Vol6 2 2008-Libre
Vol6 2 2008-Libre
Vol6 2 2008-Libre
Association (APIO).
Founder: Horia D. Pitariu, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj - Napoca
Editor in Chief: Horia D. Pitariu, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj - Napoca
Managing Editor: Roxana Capotescu, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj - Napoca
Editorial Staff:
Rbert Balzsi, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca
Smaranda Boro , Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca
Andrea Budean, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca
Roxana Capotescu, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca
C t lina Ciuce, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca
Dorina Coldea, Serviciul Romn de Informa ii, Bucure ti
Doru Dima, Dima Consulting Group, Bra ov
Anca Dobrean, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca
Drago Iliescu, D&D Research, Bucure ti
Daniela Onac , Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca
Claudia Rus, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca
Filaret Sntion, Ovidius University, Constan a
Roxana Vaida, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca
Editorial Board:
Monica Albu George Bari iu Institute, Cluj-Napoca
Natalie J. Allen University of Western Ontario, Canada
Adalgisa Battistelli Universit degli Studii di Verona, Italy
Zoltn Bogthy West University, Timi oara, Romania
Jean-Luc Bernaud Universit de Rouen, France
Dana H. Born United States Air Force Academy, USA
Paula Caligiuri Rutgers University, USA
Jeffrey M. Conte San Diego State University, USA
Cary Cooper Lancaster University Management School, UK
Petru Cur eu Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Mark Griffin The University of Sheffield, UK
Remus Ilie Michigan State University, USA
Rick Jacobs Penn State University, USA
Timothy A. Judge University of Florida, USA
Nicolae Jurc u Technical University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Laura L. Koppes University of West Florida, USA
Rmi Kouabenan Universit Pierre Mends, Grenoble, France
Frank J. Landy Landy Litigation Support Group, USA
Janice H. Laurence Office of the Under Secretary of Defense, Personnel and Readiness, USA
Claude Lemoine Universit Charles de Gaule Lille 3
Jacques Leplat Directeur Honoraire LEcole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris, France
Thomas Li-Ping Tang Middle Tennessee State University, USA
Nicolae Mitrofan University of Bucharest, Romania
Adrian Neculau Al. I. Cuza University, Ia i, Romania
Michael P. ODriscoll University of Waikato, New Zeeland
Deniz S. Ones University of Minnesota, USA
Adrian H. Pitariu - University of Toronto, Joseph L. Rotman School of Management, Canada
Ioan Radu Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Ivan Robertson Leeds University Bussiness School & Manchester Business School, UK
Robert Roe - University of Maastricht, Netherlands
Andr Savoie University of Montreal, Canada
Philippe Sarnin Universit Lyon 2, France
Paul E Spector - University of South Florida, USA
Charles D. Spielberger University of South Florida, USA
Anne Marie Vonthron Universit Victor Segalen-Bordeaux II, France
Zissu Weintraub Department of Defence, Israel
Psihologia Resurselor Umane is published twice a year, in April and October by the Romanian Cognitive
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Tiprit n Romnia
CUPRINS
Editorial
Remus Ilie
Sntatea psihologic a angajatului: dezvoltri recente i direcii pentru viitor
Studii i Cercetri
Jacques Leplat
MRU n practic
Mihaela Popa Chraif, Eusebiu Catana
Sisteme inteligente de msurare a comportamentului conductorului autovehiculului pe parcursul traseului ales de
instructor
16
31
48
62
75
90
103
Despre metod
Rbert Balzsi
Procedura Multi Trstur Multi Metod: o abordare din perspectiva SEM
Laureniu P. Maricuoiu
Introducere n metaanaliz. Metaanaliza corelaiilor
112
128
106
135
137
139
SUMMARY
Editorial
Remus Ilie
Employee Well-Being: Recent Developments and Directions for the Future
HRM in practice
Mihaela Popa Chraif, Eusebiu Catana
Intelligent systems for measuring the drivers behavior during the ride on the route established by the instructor
About Methods
Rbert Balzsi
Multitrait multimethod procedure. An approach from SEM perspective
Laureniu P. Maricuoiu
Introduction to meta-analysis. A statistical method for summarising results of correlational studies
Work psychology in Romania
Nicolae Jurcu, Marius Druga
Pages of Romanian history of work psychology
16
31
48
62
75
90
103
106
112
128
Informations
International Conference Work, Well-being and Performance: New Perspectives for the Modern Workplace, 18-20
june 2008, Sheffield, England
(Roxana Capotescu)
135
137
139
SOMMAIRE
Editoriale
Remus Ilie
Sant psychologique: dveloppements rcents et des orientations futures
Etudes et recherches
Jacques Leplat
Les comptences dans lactivit et leur analyse
Dominique Guedon, Jean-Luc Bernaud
Le retour de lempathie : Du construit psychologique original a lempathie organisationelle percue
Andrea Budean, Horia D. Pitariu
L'effet modrateur de l'engagement organisationnel sur la relation entre les sources de pression et le consquences
du stress dans le cas dune acquisition internationale
Alexandra Macarie, Ticu Constantin, Alina Orzan, Loredana Constantin, Anca Fodorea
Le modle BIG FIVE de la personnalit: approches thoriques et modlisation empirique d'un questionnaire
normalis
Delia Vrg
Les implications des facteurs cognitives et de personnalit dans le processus de dcision- un modle thorique
d'explication
Daniela Victoria Zaharia, Manuela Maria Apostol
Le rglage de l'motion et l'puisement professionnel aux employs dans le secteur des services
MRU en practique
Mihaela Popa Chraif, Eusebiu Catana
Des systmes intelligents de mesure pour le comportement du conducteur du
vhicule au cours de l'itinraire choisi par l'instructeur
16
31
48
62
75
90
103
Mthodologie
Rbert Balzsi
La procdure multi fonction, multi mthode
Laureniu P. Maricuoiu
Introduction dans la mta-analyse. La mta-analyse des corrlats
112
128
106
135
137
139
Editorial
general, se bazeaz pe evaluarea sntii
psihologice subiective (Diener, Oishi, Lucas,
2003) ca o evaluare subiectiv general
asupra vieii n termeni de plcere sau de
neplcere sau ca o sum de reacii evaluative
la stimulii din via ntlnii n diferite situaii
sau domenii (Diener, Suh, Lucas, Smith, 1999;
Heller, Watson, Ilie , 2004). n domeniul
organizaional, studii tradiionale asupra
sntii psihologice a angajatului au examinat
tipic diferenele interindividuale ntre varii
indicatori de sntate, i au ncercat s
dezvluie antecedentele, dar i consecinele
acestor diferente. Astfel de studii, spre
exemplu, au descoperit c att trsturile de
personalitate, ct i caracteristicile muncii
influeneaz satisfacia profesional, i c
satisfacia, n schimb, este un predictor al
comportamentului
organizational,
precum
comportamentului cetenesc la locul de
munc (ex. Ilie , Fulmer, Spitzmuller, Johnson,
in press). n aceste studii, indicatorii de
sntate au fost msurai cu aprecieri
retrospective singulare asupra evalurilor
subiective generale, o metod care n mod
implicit presupune c sntatea este stabil.
O abordare diferit se bazeaz pe
captarea strilor de sntate temporare,
precum dispoziiile i emoiile, care sunt
teoretizate ca reacii afective la stimulii de la
locul de munc i sunt considerate ca avnd
influen imediat asupra comportamentului de
la locul de munc (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996;
Ilie , Scott & Judge, 2006). Un model
conceptual care a fost aplicat pentru studiul
sntii angajatului, n mod specific,
consider c rolul strilor afective temporare n
comportamentul organizaional este Teoria
Evenimentelor Afective (AET-Affect Event
Theory; Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996). Pe scurt,
AET presupune c diferite evenimente care au
loc la locul de munc au consecine afective
imediate (adic acestea sunt evenimente
afective) prin aceea c ele genereaz reacii
emoionale i schimbri n stimulul momentan
(Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996). n schimb,
emoiile
i starile afective temporare
influeneaz comportamentul angajatului (a anumitul comportament afectiv precum
comportamentele cetene ti; Ilie , 2006) i
aceste stri afective momentane pot avea de
asemenea efect cumulativ asupra unor
atitudini mai stabile.
Recent, constructe evaluative, precum
satisfacia profesional (care sunt tratate ca
atitudini
stabile
n
AET),
au
fost
conceptualizate ca stri de tranziie evaluative
Editorial
con tiina de sine n timpul experimentrii unei
activiti, i sntatea declarativ, care se
refer la afirmarea unei stri de sntate
psihologic, cercetri viitoare asupra strilor
experieniale de sntate psihologic, precum
fluxul (ex. Csikszentmihalyi, 1975) sau
expresivitatea personal (Waterman, 1993) ar
completa foarte bine actualul curs de cercetare
asupra strilor declarative de sntate
psihologic, precum strile afective la munc
sau satisfacia.
n al doilea rnd, cercetrile care
examineaz efectele experienelor unei zile de
munc asupra sntii psihologice a
angajatului,
relevante
pentru
celelalte
compartimente ale vieii acestuia, precum
familia, au potenialul de a produce descoperiri
interesante i importante. Exist cercetri care
arat c satisfacia profesional de la finalul
unei zile de munc prezice stri afective trite
acas (chiar i cnd soii estimeaz strile
afective; Ilie et al., in press), acest lucru
ntmplndu-se i mai mult atunci cnd
angajatul integreaz (vs. segmenteaz) n
acela i timp att rolul deinut n cadrul familial,
ct i pe acela de la munc. Aceste rezultate
sugereaz c angajaii pot utiliza mecanisme
de segmentare psihologic pentru a limita
efectele negative pe care le pot avea cerinele
profesionale excesive asupra vieii n familie.
Viitoarele cercetri ar trebui s examineze
integrarea munc-familie ntr-un cadru mult
mai comprehensiv care s cuprind strategii
de combatere a stresului (v. Sonnentag &
Fritz, 2007). Mai mult dect att, lund
exemplul celor care sugereaz c diferiii
parametri de somn sunt indicatori de sntate
psihologic zilnic, ace tia fiind importani
pentru activitatea
i pentru satisfacia
angajatului la locul de munc (v. Scott &
Judge, 2006; Sonnentag, Binnewies & Mojza,
2008), cercetarea intraindividual care leag
evenimentele i experienele profesionale de
calitatea somnului
i care nzuie te s
decripteze factorii care minimalizeaz efectele
factorilor stresani asupra somnului ar conduce
la recomandri utile att pentru manageri ct i
pentru angajai. n mod cu totul important,
cercetarea asupra calitii somnului angajatului
ar trebui s mearg dincolo de propriile
raportri (de ex., prin utilizarea monitoarelor de
somn
actigrafice;
Sadeh,
Sharkey
&
Carskadon,
1994),
pentru
a
elimina
preocuprile despre evaluatorii-comuni
i
efectele-artefact.
Pentru a concluziona, n opinia mea,
dezvoltrile conceptuale
i metodologice
10
Editorial
Employee
well-being,
traditionally
conceptualized and assessed with employees
evaluations of their jobs or lives or with various
psychological and physiological indicators of
strain or health, defines one of the most
important fields of inquiry in applied
psychology. Evaluative well-being indicators
such as job satisfaction predict work behaviors
important for organizational effectiveness,
while
reducing
strain
and
improving
employees health has substantial cost
implications. But the benefits of understanding
employee well-being go beyond effectiveness
and cost considerations; that is, understanding
what organizations and individuals can do to
increase work-derived well-being is a
worthwhile quest because it can lead to the
development of programs and practices that
ultimately increase the quality of life, which is
an important societal outcome in itself.
The purpose of this essay is to
describe and illustrate recent trends in
research on employee well-being conducted in
applied and organizational psychology, and to
suggest some directions for future research on
the topic. By no means should this be
interpreted as a comprehensive review of
research on well-being or even on work-related
well-being. Instead, this essay should be seen
as a selective review of research on employee
well-being that fits within three interrelated
themes that have been recently examined by
organizational research and that, in my
[biased] view, offer most promise for producing
interesting and impactful research in the future.
These themes include (a) conceptualizing and
explaining various well-being states, (b)
dynamic models of work-related well-being that
examine employees fluctuations in well-beings
over multiple days or within days, and (c)
theory and research that explore the
consequences of work experiences, events
and work-derived well-being for employees
functioning outside work (e.g., in the family
domain).
The most common approach to
understanding general well-being relies on the
assessment of subjective well-being (Diener,
Oishi, & Lucas, 2003) as a general subjective
evaluation of life in terms of pleasantness
versus unpleasantness or as a summation of
evaluative reactions to life stimuli encountered
in various situations or domains (Diener, Suh,
Lucas, & Smith, 1999; Heller, Watson, & Ilies,
2004). In the organizational domain, traditional
studies of employee well-being have typically
11
12
Editorial
the day-to-day spillover of these effects
outside of the work environment, particularly to
the family domain. Generally, work-family
spillover is defined as the effects of work and
family on one another that generate similarities
between the two domains (Edwards &
Rothbard,
2000,
p.180).
