniqjk.k %
vkpk;Z ftulsu] izdkkd] Hkkjrh; KkuihB izdkku u;h fnYyh 1992
ogh] 24@68- 5-ogh] 24@69- 6- ogh] 40@26- 7- i-iq-] 40@4&7- 8- ogh] 40@8&9
ogh] 40@- 10- ogh] 40@16- 11- ogh] 40@18- 12- ogh] 30@19- 13- ogh] 40@20
i-iq- 40@21- 15- ogh 40@22- 16- ogh 40@23- 17- ogh] 6@227&228- 18- ogh 6@229
ogh] 6@230- 20- ogh] 6@231- 21-i-iq- 6@232&235- 22- ogh] 5@296&300
i-iq- 46@152- 24- ogh]46@158- 25- ogh] 46@160- 26- ogh] 46@161- 27- i-iq- 8@90&91
ogh] 8@95- 29- ogh] 8@96- 30- ogh] 8@97- 31- ogh] 8@98&99- 32- ogh] 8@100
ogh] 10@65- 34- ogh] 10@66
ty;U=kf.k fp=kf.k d`rkfu ojfkfYifHk%A
lekf=R; l jsesa LFkken~Hkqrkuka fo/kk;d%AA
& i-iq- 10@67i-iq- 10@68- 37- ogh] 10@69- 38-ogh]10@76&79- 39-ogh] 10@81- 40-ogh] 83@90&108
egkiqjk.k 12@187- 42- i-iq-6@229- 43- ogh] 39@4 44- ogh] 8@102
xktar xksodgwi & visZfknklq nkslklafoPHuonhlq ftfoV~BksAdiZwjeatjh]1@121
jksnzHkwfrfjfr t;kr% bL=lwrdfUor% AA i-iq- 34@78
i-iq- 85@127&129- 48- ogh]85@120&121- 49ogh] 5@98&99
pk:xksBhlq/kkLokna fuanu~nsosUnzoR/kq[ke~AA& i-iq- 6@335&336
ogh] 53@113- 52- ogh] 6@476- 53-ogh]15@184
egkdfo iq"inUregkiqjk.k % 14@191lEiknd MkW- ih-,y- oS|] ekf.kdpUn fnxEcj tSu xzUFkekyk]
cEcbZ] laLdj.k ek% 1937] 1940] 1941
ogh]14@192- 56- ogh] 29@94- 57-ogh] 7@65- 58- ogh] 12@188- 59- i-iq- 95@22&33
ogh] 95@46- 61- m|ksru lwjhdqoy;ekyk] 77-15] Hkkjrh; KkuihB izdkku u;h fnYyh 2007
i-iq-] 108@32]81@116MkW- fo|k tSu] in~e iqjk.k ,d lkaLd`frd v/;;u]] jktLFkku foofo|ky;] t;iqj 1985 i`268&273
prqjaxL; nskL; xf.kdkuka /kuL; pA
foHkkxa leHkkxsu futL;kI;djksnlksAA & i-iq- 33@309
i-iq-] 8@162
ogh] 85@130]2@39] 32@11] 33@146
ogh ] 6@117
ogh 91@39
184
43
^^l)eZ&iq.Mjhd esa of.kZr dykvksa dk

leh{kkRed v/;;u**
*MkW- gseckyk
ckS) laLd`r lkfgR; dh xzUFkjkf'k ns'k&fons'k ds xzUFkkxkjksa esa miyC/k gSa ftuesa
egk;ku lw=ksa dh la[;k lokZf/kd gSa buesa uo oSiqY; lw=ksa dh la[;k lokZf/kd gSA bu
lw=ksa esa l)eZ&iq.Mjhd dks loZJ"s B ekuk x;k gS A l)eZ&iq.Mjhd esa of.kZr fofo/k
dyk;sa thou n'kZu dh lqUnj vkfHkO;fDr gSA bl dykvksa esa vk/;kfRedrk vkSj
lkaLd`frd lk/kuk dk lqUnj o.kZu fd;k x;k gS tks fd izrhdkRed i)fr ij vk/kkfjr
gSaA ;|fi ckS) /keZ dyk vkSj laxhr dk ckS) fHk{kqvksa dks fu"ks/k gSa fQj Hkh lw=ksa esa
budk lqUnj foospu izkIr gksrk gSA dgus dh vko';drk ugha gS fd Hkxoku cq) us
tgk ewfrZ iwtk dk ?kksj fojks/k fd;k Fkk mUgha ds vuq;kf;;ksa us Hkkjrh; ewfrZdyk ds
bfrgkl esa Hkxoku cq) dh cM+h lqUnj ewfrZ;k cuk;h ftUgsa vkt Hkh fo}ku Hkkjrh;
ewfrZ dyk dh izkphure d`fr ekurs gSaA lalkj ls oSjkX; j[kus okys ckS) fHk{kqvksa us
vtUrk dh xqQkvksa esa tks lqUnj fp= mdsjs gSa os fo'o dh vewY; /kjksgj gSa A ckS)
/keZ esa HkfDr ds izos'k us ckS) HkDrksa dks viuh vksj vkd`"V fd;kA ftlds QyLo:i
fofo/k izdkj dh yfyr dyk;sa fo'ks"kdj ewfrZdyk] LrEHk] rksj.k] LFkkiR; ,oa fp=dyk
us viuh mUufr ds fofo/k vk;keksa dks NqvkA ;gh ugha yfyr dykvksa ds vfrfjDr
ys[ku] iqLrd] oL= x`g pSR; fuekZ.k vkfn dykvksa dks Hkh viuh mUufr ds pReksRd"kZ
ij igqpk;k A l)eZ&iq.Mjhd esa ;|fi eq[; fo"k; Hkxoku cq) }kjk mifn"V /keZ dk
izfriknu gS fdUrq og izkjfEHkd ckS) /keZ ls nwljh fn'kkvksa esa tkdj HkfDr iz/kku /keZ ds
Lo:i esa fn[kk;h nsrk gSA ftlesa ckS) nk'kZfud fl)kUrksa ds lkFk&lkFk bl izdkj ls
vorkjoknh fl)kUrksa dh Nki Li"V ifjyf{kr gksrh gSA lEiw.kZ egk;ku ckS) /keZ dh
;gh i`"BHkwfe gSaA /keZ lk/kuk ds fy;s ;gk u dsoy Hkxoku rFkkxr ds fofHkUu vorkjksa
*45 czt fogkj dkWyksuh] th-Vh jksM] vyhx<+ mkj izns'k
^^l)eZ&iq.Mjhd esa of.kZr dykvksa dk leh{kkRed v/;;u** 185

dh dYiuk dj mudh ewfrZ;ksa dk fuekZ.k fd;k x;k vfirq Hkxoku dh vykSfdd
'kfDr;ksa vkSj vykSfdd d:.kke; dk;ksZa ij Hkh ewfrZdyk vkSj fp=dyk esa ekfeZd
vadu fd;k x;k gS A ftlds izek.k ns'k ds fofHkUu Hkkxksa esa miyC/k Hkxoku cq) ij
miyC/k ewfrZ;k pSR;] Lrwi vkSj vtUrk vkfn ds fp=kadu lcy izek.k gSa A fo}kuksa us
bl fn'kk esa i;kZIr dk;Z fd;k gSA pSR; xqQk vkfn esa tks Hkkouk, vafdr gq;h gSa os
/keZ rFkk dyk vkSj thou vkSj lk/kuk dk lefUor :i gSa A
l)eZ&iq.Mjhd egk;ku /keZ dk ize[q k xzUFk gSA ftlesa Hkxoku cq) ds vkn'kksaZ dk
o.kZu feyrk gSA ;g o.kZu thou esa fofo/k i{kksa ij Hkh izdk'k Mkyrk gSA fxfjou dUnjkvks]a
fogkjksa vkSj vj.;ksa esa ioZrksa ij /keZ lk/kuk lEcU/kh fofo/k f;kvksa dk o.kZu ckS) dyk dh
>yd nsrs gSa A dyk dk vfoHkkZo /keZ ds lkFk gh ekuk tkrk gSA /keZ ds lkFk gh Lrwi]
efUnj rFkk izfrekvksa dk fuekZ.k gqvk gSA cq) dk R;kx] oSjkX;] Kku] fuokZ.k vkfn dks dyk
us :i iznku fd;kA okLro esa /keZ us dyk dks fo"k; oLrq iznku dh vkSj /kkfeZd Hkkoukvksa
esa ifjorZu ds lkFk&lkFk dyk eas Hkh ifjorZu gq, A dyk ds foof/k :i
fp=dyk &l)eZ&iq.Mjhd esa fp=dyk dk fodflr :i fn[kk;h nsrk gSA
yksxksa dh /kkfeZd Hkkoukvksa us bl fp=dyk dks vkSj Hkh izksRlkfgr fd;kA fp='kkykvksa
esa nhokjksa ij fp= cuk;s tkrs FksA budh iwtk iq"i vkfn ls dh tkrh FkhA1
^îq"isu pSdsufi] iwtf;Rok

vkys[k fHkkkS] lqxku fcEcku~A
fof{kIr fpRrkfi p iwtkf;Rok
vuqiwoZ n`{;fUr p cq) dksV~;%AA**1
bu fp=ksa dks cukus ds fy, dk"B ds ;U= vkSj u[kksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk Fkk
bldh iqf"V fuEu xkFkk ls izkIr gksrh gSA2
^^;s pkfi ds fpRrkfg f'k{kek.kk

dhMkjfr pfi fouksn;Ur%
u[ksu dk"Bsu d`rkfl foxzgku
fHkRrh"kq iq:"kk p dqekjdk okAA**12
yfyr dyk& l)eZ&iq.Mjhd xzUFk esa yfyr dyk dks Hkh mUufr ds f'k[kj
ij iznf'kZr fd;k x;k gSa l)eZ&iq.Mjhd esa Hksjh] 'ka[k] e`nax] oa'kh] oh.kk] nqUnqfHk]
rky] vkfn vusd ok| ;U=ksa dk o.kZu feyrk gSA iwtk ds fy; ok| ;U=ksa rFkk laxhr
dk fo'ks"k egRo jgk gSA3
^ôk|k fg oknf;r ;sfg r=

Hks;ksZFk 'ka[kkS iVgk% lq/kks"kdk% A
186
MkW- gseckyk
fuukZfnrk nqUnqHk;'; ;sfg
iwtk fo/kkuk; ojkxzcksf/kuke~AA
oh.kk rkMk i.kok'p ;sfg
e`nax o'kh rq.kok euksKk%AA
,dksRlok ok lqdqekjdk ok
rs lfoZ cks/kk; vHkwf"kyfHkAA
oknkferk >Yyfj;ks fi;sfg
tye.Mdk piZV e.Mdk okAA
lqxrku mfn~n';Fk iwtukFkZ
xhra lqxhra e/kqj euksKe~AA**3
v:.kkpy vkSj rn~nk[k esa vkt Hkh ckS) fHk{kq vius fogkjksa esa rFkk vU; mRloksa
esa ok| ;U=ksa dk iz;ksx djrs gSaA
ewfrZdyk&cq) izfrekvksa dk fuekZ.k rFkk ewfrZiwtk egk;ku /keZ dh izeq[k
fo'ks"krk FkhA ewfrZdyk dh n`f"V ls dq"kk.k ;qx egRoiw.kZ ekuk tkrk gSA bl ;qx esa
eFkqjk] lkjukFk] vejkorh vkfn ewfrZ dyk ds izeq[k dsUnz Fks] l)eZ&iq.Mjhd esa
cRrhl y{k.kksa ls ;qDr cq) izfrekvksa dk o.kZu feyrk gSA4
^^jRue;k fcEc rFkSo dsfpn

baf='krh y{k.k:i /kkfj.k%A
mfn~n'; dkjkfir ;sfg pkfi
rs lfoZ cks/kk; vHkwf"kykfHku%AA**4
l)eZ&iq.Mjhd esa ewfrZdyk dk fo'ks"k :i ls o.kZu feyrk D;ksfa d egk;ku esa
loZyksd fgr ds dY;k.kkFkZ] cksf/klRo dh dYiuk djds cq) ewfrZ;k cuk;h x;hA l)eZ&iq.Mjhd
esa Hkxoku cq) dh rkcs rFkk dkls dh jRu tfM+r ewfrZ;ksa dk o.kZu feyrk gSA5
^^;s lIr jRuke; r= ds fpnA

;s rkfezdk ok rpdkafldk okAA
dkjki;h"kq lqxrku foEckA
rs lfoZ cks/kk;~ vHkwf"k ykfHku%AA**5
yksgs 'kh'ks rFkk feV~Vh ls cuh ewfrZ;ksa dk Hkh o.kZu feyrk gs tks fd vR;Ur
n'kZuh; FkhA6
^^lhlL; yksgL; p e`fRrdk; ok
dkjki;h"kq lqxrku~ foxzgku~ A
rs iqLr dkHkfe; n'kZuh;kLra
lfoZ cks/kk; vHkwf"kykfHku%AA**6
^^l)eZ&iq.Mjhd esa of.kZr dykvksa dk leh{kkRed v/;;u** 187

LFkkiR; dyk&Lrwi&l)eZ&iq.Mjhd esa Lrwi fuekZ.k dk fo'ks"k mYys[k gSaA
l)eZ&iq.Mjhd esa Lo.kZ tfMr] jtr rFkk jRu tfMr] Lrwiksa ds fuekZ.k dk mYys[k
feyrk gSA bl ;qx ds yksxksa dk Lrwi fuekZ.k esa fo'ks"k yxko Fkk D;ksafd mudk fo'okl
Fkk fd Lrwi cuokus o mudh iwtk djus ls cq)Ro dh izkfIr gksrh gSA l)eZ&iq.Mjhd
esa nqxZe taxyksa esa bZVksa rFkk feV~Vh ds Lrwi cuk;s tkus dk mYys[k feyrk gSA7
**b"Vke;ku Hk`fRrdlafprku~ ok
izhrk'p dqoZfUr ftuku Lrwiku~ A
mf}'; ;s ikalqdjk'k;ksfi
vVoh"kq nqxsZ"kq p dkj;fUrAA**7
l)eZ&iq.Mjhd esa ydM+h ds cuk;s Lrwiksa dk Hkh o.kZu feyrk gSA ftlesa pUnu]
vx:] nsonkl vkfn ydfM+;ksa dk izeq[k mYys[k feyrk gSA8
**;s pkfi 'kSys"kq djksfUr Lrwiku~

;s pUnukukxe:LFk dsfpr~ A
;s nsonk:L; djksfUr Lrwiku~ A
;s nk: la?kkrHk;ka'p dsfprAA**8
bu Lrwiksa dks ltkus ds fy;s irkdkvksa rFkk ?k.Vksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk FkkA
mik; dkS'kY;&80 js'keh yfM+;ksa ls lq'kksfHkr lqUnj 'kCn djus okyh ?kf.V;ksa rFkk
vU; izdkj ls Hkh ;g Lrwi lq'kksfHkr gksrs jgrs FksA9
*îVq?kaVk j.kUr'p iV~Vnkeks i'kksfHkrk%A

ckrs fjrLrFkk ?k.Vk 'kksHkkfUr ftu /kkrq"kqAA**9
lezkV v'kksd us Hkh vusd Lrwiksa dk fuekZ.k djk;k FkkA vHkh rd v'kksd ds pkSng
Lrwi feys gSAa ftuesa lkjukFk] dkS'kkEch] yqfEcuh rFkk jkaph ds Lrwi mYys[kuh; gSa A
xqQk;sa%&l)eZ&iq.Mjhd esa vusd LFkkuksa ij ioZr xqQkvksa ,oa ou dUnkjkvksa
dk mYys[k izkIr gksrk gSA10 bu dUnjkvksa esa ckS) fHk{kq fnok fogkj djrs rFkk /;kujr
jgrs FksA ckS) fHk{kq bu ioZrh; xqQkvksa esa cq) Kku ds fo"k; esa euu fpUru djrs gq,
Lo;a mldk lk{kkRdkj Hkh djrs FksA11
^^dkaf'p'; i';kE;gq cksf/klRoku~

fxfj dUnjs"kq izfo'kfUr] /khjk%
foHkko;Urks beq cq)Kkua
ifjfpUr;Urks g~;qiy{k;fUrAA**11
MkW- gseckyk
vkSiE; ifjorZ esa Hkxoku cq) us mins'k fn;k gS fd vkil esa izse djus] ew[kksa
ds lEidZ ls nwj fxfjdunjkvksa esa fuokl djus okys cksf/k lRoksa dks gh bl eaxye;
lw= dk mins'k djuk pkfg,A12
188
^vU;ksU; ladYi lxkSjok'p

rs"kka p ckysfg u laLroksfLr
;s ;kfi rq"Vk fxfjdUnjs"kq
rku~ Jko;sLRoa bna lw= Hknzde~AA**12
Hkxoku cq) dk dFku gS fd fxfjdUnjkvksa esa /;kuLFkks dks vxzcksf/k izkIr gksrh gSA13
*^fo{ksifpra p footZ;Urku~
,dkxz fprku~ oudUnjs"kq
/;k;Ur o"kkZ.k lglzdksV~;ks
/;kusu rs izfLFkr vxzcksf/ke~ AA*13
l)eZ&iq.Mjhd esa bl izdkj ds o.kZuksa ls irk pyrk gS fd izkphu dykvksa esa
xqQkvksa dk fo'ks"k egRo Fkk ;s xqQk;sa mRrj esa fgeky; ls ysdj dsjy] rfeyukMq
egkjk"V] dukZVd rFkk fcgkj vkfn esa vkt Hkh fo|eku gSa A
lUnHkZ lwph&
12345678910111213-
MkW- nkl jke eksgu&la)eZ iq.Mjhd ewy lg fgUnh vuqokn fcgkj jk"V Hkk"kk ifj"kn] iVuk
l)eZ&iq.Mjhd mik; dkS'kY; ifjorZ xkFkk 1&49
mik; dkS'kY; ifjorZ xkFkk 2&87
mik; dkS'kY; ifjorZ xkFkk 3&90&92
mik; dkS'kY; ifjorZ&83
mik; dkS'kY; ifjorZ 5&84
mik; dkS'kY; ifjorZ xkFkk 5&85
mik; dkS'kY; ifjorZ xkFkk&2@81
mik; dkS'kY; ifjorZ&80
iq.;i;kZ; ifjorZ9&40
funku ifjorZ 10&23
funku ifjorZ 11&23
vkSiE; ifjorZ xkFkk&140
funku ifjorZ xkFkk 13&35
189
44
oSfnd ok~e; ,oa laLr lkfgR; esa of.kZr