Psychological
mechanisms based on spillover theory have
long been proposed as linkages between work
and family roles or domains (e.g., Staines,
1980). As interest in the interface between
work and family balance has increased, more
complex work-family linkage models have
been proposed and tested. For example, the
most recent work-family spillover studies have
utilized repeated in situ assessments of
employees experiences and feelings in both
their work and family roles, and have tested
dynamic models linking work affect and
attitudes (assessed at work) to affective states
and attitudes assessed in the family domain
(e.g., Heller & Watson, 2005; Ilies, Schwind, &
Wagner, in press).
At a more general level, Ilies, Schwind,
and Heller (2007) proposed an intraindividual
model of employee well-being that links work
events and experiences to individuals
functioning outside of the workplace (reflected
in affective state experienced off work or
evaluations such as marital and life
satisfaction) through the well-being states
experienced during or at the end of the
workday (e.g., affect, job satisfaction). This
model goes beyond specifying work-to-family
spillover effects by considering the effects of
actual work experiences on well-being
constructs from the family domain (these
effects can be realized, at least in part, via
affective or attitudinal spillover). One study that
examined the intraindividual effects of job
demands on daily well-being is reported by
Sonnentag and Zijlstra (2006), who found that
the amount of time employees spent on workrelated activities after work decreased their
level of well-being (reported at bedtime).
Similarly, in an experience-sampling study of
full-time employees, Ilies, Schwind, Wagner, et
al. (2007) found an indirect effect of workload
(reported from work) on the extent to which
employees engaged in social behavior with the
family (reported by spouses) arguably an
indicator of well-being through work-family
conflict.
In sum, recently, there has been some
exciting research on well-being states at work,
on intraindividual models of well-being, and on
dynamic mechanisms that link daily work
13
14
Editorial
Scott, B. A., & Judge, T. A. (2006). Insomnia,
emotions, and job satisfaction: A
multilevel
study.
Journal
of
Management, 32, 622645.
Shmotkin, D. (2005). Happiness in the face of
adversity: Reformulating the dynamic
and modular bases of subjective wellbeing. Review of General Psychology, 9,
291-325.
Sonnentag, Binnewies, & Mojza (2008). Did
You Have A Nice Evening? A day-level
study on recovery experiences, sleep,
and
affect.
Journal
of
Applied
Psychology, 93, 674-684.
Sonnentag, S., & Fritz, C. (2007). The
Recovery Experience Questionnaire:
Development and validation of a
measure for assessing recuperation and
unwinding from work. Journal of
Occupational Health Psychology, 12,
204-221.
Sonnentag, S., & Zijlstra, F. R. H. (2006). Job
characteristics and off-job activities as
predictors of need to recovery, wellbeing, and fatigue. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 91, 330-350.
15
Jacques Leplat
Lecole pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris, France
Abstract
Skills won an important place in work situations analysis. They can be observed in different situations
which must be acknowledged in order to avoid misunderstandings when they are used. They are
looked from an ergonomic psychology perspective. After observing some facts related to skills
evolution in work psychology and ergonomics, we examin their relationship with the activity with the
task, the technique and the action, highlighting the interest for taking into account their development.
Some research trends are necessary in the analysis and common skills. The conclusion highlights the
importance of correlating the skills analysis with the activity and tasks analysis.
Key words: activity analysis, skills, ergonomics, ergonomic psychology, task, development, staff
administration, human resources.
Rezumat
Competenele i-au c tigat n prezent un loc important n analiza activitii n situaiile de munc. Pot
fi ntlnite n contexte diverse, care trebuie s fie cunoscute pentru a evita ambiguiti n folosirea lor.
Dup cteva elemente asupra istoricului competenelor n psihologia muncii i n ergonomie, ne
propunem s examinm relaia lor cu activitatea, sarcina, tehnica i puterea de aciune, accentund
necesitatea de a lua n considerare punctul de vedere al dezvoltrii acestora. Anumite orientri de
cercetare sunt necesare n ceea ce prive te metodologiile de analiz i competenele colective.
Concluzia insist pe importana siturii analizei competenelor n corelare cu analiza activitii i a
sarcinii.
Cuvinte cheie: analiza activitii, competene, psihologie ergonomic, sarcin, dezvoltare, gestiunea
personalului, managementul resurselor umane.
1
Adresa de coresponden:
jacques.leplat@wanadoo.fr
16
Studii i Cercetri
17
Elments de lhistoire
psychologique des comptences
Lhistoire de ltude des comptences
en psychologie du travail se dcouvre
travers celle de la psychologie du travail (par
exemple, Wallon, 1946, Pacaud, 1971, Clot,
1996). La psychologie du travail sest
interroge trs tt sur les caractristiques du
sujet requises pour rendre ce dernier capable
de rpondre de manire satisfaisante aux
exigences de la tche excuter, ltude du
travail amenant dcouvrir, derrire le travail,
la personne ou plutt des personnes
diffrentes entre elles.. (Wallon, 1946, p. 61).
La connaissance de ces caractristiques tait
en effet essentielle pour la dfinition des
interventions de slection, dorientation et de
formation. Conues, alors, comme des
interventions
o
les
connaissances
psychologiques pouvaient trouver sinvestir.
Wallon (1946) parle des aptitudes requises
par chaque profession (id., p. 169). Pacaud
(1971)
voque
les
caractristiques
psychologiques
et
psychophysiologiques
exiges par la tche (p. 16), la
dtermination des fonctions impliques dans
lexercice dun mtier (p. 11). Le problme
pos est alors de passer de la dtermination
de ces fonctions celle de aptitudes
requises, et donc de trouver le moyen
didentifier ces aptitudes. Cest l quintervient
la mthode des tests. Une aptitude nest pas
autre chose que le pouvoir de satisfaire, dans
des conditions dtermines, au test choisi
(Wallon, p.62). Dans un langage qui nest pas
celui de lpoque, on pourrait dire que les
comptences sont ce moment caractrises
en terme daptitudes, lesquelles sont values
partir des tests. Le problme didentification
des comptences est donc celui de la
transposition des tches professionnelles en
tests permettant des mesures et des
comparaisons (id., p. 175). Les rapports
entre tche professionnelle, test et aptitude ne
sont pas simples: les mthodes de
psychologie diffrentielle cernent les rapports
entre test et aptitude, les tudes de validation,
les
rapports
entre
tests
et
tche
professionnelle.
Les tudes conduites dans cette
perspective privilgient lun de deux types
dorientation: aller de lanalyse de la tche la
conception des tests permettant de dcouvrir
les aptitudes sous-jacentes, ou procder une
analyse psychologique de lactivit pour dfinir
les tests pertinents au dpistage ultrieur des
aptitudes correspondantes. Dans les deux cas,
18
Studii i Cercetri
analyses
et
des
commentaires
particulirement pertinents sur les questions
abordes trop sommairement ci-dessus.
La place des comptences dans
lactivit
On
acquiert
une
meilleure
comprhension des comptences et de leur
rle en analysant comment elles sinsrent
dans lactivit. Nous lavons fait dans deux
ouvrages prcdents (Leplat, 1997 & 2000) et
nous nous limiterons quelques rappels
sommaires. Lactivit dpend de deux types de
conditions, externe et interne. Les conditions
externes sont dordre divers: physique,
technique, organisationnel, social, etc. Elles
sont dsignes souvent sous le terme de
19
20
Studii i Cercetri
21
Tche
Partie explicite
(technique)
Partie implicite
(ou tacite)
Intriorisation
Comptence acquise
par la formation
Comptence
acquise par la
pratique
Extriorisation
Comptence
Figure 2. De la technique la comptence et rciproquement. La tche
comporte une partie explicite exprime par la technique, et une partie
implicite ou tacite. La comptence est faite de lintriorisation de ces deux
parties par la formation et par la pratique. Grce la rflexion que le sujet
exerce sur son activit, une partie de la comptence acquise par la pratique
peut tre extriorise et enrichir la technique, permettant ainsi une
expression plus complte des exigences de la tche.
22
Studii i Cercetri
celui
d'instrument?
Les
reprsentations correspondant ces deux
types de questions sont diffrentes comme on
peut s'en apercevoir quand on ne dispose que
d'une notice relative au fonctionnement d'un
appareil dont on veut se servir diffrentes
fins. Le didacticien comme l'ergonome sont
plus particulirement intresss par le second
type de reprsentation ou de modle qui ne
retient des proprits du systme que celles
ncessaires l'activit, donc plus directement
lies la notion de comptence.
"La notion de reprsentation implique
une thorie de la conceptualisation. Ce que les
oprateurs prlvent de la situation, ce sont
des proprits ou des relations qu'ils jugent
pertinentes pour transformer la situation dans
le sens souhait (). Or l'essentiel, par
rapport ce qu'ils ont faire, ce sont les
dimensions pertinentes pour l'action, c'est-dire les invariants opratoires prsents dans le
rel, exprims par des indicateurs qui peuvent
ne reprsenter que des dtails alors que toute
une srie de dimensions seront cartes. Les
invariants opratoires qui structurent l'activit,
deviennent des concepts pragmatiques au
niveau de la reprsentation" (Pastr, 1995, p.
14). Conceptualiser, c'est modliser la
reprsentation en termes de ces concepts.
L'ensemble de ces concepts et de leurs
relations constitue la structure conceptuelle.
"La structure conceptuelle d'une situation
professionnelle est le noyau conceptuel qu'il
faut prendre en compte pour que l'action soit
pertinente et efficace. Il s'agit () des
concepts qu'il faut pouvoir valuer pour faire
un diagnostic de la situation, reprer son tat
prsent et son volution probable. On parle
donc de structure conceptuelle d'une situation
avec un objectif pragmatique: diagnostiquer
une situation pour agir de faon opportune"
(Pastr, 2004, p. 23). On a bien l des
lments caractristiques des comptences.
Les concepts pragmatiques sont conus en
vue de l'action et souvent dans l'action partir
d'indices observables prlevs sur le systme
en fonctionnement. Ils rsultent parfois d'une
concatnation de ces indices et constituent
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Studii i Cercetri
25
des
recherches
26
Studii i Cercetri
27
28
Studii i Cercetri
concernant les mthodologies danalyse et les
comptences collectives. La conclusion insiste sur
la ncessit de situer lanalyse des comptences en
rfrence celle de lactivit et de la tche.
Mots cls: analyse de lactivit, comptence,
ergonomie, psychologie ergonomique, formation,
tche, gestion du personnel, ressources humaines
Rferences bibliographiques
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Studii i Cercetri
Le retour de lempathie:
Du construit psychologique original a lempathie organisationelle percue
1
Dominique Guedon
2
Jean-Luc Bernaud
Universit de Rouen, France
Abstract
If the notion of empathy can be examined as one of the historic lines of research in psychology in
the 20th century, its conceptual positioning and the change in work setting brings some questions
on its legitimacy. This paper aims at presenting a critical synthesis on the construct of empathy, its
measurement, its development and its relationships to the emotional intelligence. It also suggests
to go beyond an approach strictly focusing on the individual to take into account the organizational
empathy, the operationalisation of which is evoked towards conceptualizations and recent
empirical works in occupational psychology. As a conclusion, perspectives and research priorities
are suggested.
Key words: empathy, perceived organizational empathy, emotional intelligence, psychological
climate, citizenship behaviour, perceived organizational support.
Rezumat
Dac noiunea de empatie poate fi examinat ca una dintre direciile de cercetare n psihologia
secolului al XX-lea, poziionarea sa conceptual i schimbrile survenite n mediul muncii ridic o
serie de ntrebri cu privire la legitimitatea sa. Artiicolul i propune prezentarea unei sinteze critice
asupra constructului de empatie, asupra msurrii, dezvoltrii i relaiilor sale cu ineligena
emoional. Se sugereaz de asemenea dep irea unei abordri strict focalizate pe individ pentru
a se lua n considerare empatia organizaional, a crei conceptualizare este discutat raportat la
dovezile empirice recente din domeniul psihologiei muncii. Ca o concluzie, sunt sugerate o serie de
perspective i prioriti de cercetare.
Cuvinte cheie: empatie, empatie organizaional perceput, inteligen emoional, climat
psihologic, comportament cetenesc, suport organizaional perceput
Introduction
Adresa de coresponden:
1
dominique.guedon@univ-rouen.fr
2
jean-luc.bernaud@univ-rouen.fr
31
32
Studii i Cercetri
empathiques
que
dautres.
Cette
conceptualisation de lempathie favorise donc
les recherches visant analyser les
diffrences interindividuelles et comprendre
le dveloppement de lempathie. Parmi les
psychologues qui considrent ainsi lempathie,
on trouve globalement les psychologuespsychanalystes, les psychologues-chercheurs
en
thrapie
et
les
psychologues
dveloppementaux et sociaux. Dans cette
perspective, de nombreuses recherches
tentent de construire des chelles dempathie
permettant doprationnaliser la mesure autorapporte du trait.
2- Dautres auteurs (Barrett-Lennard,
1962; Rogers, 1949, 1959) sinscrivant dans
une
perspective
plus
situationniste,
considrent lempathie comme un tat
cognitivo-affectif particulier une situation.
Lempathie est alors envisage comme une
4
rponse vicariante un stimulus. Cette
perspective privilgie des recherches sur les
effets de facteurs situationnels sur les
diffrences interindividuelles dans lempathie
(Duan & Hill, 1996).
3- Le troisime construit est plus
descriptif quexplicatif et participe la
confusion qui rgne autour de lusage dun
mme terme pour diffrents construits. Les
auteurs (Katz, 1963; Rogers, 1975) intresss
par la question de savoir comment lempathie
est vcue par les thrapeutes et leurs
clients dans des situations donnes,
conceptualisent
lempathie
comme
un
processus exprientiel multiphasique. Ces
auteurs considrent ainsi lexprience de
lempathie selon le moment et ils examinent
les processus impliqus dans la production et
la communication d'un tat empathique (Duan
& Hill, 1996). Ainsi, Barrett-Lennard (1981)
identifie trois phases dans un modle cyclique,
Kohut (1984) indique une empathie en deux
niveaux dans la cure analytique et Gladstein
33
34
Studii i Cercetri
la
diffrence
de
la
mesure
multidimensionnelle propose par Davis, ils
proposent une approche unidimensionnelle.
Celle-ci est formalise travers le
questionnaire
I7
(Impulsiveness,
Venturesomeness and Empathy) de Eysenck,
Pearson, Easting, et Allsopp (1985). Compos
de 54 items, ce questionnaire conduit
observer une structure en trois facteurs:
limpulsivit (19 items), la recherche daventure
- ou le fait dtre aventureux - (16 items) et
lempathie (19 items). Nanmoins, les items
qui valuent la dimension dempathie dans
lchelle I7 taient l'origine considrs
comme des items de remplissage et non
comme des items utiles (Lijffijt, Caci, &
Kenemans, 2005). Cependant, malgr une
homognit interne de lchelle dempathie
relativement modeste (ce qui interroge sur son
unidimensionnalit), la solution factorielle
trois facteurs est valide travers plusieurs
recherches et notamment, pour la version
franaise de l I7 , par une tude de
Zimmermann,
Rossier,
et
Meyer
de
Stadelhofen (2004).
Dans une tude ultrieure, Thotnton et
Thornton (1995) sintressent la nature du
rapport entre la structure multidimensionnelle
propose par Davis et celle unidimensionnelle
propose par Eysenck. Pour cela, les auteurs
constituent un ensemble ditems extraits de
lIRI de Davis et de l I7 dEysenck quils
proposent 184 jeunes adultes (tudiants).
Des analyses factorielles ont ensuite t
menes qui rvlent une structure cinq
facteurs en grande partie non corrls , qui
sont: le souci empathique, la prise de
perspective, lidentification des caractres
fictifs, la dtresse empathique et lappariement
de rponses motionnelles. Parmi ces cinq
facteurs,
quatre
correspondent
assez
troitement aux quatre dimensions proposes
par Davis et le cinquime, lappariement de
rponse motionnelle, renvoie plutt lchelle
dempathie de l I7 puisquune large majorit
des items de lensemble constitu par
Thornton et Thornton saturant ce facteur
viennent de lchelle dempathie de l I7 . Les
auteurs proposent en conclusion que la
recherche sur lempathie se poursuive sur la
base dune structure cinq facteurs
oprationnalise travers les chelles de
Davis et dEysenck utilises conjointement.
Jollifre et Farrington (2006), proposent
une nouvelle mesure plus synthtique de
lempathie: lchelle dempathie de base (Basic
Empathy Scale B.E.S. ). Lobjectif annonc
35
36
Studii i Cercetri
Relations
entre
lempathie
lintelligence motionnelle
et
37
& Matthews, 2001). Dans une rcente mtaanalyse, Van Rooy et Viswesvaran (2004)
montrent que lintelligence motionnelle a une
validit de .23 dans la prdiction de la
performance (dont .24 pour la performance
dans lemploi). Cette validit varie peu selon le
type dinstrument utilis, la sous-dimension de
lintelligence motionnelle implique ou la
nature de lobservateur (le sujet ou un tiers).
Par ailleurs, ces auteurs montrent galement
que lintelligence motionnelle est corrle
.22 avec lintelligence gnrale et des degrs
divers avec les facteurs des big-five (.23
.34). Compte tenu de ces corrlations, il reste
dmontrer que lintelligence motionnelle
prsente une validit incrmentielle en
complment de mesures dintelligence et de
personnalit. Or, comme le rappellent Hogan,
De Fruyt et Rolland (2006, p.258), Salgado et
De Fruyt (2005) ont montr que la validit
incrmentielle ajoute laptitude mentale de
la
performance
professionnelle
est
pratiquement nulle; ce qui les amne
conclure que les inventaires dintelligence
motionnelle sont utiles la prdiction de la
performance
professionnelle
uniquement
quand ils sont utiliss seuls. Malgr ces limites
dans leur pouvoir explicatif, il est utile de saisir
quelle peut tre la nature des liens entre
lintelligence motionnelle et lempathie. Parmi
les auteurs qui vont modliser le concept
dintelligence motionnelle, Bar-on (1999)
propose une reprsentation en quinze facteurs
regroups dans cinq domaines dhabilets:
humeur
gnrale,
gestion
du
stress,
adaptabilit, intrapersonnel et interpersonnel.
Cest videmment dans ce dernier domaine,
dont elle reprsente un facteur important, que
lempathie est lie lintelligence motionnelle.
Elle est alors dfinie comme la capacit
identifier et comprendre le pourquoi et le
comment des sentiments dautrui (Bar-On,
1999, cit par Thibaut & al. 2005, p.37).
Dans leur travail visant tudier les
relations entre les scores dintelligence
motionnelle et la satisfaction professionnelle
auprs de 146 personnes adultes, Thibaut et
al. (2005) relvent que lempathie est une des
composantes de lintelligence motionnelle les
plus impliques et quelle reprsente llment
le plus explicatif de la satisfaction au travail.
De ces diffrents points de vue, lempathie
pourrait tre considre comme proche dune
sous-dimension de lintelligence motionnelle,
plutt oriente vers la perception et la
comprhension des motions que vers
lutilisation de ces motions et leur bonne
38
Studii i Cercetri
39
40
modliser
le
construit
dintelligence motionnelle adapt une
quipe de travail. Ces auteurs voquent un
choix cornlien quant la dfinition mme de
lintelligence motionnelle groupale: doit-elle
reposer sur le membre du groupe qui prsente
la meilleure intelligence motionnelle ou sur
lagrgation des caractristiques observes
pour chaque membre du groupe ? Optant
finalement pour la seconde option, les auteurs
proposent un modle inspir des travaux de
Mayer et Salovey et construisent une chelle
dintelligence motionnelle de lquipe de
travail (WEIP-3 ou Workgroup Emotional
Intelligence Profile) dont lune des sousdimensions concerne lempathie. La validit du
construit est observe en comparant la WEIP3 avec un ensemble de mesures. Parmi cellesci, une sous-dimension de lchelle dempathie
IRI (la prise de perspective) est la plus
corrle la WEIP-3. Par ailleurs, la WEIP-3
apparat lie aux objectifs du groupe mais pas,
de faon significative, la performance du
groupe. Les auteurs concluent (p.212) en
indiquant que les organisations peuvent tirer
profit de lidentification du niveau dintelligence
motionnelle des quipes de travail, de faon
ce que les quipes faiblement dotes
puissent bnficier dinterventions les amenant
amliorer leur performance dans ce
domaine .
(2) Lempathie organisationnelle perue
peut-elle tre conue comme un
lment du climat psychologique au
travail ?
Studii i Cercetri
41
et
perspectives
de
42
Studii i Cercetri
variabilit
interindividuelle
plutt
quintraindividuelle; enfin, les travaux ont
tudi lempathie individuelle plutt que
lempathie organisationnelle. Il reste donc
innover pour permettre au concept dempathie
de poursuivre la belle aventure que le regard
Rogrien lui a permis dengager. Pour cela, un
agenda des recherches reste construire.
Nous proposons ci-aprs 10 priorits pour
susciter lengagement de nouveaux travaux
sur la question de lempathie.
(1) Encourager une clarification de
lempathie dispositionnelle et de ses liens avec
les diffrents modles de lintelligence
motionnelle. Ce travail empirique pourra tre
ralis en employant des mthodes danalyses
factorielles exploratoires et/ou confirmatoires
ainsi que des modles de classification
ascendante hirarchique, comme lont tabli
Kelly et Lee (2002) propos de la structure de
lindcision vocationnelle. Il suppose aussi
dvaluer le lien entre les diffrentes
dimensions de lempathie et dautres construits
de la personnalit ( laide du modle en cinq
facteurs notamment).
(2) Modliser les interventions de
dveloppement de lempathie individuelle et en
tudier les rpercussions sur le sentiment
defficacit personnelle, la satisfaction des
usagers et la performance au travail. De faon
concomitante, il est ncessaire dtudier quels
modules
dentranement
lempathie
prsentent le meilleur niveau defficacit et
quels sont les modrateurs individuels ou
situationnels qui en relativisent les effets. Pour
ltudier, Snow (1991) propose la perspective
de linteraction aptitude-traitement afin de
rendre compte des variables modratrices
individuelles qui interviennent pour nuancer
certains effets.
(3) A linstar des travaux de Brackett et
al. (2006) propos de lintelligence
motionnelle, valuer le lien entre empathie
auto-rapporte et empathie mesure de faon
objective, soit en sappuyant sur les outils de
limagerie crbrale, soit par des mises en
situation
professionnelle
impliquant
la
comprhension des motions. En effet, un
point faible de la recherche actuelle est la
surabondance des travaux impliquant des
mesures auto-rapportes et un certain
dsoeuvrement
vis--vis
des
travaux
exprimentaux sur lempathie.
(4) Etudier et modliser le concept
dempathie organisationnelle perue sur la
base dchelles de mesure prenant en compte
ses diffrentes facettes, comme la nature des
43
psychologiques;
dorientation
sexuelle
diffrente; de trajectoires professionnelles
originales, etc.).
(10)
Etudier
les
variations
interculturelles de lempathie. Il serait
intressant de disposer dlments de
comparaison selon les cultures comme cela a
pu tre dvelopp pour dautres construits
psychologiques
comme la
personnalit
(McCrae & al., 2005), le sentiment defficacit
(Scholz, Gutirrez Dona, Sud, & Schwarzer,
2002) ou lestime de soi (Schmitt & Allik,
2005).
Gendlin, un des principaux lves de
Rogers lUniversit de Chicago, avait confi,
suite au dcs de Rogers, que celui-ci lui
aurait dit: je nai pas voulu inventer un
modle thrapeutique centr sur le client, je
voulais simplement trouver une faon daider
les gens (Gendlin, 1988, p.128). Au fond,
voulait dire Rogers, les concepts ne sont que
des moyens au service dune cause bien plus
fondamentale. Et dune faon exemplaire,
Rogers nous enseigne que lhumilit est une
valeur qui en surpasse beaucoup et qui
constitue peut-tre une des premires
conditions de lempathie. La comprhension, la
valorisation et le dveloppement de lempathie
individuelle et de lempathie organisationnelle
perue ne constituent peut-tre quun pas
infime pour le genre humain. Nous sommes
persuads que dans une socit marque par
de multiples formes de violence et par une
valse dincomprhensions, ce sera un pas de
gant pour lhumanit.
Rsum
Si la notion dempathie peut tre examine comme
lun des orientations historiques de la psychologie
ime
sicle, son positionnement conceptuel et
au 20
les volutions du monde du travail posent un certain
nombre de questions sur sa lgitimit. Le prsent
article vise prsenter une synthse critique sur le
construit
dempathie,
sa
mesure,
son
dveloppement et ses relations avec lintelligence
motionnelle. Il invite galement se dcentrer
dune approche strictement centre sur lindividu
pour
prendre
en
compte
lempathie
organisationnelle, dont loprationnalisation est
voque au regard de conceptualisations et travaux
empiriques rcents en psychologie du travail. Des
perspectives et priorits de recherche sont
voques dans la conclusion.
44
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Abstract
Mergers and acquisitions are corporate events with the potential of creating a high level of stress,
with psychological, behavioural and physical consequences, raising problems to both: the
functionality of the individuals and of their organizations. In the context of growth of foreign direct
investments in Romania and the lack of researches conducted on this type of organizational
combinations, this study aims to identify the main stressors associated with the acquisition of a
Romanian company by a foreign investor and the moderating effect of organizational commitment of
the stress outcomes relationship. The research was based on the stress model developed by
Cartwright & Cooper (2002). The results revealed a moderate level of stress, moderate personal
health and a low level of organizational commitment. We did not find support for the moderator role
of organizational commitment on the stress-outcome relationship. Only the direct effect of stress on
physical health and psychological wellbeing were supported. The hierarchical regression revealed
that the perceived commitment of the organization toward its members moderates the stress health relationship. We regard these results as optimistic, suggesting possibilities of managing the
post-acquisition integration process in a manner that diminishes the negative consequences
generally associated with these changes.