firk dk LFkku ,oa mudh Hkwfedk
*e/kqfydk flUgk
lkekftd thou dk ewy vk/kkj ifjokj gS vkSj ifjokj esa gh jg dj euq"; Lo;a vius
vkidks rFkk lekt dks mUur vkSj le`) dj ldrk gSA1 ifjokj esa ifr Lokeh]
iRuh] L=h&iq#"k] iq=] iq=h] HkkbZ Hkzkrk] cgu] Hkfxuh] HkkUtk Hkkfxus;] ekSlh
ekr`Lolk] ekrk] firk2] ikS=] iq=o/kw Luq"kk vkfn lfEeyr FksA ifjokj ds iz/kku dks
x`gifr3 dgk tkrk Fkk tks iq#"k gksrk Fkk vkSj bl izdkj Hkkjr esa ikfjokfjd ijEijk
la;qDr ifjokj dh ,oa fir` iz/kku dh FkhAifjokj dk egRo gekjs thou esa vusd
n`f"V;ksa ls gSA ;gha ls ge iw.kZrk dh izkfIr djrs gSa] ekuork dk n'kZu djrs gSa] _.kksa
ls ifjfpr gksrs gSa rFkk buls m_.k gksus ds fy, ;Kksa dh ijEijk dk fuokZg djrs gSaA4
osnksa esa firk ds fy, 'kCn vk;k gS ^firjk*A5 fir` 'kCn dh O;qRifk îk* /kkrq ls gqbZ gS ftldk
vFkZ gS ^j{kk djuk* rFkk ^lap; djuk*A _Xosn esa Hkh dqy ds v;{k ds fy, dqyik 'kCn
iz;Dq r gqvk gS ftldk vFkZ gS dqy dk j{kdA vr% Li"V gS fd firk dk dk;Z gS vius
ifjokj ds lnL;ksa dh j{kk djukA og j{kk nks n`f"V;ksa ls djrk gS & lkekftd e;kZnk ds
lac/a k esa rFkk 'kkjhfjd fodkl ds lac/a k esAa blfy, lHkh iqjkru xzFa kksa esa firk ds fy, ifjokj
esa cM+s gh lekn`r LFkku dk o.kZu gSA _Xosn dh _pkvksa ls Kkr gksrk gS fd og cgq/kk
n;kyq vkSj okRlY;iw.kZ gksrk FkkA6 oSfnd dky esa ekSfyd lkekftd bdkbZ laHkor%
fir`lkkRed ifjokj dh FkhA7 bl le; firk dks ifjokj esa lcls cM+k ekuk tkrk FkkA firk
gh ifjokj dh lEifk dk Lokeh gksrk FkkA mldh lEifk esa xk;] ?kksM]s+ lksuk] vkHkw"k.k]
'kkL=] nkl vkfn lfEery FksA Hkwfe&[k.M dk Lokeh Hkh ogh gksrk FkkA og iwot
Z ksa }kjk izkIr
8
lEifk dk laj{kd gksrk gS rFkk viuh vftZr lEifk dk Lokeh gksrk gSA
gkykafd firk [kqn vius thou dky esa lEifk dk caVokjk dj ldrk FkkA
ekrk&firk dk dkZO; gS fd os vius thou dky esa gh iq=kfn dks mudk vf/kdkj nsa
*;w-th-lh- & ts-vkj-,Q- 'kks/k Nk=k] bfrgkl foHkkx] iVuk fo'ofo|ky;] iVuk
fcgkj
190
e/kqfydk flUgk
rFkk lEifk esa mudk va'k ns nsaA9 firk lEifk dk caVokjk djrs le; vius T;s"B
iq= ds lkFk vf/kekU; O;ogkj djrk FkkA czk.k xzaFkksa esa Hkh iztkifr ds iq= nso vkSj
vlqjksa esa lEifk dk leku Hkkx gksus vkSj T;s"B iq= ds fo'ks"kkf/kdkj dk ladsr feyrk
gSA firk dh e`R;q ds ckn Hkh lcls cM+s iq= dks lEifk esa vU; Hkkb;ksa dh vis{kk vf/kd
Hkkx fn;k tkrk gSA ekS;Zskj dky ds Le`frdkj ;kKo.D; ds vuqlkj firk ds }kjk
fd;k x;k foHkktu pkgs U;wu vFkok vf/kd Hkkx esa D;ksa u gks U;k;laxr vkSj lnkpkjiw.kZ
gSA ukjn Hkh ;kKoYd ds fopkjksa ls lger gSAa fdUrq euq us foHkktu esa firk dks lEifk
dk vleku caVokjk djus dk vf/kdkj ugha fn;kA,slk ekywe gksrk gS fd ifjokj dk
eqf[k;k viuh lEifk vkSj vk; cgqr ls yksxksa dh mifLFkfr esa olh;r }kjk vius iq=ksa
dks ns nsrk FkkA10 lw=dkjksa dk ;g Hkh er gS fd firk dh e`R;q ds ckn NksVs HkkbZ;ksa dks
cM+s HkkbZ ds fu;a=.k esa jguk pkfg, vkSj mlds izfr ogh vknj lRdkj iznf'kZr djuk
pkfg, tks os firk ds izfr iznf'kZr djrs FksA11 euq Hkh dgrs gSa fd firk dh e`R;q ds ckn
vU; HkkbZ lcls cM+s HkkbZ ds fu;a=.k es jgrs gSAa
_XoSfnd dky esa firk vius iq= ds lkFk cM+k gh izseiw.kZ O;ogkj djrk FkkA
firk dk drZO; Fkk fd og vius cPpksa ls Lusg djs] mu ij ks/k u djsa vkSj u dksbZ
dVq Hkkouk j[ksA12 tc rd iq= vfoosdh jgs rc rd og mldk laj{k.k djsaA ;g
firk ds iq= ds izfr LokHkkfod izse ls gh laHko gSA egkHkkjr esa Hkh /k`rjk"V vius iq=ksa
dh e`R;q ij cM+h gh dk:f.kd foyki djrk gSA tkrdeZ] iqalou vkfn laLdkjksa dks
cM+s gh mRlkg ls euk;k tkuk bl izdkj ds izse dk |ksrd gSA bls vkSj Hkh izHkkoh
cukus ds fy, izkphu dky ds 'kkL=dkjksa }kjk fir` _.k dk cks> firk ij Mky fn;k
x;k rkfd og flQZ iq= dk iztuu ek= gh u djsa cfYd mldk Hkj.k&iks"k.k Hkh djsa
vkSj mi;qDr f'k{kk Hkh nsA vFkoZosn dgrk gS fd firk iq= dh lnk j{kk djs vkSj
mudk ikyu&iks"k.k djsA13 firk dk ;g Hkh drZO; gS fd og iq= dks f'k{kk ns vkSj
nqxqZ.kksa ls cpkosA14 euq us fy[kk gS fd iq= ds fy, firk xq# gSA15 ;kKoYD; Hkh ;g
nksgjkrs gSaA ;fn firk Lo;a fdlh fo"k; dk ikjaxr fo}ku~ gksrk Fkk rks ml fo"k; dh
fof'k"V f'k{kk Hkh ogh nsrk FkkA v:.ks; Lo;a cM+k fo}ku~ Fkk] vr,o mlus vius iq=
'osrdsrq dks Hkh fo}ku cuk fn;kA euqLe`fr esa dgk x;k gS ^firk ewfrZ iztkirs%*16
vFkkZr~ firk viuh lUrku ds fy, vkn'kZ gksrk gSA
egkHkkjr ds vuqlkj iq= dk tUe vR;Ur ifo= dk;Z gS D;ksafd oa'k dk vkxs
pyuk mlh ij fuHkZj gSA17 egkHkkjr ds gh vuqlkj iq= ds tUe ls ,d euq"; leLr
lalkj dks thr ldrk gSA firk ds fy, iq= ls vf/kd vkuUn dk lzksr dqN ugha gks
ldrk gSA18 euq ds vuqlkj ;fn euq"; dks eks{k izkIr djuk gS rks mls iq= dh izkfIr
ds fy, iz;Ru djuk pkfg,A euq ds vuqlkj cM+s iq= ds tUe gksus ij firk viuk
iSr`d _.k mls ns nsrk Fkk vkSj og vej gks tkrk Fkk D;ksafd ogh /keZ ls mRiUu iq=
gS vU; iq= rks dkesPNk dh larku gSaA19 firk iq= gksus dh n'kk esa gh ugha vfirq iq=
191
oSfnd ok~e; ,oa laLr lkfgR; esa of.kZr-----gksrs gq, Hkh ;ksX; ckyd dks xksn esa ysrk Fkk ftlls fd ifjokj dh mUufr gks ldsA
_Xosn20 ds ,d lanHkZ ls xksn ysus dh izFkk dk vkHkkl gksrk gSA 'kkL=dkjksa us o.kZu
fd;k gS fd iq= Hkh firk dk iw.kZ vknj djrs Fks vkSj mudh vkKk dk ikyu djrs FksA
ysfdu mldh ykijokgh ds dkj.k lkS HksM+ksa dks HksfM+;s us [kk fy;kA blfy, mlds
firk us mls va/kk cuk fn;kA21 _Xosn esa ,d LFkku ij of.kZr gS fd firk vius tqvkjh
csVksa dks n.M nsrk gSA egkHkkjr esa dgk x;k gS fd firk dks vf/kdkj gS fd vius iq=
dks Bhd jkLrs ij ykus ds fy, dHkh&dHkh n.M nsA euq Hkh dgrk gS fd firk dks iq=
dks ihVuk pkfg, tc og mls Bhd ekxZ ij ykuk pkgsA22 firk dksbZ Hkh vkKk vius
iq=ksa dks ns ldrk Fkk vkSj iq= dks ;g vf/kdkj ugha Fkk fd mldh vkKk esa dksbZ
uk&uqdqj djsA _f"k dk.Mq ds firk us mudks vkns'k fn;k fd og xkSgR;k djsaA pwfd
firk pkgrs Fks fd og xkSgR;k djsa vr,o mUgkasus firk ds vkns'k ij xkSgR;k dh] ;g
tkurs gq, fd ;g v/keZ gSA ijUrq firk dh vkKk dks Vky ugha ldrs FksA23 mkj
oSfnd dky ds xzaFk ,srjs; czk.k esa 'kqu% 'ksi dh dFkk ls ;g ckr Li"V gks tkrh gSA
b/kj dkSfVY; ds vFkZ'kkL= ls Li"V gksrk gS fd larku dks cspus vkSj ca/kd j[kus dh izFkk
eysPNksa esa fo|eku Fkh u fd vk;ks esaA ;kKoYD; dk Hkh er gS fd firk dks dHkh Hkh
vius iq= dks ugha NksM+uk pkfg, tc rd fd mlus cgqr gh cM+k vijk/k u fd;k
gksA24 gkykafd of'k"B us vkxs dgk gS fd firk ckyd dks ?kj ls Hkxk ldrk gS rFkk
csp ldrk gSA25 ijUrq /keZ'kkL=dkjksa }kjk bldh ekU;rk feyus ds ckn Hkh ;g vf/kdkj
cgqr mi;qDr ugha ekuk tkrk FkkA
euq us fookg dh vk;q vkfn ds laca/k esa O;k[;k djrs gq, dgk gS fd ;fn 'kknh
fu/kkZfjr vk;q ls nsj esa r; gks rks firk gh mldk nks"kh gksrk gSA ;gh ckr ;kKoYD;
vkfn us Hkh dgh gSA ftl O;fDr ds lkFk ,d ckj laca/k fuf'pr gks tkrk Fkk] firk
viuh iq=h dk fookg mlh ds lkFk djrk FkkA26 firk dHkh Hkh /ku ysdj viuh iq=h
dk fookg ugha djrk FkkA27 bl dky esa Js"B fookg ogh le>k tkrk Fkk tks dU;k
ds ekrk&firk fuf'pr djrs FksA euqLe`fr ds lkFk vusd /keZxzUFkksa esa vkB izdkj ds
fookgksa dh lwph nh xbZ gSA 'kkL=dkjksa us fookgksa dh rkfydk esa ^Lo;aoj* dk uke ugha
fy;k gS] fdarq jpukRed lkfgR; esa bldk o.kZu izpqj feyrk gSA Lo;aoj esa 'kkfey
lHkh izkfFkZ;ksa dks jktk vFkkZr~ dU;k ds firk }kjk fueaf=r fd;k tkrk FkkA vr%
vfHkHkkodh; fu;a=.k vkSj vuqeksnu blesa Hkh lf; FkkA28 ;g rks Li"V gS fd iq=ksa
dks vf/kd mi;ksxh le>k tkrk FkkA lw= dky ds xzaFkksa esa ppkZ gS fd tc firk fons'k
ls ?kj vkrk Fkk rks og iq=ksa dks ,d izdkj ls rFkk iqf=;ksa dks nwljs izdkj ls lEcksf/
kr djrk FkkA oSfnd xzaFkksa esa ;g Hkh mfYyf[kr gS fd iq=kHkko dh fLFkfr esa iq=h dks
Hkh firk dh lEifk ij mkjkf/kdkfj.kh ekuk tkrk gSA29 bl izdkj oSfnd ;qx ls xqIr
;qx rd fofHkUu lzkrs ksa dks [kaxkyus ds ckn ;g fu/kkZfjr dj ikuk fcYdqy vklku gS fd
lekt fir`lkkRed Fkk vkSj blh izdkj ifjokj esa Hkh firk dk loksZifj LFkku gksrk
e/kqfydk flUgk
FkkA bls dgha ls Hkh fdlh izdkj dh pqukSrh ugha feyh vkSj ;g fujUrjrk ds lkFk
vkt Hkh gekjs lekt esa dkQh gn rd izfrfcfEcr gksrk gSA
192
lanHkZ xzaFk lwph

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vxus yky] laLr ckS) lkfgR; esa bfrgkl vkSj laLfr] mkj izns'k fgUnh laLFkku] y[ku]
2006] i`- 171
egkoLrq] ftYn 2@80@16
fnO;konku] 1@2] 104@2] 162@7
f'koLo:i lgk;] izkphu Hkkjr dk lkekftd ,oa vkfFkZd bfrgkl] eksrhyky cukjlhnkl]
fnYyh] 2000] iqueqZnz.k] i`-143
_Xosn] 4@6@7
jes'kpUnz etqenkj] gsepUnz jk;pkS/kqjh] dkfyfdadj nk & Hkkjr dk o`gn bfrgkl okWY;we&1]
eSdfeyu] fnYyh] 1970] iqueqZnz.k] i`-25
dqedqe jk;] ^ôSfnd ;qx**] izkphu Hkkjr] izdk'ku foHkkx] fnYyh] 2001] i`- 23
euqLe`fr] 9@208 ( ;kKoYD;Le`fr] 2@121
_Xosn] 2@13@4 ( vFkoZosn] 18@3@43
ih-,u- pksiM+k] ch-,u-iqjh] ,e-,u-nkl] Hkkjr dk lkekftd lkaLfrd vkSj vkfFkZd bfrgkl
okWY;we 1] eSdfeyu] fnYyh] 1975] i`- 101
vkiLrEc /keZlw=] 2@14@6 ( ckS/kk;u /keZlw=] 2@3@13
_Xosn] 1@159@2
vFkoZosn] 5@1@8
_Xosn] 2@29@5
euqLeqfr] 2@145
ogh] 2@225
egkHkkjr] vkfnioZ] 74@96&97
ogh] 74@38
euqLe`fr] 9@107
_Xosn] 7@4@7&8
_Xosn] 1@116@16
euqLe`fr] 4@164 ( 8@299&300
jkek;.k] 2@21@31
;kKoYD;Le`fr] 2@137
ofj"B /keZlw=] 15@2
euqLe`fr] 9@47
ogh] 9@98
j.kohj porhZ] Hkkjrh; bfrgkl dk vkfndky] vkfj;aV CySdLokWu] ubZ fnYyh] 2012] i`255&57
okpLifr xSjksyk] Hkkjrh; laLfr vkSj dyk] mkj izns'k fgUnh laLFkku] y[ku] 2006] i`- 150
193
45
usiky esa x.kifr ewfrZ ,oa iwtk

*MkW- foHkk JhokLro
loZyksofUnr Hkxoku x.ks'k dh vpZuk dk vkyksd dsoy Hkkjro"kZ dks gh ugha izR;qr
fo'o ds vU; vapyksa dks Hkh lfn;k ls mn~Hkkf"kr djrk vk;k gSA fons'kksa esa Jhx.ks'k
iwtk ds laca/k esa vkDlQksMZ ds DykjMsu izsl ls izdkf'kr x.ks'k ,d eksuksxzkQ vkQ
n ,yhQsaV QsLM xkM 1 uke iqLrd esa fo'kn~ o.kZu fd;k x;k gSA bl iqLrd esa
izdkf'kr rF;ksa ds vuqlkj Hkkjr ds vfrfjDr phu] phuk rqfdZLrku] frCcr] tkiku
cekZ] L;ke] fgUn phu] tkok] ckyh rFkk cksfuZ;ks esa Hkh Jhx.ks'k dh izfrek, feyrh gSA
bu ewfrZ;ksa esa mu ns'kksa esa Jhx.ks'k ds uke vkSj iwtu ds izlkj dk irk pyrk gSA
cksfuZ;ksa dh Jhx.ks'k dh vklu dkL; ewfrZ;k ,d lkFk tqM+h gq;h [kM+h eqnzk esa ik;h
tkrh gSA phuh Hkk"kk esa Hkxoku Jhx.ks'k dk uke gS dqvku kh fr,uA tkiku esa fo?us'k
Jhx.ks'k dh tks ewfrZ;k feyh gSaA muds nks vFkok pkj gkFk fn[kk, x;s gSaA tkikuh
Hkk"kk esa Hkxoku Jhx.ks'k dks dkafxrsu ds uke ls lacksf/kr fd;k tkrk gSA phu vkSj
tkiku ds vfrfjDr tkok esa Hkh Jhx.ks'k iwtu ds izek.k feyrs gSaA 'kSoer1 uke
iqLrd ds ys[kd ds erkuqlkj tkok esa czkEg.k /keZ dk izpkj izkphu dky esa gh gks
pqdk FkkA vkBoha 'krh ds mRrjk/kZ vFkok uoha 'krh ds iwokZ/kZ rd ogk x.ks'k iwtu dk
izpkj Hkh gks x;k FkkA tkok fLFkr p.Mh cuksu uked f'ko eafnj esa czEgk] fo'.kq ,oa
egs'k ds lkFk x.ks'k dh ewfrZ Hkh vafdr gSA fRkCcr esa Hkh x.ks'k dh izfrek, ik;h tkrh
gSA frCcr esa 'kSo ,oa ckS) nksuksa gh izdkj ds eafnjksa esa x.ks'kth dh ewfrZ;k ik;h x;h
gSA usiky esa Hkh x.ks'k iwtk ds laca/k esa izek.k feys gSaA usiky dh jkt/kkuh dkBek.Mw
esa x.ks'k dh izfrek, ik;h x;h gSA usiky esa lw;Z fouk;d ds :Ik esa Hkxoku Jh x.ks'k
dh iwtk dh tkrh FkhA L;ke esa Hkh Jhx.ks'k dh izfrd`fr feyh gSA paik dh rjg
*izk/;kid] bfrgkl foHkkx] 'kkldh; dU;k Lukrdkskj egkfo|ky;] jhok
e]iz
MkW- foHkk JhokLro

dacksfM;k esa f'koksikluk ds izek.k miyC/k gksrs gSaA bu {ks=ksa esa x.kifr foxzg ik;s tkrs
gSaA fgUn phu esa vU; nsorkvksa ds lkFk x.kifr dh izfrek Hkh ik;h tkrh gSA ogkA
,sls f'kykys[k feys gSa ftuls ;g Kkr gksrk gS fd ml {ks= esa vusd krkfCn;ksa iwoZ
Hkxoku x.ks'k ds uke dk izpkj gks x;k FkkA iqjk.k foe'k2 ds ys[kd ds erkuqlkj
usiky esa ckS) /keZ ds lkFk gh x.kifr iwtk dk Hkh izpyu gS vkSj ogha ls x.ks'kksikluk
dk izpkj [kksrkuk] phuh rqfdZLrku rFkk frCcr esa Hkh gqvkA phuh rqfdZLrku ls izkIr
prqHkqZt x.ks'k dk fHkfRr fp= fo'ks"k egRoiw.kZ gSA czEgk.M dk dksbZ ,slk Hkkx ugh gS]
tgkA ijczEg Jh x.ks'k dk fuokl u gks rFkk dksbZ ,slk tho ugha gS tks muls jfgr
gksA
194
^^T;ksfr"kkefi rTT;ksfrLrel% ijeqP;rsA