Key words: occupational stress, organizational commitment, moderation, mergers and
acquisitions.
Rsum
Les fusions-acquisitions sont des vnements corporatistes qui ont le pouvoir de crr un haut
niveau de stress, avec des consquences au niveau psychologique, comportemental et physique,
en soulevant des problmes srieux en ce qui concerne le fonctionnement des individus, ainsi que
celui des entrerprises o ils travaillent. Dans le contexte de lintensification des investissements
trangres directs en Roumanie, sous la forme des acquisitions, et de labsence des recherches
psychologiques dans le domain de ce type de transformations organisationnelles, le but de cet
tude est didentifier les principales sources de stress rencontres dans le contexte dune entreprise
roumaine, acquisitionne par un investisseur tranger, et leffet de modration de lengagement
organisationnel sur la relation entre les facteurs du stress et la sant. La recherche a t fonde sur
le modle du stress dvlopp par Cartwright & Cooper (2002). Les rsultats obtenus ont soulign
un niveau modr du stress ressenti, ainsi que de la sant physique et psychologique, en change
ils ont mis en vidence un niveau rduit de lengagement envers lorganisation, ainsi que de
lengagement peru de lorganisation envers ses employs. On na pas obtenu un support pour le
rle de modrateur de lengagement envers lorganisation, les rsultats obtenus soutennant
seulement un effet direct de ce support sur la sant physique et psychologique. Cependant
lannalyse de rgression hirarchique a mis en vidence leffet modrateur de lengagement peru
de lorganisation vers lemploy, dans la relation entre les sources du stress et les consquences de
celui-ci sur la la sant physique et psychologique. On considre que les rsultats obtenus sont
optimistes, suggrant des possibilits de management du procs dintgration dune manire qui
puisse rduire les effets ngatives, asocis en gnral ces changements.
48
Studii i Cercetri
Introducere
Fuziunile i achiziiile continu s se
numere printre cele mai populare strategii de
dezvoltare corporaional. n 2004, la nivel
global s-au ncheiat 30.000 de achiziii,
echivalentul unei tranzacii la fiecare 18 minute
(Cartwright & Schoenberg, 2006). n Romnia,
anul 2006 a nregistrat un numr de 134 de
achiziii
finalizate
n
sectorul
privat,
reprezentnd o cre tere de peste 15% n
comparaie cu 2005, n timp ce valoarea
investiiilor strine directe a nregistrat n
acela i an o cre tere cu 75% fa de anul
precedent (PriceWaterhouse Cooper, Raport
de ar, 2006).
n ciuda popularitii de care se
bucur, rezultatele referitoare la performanele
achiziiilor sunt n cel mai bun caz mixte.
Estimrile referitoare la rata e ecului
nregistrat de fuziuni i achiziii variaz ntre
procente pesimiste, ca i 77% raportate n
anumite studii americane (Marks, 1988) i
rezultate
ceva
mai
favorabile
(50%)
menionate n cteva surse din Marea Britanie
(Cartwright & Cooper, 1995). Studii similare
realizate pe cazurile unor parteneriate
strategice arat c n ciuda resurselor
financiare de care beneficiaz, aceste tipuri de
colaborare sunt foarte instabile i aproximativ
o ptrime dintre acestea nceteaz s existe n
primii trei ani de la momentul realizrii alianei
(Kogut, 1988, n Cartwright & Cooper, 1995).
Tot mai frecvent, absena succesului
achiziiilor este atribuit factorilor umani
(Applebaum, Lefrancois, Tonna & Shapiro,
2007). Efectele achiziiei asupra angajailor se
concretizeaz adesea ntr-un nivel ridicat de
stres i anxietate, care persist n timp
(Schweiger & DeNisi, 1991; Applebaum et al.,
2007)
i
influeneaz
negativ
nivelul
productivitii i calitatea muncii realizate.
Cartwright & Cooper (1994) enumer o serie
de consecine negative, care apar n urma
stresului provocat de achiziii: rate ridicate ale
demisiilor (Walsh, 1988), absenteism (Davey
et al., 1988), comportament contraproductiv
(Sinetar, 1981)
i sabotajul organizaiei
(Altendorf, 1986). Panchal & Cartwright (2001)
afirm c achiziiile ar putea fi comparate cu
evenimente de via ca i pierderea unui
membru al familiei sau falimentul. Consecine
psihologice ale ncetrii existenei unei
organizaii, n urma achiziie sale, sunt extrem
49
50
fluctuaiile
de
personal
i
retragerea
psihologic sunt cteva tipuri de neimplicare,
consecine ale angajament redus. Acestea
apar n momentul n care angajatul percepe
locul de munc ca fiind neplcut i ncearc s
l evite. E ecul n managementul stresului
ocupaional poate crea costuri ridicate pentru
organizaii n termeni de productivitate redus,
performan redus, costuri medicale ridicate
i pierderea personalului cu experien
profesional.
Cel mai adesea, studiile din domeniul
fuziunilor
i achiziiilor privesc stresul
ocupaional ca un fenomen indezirabil,
provocat de resurse inadecvate pentru a face
fa solicitrilor asociate cu o anumit situaie
de schimbare organizaional radical i care
au o serie de consecine negative asupra
sntii fizice i psihologice a angajailor
(Cooper & Payne, 1988). Totu i, n ciuda unei
relaii bine stabilite ntre stres i sntate,
exist indivizi care reu esc s i pstreze
starea de bine chiar
i n ciuda unor
circumstane extrem de stresante (Terry et al.,
1996). Aceste date de cercetare, au provocat
un numr din ce n ce mai mare de cercettori
s examineze potenialii mediatori
i
moderatori ai relaiei stresori - consecine ale
stresului n domeniul ocupaional (Cooper &
Bramwell, 1992; Leong, Furnham & Cooper,
1996).
Angajamentul organizaional
Un potenial moderator al relaiei
stresori - consecine este angajamentul
organizaional (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990;
Somers, 1995). Angajamentul organizaional a
fost definit i msurat n diferite moduri. Tema
central care se regse te ns n majoritatea
definiiilor
propuse
este
aceea
c
angajamentul organizaional reprezint o
legtur
ntre
individ
i
organizaie.
Conceptual, angajamentul poate fi caracterizat
prin cel puin trei factori: (a) o acceptare
puternic
a
obiectivelor
i
valorilor
organizaionale; (b) dorina de a depune efort
considerabil, spre binele organizaiei i (c) o
dorin puternic de a menine membralitatea
n organizaie (Irving & Coleman, 2003).
Interesul susinut al cercettorilor fa
de angajamentul organizaional const n
relaiile acestuia cu o serie de rezultate
organizaionale importante. Un nivel ridicat al
angajamentului este asociat cu o rat redus a
fluctuaiei de personal, a absenteismului i un
nivel ridicat al performanelor profesionale.
Mathieu & Zajac (1990) arat c angajaii care
Studii i Cercetri
realizate
n
contextul
unor
schimbri
intraorganizaionale majore (Ashford, 1988)
arat c acestea sunt universal stresante i
foarte puin moderate de caracteristicile de
personalitate ale angajailor (Cartwright &
Cooper, 1994). Nici variabilele demografice nu
s-au dovedit a modera impactul achiziiilor
asupra atitudinilor fa de organizaie
(satisfacia profesional i angajamentul fa
de organizaie), n urma unei achiziii (Newman
& Krzystofiak, 1993). Prin urmare, atenia
cercettorilor s-a ndreptat asupra rolului
atitudinilor
organizaionale ca poteniali
moderatori ai relaiei dintre factorii de stres i
consecine (Begley & Czajka, 1993; Leong,
Furnham & Cooper, 1996; Reilly, 1994). n
mod specific, a crescut interesul fa de rolul
angajamentului fa de organizaie n relaia
dintre stresori i consecinele acestora, n
specia n situaii de confuzie i turbulen
organizaional. Cea mai mare parte a
cercetrilor
realizate
asupra
rolului
angajamentului organizaional n relaia
stresori - consecine a fost alimentat de dou
ipoteze concurente (Irving & Coleman, 2003):
(1) Prima dintre ele (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990)
este aceea c angajaii care manifest un
angajament puternic fa de organizaie vor
simi mult mai puternic efectul stresului, dect
angajaii care sunt mai puin loiali organizaiei.
(2) Ce-a de-a doua perspectiv susine exact
opusul, i anume c angajamentul protejeaz
indivizii de efectele negative ale stresului,
datorit faptului c i ajut s gseasc o
direcie i semnificaie pentru munca lor
(Kobasa, 1982). Citndu-l pe Antonovsky
(1979). Leong et al. (1996) susin c
angajamentul este o resurs crucial, care
ajut angajaii s reziste n faa tensiunilor din
mediul organizaional. Aceast perspectiv
susine
c
stresul
duce
la
apariia
consecinelor negative n contextul unui nivel
redus al angajamentului.
Rezultatele unui studiu realizat de
Panchal & Cartwright (2001) relev existena
unor diferene semnificative ntre angajaii
companiei achiziionate i ai celei achizitoare,
att la nivelul surselor, ct i la nivelul
consecinelor stresului. n mod surprinztor,
aceste diferene ns nu au fost n direcia
a teptat de autori. n explicarea rezultatelor,
Panchal & Cartwright (2001) au fcut apel la
nivelul redus al angajamentului organizaional
n cazul companiei achizitoare i la teoria
identitii sociale. Achiziia a constituit o
oportunitate de dezvoltare a identitii sociale
pentru angajaii companiei cumprate, n timp
51
Sntate psihologic
Sntate fizic
Figura 1. Cadrul teoretic al stresului conform ASSET (sursa: Pitariu, Tureanu & Pelea , 2008)
Studii i Cercetri
53
10
11
12
13
14
15
2 Vrsta
-.06
3 Intentia de a
schimba locul de
munca in ultimele
3 luni
.12
-.00
4 Relaii
profesionale
5 Echilibrul viata
personala-viata
profesionala
6 Suprancrcarea
muncii
7 Sigurana
postului de munca
8 Control
-.03
-.07
.00
.03
.06
-.23** -.04
.16*
(.80)
-.01
.10
(.78)
9 Resurse si
comunicare
10 Postul de
munca
11 Salarizare si
beneficii
-.02
.05
.20*
.65**
(.64)
-.14
.13
.20*
.53**
.54** (.55)
-.05
.10
.07
.24**
.33** .26**
12 Angajament
perceput al
organizaiei fata
de angajat
13 Angajament
fata de organizaie
-.10
.06 -.54** -.33** -.28** -.25** -.23** -.30** -.29** -.24** -.17*
(.84)
-.06
14 Sntate fizica
15 Sntate
psihologica
.14
.16
.20*
.16
-.23**
-.18*
.74**
(.77)
.15
.19*
.15
.10
-.21*
-.17*
.13
.30**
.09
.30** .22**
(.70)
(.87)
Media
Abaterea
standard
7.13
4.19
4.45
3.10
4.36
3.63
5.09
4.98
3.94
3.45
6.09
Sten
1.50
** Corelaiile sunt semnificative la pragul de 0.01, * Corelaiile sunt semnificative la pragul 0.05, Valorile
Studii i Cercetri
Valoarea
foarte
ridicat
i
semnificativ statistic a coeficientului de
corelaie obinut ntre angajamentul perceput al
organizaiei fa de membrii organizaiei i
angajamentul membrilor fa de companie
(r=.742, p<.001) sugereaz c msura n care
angajaii percep c organizaia este interesat
de ei, urmre te binele lor, este asociat cu un
rspuns similar din partea lor: cre terea
nivelului de dedicare fa de organizaie.
Ca i n alte investigaii ale stresului n
contextul fuziunilor i achiziiilor, diferenele
demografice dintre angajaii afectai nu
influeneaz percepia acestor schimbri.
Singura diferen semnificativ apare n
dreptul siguranei postului de munc (r=-.23,
p<.001), indicnd faptul c pentru persoanele
de sex masculin insecuritatea muncii
reprezint un factor mai puternic de stres,
dect pentru cele de gen feminin. Cu privire la
angajamentul fa de organizaie, se pare c
acesta cre te u or odat cu naintarea n
vrst (r=.21, p<.05). Nu s-au observat relaii
semnificative
statistic
ntre
variabilele
demografice
i angajamentul perceput al
organizaiei fa de angajat. Att starea de
sntate fizic (r=.34, p<.001), ct i starea de
sntate psihologic (r=.24, p<.001) prezint
probleme mai degrab n rndul femeilor,
dect a brbailor, indiferent de vrst.