Kkua Ks;a KkuxE;a g`fn loZL; fof'BreAA** xhrk 13@17
bl izdkj Hkkjr ds dqN {ks=ksa esa Hkh x.ks'k iwtk vkSj izfrekvksa dk dykRed
fooj.k izLrqr djus ds Ik'pkr~ fons'kksa esa Hkh dqN {ks=ksa esa x.ks'kksYys[k fd;k x;k gS
ftldk laf{kIr ifjp; bl izdkj ls gS&
usiky&usiky esa x.ks'kksikluk dc izkjaHk gq;h fuf'pr :Ik ls Kkr ugha gksrkA
ijaijkuqeksfnr gS fd v'kksd dh ,d iq=h pk:erh us usiky esa ,d x.ks'k eafnj dk
fuekZ.k djk;k Fkk] fdUrq ,slk dksbZ Bksl izek.k miyC/k ugha gksrk fd brus izkphu ;qx
esa x.ks'k dh iwtk dks vfHkizekf.kr fd;k tk ldsA3 ftfEi rksnw ds lehi ,d usikyh
x.ks'k eafnj izkIr gqvk] ftlesa 8oha ,oa 10oha 'krh ds e/; ds vfHkys[k izkIr gq, gSaA4
fdUrq eafnj dh LFkkiuk dk fuf'pr le; mlesa Kkr ugha gksrkA bl laca/k esa ;g
fuf'pr :Ik ls ugha dgk tk ldrk fd 10oha 'krh rd x.ks'k ,d yksdfiz; nsork ds
:Ik esa izfrf"Br gks x;s FksA ;g fofHkUu ewfrZ;ksa ls izekf.kr ,oa lR;kfir gSA5
usiky esa x.ks'kksikluk dh dFkk, fHkUu&fHkUUk :iksa esa izkIr gksrh gSA ftudk
Hkkjrh; ijaijkvksa ls dksbZ fof'k"V laca/k n`f"Vxr ugha gksrkA usikyh nUr dFkkvksa ds
vuqlkj x.ks'k LosPNk ls lw;Z ds izdk'k esa izdV gq;s vkSj lw;Z fouk;d ds :Ik esa budh
mikluk izkjaHk gq;hA6 usiky esa x.ks'k dh ewfrZ;k Hkh fofHkUu :iksa esa miyC/k gq;h gS]
ftuesa u`R;x.kifr] gsjEc] lw;Z fouk;d rFkk 'kfDr x.kifr bR;kfn izeq[k gSA usikyh
u`R; x.kifr ewfrZ jDro.kZ dh gksrh gS tks vius okgu ew'kd ij fLFkr gksrh gSA7 ew"kd
gfjr o.kZ dk gSA ftlds eq[k esa fparkef.k gSA nsork dk nf{k.k ikn Hkkjrh; 'kSyh esa
eqM+k gSA tcfd okeikn nksgjk eqM+k gS rFkk inry liZes[kyk dks Li'kZ dj jgs gSaA
vius rkaf=d :Ik esa Hkh dikyekyk ds LFkku ij fparkef.k }kj ls foHkwf"kr gS tks ?kqVus
rd yVd jgk gSA8 usikyh fp=ksa esa x.kifr pkj fouk;dksa jDr fouk;d] panz
fouk;d] flf) fouk;d rFkk v'kksd fouk;d ls vko`r jgrk gS tks egk;ku ckS) /keZ
ds iapnso ijEijk dk izHkko izrhr gksrk gSA9 usiky esa iapx.kifr dk ,d ckS) eafnj
195
usiky esa x.kifr ewfrZ ,oa iwtk
gSA ftlesa e/; dk eq[; fouk;d laHkor% lw;Z fouk;d gSA10 lw;Z fouk;d laHkor%
x.ks'k dk rkaf=d :Ik gS] D;ksafd budh mikluk tes gq;s jDr ,oa jDre; ;{kksa ls dh
tkrh gSA tks rkaf=d ;Kksa dh vksj bafxr djrs gSaA11 fdUrq eafnj mldh eq[; ewfrZ
x.kifr dh gksrh gSA ftldk ra=ksa ds lkFk dksbZ laCka/k ifjyf{kr ugha gksrkA x.kifr
,deq[k ,oa prqeqZ[k gS ftuds gkFkksa esa ij'kq] eksnd ik=] nUr ,oa v{kekyk izkIr gksrs
gSaA nsork vius okgu ew'kd ij vk:<+ gSA
gsjEc ds vfrfjDRk lHkh usikyh x.ks'k ,d eq[k gSA budk dfV yEck ,oa iryk
gSA ;s f=us= gSA buds 4 ls 16 rd gkFk gksrs gSaA ew"kd LFkkud ;k vklu eqnzk esa
fufeZr gS rFkk >kynkj LdVZ igus gq, gSaA12 liZ;Kksiohr ,oa liZ es[kyk ;qDr x.ks'k
rks izk;% loZ= izkIr gksrs gSaA fdUrq f'ko dh Hkkfr 'ks"k dks flj ij idM+s gq, x.ks'k rks
ek= usiky esa gh miyC/k gksrs gSaA dkBek.Mw ls x.ks'k dh nks vlk/kkj.k ewfrZ;k izkIr
gq;h gS ftuds nksuksa iSjksa ds uhps nks ew"kd cus gq;s gSaA flj ij iapQu ;qDr ukx gS
tks HksM+k?kkV ds pkSlB ;ksfxuh eafnj dh x.ks'k ewfrZ dk Lej.k fnykrk gSA tks f'ko dh
uVjkt ewfrZ ds flj dh Hkkfr gSA13 blls ;g fu"d"kZr% dgk tk ldrk gS fd Hkkjr
ds ckg~; ns'kksa esa x.ks'k vf/kdka'kr% 'kSy y{k.kksa ls ;qDr gSA usiky esa x.ks'k ukFk]
eaxksfy;k ,oa frCcr esa f='kwy rFkk tkok esa diky /kkj.k fd, gSaA xsVh dk ;g vuqeku
lR; izrhr gksrk gS fd vius firk f'ko dh Hkkfr x.ks'k fons'kksa esa ewfrZ :Ik esa izfrf"Br
gq,A14 flag ij vk:<+ gsjEc x.ks'k dh ewfrZ usiky esa lokZf/kd izpfyr gSA bl :Ik esa
x.ks'k lnZo n'kHkqt gS rFkk viuh 'kfDr dk vkfyaxu djrs gq, funf'kZr fd;s x,
gSA15 nsork iapeq[k gSA buds eq[kksa dh fLFkfr eq[;r% nks :iksa esa izkIr gksrh gSA izFke
fLFkfr esa e/; eq[k ds nksuksa ik'oZ esa ihNs rFkk ij ikpksa eq[k fLFkr gksrs gSaA f}rh;
fLFkfr esa eq[k rhu Hkkxksa esa vfHkeq[k gksrk gSA e/; eq[k ds nksuksa vksj nks eq[; e/; eq[k
ds ij ,d eq[k rFkk iqu% mlds ij ,d eq[k gksrk gSA gsjEc lkekU;r% flag ij
vklhu gSA16 E;wfud ds E;wft;e Qkj cksYdj dqf.M esa gsjEc dh ,d dkaL; ewfrZ
lqjf{kr gS ftlds iSj ds uhps ew"kd rFkk f}rh; iSj ds uhps eksnd gSA17 fp=ksa esa x.ks'k
dks ckS) rFkk czkEg.k nksuksa gh :iksa esa O;Dr fd;k x;k gSA iapeq[k x.ks'k ftldk e/;eq[k
'kjhj gLr ,oa ikn cksf/kRlo voyksfdrs'oj dh Hkkfr 'osr gSA nf{k.k eq[k uhyk ,oa
oke eq[k ihr gSA e/; ds ij dk flj jDro.kZ dk gSA gjeq[k ds yykV ij r`rh;
us= gSA ftlds nksuksa fdukjksa ij 'kSo fryd gksrk gS ,d flj ij iap;= ;qDr eqdqV
gSA }kn'k gLr gSA ck;sa gkFk esa eksnd ik= gksrk gS] tks gfLrdj ds uhps cuk gksrk
gSA nkfgus gkFk esa nUror ewyd ,slk vkHkkflr gksrk gS ekuks og foyqIr nUr dks
izfrLFkkfir dj jgs gSaA vU; gLr yksNu rkaf=d gSA izR;sd iSj ds uhps ew"kd gSA18
x.ks'k dks usikyh ckS) eafnjksa esa }kjiky ds :Ik esa iznf'kZr fd;k x;k gSA buds lkFk
nf{k.k ik'oZ esa frCcrh nsork egkdky dh ewfrZ cuk;h x;h gSA ftldk izlkj usiky
esa g~osulkax ds ledkyhu ca/kqnRr }kjk fd;k x;k FkkA19 usiky esa vusd x.ks'k eafnj
MkW- foHkk JhokLro

Hkh izkIr gq, gSaA ftuesa ftfEi] rkSUnq] 'kadq dk flf) fouk;d rFkk Fkadksr ds mRrj dk
x.ks'k eafnj fo'ks"k egRoiw.kZ gSAusiky esa vUr ioZ esa ikoZrh dks ,d dqekjh ckyk ds
:Ik esa iznf'kZr fd;k tkrk gSA ftuds lkFk x.ks'k ,oa egkdky nks ckyd ds :Ik
funf'kZr gksrs gSaA if'pe Hkkjr eq[;r% dksad.k {ks= esa Hkh x.ks'k dks gkesLV QsfLVoy
ds lkFk blh izdkj lac) fd;k x;k gSA20
196
lanHkZ fooj.k%&
1234567891011121314151617181920-
'kSoer& MkW- ;nqoa'kh] fcgkj&jk"VHkk"kk&ifj"kn~] iVuk 1955 bZ-A

iqjk.k foe'kZ& Jh cynso mik/;k; pkS[kEck fo|kHkou okjk.klhA
'kkL=h ,p-,l-vkbZ-vkbZ- i`- 168A
ysoh flYok fn usiky ftYn nks i`- 345A
xsVh] x.ks'k i`- 38A
xsVh x.ks'k i`- 39A
ogh] Qyd] 20vA
xsVh] ogh] i`- 38A
xsVh] ogh] i`- 38A
xsVh] ogh] i`- 38A
xsVh] x.ks'k] ogh] i`- 39A
ogh] Qyd 17 lA
/kofydj] ,e-ds-foosdkuUn dekseksjs'ku okY;we] fp= 3 1970A
xsVh x.ks'k] i`- 40A
'kkL=h] ,p-,l-vkbZ-vkbZ- fp= 112A
xsVh] x.ks'k i`- 40A
ogh] Qyd 6 cA
xsVh] x.ks'k] i`- 40A
ysoh flYok] fn usiky] ftYn 1 i`- 384A
gkosZLV QsfLVoy vko xkSjh ,.M x.ks'k vkbZ ,- ftYn 35] 1906A
197
46
Xokfy;j dh ,sfrgkfld /kjksgj %

laxhr ijEijk vkSj rksej 'kkld
*MkW- ehuk JhokLro
e/;izns'k ds eqjSuk ftys dh vEckg rglhy esa fLFkr **,slkg** uked xzke ds
tkxhjnkj ohjflag nso rksej us 1394 bZ-1 esa Xokfy;j x<+ ij viuk vkf/kiR; LFkkfir
dj *rksej jktoa'k* dk izHkko Xokfy;j vkSj blds vkl&ikl ds {ks= ij LFkkfir
djus esa lQyrk izkIr dh A rksej jktoa'k ds jktkvksa us 1523 bZ-2 rd Xokfy;j x<+
ij lQyrk iwoZd jkT; fd;kA e/;;qx esa Xokfy;j x<+ ij jkT; djus okys rksej
'kkld ohjflag nso] m}j.knso] ohjens] x.kifrnso] Mwaxjflag] dhfrZflag] dY;k.key]
ekuflag vkSj foekfnR;3 FksA
bfrgklfon~ 'kkafrpUnz ds vuqlkj4 **rksej jktoa'k ds 'kkldksas dks laxhr ds
izfr :fp FkhA rksej dkyhu laxhr us ns'k O;kih ,slk izlkj ik;k fd eqlyeku laxhr
izsfe;ksa us bLyke ds mysekvksa ds vk{ksi ls cpus ds fy, **vfHkuo 'kCn dks"k** izLrqr
fd;s ftuesa laxhr inksa esa vkus okys fgUnw nsoh&nsorkvksa ds ukeksa dh bLyke ijd
O;k[;k dh xbZA ^^loZ/keZ leHkko dk vkn'kZ :i ml dky esa O;ogkj :i esa vk;kA**
Xokfy;j ds izFke rksej jktk ohjflag nso 1394 ls 1400 bZ- ds 'kkludky esa
laxhr dyk dk fodkl gksuk vkjaHk gks x;k Fkk tks 'kuS% &'kuS^ fujUrj iz'kLr gksrk
x;k vkSj ekuflag rksej ds dky esa pjeksRd"kZ ij igqp x;kA ohjflag nso ds jkT;
esa nf{k.k ls laxhrdkj vk;s FksA5 bl le; esa nkeksnj uked izfl) laxhrdkj gqvk
blus *laxhr niZ.k*6 uked jpuk esa *jkx&jkfxfu;ks*a ds ewrZ:iksa dh izfr"Bk dhA
ohjfalga rksej ds mijkUr m}j.knso 1400 ls 1402 bZ- ohjenso 1402 ls 1422 bZ- vkSj
x.kifr nso 1422 ls 1425 bZ- dkyhu laxhr dk fo'ks"k mYys[k izkIr ugha gksrk gSA
*izk/;kid ,oa foHkkxk/;{k bfrgkl] 'kk-ds-vkj-th- LukrdksRrj] Lo'kklh egkfo|ky;]
Xokfy;j e-iz-
MkW- ehuk JhokLro