Testarea efectului moderator al
angajamentului fa de organizaie
Pentru a testa ipoteza efectului
moderator
al
angajamentului
fa
de
organizaie n cadrul relaie dintre stresori i
sntatea fizic i psihic a angajailor, am
urmat pa ii recomandai de Baron & Kenny
(1986). Efectul de moderare a fost verificat prin
intermediul regresiei ierarhice, pentru dou
variabile dependente distincte: sntatea fizic
i sntatea psihologic. n fiecare caz, n
primul pas al regresiei am inclus rezultatul
global obinut la scalele de stres (obinut prin
calcularea mediei aritmetice a rezultatelor
obinute la cele opt scale individuale din
seciunea Percepii asupra muncii), n al doilea
pas, pe lng stres s-a adugat angajamentul
fa de organizaie, iar n al treilea, alturi de
primele dou variabile independente, am
introdus
i interaciunea dintre stres
i
angajament. Pentru obinerea variabilei de
interaciune Stres x Angajament am apelat la
metoda centrat, pentru reducerea anselor de
multicolinearitate i a valorilor erorilor standard
mai ridicate (Sava, 2004). Nu am considerat
55
Sntatea
psihologic
Pas
Predictori
df1
df2
F
sch.
Stresul ocupaional
.034
.027
138
4.91
.05
Angajament fa de org.
.050
.036
137
2.30
n.s.
Interaciune (S x AO)
.059
.038
136
1.20
n.s.
Stresul ocupaional
.149
.143
138
24.13
.001
Angajament fa de org.
.174
.162
137
4.12
.05
Interaciune (S x AO)
.174
.156
136
.068
n.s.
56
al
al
Studii i Cercetri
simptomelor
negative
de
sntate
i
angajamentul perceput al organizaiei fa de
angajat
(=-.203,
p<.05)
interaciune (=-.290, p<.05).
variabila
Sntatea
psihologic
Pas
Predictori
df1
df2
F
sch.
Stresul ocupaional
.034
.027
138
4.91
.05
.062
.048
137
4.05
.05
Interaciune (S x APO)
.122
.103
136
9.26
.001
Stresul ocupaional
.149
.143
138
24.13
.001
.209
.198
137
10.46
.001
Interaciune (S x APO)
.231
.214
136
3.79
.05
57
58
Studii i Cercetri
Concluzii
Rezumat
Studiul
de
fa
i-a
propus
investigarea principalelor surse de presiune
resimite de angajai n contextul unei achiziii
internaionale, precum i testarea efectului de
moderare
al
angajamentului
fa
de
organizaie, respectiv a angajamentului
perceput al organizaiei fa de angajat, n
relaia dintre sursele de stres i consecinele
acestuia asupra sntii fizice i psihologice a
indivizilor implicai.
Rezultatele obinute au pus n
eviden experimentarea unui nivel mediu al
stresului,
rezultatele
obinute
nefiind
semnificativ diferite de cele obinute pe
populaia general, un nivel mediu al sntii
fizice i psihologice i un nivel sczut al
angajamentului fa de organizaie, dar i al
angajamentului perceput al organizaiei fa de
angajat.
Dintre cele dou efecte de moderare
testate, doar unul a obinut suport statistic.
Rezultatele analizelor de regresie ierarhic nu
au sprijinit ipoteza formulat cu privire la rolul
de moderator al angajamentului fa de
Fuziunile
i
achiziiile
sunt
evenimente
corporaionale care au potenialul de a crea un nivel
ridicat de stres, cu consecine la nivel psihologic,
comportamental i fizic, ridicnd probleme serioase
att asupra funcionrii indivizilor, ct
i a
companiilor n care lucreaz ace tia. n contextul
intensificrii investiiilor strine directe n Romnia
sub forma achiziiilor
i a lipsei cercetrilor
psihologice n domeniul acestui tip de transformri
organizaionale, studiul de fa
i-a propus
identificarea principalelor surse de stres ntlnite n
contextul unei companii romne ti, achiziionate de
un investitor strin i a efectului de moderare al
angajamentului organizaional asupra relaiei dintre
stresori i sntate. Cercetarea a fost fundamentat
pe modelul stresului dezvoltat de Cartwright &
Cooper (2002). Rezultatele obinute au evideniat un
nivel moderat al stresului resimit, dar i al sntii
fizice i psihologice, n schimb au pus n eviden
un nivel redus att al angajamentului fa de
organizaie, ct i al angajamentului perceput al
organizaiei fa de angajai. Nu s-a obinut suport
pentru rolul de moderarator al angajamentului fa
59
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61
Alexandra Macarie, Ticu Constantin , Alina Orzan, Loredana Constantin, Anca Fodorea
Universitatea Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Ia i
Abstract
The aim of the present study was designing a local standardized questionnaire for evaluating
traits of personality, following the Big Five model. The questionnaire was built for applying in
organizations and to resist social desirability. The theoretical background used in the construction
of the questionnaire were part of the Big Five model for personality evaluation. The methods used
in this study were specific to the construction and primary validation of a questionnaire: defining
the factors, designing the items, verifying the content validity (expert testing). The constructed
questionnaire was completed by 524 subjects from the general population. The results confirm the
existence of five personality factors, as defined by the authors: sociability, incertitude, persistance,
altruism and openness. These factors correspond to the 5 factors described in speciality literature.
The study also analyzed the relations the five factors have with significant traits of personality
measured by other psychological questionnaires which were applied along with our questionnaire
(introversion - extraversion, emotional stability - neuroticism, originality, efficiency, conformism).
We also described the differences between the scores for the five factors depending on age,
gender, studies and income.
Key words: personality evaluation, Big Five model, content validity.
Rsum
Ltude a eu comme objectif la construction dun questionnaire standardis autochtone
dvaluation de la personnalit selon le modle Big Five, questionnaire applicable dans un
contexte organisationnel tant rsistant la tendance de faade spcifique aux situations de
slection du personnel. Les concepts utiliss pour la base thorique et pour construire cette
preuve ont t celles sous sommes aux modle Big Five dvaluation de la personnalit. Les
mthodes utilises ont t celles spcifiques la construction et validation primaire dune telle
preuve : ceux pour dfinir et dcrire les dimensions cl, pour modeler les items, pour vrifier la
validation de contenu (lpreuve des experts). Le questionnaire issu a t appliqu sur un lot de
524 sujets faisant partie de la population gnrale. Les rsultats obtenus confirment lidentification
de cinq facteurs de personnalit dfinis par les auteurs comme sociabilit, mfiance, persistance,
altruisme, ouverture, facteurs qui correspondent avec ceux dcrits dans la littrature de spcialit.
On a analys les relations de ceux cinq facteurs avec des variables signifiantes de personnalit
mises en vidence par autres preuves psychologiques appliques simultanment sur le mme
lot (introversion-extraversion, stabilit motionnelle-nvrosisme, originalit, efficience,
conformisme). On a dcrit aussi les diffrences obtenues pour ceux cinq facteurs en fonction des
variables : sexe, tudes, ge et niveaux des revenus.
Mots cls: lvaluation de la personnalit, le modle Big Five, validation de contenu.
1
Concepte i istoric
Personalitate i trsturi de personalitate
62
instrumentelor
de
evaluare
psihologic
(Minulescu, 1996). Acest tip de teorii au la
baz afirmaia fundamental c personalitatea
poate fi definit ca o structur de trsturi, de
moduri caracteristice de comportament,
cunoa tere, reacie i simire. (Minulescu,
1996). Conform opiniei lui Allport (1991), o
Studii i Cercetri
63
i paradigma
Paradigma Big-Five
Five Factor Model
64
Studii i Cercetri
BIOGRAFIE OBIECTIV
Reacii emoionale
Schimbri semnificative
BAZE BIOLOGICE
TENDINE BAZALE
Nevrozism
Extraversiune
Deschidere
Agreabilitate
Con tiinciozitate
ADAPTRI
CARACTERISTICE
Scopuri personale
Atitudini
INFLUENE
EXTERNE
Norme culturale
Evenimente
Intriri
I.S.
IMAGINE DE SINE
Scheme ale eului
Mituri personale
65
confirmatorii
ale
66
Studii i Cercetri
noi construirea
i validarea unei probe
autohtone de evaluare a personalitii dup
Modelul Big Five.
Chestionarul B. F. II.; construcie i
factori
Chestionarul Big-five II a fost construit
n intervalul 2005-2007 n cadrul colectivului E2
team . Chestionarul a fost gndit pentru a fi
aplicat n context organizaional, crendu-se
premisele necesare cre terii rezistenei la
tendina de faad n situaii de selecie
profesional. Pentru aceasta, n construcia
factorilor am preferat utilizarea de aseriuni cu
dou variante de rspuns (pe ct posibil
similare sub aspectul dezirabilitii sociale),
subiecii fiind obligai s fac o alegere forat
ntre cele dou variante de rspuns, fiecare
variant exprimnd unul dintre cei doi poli ai
factorului evaluat.
n construirea acestor itemi am luat n
calcul mai multe perspective diferite de definire
i interpretare a celor 5 factori. De i am pornit
de la modelele consacrate propuse de Costa i
McCrae (1994) i Goldberg (1990), factorii
chestionarului construit de noi nu se suprapun
n totalitate peste factorii acestor modele,
prefernd o abordare exhaustiv i prelund
spre analiz i operaionalizare perspective
diferite de definire ale celor cinci factori. n
cadrul colectivului E-team am parcurs mai
multe etape pn a ajunge la versiunea
chestionarului B. F. II. prezentat n acest
studiu.
Astfel,
dup
definirea
cadrului
conceptual i a semnificaiilor interpretative
subsumate fiecruia dintre cei cinci factori, au
fost formulai itemii, aseriuni cu dou variante.
Exemple de itemi:
Situaiile noi:
a) m fac s devin curios;
b) m fac s devin prudent.
Cel mai mult mi place:
a) s pun n practic idei realiste
b) s gsesc idei originale
este o echip de cercetare mixt studeni cadre didactice absolveni, cu peste 45 de membri
i un program de cercetare care presupune ntlniri
de lucru sptmnale de minim 2 ore pe sptmn
67
Tabelul 1. Cei cinci factori i dimensiuni subordonate (dup Howard & Howard, 2001)
ase faete ale
EXTRAVERSIEI
Afectivitate
INTROVERTIT E-
EXTRAVERTIT E+
Rezervat; formal
Prietenos, intim
Sociabilitate
Asertivitate
Activitate
Ritm lent
Ritm rapid
Cutare de provocri
Urmre te provocarea
Emoii pozitive
Vesel, optimist
FLEXIBIL C-
CON TIINCIOS C+
Ordine
Dezorganizat, nesistematizat
Datorie
Liber fa de obligaii
Dorina de realizare
Auto-Disciplin
Procrastinaie; distras
Deliberare
Spontan; grbit
INDIFERENT N-
REACTIV N+
Relaxat; calm
ngrijorat
Furie
Se nfurie greu
Se nfurie repede
Descurajare
Se descurajeaz greu
Se descurajeaz repede
Se ru ineaz greu
U or de stnjenit
Impulsivitate
Rezist u or tentaiilor
Tentat cu u urin
Vulnerabilitate
Vulnerabil
Onest, bineintenionat
Sinceritate
Direct, sincer
Altruism
Nu vrea s se implice
Agresivitate
Agresiv; competitiv
Modestie
Umil, autodepreciativ
Supunere
ncpnat; raional
U or de convins
Imaginativ; vistor
Estetic
Neinteresat de art
Sentimente
Aciuni
Idei
Prefer familiarul
Focalizare intelectual ngust
Valori
Dogmatic; conservator
68
CONSERVATOR D--
ADAPTABIL A+
EXPLORATOR D+
Studii i Cercetri
= ,822
Perseveren
= ,706
Nesiguran
= ,806
Altruism
= ,711
Deschidere
= ,895
Metodologia cercetrii
Chestionarul B.F. II descris mai sus, a
fost aplicat pe un lot de 524 de subieci n
vederea (re)verificrii consistenei interne i
verificrii relaiilor semnificative stabilite cu alte
variabile ale personalitii (aspecte legate de
verificarea validitii convergente).
Participani
La cercetare au participat 524 de
subieci cu vrstele cuprinse ntre 18 i 69 de
ani, cu o medie de vrst de 39.1 ani i
abaterea standard de 9.857. Din totalul
subiecilor, 73.1 % sunt femei iar 26.9 % sunt
brbai. n funcie de nivelul de studii, 2.1 %
dinte subieci au studii gimnaziale, 56.3 % au
studii liceale i 33.5 % au studii universitare
(valori lips /missing: 8,1%). n funcie de
nivelul de venit 6.8 % au venituri mai mici de
100 , 46.4 % au ntre 100 i 200 venit lunar,
26.9 % au 200-300 , 13.3 % au 300-500 ,
1% dintre subieci c tig ntre 700 i 1000
pe lun i 1.9 % dep esc 1000 pe lun
salariu (valori lips /missing: 3,7%). n funcie
de specificul activitii, 20.8 % lucreaz n
domeniul produciei, 59.4 % n domeniul
serviciilor i 19.8 % lucreaz n comer.
Instrumente
Chestionarul Big-Five II a fost aplicat
mpreun cu alte 3 chestionare, fiecare din
cele 4 chestionare aplicate
obinnd o
consisten intern pe factori superioar
pragului de 0,700 (Alpha Cronbach):
Chestionarul
E.P.I.
(H.J.