x.kifr nso ds mijkUr MwaxjsUnz flag ;k Mwaxjflag 1425 ls 1459 bZ- laxhr dyk esa
fo'ks"k :fp j[krk FkkA Mwaxjflag rksej ds dk'ehj ds jktk tSu&my&vkcnhu 1420
ls 1470 bZ- ls laxhr esa :fp j[kus ds dkj.k] vPNs lEcU/k LFkkfir gks x;s FksA nksuksa
ds chp laxhr 'kkL= ds xzaFkksa dk vknku&iznku Hkh gqvkA
vgen [oktk futkeqn~nhu us rcdkrs vdcjh esa mYys[k fd;k gS fd7 **dk'ehj
dk lqYrku tSuqy vkcnhu fcu lqYrku fldUnj cqrZ'kdu tks fd 'kknh [kka ds uke
ls izfl) gS] og lHkh lewgksa ls feyrk Fkk vkSj fo|ksiktZu rFkk dyk dk Kku izkIr
djus dk iz;Ru fd;k djrk FkkA mldh xksf"B;ksa esa fgUnw&eqlyeku gj le;
mifLFkr jgrs FksA laxhr dk mls vPNk Kku FkkA Xokfy;j ds jktk Mwaxjlsu dks tc
;g ekywe gqvk fd lqYrku dks laxhr esa vR;f/kd :fp gS rks mlus bl fo"k; ds 2&3
mRre xazFk mldh lsok esa HkstsA ukjk;.knkl d`r fNrkbZ pfjr esa ;g mYys[k izkIr
gksrk gS fd8 &**MwaxjsUnzflag ds le; esa gh Xokfy;j dk laxhr Hkkjr esa viuh Js"Brk
ds fy;s iz[;kr gks pyk FkkA Mwaxjflag dkyhu **jkx xkSjh** ,oa **jkfxuh iwohZ**9 esa Jh
d`".k ds czg~e vorkj ,oa d`".k ds fookg ls izlUu lekt ds uj&ukfj;ksa dh izlUurk
dk mYys[k izkIr gksrk gSA**
gfjgj fuokl f}osnh ds vuqlkj10 & **MwaxjsUnzflag dks gh Xokfy;j laxhr ;k
Xokfy;j ?kjkuk dh le`f) dk tUenkrk ekuk tk ldrk gSaA loZlk/kkj.k esa laxhr dks
yksdfiz; cukus gsrq Mwx
a jsUnzflag us yksdlHkk fgUnh esa fo".kqinksa dh jpuk dh FkhA**Mwx
a jflag
rksej ds mijkUr mudk iq= dhfrZflag rksej 1459 ls 1480 bZ- Hkh laxhr izseh FkkA
vius firk ds leku gh dhfrZflag ds Hkh dk'ehj ds lqYrku tSuqy vkonhu ds lkFk
eS=hiw.kZ lac/a k LFkkfir FksA rcdkrs vdcjh esa ;g mYys[k izkIr gksrk gS fd &**Mwx
a jflag
dk iq= jktk dksVlu ,d iksFkh ds vuqlkj *dksouUn* ftldk rksej bfrgkl esa
dhfrZflag uke izkIr gksrk gS Hkh vius firk ds mijkUr lqYrku ds izfr blh izdkj
fe=rk rFkk fu"Bk ds Hkko iznf'kZr djrk FkkA**11 dhfrZflag rksej ds mijkUr Xokfy;j
x<+ dk rksej jktk dY;k.key rksej1480 ls 1486 bZ- FkkA blds le; esa Hkh laxhr
dyk dks jkT;kJ; izkIr gqvkA
dY;k.key ds mijkUr mlds iq= ekuflag rksej 1486 ls 1516 bZ- ds 'kkludky
esa laxhrdyk pjeksRd"kZ ij FkhA ekuflag rksej laxhr dk egku~ ikj[kh FkkA */kziq n* vkSj
*/kekj* dk mls tUenkrk ekuk tkrk gSA laxhr ls lacfa /kr mlus *ekuqdrq gq y* uked
laxhr xzFa k dh jpuk dh FkhA bl xzFa k dh jpuk ekuflag us izfrf"Br laxhrkpk;ksZ ds
ijke'kZ vkSj lg;ksx ls dh FkhA bl xzFa k dk Qkjlh vuqokn Qdh:Yyk lSQ [kka us
*jkxniZ.k* uked iqLrd essa fd;k FkkA12 laxhr lk/kuk ds fodkl esa ekuflag dks mls
viuh jkuh e`xu;uh dk lg;ksx izkIr FkkA e`xu;uh ds uke ij xwtjh] cgqy xwtjh]
eky xwtjh ,oa eaxy xwtjh uked jkxksa dk vkjaHk blh dky esa gqvkA ekuflag us Lo;a
lkoarh] yhykorh] eku'kkgh] dY;k.k vkfn ds xhr fy[ks FksA
198
199
Xokfy;j dh ,sfrgkfld /kjksgj % laxhr ijEijk------mi;qZDr fooj.k ls Li"V gksrk gS fd ekuflag rksej ds vkJ; esa laxhr dks
vR;f/kd izksRlkgu izkIr gqvkA Xokfy;j nqxZ esa fLFkr *xwtjh egy* esa ekuflag us
*laxhr fo|ky;* LFkkfir fd;kA bfrgkldkj fLeFk ds vuqlkj &**rkulsu us viuh
izkjafHkd laxhr f'k{kk ekuflag }kjk LFkkfir laxhr fo|ky; esa izkIr dh Fkh] ckn esa og
oànkou tkdj Lokeh gfjnkl dk f'k"; cu x;kA13 ekuflag rksej dh laxhr lHkk esa
cStw] jkenkl] ?kksaM+h] pjtw izeq[k laxhrdkj FksA buesa ls o['kw lokZf/kd izfl) Fkk vkSj
og 1518 bZ- rd rksej njckj esa jgkA o['kw dh eYgkj] ?kksfUM;k dh eYgkj vkSj pjtw ds
eYgkj jkx14 izfl) gq,A ekuflag rksej us ize[q k laxhrK xqtjkr ds egewn yksgx
a ] iwoZ ds
15
uk;d ikaMoh; vkSj nf{k.k ds uk;d d.kZ dks Hkh cqyok;k FkkA** cStw ckcjk us ekuflag
dh jkuh e`xu;uh dks laxhr dh f'k{kk iznku dh FkhA vcwyQty ds erkuqlkj&^^jktk ds
dykdkjksa esa ls pkj dykdkjksa us ftuds uke uk;d] o['kw] ePpw oStw ckojk vkSj Hkkuw Fks]
,sls xhrksa dh ladyu fd;k FkkA tks lHkh oxksZ ds fy;s vuqdy
w FksA**16
mi;qZDRk fooj.k ls ekuflag rksej dkyhu laxhr ?kjkus dh mRd`"Vrk n`f"Vxr
gksrh gSa ftlds vUrxZr eq[; :i ls yksd jkxks] 'kkL=h; jkxks vkSj ikjaifjd fofo/krk
dks u;s vk;keksa esa latks;k x;k FkkA ekuflag rksej dh e`R;q ds mijkUr mlds vkfJr
laxhrK vksjNk] jhok] xqtjkr lhdjh vkSj fnYyh ds jktnjckjksa esa pys x;s]17 ;gka
mUgsa fof'k"V LFkku izkIr gqvkAXokfy;j ds rksej jktkvksa esa foekfnR; rksej1516 ls
1523bZ- vafre rksej jktk FkkA foekfnR; us Hkh laxhrdyk dks izksRlkgu fn;kA
bczkghe yksnh us 1523 bZ- esa foekfnR; dks ijkftr dj Xokfy;j x< ij vf/kdkj
dj fy;kA bl izdkj Xokfy;j ls rksej 'kkldksa dk jkT; lekIr gks x;kA foekfnR;
rksej ds 'kkludky dh lekfIr ds ckn] ekuflag rksej ds le; ls tks vkfJr
laxhrK tSls fd o[lw Fkk] og igys dkfyatj ds jktk dhjr vkSj dqN le; mijkUr
xqtjkr ds lqYrku cgknqj dh lsok esa pyk x;kA cStw ckojk lElkckn pyk x;kA
blh izdkj vU; laxhrkK Hkh Xokfy;j ls pys x;sA
;|fi Xokfy;j ls rksej jkT; 1523 bZ- esa lekIr gks x;k FkkA ;gka ds vkfJr
laxhrK Xokfy;j ls vU; {ks=ksa esa pys x;s rFkkfi foekfnR; ds iwoZt] Xokfy;j ds
rksej jkT; ds laLFkkid ohjflag nso ds le; ls gh laxhr dyk vkSj laxhrKksa dks
jkT;kJ; nsrs jgs Fks vr% bl dkj.k rksej jkT; esa fodflr laxhr lekIr ugha gqvk
cfYd vU; Hkkjrh; {ks=ksa esa] rksej jkT; dh lekfIr ds mijkUr Hkh mldh *Loj
&ygfj;ka* xqt
a k;eku gksrh jghA /kziq n dh ;s Loj ygfj;ka Xokfy;j 'kCn dk ekuqlkj&
Xokfy;j] xkSjkjh] xkSjgkjh] xmgjgkjh] xkscjgkjh] xkSgkjh vkfn uke ls izpfyr jghA
mi;qZDr fooj.k ds mijkUr Li"Vr% ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd **rksej 'kkldksa dk
Xokfy;j ls Hkys gh iru gks x;k Fkk ijUrq muds }kjk iksf"kr **laxhr /kjksgj fojklr
** dsoy Xokfy;j {ks= esa gh lhfer ugha jgh cfYd rksejksa ds iru ds mijkUr ;g
vU; Hkkjrh; {ks=ksa esa Hkh Qyrh&Qwyrh jgh A
200
MkW- ehuk JhokLro
lanHkZ xzaFk
12
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
'kkafrpUnz&laLd`fr dh 'kksHkk;k=k dk /ot okgd pacy laHkkx i`--7 e/;izns'k lans'k 10 vxLr
1988f}osnh gfjgj fuokl & Xokfy;j ds rksej] i`--188 izdk'kd% fo|keafnj izdk'ku eqjkj
Xokfy;j&6] 1973'kekZ] jktdqekj & e/;izns'k ds iqjkrRo dk lanHkZ xzaFk] i`-- 716] 717 izdk'kd% e/;izns'k fgUnh
xzaFk vdkneh 97 ekyoh; uxj Hkksiky izFke laLdj.k 1974-1
jk/ks';ke &fgUnh Hkk"kk vkSj lkfgR; esa Xokfy;j }ks= dk ;ksxnku] i`--10 izdk'kd% dSyk'k
iqLrd lnu ikVudj cktkj Xokfy;j 9 laLdj.k 1981-2 i`--293
i fjtoh] lS;n vrgj vCckl&mRrj rSewjdkyhu Hkkjr Hkkx&2 i`-- 516] 519 vgen
[oktk futkeqn~nhu & rcdkrs vdcjh Hkkx&3 izdk'kd% fgLVh fMikVZesaV vyhx<+ eqfLye
;wfuoflZVh] vyhx<+ laLdj.k izFke 1959 ,oa
ii d`".ku] o lq- Xokfy;j xtsfV;j] i`-- 27 izdk'kd % ftyk xtsfV;j foHkkx e/;izns'k
Hkksiky laLdj.k izFke 1968ukjk;.k nkl d`r fNrkbZ pfjr i`--17 izdk'kd % Jh mn; f}osnh] fo|keafnj izdk'ku eqjkj
Xokfy;j 6 laLdj.k 26 ebZ 1960f}osnh gfjgj fuokl & e/;ns'kh; Hkk"kk i`-- 78] 79 izdk'kd Jh mn; f}osnh] fo|keafnj
izdk'ku eqjkj Xokfy;j 6 laLdj.k 26 vDVwcj 1955
mijksDrA
-7
f}osnh] gfjgjfuokl &Xokfy;j jkT; ds vfHkys[k] i`-- 43 izdk'kd % fo|keafnj izdk'ku eqjkj
Xokfy;j 6 laLdj.k 1947
-5 i`-- 25- 7ii i`-- 379
- 9 i`-- 76 ,oa - 8 i`--75
-7 ii i`-- 251
-9 i`-- 83-
201
47
,sfrgkfld ;q)ksa dk lk{kh panziwj dk ijdksVk

*MkW- ufyuh [ks- VsaHksdj
izkphu fonHkZ esa panziwj ftYgk viuk ,d vyx LFkku j[krk gSA vkt ftl txg ij
panziwj fLFkr gS ogkWa d`r;qx esa yksdiqj uke dk cM+k 'kgj Fkk vkSj ogk ij d`r/ot
uke dk jktk jkT; djrk FkkA mlds ckn mlds iq= lquan us 'kklu fd;kA1 ,slk
ekuk tkrk gSA
,sfrgkfld dky %& panziwj izns'k esa fLFkr nsoxM+ uked txg ij izkIr ,d
f'kykys[k ds vuqlkj ,sfrgkfld dky esa pUnzxqIr ekS;Z b-l-iwoZ 322 ls 230 igyk
lezkV Fkk ftlus panziwj izns'k dks vius lkezkT; esa lekfo"V fd;kA mlds 'khykys[k
ij ^îzkf.k;ks ds izfr vfgalk rFkk mUgas canh ugh cuk;k tkuk pkfg,** ,slk mRdh.kZ
fd;k x;k gSA ekS;ksZ ds ckn lkrokgu b-l-iwoZ 230 ls b-l- 220 rFkk okdkVdks dh
lRrk b-l- 250 ls 450 bl izns'k ij FkhA okdkVd oa'k ds izojlsu f}rh; dk
nqfn;k rkeziV myC/k gSA mlesa panziwj laxfedk uke dk mYys[k gSA2 lkroh] vkBoh
'krkCnh esa bl izns'k ij jk"Vd Vksadk 'kklu FkkA rRi'pkr~ 9 oh ls 12 oh 'krkCnh
rd bl ifjlj ij oSjkx<+ ds ukxoa'kh; ekuk 'kkldksa dh lRrk FkhA nsofxjh ds
;knoks dh lRrk b-l- 1209 ls 1310 rd Hkh panziwj ifjlj ij FkhA jkepanznso;kno
us b-l- 1310 esa otzdjds oSjkx<+ jktk dk lewy mPNsn fd;k FkkA3 blds ckotwn
uofuehZr eqlyeku 'k=qvks ds pyrs mudh lRrk T;knk le; rd ugha fVd ldh A
nwljh vksj oSjkx<+ ds ukx 'kkldksa dh lRrk Hkh fucZy gks pyh FkhA bldk ykHk
f'kjiqj & ekfudx<+ foHkkx ds xksaMks us fy;k vkSj 13 oh- 'krkCnh esa viuk Lora= jkT;
panziwj foHkkx esa LFkkfir fd;kA
xksaM oa'k %& panziwj ds XkksaM jkT; dk okLrfod laLFkkid vk=ke ?kjkus ds
jktk Hkhe cYykyflag dks ekuk tkrk gSA mlus vka/kzizns'k ds vkfnykckn ftys ds
*lg;ksxh izk/;kid] bfrgkl foHkkx] 'kkldh; fonHkZ Kku&foKku laLFkk] vejkorh
egkjk"V
MkW- ufyuh [ks- VsaHksdj

f'kjiwj esa xn~nh dh LFkkiuk dhA 1247&1262A blh ?kjkus dk vkfn;k cYykyflag
us 1322&1347 f'kjiwj ls xn~nh dk LFkkukarj o/kkZ unh ds iwohZ fdukjsij cYykyiwj
esa fd;kA
blh oa'k ds ghj'kgk us 1497&1522 15 oha 'krkCnh ds var esa panziwj esa xn~nh
LFkkarjhr dh A rFkk paniz jw dks viuh jkt/kkuh cuk;k A paniz jw ls e'k% vdck&yksdck
1522&1547 dkasMh'kgk mQZ d.kZ'kgk 1547&1572 ckckth cYyk'kkg 1572&1597
/kaqM;k jke'kgk 1597&1622
fdck mQZ d`".k'kgk 1622&1640 ekuth cYyky'kkg 1640&1669 jkeflag
1669&1684 fdluflag 1684&1696 chj'kgk 1696&1704 jk.kh fgjkbZ 1704&1719
jke'kgk 1719&1735 uhydaB'kgk 1735&1751 us 'kklu fd;kA uhydaB'kkg dks
ijkftr dj j?kwth Hkkslys us panziwj ds xkasM jkT; dks gM+i fy;k A
Hkkslys oa'k %&j?kqth izFke 1751&1755 tkuksth eq/kksth 1755&1788 O;adksth
Hkkslys 1788 ls 1899 vkIik lkgc Hkkslys b-l- 1811 ls 1818 dk 'kklu panziwj
ij jgkA 26&27 uoEcj 1817 dks lhrkcMhZ dh yM+kbZ esa vaxzstks }kjk vIiklkgc dks
ijkftr djus ds ckn 20 ebZ 1818 esa vaxzstks us panziwj lqHkk Hkh thr fy;k vkSj bl
izdkj ls panziwj fczfV'k fu;a=.k esa vk;kA
panziwj dk ijdksV pkjfnokjh %&,d fdonarh ds vuqlkj cYykjiwj ds
'kkld [kkaMD;k cYyky'kgk ds 1762 rs 1497 'kjhj ij d`"Bjksx tSls nkx FksA
mldh jkuh fgjkrk.kh vR;ar prqj rFkk lqy{k.kh FkhA ,d ckj jktk>jiV unh ds
ifjlj esa fLFkr taxy esa f'kdkj ds fy, vk;k] ogk mlus ns[kk dh ,d [kjxks'k mlds
f'kdkjh dqks dk fiPNk dj jgk gSA dqRrk xksy&xksy ?kweus yxk oSls&oSls [kjxks'k
mls NksVs jkLrks ls igqp dj idM+us dh dksf'k'k djus yxkA vkSj ,d txg vpkud
dqRrs us iyVdj [kjxks'k ij vke.k fd;k vkSj mls ekj fn;kA ;g fofp= ?kVuk
jktk us viuh jkuh dks crk;hA jkuh us ml txg ij fdyk cukus dh lykg jktk
dks nhA rFkk ftl txg [kjxks'k ekjk x;k Fkk og LFkku laj{k.k dh n`"Vh ls nqcZy
jgsxk ,slk crk;kA4 jktk us rsyBkdqj uked jktiwr dkss pkjfnokjh rFkk fdyk cukus
dk dke lkSaikA mlus [kjxks'k }kjk dqRrs ds ihNk djus okys LFkku dks ns[kdj ,d
uD'kk rS;kj fd;kA uD'ks ds vuqlkj jktk [kkaMD;k cYyky'kkg ds dk;Zdky esa lkM+s
lkr ehy ifj/kh dks js[kkadu fd;k x;kA rFkk ijdksVs pkjfnokjh dh uhao Mkyh xbZA
jktk [kkaMD;k dh e`R;q ds ckn mldk iq= ghj'kkg xn~nh ij vk;kA mlus iwoZ]
if'pe] mRrj] nf{k.k fn'kk esa pkj njokts cuk, rFkk gkFkh ij vk:<+ flag ;g
jkT;fpUg ml ij mRdh.kZ djk;kA mlh izdkj nf{k.k&iwo]Z nf{k.k&if'pe] mRrj&if'pe
bu rhu mifn'kkvks esa rhu ,oa mRrj&iqoZ fn'kk esa nks] bl izdkj dqy ikp f[kM+fd;k
NksVs njokts cuk, x,A5 ghj'kkg ds iksrs d.kZ'kkg ds le; esa pkjfnokjh dh pkbZ
vk/kh gks xbZ Fkh A mlds iq= /kqaM;k jke'kkg ds dk;Zdky esa ;g dk;Z iw.kZ gqvkA6 bl
202
203
ds rV dh pkbZ 15 ls 20 QqV rFkk ifj/kh yxHkx 12 fdeh gSSA ijdksVpkjfnokjh
dk vkdkj yxHkx vk;rkdkj pkSdksj gS vkSj pkSM+kbZ 10 QwV gSA
njokts vkSj f[kM+fd;k%&pkj njoktks ds uke vpys'oj iwoZ chuck if'pe
tViqjk mRrj rFkk iBkuiqjk nf{k.k gSA buesa vpys'oj uke xksaMdkyhu gksus ds
lkFk&lkFk vpys'oj eafnj ds ikl gksus dh otg ls iM+k ckdh njoktks ds uke
Hkkslys 'kkludky ds le; esa iMs+A buesa iBkuiqjk njoktk eq[; gS] og lcls pk
rFkk izs{k.kh; gSA f[kM+fd;ksa NksVs njokts dh la[;k ikp gksdj muds uke guqeku
nf{k.k&iwoZ] foBksck nf{k.k&if'pe] pksj mRrj&if'pe cxM o el.k mRrj&iqoZ
gSA ;g uke lsuk/kqja/kj eq/kksth Hkkslys ds dk;Zdky esa vBkjgoh 'krkCnh ds mrjk/kZ esa
iMs+A7
canqd ls fu'kkuk lk/kus ds fy, rV dh nhokjks esa fNnz gS rFkk dqN LFkkuks ij
cq:tks dk fuekZ.k Hkh fd;k x;k gSA cqtksZ ij rksis j[kus dh mRre O;oLFkk dh xbZ
FkhA rV dh m$pkbZ 15 ls 20 QqV gSA 20 ebZ 1818 esa vaxzstks ds lkFk gqbZ pded esa
vaxzstks }kjk iBkuiqjk njokts ds nk;ha vksj dqN nwjh ij rksiaks dh lgk;rk ls cM+k Nsn
fd;k x;k Fkk rFkk mlh eas ls vaxzst vanj ?kqls vkSj fdys ij vaxzstks dk vf/kdkj gks
x;kA bl izdkj ls jktk [kkaMD;k cYyky'kkg dh jkuh }kjk yxk;k x;k vanktk lp
fl) gqvkA
panziwj ds ijdksVs pkjfnokjh ls lacaf/kr yM+kbZ;k %&

1- panziqj dk 'kkld ekuth cYyky'kkg 1640&1667 vkSjaxtsc dk ekaM+fyd jktk
FkkA ckn'kkg us mls f'kokth ds f[kykQ fetkZ jktk t;flag dks llSU; enn djus
dh vkKk nh! ijarq ekuth us ml ij /;ku ugha fn;kA blds vykok mlij [kaM+uh
vnk;xh dk dtkZ Fkk blfy, vkSjaxtsc ds vkns'k ij ljnkj fnysj[kku us eksgEen
yfrQ uked vf/kuLFk vf/kdkjh dks panziwj ij vke.k djus ds fy, HkstkA bl
la?k"kZ esa ekuth dh gkj gqbZ rFkk mlus ckn'kkg dks [kaM.kh nsuk Lohdkj fd;kA8
2- vkSjaxtsc us jktk jkeflag dks vDVqcj 1684 esa inP;qr fd;k vkSj mlds ppsjs HkkbZ
fdlu flag dks panziwj dk 'kkld cuk;kA jkeflag us fojks/k fd;k rc ckn'kkg ds
vkns'kkuqlkj ,frdn[kku] getk[kku o fdluflag us 19@11@1684 dks panziwj
ij vke.k fd;kA bl la?k"kZ esa jkeflag dh e`R;q gks xbZ rFkk vkSjaxtsc }kjk
fdluflag dks panziwj ds 'kkld ds rkSj ij ekU;rk nh x;hA9
3- [kaM.kh uk feyus dh otg ls dkUgksth Hkkslys us panziwj ij vke.k 1725 esa dj
fn;kA mlus <+kbZ gtkj lkSfudks ds lkFk cxM f[kM+dh ls izos'k fd;kA rc jke'kgk
ds lSfudksa us dkUgksth dh lsuk dks ihNs /kdysrs gq, fdys ds ckgj fudky fn;kA
jkeckx ds ikl gq, ;q) esa dkUgksth dh ijkt; gqbZA10
MkW- ufyuh [ks- VsaHksdj

j?kqth Hkkslys izFke caxky ij vke.k esa O;Lr gSA bl ekSds dk Qk;nk mBkdj
nsox<+ ds jktk ds fnoku j?kqukFkflag us panziwj ds jktk uhydaB'kkg ds lkFk feydj
j?kqth ds fo#) fonzksg dj fn;kA rc caxky ls rqjar ykSVdj j?kqth us b-l- 1949
esas nsox<+ ij vke.k dj fnok.k j?kqukFkflag dks ekj fxjk;kA ckn esa j?kqthus panziwj
ij vke.k fd;kA fuydaB'kkg us 10]000 lsuk ds lkFk mldk lkeuk fd;k ijarq
og ijkftr gqvk mlus la/kh djds vius vk; ds nks frgkbZ fgLls dks j?kqth dks
nsuk dcqy fd;kA ij FkksMs fg fnuksa esa mlus la/kh dh vogsyuk 'kq: dh bl dkj.k
j?kq th us b-l- 1751 esa panziwj ij nqckjk vke.k dj fuydaB'kkg dks gjkdj panziwj
dk iwjk jkT; vius jkT; esas feyk fy;kA11
xksaM jktk uhydaB'kkg dh e`R;q ds ckn mldk yM+dk cYyky'kkg dSn ls Hkkx
x;k rFkk xksaM] jksfgyk lSfudksa dks ,d=dj mlus b-l- 1765 esa panziwj dk fdyk
thr fy;k rc mls ijkftr djus ds fy, eq/kksth Hkkslys us efgirjko fnudj dks
HkstkA mlus fdys dh ?ksjkcanh dj fdys ij vf/kdkj dj fy;kA rFkk cYyky'kkg
dks dSn djds ukxiwj ysdj vk;kA ogk og tsy esa yxHkx 30&32 lky FkkA12
lsuk /kqj/kaj eq/kksth Hkkslys us is'kok j?kqukFkjko ds lkFk mRrj vfHk;ku ij tkrs le;
panziwj ds 'kklu dh ckxMksj vkckth Hkkslys rFkk xaxk/kj iar uked nks ljnkjksa
dks lkSaih FkhA ijarq eq/kksth Hkkslys dh vuqifLFkrh dk ykHk mBkdj mUgksaus fdys
ij vf/kdkj dj fy;kA b/kj tkuks th us Hkh panziwj ij vke.k dj fn;k ijarw
yxHkx mlh le; futke ds vkxzg ij mUgs is'kok ds f[kykQ vfHk;ku ij tkuk
iM+kA vkSj fdys ij vf/kdkj ugh gks ik;kA vUr esa tkuksth rFkk eq/kksth ls le>kSrk
gqvk vkSj panziwj fQj ls eq/kksth ds fu;a=.k eas vk x;kA13
lsuk /kqja/kj eq/kksth Hkkslys panziwj lqHks dk 'kklu dk;Z ns[krs FksA ukxiqjdj Hkkslys
ek/kojko is'kok ds psyk j?kqukFkjko ds leFkZd Fks blfy;s mUgsa lcd fl[kkus ds
fy, ek/kojko is'kok us Qjojh 1769 eas panziwj ds fdys dh ?ksjkcanh dh rks eq/kksth
us ,d i= ds ek/;e ls iquk tkdj j?kqukFkjko ls feyus dh /kedh nh] vxj Hkkslys
iqu% tkdj j?kqukFkjko ls feys rks ifjfLFkrh cgqr dfBu gks tk,xh ;g lkspdj
ek/kojko is'kok us panziwj ds fdys dh ?ksjkcanh mBk yhA14
vkIik lkgc us 28@05@1816 esa lgk;d la/kh ds rgr vaxzstksa dh rSukrh QkSt
Lohdkj dh Fkh ijarq vkxs pydj vaxzstks ds fu;a=.k esa jguk mls vlguh; yxus
yxkA mlus is'kok ckthjko ls laidZ dj fczfV'kksa ds fu;a=.k ls eqDr gksus dk iz;Ru
fd;kA bl la?k"kZ ds rgr dW-LdkV] dW&vMEl o estj duZy dksjgWe us panziwj
dh rjQ :[k fd;kA
13 ebZ 1818 ds fnu ;q) dh 'kq:okr gqbZA guqeku f[kM+dh rFkk iBkuiqjk njokts
ds chp dh txg vke.k ds fy, mi;qDr ikdj 19 ebZ ds fnu lqcg rksiks dh
204
4-
5-
6-
7-
8-
205
ekj ls ml pkjfnokjh dks <gk fn;kA 20 ebZ 1818 ds fnu dW-LdkWV bl txg
ls viuh lsuk lfgr vUnj ?kql x;k rFkk cgqr FkksMs+ fojks/k dk lkeuk djus ds
ckn ;g fdyk vaxzstks ds gkFk vk x;kA15
milagkj %& nf{k.k xksaMokuk esa b-l- 1247 esa LFkkfir fd;k x;k xksaM jkT; bl- 1946 esa lekIr gqvk] vkSj yxHkx 500 o"kksZ rd pykA xksM
a 'kkldks us viuh jkt/kkuh
dh lqj{kk ds fy, 100 o"kksZ rd yxkrkj fuekZ.k dk;Z tkjh j[kdj ijdksV dk fuekZ.k
fd;kA blesa yxHkx lok djksM+ dk [kpkZ vk;kA ijkdksV ds pkj eq[; njokts rFkk
ikp f[kM+fd;k cuok;hA blds fy, fuekZ.k dk;Z esa fuiw.k dkjhxjks dks vka/kzizns'k ls
yk;k x;k rFkk mUgs panziwj esa clk;k A ;g ijdksV bruk etcwr gS fd vkt Hkh mlh
HkO;rk ds lkFk dk;e gS vkSj panziwj 'kgj dks izkIr gqbZ ,d lkaLd`frd fojklr gSA
lanHkZ xzaFk lwph

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jktwjdj v-t -panziwj dk bfrgkl] egkdkyh izdk'ku] 1982 panziwj] i`- - 15

jktwjdj v-t-panziwj dk bfrgkl r`rh; vko`rh] gfjoa'k izdk'ku 2009] panziwj i`-53&56
cksjdj j-jk-] panziwj&xMfpjksyh ftys dk iqjkrRo] lq;'k izdk'ku] 2009] ukxiwj] i`-144
xnzs izHkkdj] e/;;qxhu panziwj] eaxs'k izdk'ku] 2012 ukxiwj, i`-11
xnzs izHkkdj] ogh i`- 19
x>sfVvj] panziwj fMfLVDV] egkjk"V 'kklu] 1499 ,eqacbZ , i`-752
VsHa ksdj ufyuh [ks] iwoZ fonHkZ ds ,sfrgkfld o iz{s kf.k; LFky] fiaiykiqjs izdk'ku] 2010] ukxiwj] i`-22 ls 25
ljdkj tnwukFk] fgLVh vkWQ vkSjaxtsc-[kaM-5
ogh
jktwjdj v-t- panziwj dk bfrgkl r`rh; vko`rh] gfjoa'k izdk'ku] 2001 panziwj] i`-202
dkys ;k-ek-] ukxiwj ds Hkkslyksa dk bfrgkl] fonHkZ la'kks/ku eaMy] 1979] ukxiwj] i`-62
dkys ;k-ek-] laiknd] ukxiwj ds Hkkslyksa dh cjoj] e/;izns'k la'kks/ku eaMy] 1937] ukxiwj i`-144
dkys ;k-ek-] ukxiwj ds Hkkslyksa dk bfrgkl] fonHkZ la'kks/ku eaMy] 1972] ukxiwj] i` 101 ls 102
dkys ;k-ek-] ogh] i`-115 ls 117
dkys ;k-ek-] ukxiwj izkar dk bfrgkl] fonHkZ la'kks/ku eaMy 1934] ukxiwj] i`-471 ls 473
206
48
ekuosUnz ukFk jkW;] lkE;oknh lkfgR;

vkSj izfrcU/k
*ujsUnz kqDy
Hkkjr esa izFke foo ;q) ds ckn fczfVk Hkkjr ds jktuSfrd ifjn`; esa dkQh cnyko
gq,A fjO;w vkWQ fjO;wt us fpUrk O;Dr djrs gq, fy[kk fd] fczVsu esa dksbZ Hkh]
Hkkjrh;ksa dh vkRek ij :lh kfUr ds dkj.k iM+us okys vlj dh leh{kk djus dh
tger ugha mBk jgk gSA1 ;g lgh FkkA yUnu fLFkr Hkkjr lfpo }kjk Hkkjr esa
cksYksfodksa dh mifLFkfr ds ckjs esa iwaNs tkus ij Hkkjr ljdkj us 16 fnlEcj 1920
dks Hkkjr esa cksYksfodksa dh mifLFkfr ls budkj dj fn;k FkkA2 tcfd nwljh rjQ
tqykbZ& vxLr 1920 esa dE;qfuLV bUVjuskuy dh nwljh dkaxzsl ds lkFk ekuosUnz
ukFk jkW; ds ek/;e ls Hkkjr esa cksYksfod tehu rS;kj djus dh kq:okr gks pqdh FkhA
mUgksaus ekWLdks esa mRlkgh dE;qfuLV dh rjg izosk fd;k rFkk FkksM+s gh le; esa mUgksaus
vius fy;s Hkkjr esa dE;qfuLV ikVhZ ds xBu dk dk;Z izkIr dj fy;kA3
1922 dh kq:vkr ls ,e- ,u- jkW; us vius ,tsUVksa dks cM+s iSekus ij lkE;oknh
izpkjkRed lkfgR; iszfkr djuk izkjEHk dj fn;k FkkA Hkkjr ljdkj us bls laKku esa
ysdj QkSju dk;Zokgh djrs gq, 22 viSy 1922 dks Hkkjr ds okf.kT; foHkkx dh vksj
ls ,d lkekU; vf/klwpuk la- 2026 tkjh djds lh dLVEl ,DV 1978 dh /kkjk 19
ds vUrXkZr dE;qfuLV bUVjuskuy }kjk izdkfkr leLr lkfgR; ij izfrcU/k yxk
fn;kA4 ebZ 1922 ls jkW; us viuk ikf{kd i= oSxakMZ fudkyuk izkjEHk dj fn;kA
Hkkjr esa iz;kl iwoZd bldh gtkjksa izfr;ka Hksth tkrh FkhaA fczfVk vkSifuosfkd
izkklu us lh dLVEl ,DV ds vUrxZr bls izfrcfU/kr dj fn;kA5 ^^nks vxLr 1922
dks Mk;jsDVj] bUVsyhtsUl C;wjks] fe- lh- ds- Mr.C.Kaye us x`g foHkkx dks bl
iqLrd ds ckjs esa crk;k fd] oSaxkMZ esa bl iqLrd ds izpkj ds fy;s fy[kk x;k gS fd]
yksd kfDr dh mtkZ ds Tokj ls lkekftd ifjorZu vkSj kfUr lEHko gks ldrh gS]
*twfu;j Qsy] usg: Lekjd iqLrdky; ,oa laxzgky;] rhu ewfrZ gkml] ubZ fnYyhA
207
ekuosUnz ukFk jkW;] lkE;oknh lkfgR; vkSj izfrcU/k
;gh kq) lkE;okn gSA fczfVk vkSifuosfkd izkklu us iqLrd dks [krjukd ekuk
rFkk 23 flrEcj 1922 dks Hkkjr ljdkj ds lfpo ,p- ,- ,Q- fyUMl ds vknsk ls
vf/klwpuk la[;k 4909 }kjk ;g iqLrd lh dLVEl ,DV 1978 dh /kkjk 19 ds
vUrxZr izfrcfU/kr dj nh xbZA6 1922 esa gh ,e- ,u- jkW; dk ,d vkSj ipkZ vk;kA
23 uoEcj 1922 dks Hkkjr jkT; lfpo us ok;ljk; dks i= fy[kdj bl ipsZ dh
tkudkjh nhA 9 fnlEcj 1922 dks vf/klwpuk la[;k 6391 }kjk lh dLVEl ,DV
1878 dh /kkjk 19 ds vUrxZr bls Hkh izfrcfU/kr dj fn;k x;kA7
OkkZ 1922 ds [kRe gksrs gksrs enzkl ljdkj us OgkV Mw oh okWUV khkZd ls ,e,u- jkW; dk ,d u;k ipkZ tCr fd;kA Hkkjr lkdkj us ,e- ,u- jkW; ds bl ipsZ dks
muds iwoZ esa izfrcfU/kr ipsZ bfUM;kt izkWcye ,.M bV~l lksY;qku ls Hkh [krjukd
ekuk rFkk 12 fnlEcj 1922 dks blds izfrcU/k dh laLrqfr dj nhA caxky ljdkj us
lwpuk nh fd muls 7 fnlacj 1922 dks gh bls n.M izf;k lafgrk 1898 dh /kkjk
99A ds vUrXkZr izfrcfU/kr vf/klwpuk la0 17175 P dj fn;k gSA 15 fnlacj dks ;g
ipkZ iatkc ljdkj us Hkh izfrcfU/kr dj fn;kA vUrr% 23 fnlEcj dks Hkkjr ljdkj
us Hkh lh dLVe ,DV ds vUrxZr bl ipsZ dks izfrcfU/kr vf/klwpuk la- 6757 dj
bldk Hkkjr esa izosk oftZr dj fn;kA8
ekuosUnz ukFk jkW;] ftu ij Hkkjr esa lkE;oknh vkUnksyu ds izlkj dh ftEesnkjh
Fkh vkSj ftuds fy, Hkkjr ljdkj ds foRr foHkkx us 7 tqykbZ 1923 dks vyx vf/klwpuk
la- 581 tkjh dj buds leLr lkfgR; dks izfrcfU/kr dj fn;k Fkk]9 mUgsa viuh
xfrfof/k;ksa ds pyrs ;wjksi eas vyx rjg dh ijskkfu;ksa dk lkeuk djuk iM+ jgk FkkA
tuojh 1924 esa mUgas teZuh ls fudky fn;k x;kA ogka ls os T;wfj[k pys vk,A ;gka
os flQZ nks eghus gh :d ik;sA ;gka ls fudkys tkus ij bUgas ,Uuslh] kUl tkuk
iM+kA vxys rhu efgus ckn ,d ckj fQj viuk eq[;ky; cnydj isfjl vkuk iM+kA
bl chp 17 twu 1924 dks lEiUu ikapoh bUVjuskuy dkaxzsl esa jkW; dks bDthD;qfVo
desVh vkWQ dE;qfuLV bUVjuskuy ECCI) dk lnL; cuk;k x;kA ikapoh dfeUVuZ
dkaxzsl esa ,d izLrko ikfjr fd;k x;k Fkk fd lkezkT;oknh nskksa ds dfeUVuZ kk[kkvkas
dk mifuoskksa dh kk[kkvksa ls lh/kk lEidZ gksuk pkfg,A bl ij vey djrs gq,]
1925 dh kq:vkr es dE;qfuLV ikVhZ vkWQ xzsV fczVsu CPGB us Hkkjr esa lkE;oknh
vkUnksyu dh fLFkfr tkuus ds fy, ilhZ - XySfMax d Hkstus dk fu.kZ; fy;kA ,e,u- jkW; us bl ;k=k dk fojks/k fd;k fdUrq XySfMax Hkkjr vk;sA lh-ih-th-ch- us Hkkjr
esa cqtqZvk usr`Ro esa py jgs la?kkZ dk lkFk nsus dh dfeUVuZ dh iqjkuh uhfr tkjh j[kh
Fkh] tcfd jkW; blds fojks/k esa FksA lh- ih- th- ch- ds fopkjksa dks j[kus okyh iqLrd
êkMZu bafM;k^ khkZd ls] DysesUl nRr ds HkkbZ vkj- ike nRr }kjk fy[kh xbZA tcfd]
jkW; us vius fopkjksa dks izdV djus ds fy, ^n ;qpj vkWQ bf.M;u ikWfyfVDl^
ujsUnz kqDy
fy[khA bl iqLrd esa mUgksus Hkkjrh; jkVh; vkUnksyu dh vkykspuk djrs gq,
jkVoknh cqtqZvk vkSj kfUrdkjh tukfDr dks vyx djus dk iz;kl fd;kA mUgksaus
iqLrd esa fy[kk fd]
^Ô;ogkfjd :i ls cqtqZvk lewg] laHkkfor kfUr ds fo:) lkezkT;oknh kfDr
ds lkFk la;qDr ekspkZ dk gkeh gSA tcfd e/; oxZ] jktuSfrd usr`Ro ds [kkyhiu ds
dkj.k grkk gSA------Hkkjr ds jktuSfrd Hkfo; jkVh; LorU=rk vkUnksyu d
lkekftd kfDr;ka r; djsaxhA ;g lkekftd kfDr tks etnwj fdlku rFkk isVh
cqtqZvk oxZ NksVs O;kikjh] dykdkj] dkexkj] fo|kFkhZ] y?kq ckSf)d lewg ls feydj
cusxkA^^11 tcfd vkj- ike nRr dh iqLrd êkMZu bf.M;k^ esa ys[kd cqtqZvk oxZ dks
xSj kfUrdkjh ekuus dks rS;kj ugha FkkA jkW; dh rjg nRr] jkVh; dakxzsl ls vyx
rqjUr ,d ^tu lewg^ okyh ikVhZ cukus ds i{k esa ugh FksA os blds fy, le; dk
bUrtkj djus okys FksA nRr ds vuqlkj] le; vkus ij ubZ kfDr;ka Lo;a viuh jkg
<w<+ ysaxhA12 tkfgj gS] bu nksuksa gh iqLrdksa esa fczfVk vkSifuosfkd izkklu ds fy,
jkW; ds fopkj vf/kd kfUrdkjh FksA blfy, Hkkjr eas jkW; dh iqLrd izfrcfU/kr dj]
Mkd foHkkx dks bls tCr djus dk funsZk ns fn;k x;kA13 fdUrq okLrfdrk ;g Fkh
fd jkW; ds ;s fopkj kfUrdkjh gus ds ckotwn Hkkjr esa O;ogkj essa ugha mrj ik jgs
FksA blfy, ,slk yxrk gS fd] lh-ih-th-ch- us Hkkjr esa lkE;oknh laxBfud dk;Z d
[kqn ds gkFk esa ysus ds iz;kl kq: fd;sA bl dk;Z ds fy, fnlEcj 1926 esa fQyi
LiSzV dks Hkkjr Hkst fn;k x;kA bl izdkj jkW; ,d rjg ls Hkkjrh; ?kVukvksa ds iVy
ls vks>y gks x;s rFkk lh-ih-th-ch- ds Hkkjr esa lkE;oknh vkUnksyu dh fnkk r;
djus dh iwjh NwV fey xbZA blds ckotwn fd] jkW; vkSj lh-ih-th-ch- leFkZd lewg
esa fHkUurk cuh jgh] buds lfEefyr iz;kl ls cEcbZ] caxky rFkk mRrj Hkkjr esa odZlZ
,.M ihtsUV~l ikVhZ us etnwjksa ds chp viuh fLFkfr lqn`<+ dj yhA
,sls ekgkSy esa] dE;qfuLV ikVhZ vkWQ bf.M;k ds dbZ lnL; fnlEcj 1928 esa
dydRrk esa feysA ;gka ubZ dsUnzh; bDthD;qfVo pquh xbZ rFkk ikVhZ dks lf; djus
,oa viuk izpkj ^dE;qfuLV ikVhZ vkWQ bf.M;k^ ds uke ij djus dh ckr dgh xbZA
bu ij nsknzksg ds vkjksi esa eqdnek ntZ fd;k x;kA bls lfEefyr :i ls esjB
kM+;U= eqdnek dgk x;kA 16 tuojh 1933 dks eqdnes dk QSlyk lquk;k x;kA
blesa pkj dks NksM+dj vU; 27 vkjksfi;ksa dks cMh+&cM+h ltk;sa lqukbZ xbZA14 ,sls le;
esa tc Hkkjr esa lkE;oknh vkUnksyu yxHkx usr`Ro foghu lk Fkk] ,e- ,u- jkW; ,d
ckj iqu% jktuSfrd iVy ij mHkjsA fnlEcj 1930 esa jkW; ,d pksjh ds ikliksVZ ij
teZuh ls Hkkjr vk x;sA jkW; lkr ekg Hkkjr esa Lora= jg ik;sA 9 tuojh 1932 dks
mUgs 12 okZ dk nsk fudkyk fn;k x;kA ckn esa vihy esa ;g ltk ?kVkdj 6 okZ
lJe dkjkokl dj nh xbZA bl rjg jkW; ds Hkkjr vkus dk dksbZ LFkkbZ ykHk rks ugha
208
10
209
ekuosUnz ukFk jkW;] lkE;oknh lkfgR; vkSj izfrcU/k
gks ik;k fdUrq muds vkus ls lkE;oknh lkfgR; vkSj izpkj dks t:j cy feykA15
fdUrq ljdkj us lkE;oknh izpkjkRed lkfgR; ij iw.kZ :i ls jksd yxkus dk eu cuk
fy;k FkkA bl gsrq 10 flrEcj 1932 dks foRr foHkkx dh vksj ls fiNyh vf/klwpukva
dh deh dks iwjk djrs gq, ,d ubZ vf/klwpuk] la-&61 tkjh fd;k x;kA bl vf/klwpuk
ds vuqlkj]
1- dksbZ Hkh ^MkWD;qqesUV^ tks tkjh fd;k tkrk gS vFkok fudkyk tkrk gS&
d dE;qfuLV bUVjuskuy }kjk] ;k
[k laLFkk tks dE;qfuLV bUVjuskyu ls tqM+h gS] fu;U=.k gS] ;k lac) gS] ;k
x dksbZ O;fDr tks ,sls laLFkk ds dk;Zy; ls tqM+k gS inkf/kdkjh gS ;k
2- dksbZ Hkh ,slk ^MkWD;qqesUV^ ftlesa mDr dkj ds ^MkWD;qqesUV^ ls lkexzh yh
xbZ gS mldk Hkkjr esa izosk izfrcfU/kr dj fn;k x;kA16
bl vf/klwpuk ls ljdkj ds ikl vc u dsoy lkE;oknh lekpkj i=&if=dk;s]a
cfYd i=kpkj] iksLVj] uDkk] fpV~Bk ;k ,slk dqN Hkh tks mldh n`fV esa lkE;okn dks
mRizfs jr djus okyh lkexzh gks] izfrcfU/kr dj ldrh FkhA b/kj dqN le; ls bUVsyhtsUl
C;wjks yxkrkj lkE;okfn;ksa rFkk kfUrdkfj;ksa ds chp curs lEcU/kksa dh tkudkfj;ka ns jgk
FkkA dE;qfuLV ikVhZ vkWQ bf.M;k ds i= ^n dE;qfuLV* esa i`-&52 vkSj 53 ij lkE;okfn;ksa
vkSj kfUrdkfj;ksa ds lEcU/kksa ij ppkZ djrs gq, dgk x;k fd] ;g dE;qfuLV ikVhZ vkWQ
bf.M;k dk drZO; gS fd] og mu vkradoknh kfUrdkjh lewgks]a fokskdj os ftUgksua s
ekDlZokn rFkk lkE;okn esa :fp nkkZ;h gS mudk n; thrsa A gesa mUgsa fookl esa ysuk
gksxk fd ge fgalk ds fo:) gSa fdUrq ge kfUrdkjh etnwj] fdlku] vkSj xjhcksa esa fookl
djrs gSAa tks lc feydj fczfVk lkezkT;okn dks m[kkM+ Qsd
a x
as As 17
vUrr% ffeuy ykW ,esUMesaV ,DV vkWQ 1908 1932 esa lakksf/kr ds vUrZxr
Hkkjr esa lHkh lkE;oknh xfrfo/k;a d voS/k ?kf"kr dj fn;k x;kA18 ljdkj }kjk ,slh
dk;Zokfg;ksa ls lkE;oknh vkUnksyu dks cM+k >Vdk yxkA gkykafd ;g lc dqN cUn ugha
gks x;kA dE;qfuLV ikVhZ vkWQ bf.M;k us ckj&ckj ;g fookl O;Dr fd;k fd] Hkkjr
esa lEiw.kZ jktuSfrd ,oa lkekftd ifjorZu rHkh laHko gks ldrk gS tc Hkkjr ls fczfVk
HkqRo lekIr dj fn;k tk;A Hkkjr dks ,d ^QsMjy odlZ ,.M ihtsUV~l lksfo;r
fjifCyd 19 cukus ds lius ds fy,] Hkwfexr ;k [kqys rkSj ij ftl Hkh izdkj gks ldrk
Fkk] lkE;oknh vkUnksyu reke vkSifuosfkd izfrcU/kksa ds ckotwn vkxs c<+rk jgkA
lanHkZ
12-
gkse]iksfyfVdy] ch] tuojh 1918] i=koyh la[;k&487&490] i`- 3] jkVh; vfHkys[kkxkj ubZ
fnYyhA
gkse]iksfyfVdy] ,] twu 1921] i=koyh la[;k&25&28] jkVh; vfHkys[kkxkj ubZ fnYyhA
210
345678910111213141516171819-
ujsUnz kqDy
gkse]iksfyfVdy] okZ 1923] i=koyh la[;k&103@v]jkVh; vfHkys[kkxkj ubZ fnYyhA