Eysenck),
Chestionarul DA 2.2006 (T. Constantin) i
Inventarul K.A.I. Adaptare - Inovare. (M.
Kirton).
Chestionarul E.P.I. (H.J. Eysenck,
1969), cu ajutorul a 57 de itemi cu rspuns
dihotomic de tip da /nu, vizeaz evaluarea a
dou dimensiuni principale - extraversiunea i
nevrozismul i o scal de minciun lie.
Chestionar D.A. 2.2006 (Constantin i colab,
2007), avnd 203 itemi grupai n 10 factori,
evalueaz
10
dimensiuni
accentuate,
operaionalizate pornind de la modelul propus
de
Karl
Leonhard:
demonstrativitatea,
hiperexactitatea,
hiperperseverena,
nestpnirea, hipertimia, distimia, labilitatea,
exaltarea, anxietatea
i
emotivitatea.
Inventarul K.A.I. Adaptare Inovare (M.
Kirton, 1976), cuprinde 33 de itemi cu
evaluarea pe o scal n 5 trepte i vizeaz o
dimensiune general stil cognitiv de tip
adaptativ - inovativ
i trei subfactori
69
/dimensiuni:
originalitate,
ineficien
i
supunere.
Consistena intern a chestionarului
Big-Five II a fost probat din nou iar coeficienii
Alpha-Cronbach obinui pe lotul de 524 au fost
urmtorii:
Sociabilitate
= .814
Perseveren = .701
Nesiguran
= .774
Altruism
= .701
Deschidere
= .856
Rezultate
Analiza diferenelor
Analiznd diferenele ntre media
scorurilor subiecilor aparinnd unor categorii
diferite de gen, vrst, studii sau nivel de
venituri, am identificat cteva diferene
semnificative statistic dar de putere redus.
Astfel, testul t a evideniat diferene
semnificative ntre subiecii de gen masculin i
cei de gen feminin la factorul nesiguran [t(509)
= -4,487; p=0.02] n sensul c subiecii de gen
feminin (mF= 0,45, pe un interval al mediilor
cuprins ntre 0 si 1) au scoruri ceva mai mari la
acest factor comparativ cu subiecii de gen
masculin (mM= 0,34).
Folosind Anova One Way s-au
identificat diferene n funcie de nivelul de
venit al subiecilor pentru factorul nesiguran
[F(458,6) = -2,416; p=0.026], n sensul c
subiecii cu venituri ntre 700-1000 au scoruri
0.42
0.40
0.38
0.36
0.34
0.32
productie
servicii
comert
specif_a
70
Studii i Cercetri
Extroversiune_EPI
Nevrozism_EPI
Minciuna_EPI
DESCHIDERE
(deschidere la
nou)
.507**
-.178**
-.015
71
Originalitate
Ineficienta
Nesupunere
Adaptare_Inovare
demonstativitate
hiperexactitate
hiperperseverenta
nestapanire
hipertimie
distimie
labilitate
exaltare
anxietate
emotivitate
72
Studii i Cercetri
Concluzii
Reamintim c validitatea de coninut
pentru itemii Chestionarului B.F. II. a fost
verificat la nceputul activitii de cercetare i
construcie a itemilor prin proba experilor, n
timp ce consistena intern a probei (msur a
fidelitii i estimare a pragului maxim al
validitii) a fost probat pe ambele loturi de
subieci, obinnd valori superioare pragului de
.700 (Alpha Cronbach).
n ceea ce priveste verificarea
validitii convergente, relaiile prezentate n
paragrafele anterioare credem c ilustreaz n
mod convingtor aspecte semnificative ale
acesteia. La o prim estimare, ca rezultate ale
acestor analize, putem afirma c am adus
probe concludente care s susin ideea
validitii
concurente
pentru
factorii
nesiguran (nevrozism)
i sociabilitate
(extroversiune) prin corelaiile mari obinute de
ace ti factori cu factori similari din EPI
(Eysenck). Prin corelaii obinute ntre factorii
Inventarului Adapatare - Inovare K.A.I. (Kirton)
am probat validitatea concurent a factorului
deschidere din B.F. II. i o verificare parial a
factorului perseveren (corelaii negative
superioare valorii .680 cu scala Adaptare Inovare). Corelaiile multiple stabilite ntre
factorii chestionarului construit de noi i
dimensiunile accentuate puse n eviden de
Chestionarul D.A. 2.2006, completeaz acest
tablou, oferind alte serii de corelaii
convergente convingtoare.
Specificm faptul c o verificare
complet a validitii concurente a probei
construite de noi o vom considera ncheiat
73
Bibliografie
Abraham J. D.,
Morrison, J. D., (2003).
Relationship between the Performance
Perspectives Inventorys Implementing
Scale and Job Performance of Incumbents
in a Dual Security/Service Role. Applied
HRM Research, 8, Number 2, 73-76.
Agape, A. M. (2004) Orientare spre eroare i stil
cognitiv Modelul Big Five i replicarea
acestuia n limba romn manuscris
lucrare de licen.
Allport, G. W. (1991). Structura i dezvoltarea
personalitii,
Editura
Didactic
i
Pedagogic, Bucure ti.
Envick, B. & Langford, M, (2003), The Big-Five
Personality Model: comparing male and
female
entrepreneurs.
Academy
of
Entrepreneurship Journal, 9(1), 1-10.
Chaplin, J.P. (1985) Dictionary of Psychology,
Second Revised Edition, New York, Laurel.
Costa, P.T. i McCrae, R.R. (1990). Personality
disorders and the five-factor model of
personality. In: Journal of Personality
Disorders, 4, 362371.
Costa, R. R., McCrae, P.T. (2003). Personality in
Adulthood: A Five Factor Theory
Perspenctive ediia a 2-a, Guilford Press,
New York.
Constantin T, Iarcuczewicz, I.
Constantin L.
Fodorea A. Cldare L. (2007). Persistena
motivaional i operaionalizarea ei n
vederea evalurii potenialului motivaional
individual, n Analele de Psihologie i
tiine ale Educaiei, Editura Universitii
Al I. Cuza, volum 2007, 23 35.
Dru, C. (2007). Psihologia personalitii n
Psihopedagogie sociala, suport de curs,
anul II ID, Editura Universitaii Al Ioan
Cuza, Ia i.
Digman, J. (1996). The Curious History of the FiveFactor Model n Handbook of Psychology:
Theory and Research, Guilford, New York.
Goldberg, L. R. (1990). An alternative "description
of personality": The Big-Five factor
structure. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 59, 1216-1229.
74
Studii i Cercetri
Delia Vrg
Universitatea de Vest din Timi oara
Abstract
This study is aimed to show the influence of cognitive and non-cognitive factors on decisional
efficiency through the design of a theoretical-explicative model and by testing it against reality.
This model reflects the link between cognitive variables, personality variables and decisional
performance.
The participants in this study (N=88) are managers in a IT&C company and have an average age
of 32.3 years and a average working seniority of 8.6 years, 74.9% being males and 25.1 % being
females.
The instruments used were California Psychological Inventory (CPI 260 items form), a
questionnaire for assessing the decisional style, a decision making questionnaire, decisional skills
test (BTPAC), and Raven standard test, Plus form, a questionnaire for assessing cognitive
complexity and Melbourne decision making questionnaire. In order to evaluate decisional
performance I developed an behaviorally anchored scale.
The evaluation of cognitive competencies, defined in behavioral terms like decision making
performance and cognitive complexity, together with the personality dimensions, help us to select
managers with an increased adaptive orientation to organizational change and a better decisional
performance.
Key words: decision making performance, cognitive complexity, organizational change.
Rsum
Cette tude vise montrer l'influence des facteurs cognitifs et non-cognitifs sur l'efficacit de la
dcision par l'laboration d'un modle thorique explicative quon le teste face la ralit. Ce
modle reflte le lien entre les variables cognitives, les variables de la personnalit et la
performance dcisionnelle.
Les participants cette tude (N = 88) sont des cadres dans une compagnie IT & C quils ont une
moyenne d'ge de 32,3 ans et une exprience de travail moyenne de 8,6 ans, 74,9% taient
hommes et 25,1% femmes.
Les instruments utiliss taient California Psychological Inventory (CPI la forme avec 260 items),
un questionnaire pour valuer le style dcisionnel, un questionnaire de prise de dcision, un test
dcisionnel (BTPAC), et le test standard Raven, la forme Plus, un questionnaire d'valuation de la
complexit cognitive et le questionnaire Melbourne de la prise de dcision. Afin d'valuer la
performance de dcision, on a dvelopp une chelle avec des ancres comportementales.
L'valuation des comptences cognitives, dfinis en termes de comportement comme la
performance de prise de dcision et la complexit cognitive, avec les dimensions de la
personnalit, nous aident slectionner les cadres avec une orientation accrue d'adaptation au
changement organisationnel et avec une meilleure performance dcisionnel.
Mots cls : performance en prise de dcision, complexit cognitive, changement organisationnel.
evideniaz
legtura
dintre
variabilele
cognitive, variabilele de personalitate
i
performana decizional.
Programele
de
schimbare
organizaional i, n special, dezvoltarea
organizaional
sugereaz
optimizarea
75
76
Studii i Cercetri
Mediu
MediuOrganizaional
Organizaional
Mecanisme
Mecanisme
de
de coping
coping
decizional
decizional
Comportament
Comportament
decizional
decizional
(performana)
(performana)
STIL
STIL DECIZIONAL
DECIZIONAL
Personalitate
Personalitate
Factori
Factori cognitivi
cognitivi
LUMEA INTERN
Prin
acest
model,
cercetarea
dobnde te un caracter mixt, att explicativ
prin izolarea i identificarea influenei celor
dou categorii de variabile: cognitive i de
personalitate asupra performanei decizionale,
ct i predictiv, prin posibilitate de a estima
performana decizional la nivel organizaional
pentru potenialii candidai n procesul de
selecie, pe baza unor predictori testai
anterior.
n categoria factorilor cognitivi inclu i
n model se gsesc: aptitudinile cognitive
generale,
capacitatea
decizional
i
complexitatea cognitiv.
Aptitudinea cognitiv poate fi definit
ca fiind capacitatea fundamental de gndire
i ncorporeaz componente ale abilitii de
nvare i adaptare (Jensen, 1980, Schmidt,
2002). Este neleas ca fiind capacitatea de
procesare a informaiilor complexe sau
capacitatea de a rezolva problemele din viaa
real (Flynn, 1987).
Aptitudinile cognitive generale sunt
unele dintre cele mai puternice diferene
individuale folosite ca predictori ai performanei
n sarcin, dincolo de situaii, organizaii sau
posturi. Evaluarea aptitudinilor cognitive este
77
78
Studii i Cercetri
masculin
feminin
74,9
25,1
Instrumente
Inventarul Psihologic California (CPI)
(Gough, 1987) este un chestionar creion-hrtie
cu auto-administrare compus din 260 itemi,
afirmaii (folk concepts) pe care subiectul trebuie
s le marcheze dac din punctul lui de vedere le
consider adevrate sau false. CPI
evalueaz trsturile de personalitate n context
de
normalitate,
pune
n
eviden
comportamentul
persoanei
n
relaiile
interpersonale
cotidiene
(Gough,
1987).
Adaptarea pentru populaia romneasc a fost
realizat de prof. univ. dr. Horia D. Pitariu.
Scalele care intr n componena CPI i pe care
le-am utilizat, sunt urmtoarele: Dominan (Do),
Capacitatea de statut (Cs), Sociabilitatea (Sy),
Prezena social (Sp), Acceptarea de sine
(Sa), Independena (In), Empatia (Em),
Responsabilitatea (Re), Conformismul social
(So), Autocontrolul (Sc), Impresia bun (Gi),
Comunalitatea
(Cm),
Sntatea
(Wb),
Tolerana (To), Realizarea prin conformism
(Ac), Realizarea prin independen (Ai),
Fluen conceptual (Cf), Sensitivitate (Sn),
Flexibilitatea (Fx), Perspicacitate (Is), Potenial
managerial (Mp), Orientare spre munc (Wo),
Temperament creativ (Ct), Leadership (Lp),
Amicalitate (Ami), Orientare spre aplicarea
legii (Leo), Ostilitate (Hos), Lupttor (Fght),
organizate n urmtoarele dimensiuni:
Relaionarea cu alii;
Managementul de sine;
Motivaie i stil de gndire;
Caracteristici personale;
Msuri legate de munc.
Modelul teoretic cuboid dezvoltat de H.
Gough descrie patru stiluri de via sau tipuri
de oameni (Alfa, Beta, Gama i Delta) definite
prin combinarea a doi vectori, v1 i v2, un al
treilea, v3 explicnd nivelul de realizare
(Pitariu i Iliescu, 2006).
79
80
Studii i Cercetri
25,00
23,00
21,00
19,00
17,00
15,00
13,00
11,00
9,00
7,00
5,00
21,16
17,73
16,13
14,63
12,51
Raional
Intuitiv
Dependent
Spontan
Ezitant
12,00
10,00
10,14
8,00
6,00
4,00
2,89
2,07
2,00
2,70
0,00
vigilena
evitare
amnare
hiper-vigilen
Figura 4. Preferine pentru mecanisme de aprare n cazul conflictelor decizionale n compania Alfa
81
Scale CPI
Medie
E antion
total,
N=196
Ab.
Std
Min
DO
20,04
4,61
CS
12,61
SY
15,85
SP
Max
Medie
Manageri
N=88
Ab.
Std
Medie
Non-manageri
N=108
Ab.
Std
27
20,98
3,78
19,27
5,08
2,52
18
12,58
2,31
12,63
2,70
4,08
21
16,28
3,69
15,49
4,36
17,84
3,86
28
17,43
3,64
18,18
4,02
SA
13,81
3,07
20
13,86
2,79
13,77
3,30
IN
14,37
2,55
19
14,76
2,45
14,06
2,59
EM
14,37
2,99
24
14,32
2,72
14,41
3,20
RE
17,56
2,68
22
17,44
2,48
17,65
2,84
SO
26,51
2,98
16
32
26,56
3,24
26,46
2,77
SC
19,10
3,76
27
19,07
4,06
19,13
3,51
GI
20,63
4,87
10
30
20,45
4,85
20,77
4,91
CM
18,18
1,20
15
20
18,10
1,15
18,25
1,25
WB
16,28
2,26
20
16,23
2,29
16,32
2,25
TO
12,83
2,83
18
12,63
2,64
13,00
2,98
AC
24,23
3,10
13
29
24,61
2,99
23,93
3,17
AI
15,23
2,73
21
15,05
2,55
15,38
2,87
CF
23,20
3,09
14
28
23,43
2,83
23,01
3,29
IS
13,77
2,03
19
13,72
2,19
13,81
1,90
FX
7,97
3,53
17
7,60
3,07
8,27
3,85
SN
8,18
2,52
14
7,98
2,41
8,35
2,61
MP
16,16
3,52
24
16,51
3,16
15,87
3,77
WO
19,54
2,61
14
25
19,41
2,34
19,64
2,82
CT
15,20
3,22
23
14,82
3,27
15,51
3,16
LP
40,30
6,34
23
50
40,84
5,93
39,85
6,65
AMI
19,81
3,60
26
19,65
3,54
19,94
3,66
LEO
18,42
2,70
10
23
18,70
2,75
18,19
2,65
TM
13,43
1,99
18
13,75
1,66
13,17
2,20
BMS
29,23
5,50
16
38
29,33
4,77
29,15
6,05
BFM
13,91
2,69
22
13,69
2,73
14,08
2,66
ANX
3,55
1,18
3,68
1,19
3,44
1,17
NAR
18,69
4,68
32
19,44
4,77
18,07
4,55
DSD
17,38
2,76
11
23
17,28
2,61
17,46
2,89
DAC
12,55
2,45
19
12,39
2,29
12,69
2,59
7,47
2,96
15
7,44
2,72
7,50
3,15
14,38
2,57
20
14,68
2,29
14,13
2,77
HOS
FF
Capacitate intelectual Raven
Capacitate decizional
Complexitate
cognitiv
Strategii de
control al stresului
decizional
82
31
40,35
5,00
54
41,00
5,71
39,81
4,28
5,33
1,76
5,83
1,56
4,92
1,82
Abilitate
metacognitiv
23,93
3,34
15
30
24,80
2,86
23,23
3,55
Influen social
17,26
2,86
24
17,74
2,66
16,87
2,97
17,63
2,87
24
18,17
2,66
17,19
2,97
17,24
2,76
24
17,58
2,76
16,97
2,75
19,89
2,73
27
20,16
2,34
19,68
3,00
96,15
9,12
76
121
98,44
9,24
94,28
8,62
Vigilen
10,14
1,43
12
10,06
1,37
10,20
1,48
Evitare
2,89
2,11
11
2,51
2,16
3,19
2,03
Toleran la
ambiguitate
Dorina de
Cunoa tere
Orientare spre
Nou
Complexitate
Cognitiv - total
Studii i Cercetri
Medie
E antion
total,
N=196
Stil
decizional
Eficien
decizional
Ab.
Std
Min
Max
Medie
Manageri
N=88
Ab.
Std
Medie
Non-manageri
N=108
Ab.
Std
1,62
Amnare
2,07
1,54
1,89
1,42
2,21
Hiper-vigilen
2,70
1,78
10
2,69
1,62
2,70
1,92
Stil Raional
21,16
2,50
14
25
21,28
2,41
21,06
2,57
Stil Intuitiv
17,73
2,93
25
17,98
2,67
17,53
3,13
Stil Dependent
16,13
3,39
23
16,36
3,46
15,94
3,33
Stil Spontan
12,51
3,44
23
12,07
3,38
12,87
3,47
Stil Ezitant
14,63
3,18
24
14,80
3,29
14,49
3,10
Decizii tactice
6,00
2,72
12
6,18
2,72
5,85
2,73
Nivel de
ncredere decizii tactice
7,92
1,76
10
7,99
1,75
7,86
1,77
Decizii strategice
5,77
2,92
12
5,98
3,00
5,61
2,86
Nivel de
ncredere decizii strategice
7,22
1,81
10
7,29
1,78
7,16
1,85
Corelaii
Din corelaiile dintre variabilele de
personalitate i variabilele vrsta i vechime
prezentate n Tabelul 2 rezult c persoanele
din organizaie, pe msur ce avanseaz n
vrst, devin mai conformiste, dau dovad de
mai puin flexibilitate, prefer predictibilitatea
i consistena, se simt inconfortabil cu
Vechime
Vechime post
DO - Dominan
FX - Flexibilitate
SN - Sensitivitate
LP Potenial de leadership
Complexitate Cognitiv
Mecanismul de
decizional-evitare
control
al
Stil decizional-raional
r
p
N
r
p
N
r
p
N
r
p
N
r
p
N
r
p
N
r
p
N
r
p
N
r
p
N
0,949
0,000
191
0,386
0,000
188
0,176
0,014
193
0,236
0,001
193
-0,231
0,001
193
-0,141
0,050
193
0,152
0,035
193
0,301
0,000
193
r
p
N
r
p
N
-0,148
0,040
193
0,157
0,029
193
Vechime
0,949
0,000
191
i cognitive pe tot
Vechime pe post
0,386
0,000
188
0,400
0,000
188
0,400
0,000
188
0,215
0,003
191
0,242
0,001
191
-0,223
0,002
191
0,166
0,021
191
0,284
0,000
191
stresului
-0,169
0,020
191
0,141
0,052
191
83
i cu
Tabelul 3. Corelaii ntre variabilele cognitive i de personalitate i cele de stil (raional i vigilena) i criteriu de
performan la nivel executiv
Strategii de
decizional
Stil decizional
control
al
stresului
Raional
Intuitiv
Dependent
Spontan
Ezitant
Vigilen
Evitare
Amnare
Hipervigilen
Performana
Capacitate
intelectual
0,217
-0,025
-0,228
-0,052
0,068
-0,028
-0,082
-0,122
-0,128
0,225
0,043
0,818
0,033
0,628
0,529
0,796
0,448
0,257
0,235
0,035
Capacitate
Decizional
-0,008
0,068
0,012
-0,039
-0,092
0,225
-0,046
-0,035
-0,071
0,202
0,938
0,527
0,914
0,716
0,392
0,035
0,673
0,746
0,510
0,059
Complexitate
Cognitiva
0,288
0,283
0,013
-0,134
-0,283
0,089
-0,236
-0,149
-0,094
-0,011
0,006
0,008
0,908
0,213
0,008
0,410
0,027
0,167
0,382
0,916
-0,027
-0,103
-0,116
-0,353
0,113
-0,058
-0,230
-0,230
-0,288
-0,033
0,802
0,341
0,280
0,001
0,297
0,594
0,031
0,031
0,006
0,758
-0,038
-0,044
-0,100
-0,164
-0,024
-0,199
-0,076
-0,148
-0,136
-0,009
0,724
0,681
0,354
0,127
0,828
0,062
0,481
0,169
0,207
0,937
-0,029
0,073
-0,134
-0,387
0,203
-0,099
-0,291
-0,227
-0,360
-0,054
0,791
0,499
0,212
0,000
0,058
0,359
0,006
0,033
0,001
0,620
Scale CPI
DO
CS
SY
SP
-0,065
0,079
-0,189
-0,328
0,123
-0,180
-0,196
-0,244
-0,193
-0,095
0,546
0,464
0,078
0,002
0,255
0,093
0,067
0,022
0,071
0,381
SA
0,020
-0,041
-0,120
-0,331
0,025
-0,106
-0,336
-0,225
-0,312
-0,234
0,857
0,707
0,266
0,002
0,821
0,324
0,001
0,035
0,003
0,029
IN
-0,090
0,006
-0,229
-0,332
0,136
-0,246
-0,137
-0,186
-0,201
0,007
0,407
0,954
0,032
0,002
0,205
0,021
0,203
0,082
0,061
0,948
EM
-0,070
0,074
-0,107
-0,150
0,092
-0,107
-0,102
-0,068
-0,134
-0,060
0,516
0,494
0,323
0,163
0,393
0,321
0,342
0,529
0,213
0,576
0,058
0,069
0,090
-0,094
-0,024
0,020
-0,030
-0,149
-0,043
0,213
0,594
0,522
0,407
0,383
0,824
0,856
0,782
0,166
0,691
0,047
RE
SO
0,066
-0,081
-0,079
-0,202
-0,109
-0,010
-0,064
-0,151
0,015
0,090
0,539
0,454
0,466
0,059
0,313
0,928
0,553
0,160
0,887
0,404
SC
0,237
0,001
0,115
0,157
-0,192
0,115
0,097
-0,011
0,026
0,062
0,026
0,991
0,285
0,143
0,074
0,285
0,369
0,922
0,811
0,564
GI
0,194
0,035
0,098
-0,096
-0,177
0,083
-0,129
-0,205
-0,120
0,103
0,070
0,749
0,362
0,373
0,098
0,443
0,231
0,056
0,267
0,339
-0,020
CM
WB
TO
0,048
0,223
0,046
0,123
0,213
0,026
-0,054
-0,106
0,116
0,659
0,037
0,673
0,253
0,046
0,813
0,618
0,325
0,281
0,850
0,147
0,080
-0,070
-0,172
-0,018
-0,030
-0,166
-0,187
-0,198
0,089
0,172
0,459
0,516
0,110
0,866
0,782
0,123
0,081
0,065
0,412
0,129
0,089
-0,042
-0,075
-0,055
-0,035
-0,091
-0,141
-0,164
-0,017
0,230
0,412
0,700
0,490
0,608
0,743
0,399
0,191
0,126
0,871
AC
0,107
-0,056
0,013
-0,171
-0,002
0,073
-0,144
-0,274
-0,122
0,121
0,323
0,605
0,907
0,112
0,983
0,499
0,182
0,010
0,257
0,261
AI
0,168
0,078
-0,024
0,048
0,008
0,213
0,108
0,132
-0,108
-0,143
0,118
0,472
0,824
0,660
0,941
0,047
0,316
0,222
0,318
0,184
0,004
0,039
-0,228
-0,232
0,127
0,038
-0,080
-0,163
-0,196
0,106
CF
84
Studii i Cercetri
Strategii de
decizional
Stil decizional
IS
FX
Raional
Intuitiv
Dependent
Spontan
Ezitant
Vigilen
control
al
stresului
Evitare
Amnare
Hipervigilen
Performana
0,973
0,716
0,033
0,030
0,238
0,724
0,460
0,130
0,067
0,325
0,026
0,052
-0,163
-0,153
-0,034
-0,014
-0,064
-0,159
-0,038
0,047
0,807
0,630
0,130
0,155
0,755
0,899
0,555
0,139
0,726
0,664
-0,140
0,021
-0,045
0,176
0,034
-0,019
0,206
0,256
0,100
0,036
0,193
0,844
0,679
0,101
0,753
0,859
0,054
0,016
0,354
0,736
SN
-0,257
0,088
0,080
0,161
0,085
0,070
0,181
0,168
0,051
0,311
0,016
0,417
0,460
0,133
0,430
0,516
0,091
0,118
0,636
0,003
MP
0,238
-0,108
-0,010
-0,190
-0,113
-0,076
-0,136
-0,131
-0,223
-0,042
0,026
0,318
0,927
0,077
0,296
0,482
0,205
0,225
0,037
0,699
WO
CT
LP
AMI
LEO
HOS
FF
0,100
-0,137
-0,094
-0,108
-0,275
-0,029
-0,049
-0,125
-0,133
0,038
0,356
0,204
0,384
0,314
0,010
0,789
0,652
0,248
0,216
0,724
-0,027
0,089
-0,107
0,015
0,195
-0,064
0,026
0,099
-0,045
-0,081
0,803
0,410
0,322
0,892
0,069
0,551
0,808
0,356
0,675
0,453
0,120
-0,023
-0,119
-0,423
0,007
0,271
-0,238
-0,307
-0,324
0,018
0,266
0,833
0,268
0,000
0,952
0,011
0,026
0,004
0,002
0,869
0,187
0,045
0,034
-0,077
-0,075
0,104
-0,092
-0,136
-0,139
0,114
0,081
0,675
0,753
0,477
0,485
0,336
0,395
0,206
0,196
0,289
0,039
-0,009
-0,047
-0,435
-0,036
0,014
-0,247
-0,263
-0,284
0,086
0,719
0,935
0,666
0,000
0,739
0,899
0,020
0,013
0,007
0,425
-0,018
0,016
0,074
0,179
0,062
0,076
0,168
0,108
0,271
-0,048
0,870
0,885
0,492
0,095
0,569
0,479
0,118
0,315
0,011
0,658
0,096
0,035
-0,081
-0,286
0,062
-0,093
-0,190
-0,256
-0,312
-0,086
0,374
0,749
0,452
0,007
0,569
0,387
0,076
0,016
0,003
0,425
85
Tabelul 4. Regresie ierarhic a variabilelor cognitive i de personalitate n raport cu stilul de decizie raional
Variabile
asul 1
asul 2
.018
.018
363**
302**
.012
.110
374*
340**
189*
111**
180**
136**
226**
Capacitate decizional
Complexitate cognitiv
Aptitudinile cognitive generale
Potenial managerial
Leadership
Orientare spre aplicarea legii
2
R ajustat
2
Schimbri ale R
Tabelul 5. Regresie ierarhic a variabilelor cognitive, dispoziionale i stil decizional raional n raport cu vigilena,
ca mecanism de control adaptativ al stresului
Variabile
asul 1
asul 2
asul 3
172*
192*
217**
243**
208*
098
Capacitate decizional
Complexitate cognitiv
86
Studii i Cercetri
Aptitudinile cognitive generale
025
012
061
527**
312**
194*
178*
385**
132
407**
058
179**
306**
Potenial managerial
Realizare prin independen
Leadership
Stil decizional raional
2
R ajustat
2
Schimbri ale R
095**
234**
359**
N= 88
*p < .05. ** p < .01.