gkse]iksfyfVdy] okZ 1923] i=koyh la[;k&103@v]jkVh; vfHkys[kkxkj ubZ fnYyhA
gkse] iqfyl] okZ 1925] i=koyh la0 280] jktdh; vfHkys[kkxkj y[kuA
gkse] iksfyfVdy okZ 1923] i=koyh la[;k&103@V] jkVh; vfHkys[kkxkj ubZ fnYyhA
gkse] iksfyfVdy] okZ 1922] i=koyh la[;k&939] jkVh; vfHkys[kkxkj ubZ fnYyhA
gkse] iksfyfVdy] okZ 1922] i=koyh la[;k&964] jkVh; vfHkys[kkxkj ubZ fnYyhA
gkse] iksfyfVdy okZ 1922] i=koyh la[;k&964@II] jkVh; vfHkys[kkxkj ubZ fnYyhA
gkse] ikWfyfVdy] okZ 1932] i=koyh la- 29@2] jk"Vh; vfHkys[kkxkj] ubZ fnYyhA
thu Mh- vksoj LVhV ,oa ekkZy foUMfeyj 1959] i`- 69&83
,e- ,u- jkW;] n ;qpj bf.M;u ikWfyfVDl yUnu% vkj fcki 1926] i`- 78
thu Mh- vksoj LVhV ,oa ekkZy foUMfeyj 1959] i`- 84&85
gkse] ikWfyfVdy] okZ 1928] i=koyh la- 20@XII] jk"Vh; vfHkys[kkxkj] ubZ fnYyhA
lj gksjsl fofy;Elu] bUVsyhtUl C;wjks fjiksVZ 1935 1976] i`- 131&135
gkse] ifyfVdy] okZ 1934] i=koyh la- 7@2] jk"Vh; vfHkys[kkxkj] ubZ fnYyhA
gkse] ikWfyfVdy] okZ 1934] i=koyh la- 7@2] jk"Vh; vfHkys[kkxkj] ubZ fnYyhA
211
49
oS'kkyh esa lekt lq/kkj vkUnksyu dk izHkko

1917&30
*Mk- js.kq dqekjh
Hkkjr esa lekt lq/kkj vkSj jk"Vh; vkUnksyu dk nkSj lkFk&lkFk py jgk FkkA vr%
rRdkyhu lekt lq/kkjdksa dh n`f"V Hkkjrh; lekt esa O;kIr lkekftd vlekurkvksa
dh vksj x;k vkSj mUgsa lkekftd dqjhfr;ksa ds fuokj.k gsrq vius gh oxZ ds yksxksa ds
fojks/kk esa [kM+k gksuk iM+kA gfjtuksa dh fLFkfr nf{k.k fcgkj dh rqyuk esa mkj fcgkj
esa cnrj FkhA1 lekt esa foHkktu dh eq[; otg tkfr&O;oLFkk dks fpfUgr fd;k x;k
vkSj foHkkftr djus okys rRoksa dh HkRlZuk dh xbZA jktkjke eksgujk; us 1821 bZ esa
,d caxkyh iqfLrdk esa ^tkfr Hksn* dks lHkh izdkj dh ^QwV dh tM+* dgdj mldh
vkykspuk dh FkhA 18 tuojh 1928 ds vius i= esa mUgksaus ;g rdZ fn;k fd tkfr
us Hkkjrh;ksa dks ns'k HkfDr dh Hkkouk ls iw.kZr;k oafpr dj fn;k gSA2 eqfLye /keZ xzaFkksa
ds v;;u gsrq os iVuk vk;s FksA3 muds vkxeu ls fcgkj esa cz lekt dks xfr
izkfIr gqbZA bldk izHkko oS'kkyh ij Hkh iM+k vkSj ;gk cz lekt dh vusd laLFkk,a
LFkkfir gqbZ] fdUrq vuq;kf;;ksa dh la[;k lhfer FkhA4
vk;Z lekt us Hkh tkfr O;oLFkk ij izgkj fd;kA 28 ekpZ 1878 dks iVuk ds
nkukiqj esa vk;Z lekt dh LFkkiuk gqbZA igys ea=k ckcw ek/kksykyk fuokZfpr gq,A 9
uoEcj 1879 dks egf"kZ n;kuUn ds dj deyksa ls mUgksaus viuk ;Kksiohr laLdkj
lEiUu djok;kA ;g ml le; dh n`f"V ls cM+h kfUrdkjh ?kVuk Fkh] D;ksafd ml
le; dk;LFk 'kwnz le>s tkrs Fks vkSj mUgsa ;Kksiohr /kkj.k djus dk vf/kdkj
rRdkyhu ikSjkf.kd ijEijk ds vuqlkj ugha FkkA5 nkukiqj vk;Z lekt ds mins'kd
fcgkj ds fofHkUu 'kgjksa ,oa dLcksa esa vk;Z lekt dk izpkj djrs Fks] ftlds
ifj.kkeLo:i eqtQjiqj esa Hkh vk;Zlekt dh LFkkiuk gqbZA igys O;fDr eqtQjiqj
*,lksfl,V izksQslj( bfrgkl] tequh yky dkWyst] ch-vkj-,- fcgkj fo'ofo|ky;]
gkthiqj fcgkj
Mk- js.kq dqekjh

ftyk ds gkthiqj lc&Mhfotu esa vofLFkr ,dkjk xzke fuoklh Bkdqj jkeuUnu flag
FksA bUgksaus ewfrZiwtk] Jk) vorkjokn vkSj tkrikar dk fosjks/k fd;kA thou i;ZUr bu
cqjkb;ksa ds fo:) la?k"kZ djrs jgs vkSj ckn esa if.Mr lR;ozr egksins'k ds uke ls
fo[;kr gq,A6
egkRek xk/kh o.kZ&O;oLFkk esa vkLFkk j[krs Fks ij tkfr&O;oLFkk esa ughaA mudk
ekuuk Fkk fd o.kZ dh jpuk ih<+h nj ih<+h ds /ka/kkas dh cqfu;kn ij gqbZ gSA bUgha dks
pykus ds fy, pkj o.kZ cuk;s x;s gSaA ;s /ka/ks lkjh ekuo tkfr ds fy, leku gSa] ij
fgUnw /keZ esa mUgsa thou /keZ djkj nsdj mudk mi;ksx lekt ds laca/kksa vkSj
vkpkj&O;ogkj ds fu;eu esa ykus ds fy, fd;k x;k gSA7 mudh n`f"V esa tkfr izFkk
dk mns'; lekt ds fofo/k oxksZa dk ikjLifjd vuqdwyu vkSj la;kstu FkkA vkfFkZd
n`f"V ls tkfr izFkk dk fdlh le; cgqr ewY; FkkA mlds QyLo:i ubZ ihf<+;ksa dks
muds ifjokjksa esa pys vk;s ijEijkxr dyk&dkS'ky dh f'k{kk lgt gh fey tkrh Fkh
vkSj Li/kkZ dk {ks= lhfer curk FkkA xjhch vkSj daxkyh ls gksusokys d"V dks nwj djus
dk ;g ,d mke bykt FkkA if'pe esa izpfyr O;kikfj;ksa ds la?kksa dh laLFkk ds lkjs
ykHk mlesa Hkh feyrs FksA8
jktdqekj 'kqDy ds vkxzg ij 1917 esa xk/khth dk vkxeu izFke ckj fcgkj esa
gqvkA tkfr &izFkk fdl gn rd fcgkj esa l`n`<+ Fkh] bldk ,glkl xk/khth dks
jktsUnz izlkn ds iVuk vkokl ij igyh ckj gqvkA jktsUnz ckcw ds ukSdjksa us muds
lkFk vNwr tSlk O;ogkj fd;kA9 pEikj.k izokl ds nkSjku xk/kh th ds dk;ksZ esa enn
ds fy, fcgkj ds vyx&vyx fgLlksa ls dbZ yksx x;s FksA xk/khth bl O;oLFkk ds
fo:) FksA vr% mUgksaus mUgsa ,glkl djok;k fd lkoZtfud dk;Z djusokyksa dh tkfr
vyx ugha gks ldrhA os lHkh ,d ms'; ds fy, dk;Z dj jgs gSaA blfy, mudh
tkfr ,d gh gksuh pkfg, A xk/khth ds bl ekfeZd Hkk"k.k dk bruk vlj gqvk dh
lHkh us vxys fnu vius&vius ukSdjksa dks okil Hkst fn;k vkSj ,d gh jlksbZ esa ,d
gh lkFk lcdk Hkkstu cuus yxkA10
blh izdkj x;k dkaxzsl esa dke djus ds fy, tks Lo;alsod vk;s os lHkh
ijEijkoknh FksA vr% os [kku&iku ds ca/ku vius lkFk ysdj vk;sA os ,slk izca/k pkgrs
Fks ftlesa mUgsa vius tkrh; fu;eksa dk mYya?ku u djuk iMs+A blds ckn fcgkj esa
tgka dgha dkaxzsl okyksa dh lHkk gksrh Fkh tkfr Hksn djds [kkus dk izca/k ugha gksrk Fkk]
lc ,dlkFk Hkkstu djrs FksA bl izdkj tkfr izFkk dh dVjkrk /khjs&/khjs de gksus
yxhA11 'kq:vkr dkaxzsl ds f'kfojksa ls gqbZ ij bldk izHkko lekt ds gj oxZ vkSj {ks=
ij nh[kus yxkA oS'kkyh ds rRdkyhu lekt esa tkfr&ikafr dk dkQh fopkj FkkA
mPp tkfr ds vf/kdka'k yksx lEifk'kkyh FksA iz'kklu ds lkFk budk rkyesy gksus
ds dkj.k os fuEu tkfr;ksa dk 'kks"k.k djrs FksA oS'kkyh ds tksxhMhg fuoklh fd'kksjh
212
213
oS'kkyh esa lekt lq/kkj vkUnksyu dk izHkko 1917&30
izlUu flag us bl 'kks"k.k dk ges'kk izfrdkj fd;kA mUgksaus vius xkao esa Lotkrh;
uUgk flag ds vR;kpkj ls fuEu tkfr /kkuqd dh L=h dks u dsoy cpk;k cfYd
muds dtZ dh jde Hkjus dh ftEesokjh Hkh mBkbZA mlds i{k esa mUgksaus dpgjh esa
xokgh Hkh nhA ij tehankj oxZ dk gksus ds dkj.k uUgk flag cjh gks x;kA12 bl rjg
dh ?kVukvksa esa mUgksaus lekt dks vius fojks/k esa [kM+k ik;kA mUgksaus dgk gS& ^^lkjk
lekt le>rk gS fd ;g cxkor ml ij pksV dj jgh gS] blfy, lkjk lekt viuh
iqjkuh izFkk] fjokt] lH;rk] ijEijk vkSj laLfr dh fgQktr esa ,d lkFk [kM+k gks
tkrk gSA vU;Fkk ;g fojks/k vf/kd O;kid] rhoz vkSj xgjk gksrkA**13
fd'kksjh izlUu flag us in;k=k dj turk esa tkx`fr ykus vkSj tkfr& ikafr dk
Hksn feVkus dk vkUnksyu pyk;kA fd'kksjh izlUu flag dk fuEu tkfr ds yksxksa ds ;gka
[kkuk& ihuk muds Lotkrh; yksxksa dks dkQh [kVdrk FkkA muds bl vkpj.k dk
fojks/k muds firk vkSj HkkbZ Hkh djrs FksA dky e esa lekt ds yksxksa dk fojks/k bruk
c<+ x;k fd mudks tkfr cfg"r dj fn;k x;k] rc mUgksaus xko NksM+dj gkthiqj
ds xk/kh vkJe esa jguk 'kq: dj fn;kA14 jktsUnz izlkn us muds fy, lksa/kw esa vkJe
cuokdj jgus dh O;oLFkk dh vkSj mUgsa vkJe dk bapktZ cuk fn;k tgk [kknh ls
lacfU/kr dk;Z gksrk FkkA15 mUgksaus fQj Hkh viuk iz;kl tkjh j[kkA
1930 ds VSDlac)h vkUnksyu ds nkSjku gkthiqj vuqeaMy ds lHkh xkaoksa ls lHkh
tkfr ,oa oxZ ds yksx cjkaVh vk;s vkSj vLi`';rk fuokj.k dk dk;Z Lor% gksus yxkA
fyyqd Hkxr(pekj) vkSj gfjgj Hkxr nqlk/k gh pkoy& nky idkrs Fks vkSj reke
rFkk dfFkr mPp tkfr ds dk;ZdkkZ iaxr esa cSBdj ,d lkFk [kkrs FksA16 v{k;oV jk;
Hkh gfjtuks)kj ds dk;Z dks vkxs c<+kus esa layXu FksA mudk ifjokj mnkj fopkjksa dk
iks"kd FkkA os ;kno tkfr ls rkYyqd j[krs FksA cpiu esa ekrk dh vLoLFkrk ds dkj.k
os ?kj ds ukSdj dh iRuh ,d nqlk/k L=h dk nw/k ihdj cM+k gq, FksA17
ljk; ds xaxk pkS/kjh tkfr ds dyokj FksA eqtQjiqj esa Hkokuh eYgks=k us Hkh
gfjtuksa ds mRFkku ds fy, dkQh ljkguh; dk;Z fd;kA18 bu iz;klksa dk O;kid izHkko
oS'kkyh esa ns[kk x;kA xk/khth ds vkej.k vu'ku dk Hkh dkQh izHkko iM+k FkkA yksx
gfjtuksa ds fy, dq, rFkk eafnj [kqyokus rFkk mudh n'kk esa lq/kkj ds fy, iz;Ru'khy
gksus yxs FksA19
1930 esa rFkkdfFkr vNwr tkfr;ksa ds cPpksa dks Ldwyksa esa nkf[kyk feyus yxk
FkkA vc bUgsa dqvksa ls ikuh ysus esa :dkoV ugha Mkyh tkrh FkhA /khjs&/khjs muds lkFk
cSBdj [kkus&ihus ;k nsg Nqykus ij vkifk djusokyksa dh la[;k esa deh vkus yxh
FkhA eqtQjiqj esa Hkh vUrtkZrh; Hkkstksa dk vk;kstu gksus yxk FkkA20 frjgqr ize.My
ds dfe'uj ds fjiksVZ ls fofnr gksrk gS fd bl ize.My ds fgUnw leqnk; ds fuEu
tkfr;ksa esa lkekftd Lrj esa lq/kkj ds fy, vkUnksyu py jgk FkkA ukbZ&dgkj vkSj
Mk- js.kq dqekjh

Xokyk tkfr ds yksx viuh fL=;ksa dks vtufc;ksa ds ;gk ?kjsyw ukSdj ;k etnwjh dj
dke djus ij ikcanh yxk jgs FksA21
cky&fookg%&ij mUuhloha lnh esa tks lq/kkj vkUnksyu py jgk Fkk mldh
vkp oS'kkyh ds xkoksa rd igqp pqdh FkhA fo'ks"kdj f'kf{kr uo;qod blds fo:)
vkokt mBk jgs FksA ,slh gh ,d cky&fookg dh ?kVuk rRdkyhu gkthiqj vuqeaMy
ds vUrxZr tksxhMhg xkao esa gqbZ FkhA ,d 57 o"kZ ds v/ksM+ ds lkFk 13 o"kZ dh dU;k
dk fookg mldh cqvk us vkSj oj i{k ds Hkrhts us /ku ds ykyp esa djok nh FkhA22
fd'kksjh izlUu flag us bl fookg dks jksdus dk iz;kl fd;kA mudk viuk rdZ Fkk
ij ;g rdZ iapk;r dks Lohdkj ugha FkkA mlds ifr us rFkk muds firk us ml dU;k
ls feyus&tqyus ij izfrca/k yxk fn;k D;ksafd os ge mez vkSj vfookfgr FksA23
inkZ izFkk %&15 tuojh 1922 dks efgykvksa dh ,d lHkk&'kiQh eafty
eqtQjiqj esa gqbZA lHkk dh v;{krk nhiukjk;.k flag dh iRuh Jherh 'khyk flag us
dh FkhA mUgksaus inkZ&izFkk gVkus ij cy fn;k rFkk efgykvksa dks Lo;alsfodkvksa ds :i
esa dk;Z djus dks dgkA eq[; :i ls Jherh veyk eq[kthZ us lu~ 1921&22 bZ esa
eqtQjiqj esa vius ifr ds lkFk inkZ izFkk cfg"dkj dk lw=ikr fd;k FkkA24 fd'kksjh
izlUu flag dh iRuh lquhfr flag vius ifr dh rjg gh kfUrdkjh fopkjksa dh FkhA
1927 esa fookgksijkar mUgksaus dHkh inkZ ugha fd;kA lfou; voKk vkUnksyu ds nkSjku
tc os nsgkrksa dk Hkze.k dj jgh Fkh] og Hkh fcuk flj <ads] yksx mUgsa dkSrwgy ls ns[kus
ds fy, bdV~Bk gksrs Fks D;ksafd ml tekus esa fcuk flj <ds vkSjrsa ?kj esa Hkh ugha jg
ldrh FkhA ns[kus okyksa esa L=h&iq#"k] cPps] cqtqxZ lHkh FksA25 bl bykds ls dkQh
efgykvksa us lkekftd izFkk dk cfg"dkj djrs gq, jktuhfrd vkUnksyu dks vatke
rd igqpk;kA26
L=h f'k{kk%&eaxyyky th dh e`R;q ds ckn L=h f'k{kk ds fodkl ds fy, lsB
tequk yky ctkt us fcgkj esa efgykvksa ds fy, 'kS{kf.kd laLFkk [kksyus ds fy, ;Fks"B
lgk;rk nsus dh bPNk izdV dhA27 blls mRlkfgr gksdj jkeuUnu feJ us efgyk
fo|kihB dh LFkkiuk vius gh xkao e>kSfy;k njHkaxk esa dh FkhA ukxjh fyfi dk
izpyu ugha FkkA NksVs &NksVs dLcksa esa izkFkfed ikB'kkyk,a [kqyus yxhA lg f'k{kk
dh O;oLFkk gksus ds dkj.k lEiUu ifjokjksa dh iqf=;k gh ikB'kkykvksa esa fo|kv;;u
djus tk ikrh FkhA og Hkh fookg iwoZ rd ghA28
214
lanHkZ lwph%&
12-
n gfjtu] 29 twu] 1935

lqfer ljdkj] lkekftd bfrgkl ys[ku dh pqukSrh] vuqoknd ,- ,u- [kka ^'kkfgn* xzaFk f'kYih]
ubZ fnYyh 2001] i`- &383
oS'kkyh esa lekt lq/kkj vkUnksyu dk izHkko 1917&30

3456789101112131415161718-
19202122232425262728-
215
ds- ds- nkk] dEizgsaflo fgLVhs vkWQ fcgkj] okY;we&III Hkkx&II ]dsih- t;loky fjlpZ
baLVhV~;wV] iVuk 1976] i`- &5
ogh i`- &7
lR;dsrq fo|kyadkjla-] vk;Z lekt dk bfrgkl] Hkkx&2] i`-& 297
ogh
Jh".k nk HkV~V] lkekftd fo?kVu vkSj Hkkjr] fcgkj fgUnh xzaFk vdkneh iVuk] izFke
laLdj.k 1974] i`-&457
;ax bafM;k 5 tuojh 1921
vuqxzg ukjk;.k flag] esjs laLej.k]fcgkj jkT; vfHkys[kxkj funs'kky;] iVuk ] prqFkZ laLdj.k
2012 ]i`- &10
ogh] i`-&128
jktsUnz izlkn] ckiw ds dneksa esa] izHkkr izdk'ku] ubZ fnYyh 2010] i`-& 130
fd'kksjh izlUu flag] jkg dh [kkst essa] vUos"kk izdk'ku] iVuk 2003] i`-&126
ogh
ogh
ogh&13
ogh&141
eqfu'oj jk; êqfu'k* cfTtdkapy dk Lora=rk &laxzke] vfHk/kk izdk'ku eqtQjiqj] izFke
laLdj.k 2005] i`-&71
izeksnkuUn nkl ,oa dqekj vejsUnz] vk/kqfud fcgkj ds fodkl esa efgykvksa dh Hkwfedk] fot;
dqekj la-fcgkj ds fodkl esa efgykvksa dh Hkwfedk] fcgkj jkT; vfHkys[kxkj funs'kky;] iVuk]
izFke laLdj.k 2012] i`- &167
tud/kkjh izlkn] dqN viuh dqN ns'k dh vkRedFkk] tkudh izdk'ku] iVuk] f}- laLdj.k
2009] i`-&111
ds ds nk] iwoksZDr] i`&10&11
gkse fMikVZesaV iksfyfVdy Lis'ky] ,] tqykbZ] 1912 Qkby u-& 27 ,u- ,foosdkuUn lkfgR;] Hkkx & 6] v}Sr vkJe] dydkk 1989] i`-&39&40
fd'kksjh izlUu] iwoksZDr] i`-& 124
dqekj vejsUnz] Lok/khurk laxzke esa fcgkj dh efgyk,a] tkudh izdk'ku] iVuk 1998] i`-& 72
fd'kksjh izlUu flag] iwoksZDr] i`-& 136
ogh] i`-& 141
vuqxzg ukjk;.k flag] iwoksZDr]i`-& 118
eqfu'oj jk; êqfu'k* iwoksZDr] i`-& 72
216
50
** tutkrh; laxhr% foa/;{ks= ds lnaHkZ esa **

*MkW ih;w"kk oS|
^^laxhr dk bfrgkl rks cgqr iqjkuk gS ysfdu izkjaHk esa fuLlansg og dyk ds :i esa
ugha Fkk dyk dk :i /kkj.k djus ls igys ,d cgqr yack ;qx] ftls ge izkd~laxhr
;qx dg ldrs gSa& vo'; jgk gksxk ftlesa izd`fr dh /ofu;ksa dks y; eas cka/kus dk
iz;kl fd;k gksxkA y; dh igpku tUe ls gh gksrh gSA izd`fr dh /ofu;ksa dks y;
esa cka/kus dk iz;kl fd;k x;k gksxkA izd`fr dh /ofu;ka ekSfyd :i esa laxhr mi;ksxh
ugha gksrh blfy, vkfnekuo us muesa fNih lkaxhfrd Hkkoukvksa dks muls vyx fd;k
mudk :i fuf'pr djds mUgsa y; esa cka/kus dk iz;kl fd;kA^^1
foa/;{ks= esa vkfnekuo ds vfLrRo ds izek.k %& 1867&68 bZ- esa dkjykby
dks iqjkus jhok jkT; ls y?kqik"kk.k midj.k feys FksA dkdcZu us fp=dwV dh guqeku
/kkjk ds lehi 'kSyfp=ksa dk mYys[k fd;k gSA iUuk ftyk eq[;ky; ls 40fd-eh- nwj
mkjiwoZ ck?kSu ds fdukjs cztiqj ds lehi 'kSyfp=ksa dk ,d lewg 1962 bZ- esa Jh dsih-tfM+;k }kjk [kkstk x;k FkkA dkykUrj esa izks-ueZnk izlkn xqIr us iUuk ftys ds
'kSyfp=ksa dk xgu v/;;u fd;k mUgksaus cjkN] iaMou] yky iqrfj;k] e>ijgk]
Vidfu;k] gkFkhnkSy] iqjfjgk ?kkVh vkSj dY;k.k foykM+h esa 'kSyfp=ksa dk vUos"k.k
fd;kA flyosjkM us iUuk ftyk ds djifV;k xzke esa yxHkx 40 'kSykJ;ksa dk mYys[k
fd;k FkkA Nrjiqj ftys dh fctkoj rglhy ds nsojkxzke ds lehi esa fpf=r
'kSykJ;ksa dk vUos"k.k Jh ,l-ds-nhf{kr us fd;kA lruk ftys ds e>xoka fodkl[kaM
esa jsyos LVs'ku ls 3 fd-eh- ij 'kSykJ; izkIr gq;s gSa LFkkuh; tu bl 'kSyx`g dks
dfj;k cCck] pqM+Sy dh NBh] pqMS+y;k ikFkj vFkok eM+ok ikFkj dgrs gSaA ,sls gh dbZ
izek.k foa/; esa losZ{k.k ds nkSjku izkIr gksus ls ;gka vkfn ekuo dk vfLrRo izekf.kr
gksrk gSA2
foa/; {ks= esa fuokl djus okyh tutkfr;ka %&tutkfr;ka ftUgsa ge
vkfnoklh dgdj lEcksf/kr djrs gSa iwjs fo'o esa fuokl djrh gSaA Hkkjr esa e/;izns'k
*v/;kid] ek/;kfed 'kkyk] ldfj;k] ftyk iUuk e]iz
217
ds foa/;{ks= esa l?ku taxyksa esa vkfnoklh dqnjr ds uSlfxZd lkSUn;Z esa viuk
thou;kiu djrs gSaA foU/; {ks= esa vusd tutkfr;ka fuokl djrh gSa buesa izeq[k gSa&
xksaM] dksy] cSxk] [kSjokj] Hkwfe;k] ifudk] daoj] vxfj;k] ifygk] eka>h] eoklh] lkSj
iko] HkSuk] fc;kj] lkSark vkfnA nsolj vkfnoklh ifj;kstuk {ks= esa lcls vf/kd la[;k
xksaM vkfnokfl;ksa dh gS Hkwxksy osRrkvksa ds vuqlkj foU/;kapy ioZr Hkkjr dh lcls
izkphu ioZr Js.kh gS D;ksafd xksaM blh ioZr izns'k ds jgus okys gSa blfy, ekuo 'kkL=h
bUgsa lcls izkphu vkfnoklh crkrs gSa A3
tutkrh; laxhr %&vkfnokfl;ksa dk leLr thou u`R; vkSj xhr ds ykfyR;
ls ifjiw.kZ gSA ioZrksa dh nqxZe p<+kbZ dks ;s xhrksa ds lgkjs lqxe cukrs jgrs gSa xhr
lzko esa foHkksj vkfnoklh dks ns[kdj vkt dk HkkSfrdoknh pfdr gks ldrk gSA buds
xhr n; ds vfou'oj Loj gSa ftudksa thou ds lq[k&nq%[k] vkLFkk;sa ekU;rk;sa]
ijEijk;sa /kkfeZd fpUru] nsojk/ku] ftUnxh ds mrkj p<+ko 'kkfUr fonzksg yksd
fo'okl] lkekftd O;oLFkk] deZ'khyrk] izselkSUn;Z] izd`fr euksgjrk] jked`".k xkFkk]
;FkkFkZokn] vkn'kZokn vkfn Li"V :i ls mHkjs gSaA
;s xhr vkfnoklh laLd`fr ds ifjpk;d gSa ftudk leh{kkRed v/;;u cuoklh
vkRek dks le>us ds fy, ijeko';d gSA4 vkfnoklh laxhr dh rhuksa 'kSfy;ksa u`R;
xk;u oknu esa izd`fr dh Nk;k cudj ikjaxr gqvk gSSaA tutkrh; laxhr tutkrh;
laLd`fr dk izfrfcac gSA u`R; ds inpki vkSj eqnzk;sa ml laLd`fr ds fofo/k igyqvksa dks
mtkxj djrh gSA okn~; ds cksy vkfne laLd`fr dh mn~?kks"k.kk djrs gSa rFkk xhr dh
izR;sd iafDr vkfne Hkko dk iks"k.k djrh gSA5 laxhr vkSj u`R; vkfnokfl;ksa dk
thouk/kkj gSA thou dk dksbZ Hkh volj laxhr vkSj u`R; ds fcuk v/kwjk gksrk gSA
vkfnoklh leqnk;ksa esa dqN u`R; xhr rks feyrs tqyrs gSa ijUrq dqN muds vius
fof'k"V xhr u`R; gksrs gSaA foa/;{ks= ds nf{k.k c?ksy[kaM esa vkfnokfl;ksa dh ckgqY;rk
ikbZ tkrh gSA ;gka dh laLd`fr dk Lo:i Hkh vuks[kk gSA djek vkSj nknj ;gka ds
izfl) xhr gSaA xksaM tkfr djek vf/kd ilan djrh gSaA cSxk ds chp nknj vf/kdrj
yksdfiz; gSA djek ;gka dk loZfiz; yksdu`R; gSA xksaM] dksy] cSxk] vxfj;k lHkh
tkfr;ka bls xkrh gSaA u`R; esa L=h iq:"k nksuksa lfEefyr gksrs gSaA
djek ds lUnHkZ esa ;g ekuk tkrk gS fd ;g xhr dje jktk vkSj djek jkuh
ds lEeku esa xk;k tkrk gSA ?kulke nk vkfnokfl;ksa ds iwT; nsork gSa vkSj fdLer
dks ;ss dje dgrs gSaA ;g ;gka dh yksd laLd`fr dk izeq[; rF; gSA6 djek ds vusd
izdkj gSa& ygyh djek] Bk<h djek] ?kVokjk djek] fljdh djek] >wej djek]
Bsaxokuh djek] ijUrq buds u`R; dh f;k;sa Nkhlx<+ djek ls feyrh tqyrh gSaA
fo'ks"k :i ls djek ds nks izdkj izpfyr gSa xksaMh djek] cSxkuh djekA xksaMh djek
dks c?ksyh djek Hkh dgrs gSaA c?ksyh djek ij iwjh rjg ls c?ksyh laLd`fr dk izHkko
gSA djek ewyr% xksaM tutkfr dk u`R; gSaA lh/kh 'kgMksy vkSj jhok ds vapyksa esa
MkW ih;w"kk oS|

djek u`R; ns[kus dks feyrk gSaA djek ds vfrfjDr ;gka dh tutkfr;k nnfj;k]
VIik] lqvk] 'kSyk eq[; xhr gSa ftlesa vkfnokfl;ksa ds thou n'kZu ds vykok nSfud
thou] vkpkj fopkj] d`f"k] f'kdkj] vdky] jktuhfr] nsoiwtu] kàxkj fo;ksx ds Hkko
>ydrs gSaA e-iz- ds dksy viuk ewy fuokl jhok ftys ds QjsUnk vkSj djkyh xkao dks
ekurs gaS ;gha ls dksy lHkh txg QSysA8 foa/;{ks= ds jhok] lruk] lh/kh] 'kgMksy esa
lokZf/kd ikbZ tkus okyh dksy tutkfr dk lokZf/kd fiz; u`R; dksyngdk gSA
dksyngdk dk vFkZ gS dksyksa dk ngduk vFkkZr vfr mRlkg ds lkFk dq'ky gLrin
lapkyu vkSj viuh vkfne tkZ ds lkFk u`R; djukA lxkbZ] fookg] NBh vkfn
mRlo dksyngdk nksrfy;k u`R; vkSj ukjnhu`R; ds fof'k"V volj gksrs gSaA dksyksa dh
okfpd ijEijk esa lksgjxhr] fookg xhr] nknjxhr] Hkxr] Qkx] fganyh] dtyh] VIik]
vkSj nSoh; xhrksa dk v{kq..k HkaMkj gSA nknj dksyksa ds ikjaifjd laLdkj xhr gSaA
tkrh; vk/kkj ij nknj dbZ izdkj ds gksrs gSaA dksygkbZ nknj] xksaMgkbZ nknj] cSxgkbZ
nknj] iudgkbZ nknj] dksVcjgkbZ nknjA
dksy ekrk;sa >ksyh esa cPpksa dks >qykrs le; ;g xhr xkrh gSa&
^^,Slu ykyu ik;su rSa tc xojh x.ks'k euk;u rSa
tc :isu fn;uk cjk;su rSa rc ,Slu ykyu ik;u rSa]^^*9
c?ksy [k.M esa fuokl djus okys dksy xksaM iudk Hkhy esa lksgj xkus dk izpyu
ugha gSa bl volj ij ;s nknj xkrs gSa A10
xksaM dksy ds vykok foa/; dh Hkwfe ij cSxkvksa dk Hkh ckgqY; gSA cSxk tutkfr
'kgMksy ftys esa vkt Hkh aph ioZr pksfV;ksa ij fuokl djrh gSa buls rks feyuk Hkh
eqf'dy gksrk gSA cSxkvksa esa izpfyr djek u`R; dks cSxkuh djek dgk tkrk gSA cSxkvksa
esa eq[;r% gksus okys xhr u`R; gSa djek] >jiV] ij/kkSuh] HkM+kSuh] rikM+h] n'kgjk ,oa
jhuk u`R;A cSxkuh xhr djek] jhuk] lqvk] nksgk lqeju o nnfj;k xk;s tkrs gSaA iwjs
foa/;{ks= esa tutkfr;ksa dh viuh ,d vyx gh laLd`fr gSA buds u`R; ds gh fof'k"V
xhr gksrs gSaA lHkh u`R;ksa dh fo'ks"k os'kHkw"kk gksrh gSA eksjia[k dh dyxh] ?kqa?k:] NksVh
ykfB;ka] dkSM+h cktwcUn] xqYyh iVk] fo'ks"k Qy Qwy] fo'ks"k ?kkl u`R; ds vyadj.k
gksrs gSaA fL=;ka] ygaxk] lkM+h] xYVk ;k lk/kkj.k ifj/kku igurh gSaA
u`R;xhr vkSj okn~; vkil esa xgjh dM+h ls tqM+s gksrs gSaA xhr ds vHkko esa u`R;
dk izHkko ugha fn[krkA vkfnokfl;ksa ds okn~; dh laxhr ls gh u`R; dk vkd"kZ.k
mHkjrk gSA lcls T;knk izHkkoh ekany tks ,d cM+k Hkkjh yEck <ksy gksrk gS bls xys
esa yVdkdj nksukas gkFkksa ls ctkrs gSaA ;g yksd okn~;ksa dk jktk dgykrk gSA uxkM+s
dks tehu esa j[kdj ydM+h ls ctkrs gSaA <ksy ydM+h dk cuk gksrk gs vkSj bls tehu
esa j[kdj ,d fljs dks gkFk ls vkSj ,d fljs dks ydM+h ls ctkrs gSaA fVedh uxkM+s
dk NksVk :i gksrk gS bls Hkh nks ydfM+;ksa ls ctkrs gSaA
218
219
vkt vkfnoklh viuh iqjkuh lH;rk dks Hkwyrs tk jgs gSaA tUe fookg ej.k dh
jhfr;ksa esa vUrj vkus yxk gSaA u`R; laxhr ,oa vU; dyk;sa Hkh /khjs /khjs NwVrh tk jgh
gSaA bu lc cnykoksa ds dkj.k vkfnokfl;ksa dh 'kkUr vkSj ljy ftUnxh u"V gksrh tk
jgh gSa A11 vkfnoklh laxhr o fofHkUu dykvksa dks cpkus gsrq e/;izns'k esa vkfnoklh
yksd dyk ifj"kn dh LFkkiuk dh xbZ gS tgka budh ijEijk dks lqjf{kr j[kus ds
fofHkUu iz;kl fd;s tk jgs gSaA
bl izdkj foU/; {ks= dk tutkrh; laxhr iqjkru laLd`fr dh oks dHkh u feVus
okyh Nki gS ftlesa vusd laLd`fr;ka vkdj yhu gks xbaZA
lanHkZ xzUFk %&

1234567891011-
xxZ y{eh ukjk;.k fuca/k laxhr dk;kZy; gkFkjl 1989 i`-201

uo Hkkjr] cq/kokj fnukad 1 flrEcj 1999
nkl MkW- f'korks"k Hkkjr dh tutkfr;k] fdrkc ?kj 1983 i`-153
xxZ izHkq yky laxhr yksd laxhr vad tuojh 1966 i`-84
'kqDy ghjk yky vkfnoklh laxhr e-iz- fgUnh xzUFk vdkneh Hkksiky 1986 i`-21
frokjh MkW- fouksn nf{k.k c?ksy[k.M dh lkaLd`frd igpku i`-52
fodYi xkserh izlkn c?ksyh laLd`fr vkSj lkfgR; lapkyd jktHkk"kk ,oa laLd`fr lapkyuky;
e-iz- Hkksiky 1999 i`-61
dksy vkfnorZ Hkkx 1 jkstxkj fuekZ.k 9 tuojh 2003 i`-19
'kkafMY; MkW- egs'k pUnz dksy eksuks xzkQ e-iz- vkfnoklh yksd dyk ifj"kn
Hkksiky 1999
eksgEen 'kjhQ e-izdk yksd laxhr 1999 i`-285
pkSeklk tqykbZ vDVwcj 91 e-iz- yksd dyk ifj"kn Hkksiky i`-30
220
Book Review
yksd lkfgR; ds ek/;e ls bfrgkl

dh uohu varZn`f"V ^^yksdlkfgR; dk
egkuk;d( nkthjkt egkjk.kk izrki**
*MkW- fou; JhokLro
yksd lkfgR; ds egkuk;d% nkthjkt egkjk.kk izrki&MkW- iwju lgxy] izdk'kd &
e/; Hkkjrh; bfrgkl vuqla/kku izfr"Bku] izdk'ku o"kZ & 2012] ewY; & 150@&
^fo'o izfl) egkiq#"kksa vkSj ;ks)kvksa dk thou bruk loZK gks tkrk gS fd mudh
lkal&lkal ds ckjs esa yksx og lc tku tkrs gS]a ftudks i<+dj ge pfdr gks mBrs gSAa
mDr mn~xkj lqizfl) lkfgR;dkj o ofj"Bdfo Jh ckydfo cSjkxh us MkW- iwju lgxy
dh iqLrd ^yksdlkfgR;% egkuk;d% nkthjkt egkjk.kk izrki dh Hkwfedk esa O;Dr fd, gSA
yksd lkfgR; ds ek/;e ls bfrgkl dh jgL; ijrksa dks [kksyus ,oa muds Hkhrj dh
rF;iw.kZ lkexzh dks mtkxj djus dk nqyZHk] vFkd vkSj iz'kaluh; iz;kl fd;k gS MkW- iwju
lgxy usA foxr 50 o"kksZa dh lqnh|Z lk/kuk esa MkW- lgxy us yksd lkfgR; dks [kaxkyk
gS] mldk nksgu fd;k gS rFkk mu fofHkUu Lo:iksa ds ek/;e ls bfrgkl dks uo fn'kk
n`f"V iznku dh gSA yksd lkfgR; esa mudh varZn`f"V o l`tu'khyrk dgha u dgha
,sfrgkfld rF;ksa dks u;s fljs ls ikfjHkkf"kr djrh gSA
e/;Hkkjrh; bfrgkl vuqla/kku izfr"Bku Xokfy;j e-iz ds rRok/kku esa ekyo yksd
laLd`fr vuq"Bku] euklk ds funs'kd MkW- iwju lgxy dh iqLrd ^yksd lkfgR;----egkjk.kk
izrki ^yksd lkfgR; o dFkkvksa esa fc[kjs rF;ksa] inksa] Nanksa ds ek/;e ls egkjk.kk izrki ds
thou ds fofHkUu igyqvksa ij u, fljs ls izdk'k Mkyus okyh laxzg.kh; iqLrd gSA
iqLrd rhu [k.Mksa esa foHkkftr gSA izFke [k.M gS yksd foe'kZA bl Hkkx esa MkWlgxy us bfrgkl dh fojklr rFkk yksd thou ds ijEijkxr ewY;ks]a igyqvksa vkSj muds
la?k"kZe; thou ij viuh lw{e o iSuh n`f"V ls ckSf)drk o rF; dh i`"B Hkwfe esa viuh
ckr dks dgus dk iz;kl fd;k gSA bl [k.M ys[kd dh bfrgkl esa teh gqbZ Hkzkfa r;ksa dh
yksd lkfgR; ds ek/;e ls bfrgkl dh uohu varZnf"V-----221

xrZ dks yksdlkfgR; esa miyC/k rF;ksa ls nwj djus dh bZekunkj dksf'k'k Li"Vr ifjyf{kr
gksrh gSA
nwljk [k.M la?k"kZ xkFkk dk gSA bl [k.M esa MkW- lgxy us viuh lqnh?kZ ;k;kojh
;k=k esa egkjk.kk izrki ds ckjs esa fc[kjs rF;ksa dks ?kwe&?kwe dj xzkeksa] dLcksa esa fofHkUu
yksxksa ls ,d= fd;k gS ,oa 164 NUn izkIr fd, gSA os 8 [k.Mksa esa 328 iafDr;ksa dh yksd
lEink ds :i esa muds fgr vFkZ lfgr bl iqLrd esa laxzfgr fd, x, gS bu NUnksa ds
ek/;e ls yksd lkfgR; esa loZ= ;s egkjk.kk izrki dh fojkV yksduk;d dh Nfo ds
fofHkUu rF;ksa ij izdk'k Mkyk x;k gSA
bl iqLrd ds rhljs [k.M ] ^^yksddFkk,* esa 12 yksddFkkvksa dk nqyZHk laxzg gSA
bu yksddFkkvksa dks ftl ek/;e ls izkIr fd;k x;k gS ml lkStU;drkZ dk uke Hkh
iqLrd esa nsdj MkW- lgxy us bls ,sfrgkfld fn'kk&n`f"V nsdj rF;ksa ls ifjiw.kZ fd;k gSA
izfl) bfrgklfon~ MkW- Jhd`".k ^tqxuw* us fy[kk gS&^^nkthjkt egkjk.kk izrki esa MkW- iwju
lgxy us yksdlkfgR; esa dqBa kuqdBa pfpZr ftl yksdxkFkk ds lkFk yksd dFkkvksa dk
ladyu o laiknu fd;k gS og ekyok&esokM+ dh yksdkfJr gSA egkjk.kk izrki dh yksd
esa ryk'k ,d eguhe d`R; gSA MkW- lgxy us ;g ifjJe iwjh fu"Bk o bZekunkjh ls fd;k
gS vkSj Hkfo"; dks vrhr dh ,d ^Jfr eqg;S k djokbZ gS] bl ifjJe ijd vuq"Bku dh
lkFkZdrk rHkh gksxh] tc bl d`fr dk Hkjiwj iBu gksxkA**
egkjk.kk izrki ds lac/a k es]a gYnh ?kkVh ds lac/a k es]a 'kfDr flag] psVd] ekuflag vkSj gdhe
lwjh ds lac/a k esa dbZ fdLls izpkfyr gSa tks bfrgkl v{kj ugha cu ik,A gYnh ?kkVh ds vkl
ikl {ks= vkSj ml le; ds cls gq, xkoksa dk pIik&pIik Hkh izrkidkyhu jpuk/kfeZrk vkSj
lejxfoZrk o nkLrkuksa dk daBklhu lk{kh cuk gqvk gSA jktLFk ds ew/kZU; bfrgklfon~ MkWegsUnz Hkkukor fy[krs gS&^^MkW- iwju lgxy] ekyoh /kM+du ds inq ikj[kh] xgu vUos"kd]
,dfu"B v/;srk rFkk y{;c) ikafM ds le`) lqy[s kd gSAa mUgksua s fujUrj Hkze.k'khy jr gq,
[kkst dh dbZ ixMafM;k ukih vkSj daBklhu lkfgR; ds vusd eksrh fn,A izLrqr d`fr esa
egkjk.kk izrki ds lac/a k esa mudh ;g [kkst gS tks vc rd lkfgR; dh /kjksgj ugha cu ikbZA
vk'kk gS bl d`fr ds ek/;e ls egkjk.kk izrki ds lac/a k esa os rF; mn~?kkfVr gksx
a s tks vc
rd bfrgklKksa dh ys[kuh ls vNwrs jgsA**
^MkW- iwju lgxy }kjk mudh d``fr ^nkthjkt egkjk.kk izrki esa ladfyr yksd xkFkk
rFkk yksd dFkk, mudh lrr vusd o"kksZa dh ladfyr yksd iwath gSA buesa egkjk.kk ds
la?k"kZ e; thou ds izsjd izlaxksa dk o.kZu feyrk gSA yksd us ,d thoar ,oa psreku lk{kh
dh rjg esokM+ ds Lora=rk lsukuh ds tq>k: vkSj t+Tckrh thou dh thoarrk dk c[kku
fd;k gSA ekyok ds bfrgklfon~ MkW- iznqEu HkV~ ds }kjk O;Dr fd, x, ;s mn~xkj ,dne
lVhd gSA MkW- iznqEu HkV~V fy[krs gS&^^ MkW- lgxy us yksd lkfgR; ds ek/;e ls bfrgkl
ds 'kks/kkfFkZ;ksa dks uohu 'kks/kksa dh izjs .kk nh gSA 'kks/k ds dbZ xks[kM+s] okrk;u vkSj njokts
[kksyus dk egRoiw.kZ dk;Z fd;k gSA**
222
MkW- fou; JhokLro
148 i`"B dh bl y?kq iqLrd esa ;|fi fizfa Vax vR;ar lknxh iw.kZ gS ijUrq 'kks/k ds
fofHkUu vk;keksa dks lesVs gq,] yksd dFkkvks]a NUnksa ls lqlfTtr bl iqLrd esa MkW- lgxy
us egkjk.kk izrki ds thou ls tqMs+ vusd fnypLi igyqvksa dks izLrqr fd;k gS tks
yksdthou esa rks jps&cls gSa ijUrq nqHkkZX; ls vHkh rd bfrgkl dh eq[; /kkjk esa mUgsa
'kkfey ugha fd;k x;kA bfrgkl dsoy ikn Vhiksa ds Hkjksls viuk vfLrRo cuk, j[krk
gSA tcfd yksd lkfgR; Lo;aHkw izkekf.kd izlx
a gksrk gSA bls fdlh ikn Vhi ;k lanHkZ xazFk
dh vko';drk ugha gksrhA og dkxt ys[kh ugha vk[ku ns[kh dgrk gSA blhfy, rks
yksdlkfgR; dks yksddFkk izkekf.kd izoDrk ,oa lk{kh dgk x;k gSA
MkW- iwju lgxy us bl iqLrd esa yksd lkfgR; dh fofHkUu fo/kkvksa ;Fkk yksd dFkk,]
vk[;ku] NUnksa dk c[kwch iz;ksx fd;k gS rFkk mu L=ksrksa o lwpuk iznkrk dks /kU;okn nsuk
Hkh os ogha Hkwys gaS ftuds ek/;e ls ;s L=ksr bl iqLrd ds fy, mUgsa miyC/k gq, gSAa MkWlgxy dgrs gaS&^^yksd lkfgR; esa ftruk egkjk.kk dk ;'k c[kkuk x;k gS mruk vU;
fdlh Hkh yksd uk;d dk ugha c[kkuk x;kA vius R;kx vkSj ohjRo ds dkj.k os
nsoukjk;.k vkSj jktLFkku ds iap ihjksa dh rjg iwT; Hkko ls tkus tkrs gaSA os vkus okyh
ihf<+;ksa ds fy, vkn'kZ iq:"k vkSj fdaonarh iq:"k fl) gq, gSaA------ekyok] egkjk"V]
jktLFkku vkSj dukZVd rd egkjk.kk izrki dh ohj xkFkk, ,oa xhr dFkk, yksd izpkfyr
gSaA ftUgsa xk&xkdj yksd thou izsj.kk izkIr djrk gS ;g xkFkk êgkjk.kk izrki jh la?k"kZ
xkFkk* mUgha esa ls ,d gSA bls yksd ls laxzghr dk yksd rd igqpdj eSa Lo;a dk Je
lkFkZd ekurk gwA**
;fn bl iqLrd dks flQZ egkjk.kk izrki ds thou ls tqMs+ fofHkUu rF;ksa dks yksd
lkfgR; ds utfj, ls ns[kus dh dksf'k'k Hkj gksrh rks ;g ,d fo'kq) lUnHkZ xzUFk dk dk;Z
djrh ij blesa MkW- iwju lgxy us Lo- Jh fot;dqekj HkaM th ds thou o`kkUr dks
'kkfey fd;k gS tks muds lnk'k;rk ,oa fe=rk dk |ksrd Hkys gh gks ijUrq ,d Lrjh;
iqLrd ds l`tu esa ;s [kVdrh gSA blh izdkj fofHkUu bfrgklfonksa dh Hkwfedk ,oa mudh
fVIif.k;ksa us iqLrd esa vuko';d i`"B dks c<k;k+ gSA ;fn bUgsa u 'kfey fd;k tkrk rks
;g iqLrd vf/kd dlkoV ,oa lkjxfHkZrk ds lkFk izLrqr dh tk ldrh FkhA fo"k; ls
dgha&dgha HkVdko ,oa nksgjko bl iqLrd esa [kVdrh gSA blds ckotwn ;g iqLrd rF;iw.kZ
o uohu n`f"V ds lkFk izLrqr dh xbZ gSA izks lat; Lo.kZdkj us fy[kk gS&^^MkW- iwju lgxy
}kjk ladfyr lEikfnr yksdxkFkk dFkkvksa esa bfrgkl dh e;kZnkvksa dk fof'k"V /;ku j[kk
x;k gSA fuf'pr gh bfrgkl fo"k; MkW- lgxy dh bl d`fr ls yC/k gksxkA**
MkW- iwju lgxy dh yksd lkfgR; ds izfr vVwV lk/kuksa dks iz.kke djrs gq, bl
vuqie d`fr ds fy, vusdkusd lk/kqoknA

Ancient Greeks in Kashmir Region

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1

Archaeological References of Ancient

Dr. Tirtharaj Bhoi

quantitative data) so as to provide the background for making conjectures and

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India And Early West