Vd stil vigilent de control al stresului decizional
VI1 variabile cognitive
VI2 variabile cognitive+variabile de personalitate
VI3 - variabile cognitive+variabile de personalitate+stil decizional raional
87
Tabelul 6. Regresie ierarhic a variabilelor cognitive i dispoziionale, a stilului decizional raional i a vigilenei
asupra performanei decizionale
Variabile
asul 1
asul 2
asul 3
092
047
059
077
137
131
252*
167*
164*
528**
518**
743**
742**
575**
583**
440**
442**
053
.045
056*
222**
203
Capacitate decizional
Complexitate cognitiv
Aptitudinile cognitive generale
Dominana
Realizarea prin conformism
Eficien intelectual
Tolerana
Stil de decizie raional
Vigilena
2
R ajustat
2
Schimbri ale R
093*
446**
448
N = 88. * p < .05. ** p < .01.
VD- performana decizional
VI1 variabile cognitive
VI2 variabile cognitive+variabile de personalitate
VI3 - variabile cognitive+variabile de personalitate+stil decizional+stil de control al stresului
88
Studii i Cercetri
n
condiii
de
incertitudine,
competenele cognitive (descrise n termeni
comportamentali), alturi de factorii de
personalitate prezic cel mai bine eficiena i
performana organizaional decizional.
n condiii de stabilitate, legtura dintre
performana decizional i aceste competene
cognitive dispare. Astfel, n condiii de
activitate
curent,
aptitudinile
cognitive
generale
i-au demonstrat viabilitatea ca
predictori ai performanei decizionale.
Dimensiunile
de
personalitate
contribuie ns semnificativ la explicarea i
predicia performanei decizionale, n condiiile
n care au fost eliminate influenele
determinate de aptitudinile cognitive generale,
complexitatea
cognitiv
i
capacitatea
decizional. Adic, n condiiile n care vrem s
selectm o persoan pentru o funcie de
conducere, care s obin performane n
luarea deciziilor i avem mai muli candidai cu
nivele relativ egale ale nivelului intelectual
general, capacitate decizional i complexitate
cognitiv asemntoare, dar care difer n
privina trsturilor de personalitate, ace tia
vor avea performane decizionale diferite.
Rezumat
Acest studiu are ca scop evidenierea influenei
factorilor cognitivi i non-cognitivi asupra eficienei
decizionale, prin construirea i testarea unui model
teoretico-explicativ. Acest model reflect legtura
dintre
variabilele
cognitive,
variabilele
de
personalitate
i
performana
decizional.
Participanii la cercetare sunt 88 de manageri din
cadrul unei organizaii cu profil IT&C, cu vrsta
medie de 32.3 ani i o vechime medie n munc de
8.6 ani, ntre care 74,9% brbai i 25,1% femei.
Instrumentele utilizate includ Inventarul Psihologic
California (forma compus din 260 itemi), un
chestionar pentru evaluarea stilului decizional, un
chestionar de luare a deciziilor, Testul de capacitate
decizional (BTPAC), testul standard Raven, forma
Plus, un chestionar pentru evaluarea complexitii
cognitive i chestionarul Melbourne de luare a
deciziilor. Pentru a evalua performana decizional
a
fost
construit
o
scal
cu
ancore
comportamentale.
Evaluarea competenelor cognitive, definit n
termeni comportamentali ca performan n luarea
deciziilor, alturi de dimensiunile de personalitate,
ne ajut n selectarea managerilor cu o orientare
adaptativ
crescut
spre
schimbarea
organizaional i o performan decizional bun.
Cuvinte cheie: performan n luarea deciziilor,
complexitate cognitiv, schimbare organizaional
89
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Abstract
The main objective of this paper is to explore the relations between emotional regulation and
burnout among Romanian service employees, and to empirically validate the adequacy of
emotional regulation model (Gross, 1998) to the emotional work paradigm. We were interested to
clarify not only the relations among positive - negative affectivity of employees and their emotion
regulation strategies (attention deployment, cognitive change and response modulation), but also
the relations among these strategies and burnout. The empirical research was mainly based on
questionnaires developed based on the previous literature in the field, and also on the data
gathered directly from Romanian population. The results show that the positive affectivity of service
employees relates to certain emotion regulation strategies and prevent burnout. Moreover, certain
emotion regulation strategies also prevent burnout. In the end, some practical implications and
directions for future research are discussed.
Key words: emotion regulation, burnout, positive negative affectivity, service jobs
Rsum
L'objectif central de cet article est l'exploration des relations entre le rglage motionnel et
l'puisement professionnel au niveau des employs roumains qui travaillent dans le secteur
tertiaire; lexploration a t ralise par l'intermdiaire d'une vrification empirique de l'adquation
du modle propos par James Gross (1998) dans le contexte du travail motionnel. Notre intrt
rside autant dans la clarification des relations entre l'affectivit positive et ngative des employs
et le type de stratgie adopte lors du rglage motionnel (la direction de l'attention, le
changement cognitif ou la modulation des rponses), que dans l'identification des relations
existantes entre ces stratgies et des consquences telles que l'puisement professionnel. Notre
recherche s'appuie principalement sur la mthode du questionnaire, les chelles tant construites
en partant dans la mme mesure de la littrature de ce domaine et des informations cueillies
directement au niveau de la population roumaine. Les rsultats ainsi obtenus attestent que la
tendance des employs a ressentir des tats affectifs positifs s'associe avec certaines stratgies
de rglage motionnel et rduit l'puisement. En plus, certaines stratgies de rglage motionnel
prviennent l'apparition de l'puisement professionnel. En fin, on discute les possibles interventions
au niveau pratique, mais aussi les nouvelles directions de recherche.
Mots cls : rglage motionnel, puisement professionnel, affectivit positive et ngative, le
secteur tertiaire
90
Studii i Cercetri
Munca emoional
n ultimii ani, mai ales n organizaiile
care pun accent pe calitatea serviciilor,
angajailor li se cere ca atunci cnd
interacioneaz cu clienii s afi eze calm i
amabilitate, indiferent de problemele personale
sau de tensiunile profesionale ce apar. Prin
urmare, angajaii trebuie s i controleze ntro msur mai mare sau mai mic emoiile,
dispoziiile afective i sentimentele, pentru a
rspunde n mod adecvat solicitrilor
organizaionale. Nu ne propunem s
prezentm aici toate modelele muncii
emoionale (engl. emotional labour, emotion
work) existente n literatura de specialitate, ci
doar s trecem n revist trei dintre cele mai
importante.
Arlie Hochschild a fost primul
cercettor care a studiat n mod explicit
problematica controlului tririlor afective la
locului de munc, publicnd n 1983 rezultatele
i concluziile sale n ceea ce a devenit cea mai
citat lucrare asupra muncii emoionale: The
Managed Heart The Commercialization of
Human Feeling. Ea a fost cea care a propus
conceptul de munc emoional, definindu-l ca
fiind eforturile de auto-inducere sau autosuprimare a unor triri afective n scopul
meninerii unei nfi ri exterioare care s
produc altor persoane (n principal clienii) o
stare de spirit adecvat. Hochschild (1983) a
operat distincia dintre jocul de suprafa i
jocul profund. Cnd angajaii fac joc de
suprafa, ei ncearc s modifice doar
aspectele vizibile ale emoiilor (mimic,
gestic, postur, tonalitatea vocii) pentru a le
aduce
n
concordan
cu
regulile
organizaionale, n timp ce tririle afective
interne rmn neschimbate. Cnd vorbe te de
jocul profund activ, Hochschild (1983) se
refer la faptul c indivizii ncearc s- i
modifice tririle afective subiective pentru a
simi ceea ce se cere de la ei; n cadrul acestui
joc profund activ, indivizii trebuie s depun
efort pentru a- i regla propriile emoii. n alte
cazuri, angajaii pot simi automat emoia
cerut de politica organizaional este vorba
despre jocul profund pasiv.
Un alt model clasic al muncii
emoionale este cel propus de Kruml i
Geddes (2000). Ei susin c dimensiunile
definitorii ale muncii emoionale sunt disonana
emoional i efortul emoional. Disonana
emoional reprezint gradul n care tririle
afective ale angajailor se potrivesc expresiilor
emoionale afi ate; aceast dimensiune
plaseaz conceptele de joc de suprafa i joc
91
92
Studii i Cercetri
93
94
Studii i Cercetri
Tabelul 1. Date descriptive pentru scalele utilizate n acest studiu (medii, abateri standard, indici ai consistenei
interne, corelaii ntre scorurile scalelor)
Medie Abatere
Alpha
standard Cronbach
AP
3,96
0,69
AP
AN
Ineficacitate
0,86
AN
2,75
0,65
0,86
-0,19
Direcionarea
ateniei
2,54
0,40
0,70
0,24*
0,07
Schimbare
cognitiv
2,72
0,41
0,72
0,34**
-0,07
0,50**
Modularea
rspunsului
2,89
0,42
0,62
0,03
- 0,03
0,26**
0,31**
Oboseal
emoional
2,78
0,65
0,76
-0,43** 0,33**
-0,01
-0,34**
-0,17
Depersonalizare
2,66
0,64
0,73
-0,22*
0,18
0,02
0,09
0,10
-0,06
0,17
-0,12
-0,26**
-0,22*
0,65**
0,21*
-0,01
-0,30**
-0,28**
0,81**
0,60**
Ineficacitate
2,60
0,70
0,76
-0,49**
Epuizare
profesional
8,06
1,53
0,84
-0,45** 0,26**
0,82**
* p< 0,05
**P< 0,01
95
96
Studii i Cercetri
PASUL 1
Vrst
Sex
Studii
Instituie
Vechime
PASUL 2
Vrst
Sex
Studii
Instituie
Vechime
AP
AN
PASUL 3
Vrst
Sex
Studii
Instituie
Vechime
AP
AN
Direcionarea ateniei
Schimbare cognitiv
Modularea
rspunsului
* p< 0,05
**P< 0,01
R
0,02
0,24**
0,34**
R ajustat
-0,02
0,18**
0,26**
R
0,02
e.s. B
0,01
-0,02
0,26
0,07
0,01
0,03
0,47
0,17
0,14
0,04
0,04
-0,00
0,16
0,07
0,05
-0,01
-0,21
0,20
0,01
0,03
-0,85
0,49
0,02
0,42
0,15
0,12
0,03
0,22
0,24
-0,05
-0,04
0,13
0,01
0,15
-0,37**
0,21*
0,01
-0,09
0,17
0,09
0,01
-0,83
0,37
0,77
-0,60
-0,92
0,02
0,43
0,14
0,12
0,04
0,23
0,23
0,40
0,43
0,35
0,03
-0,02
0,11
0,08
0,08
-0,36**
0,15
0,20
-0,16
-0,26**
0,21**
0,09*
PASUL 1
Vrst
Sex
Studii
Instituie
Vechime
PASUL 2
Vrst
Sex
Studii
Instituie
Vechime
AP
AN
PASUL 3
Vrst
Sex
Studii
Instituie
Vechime
AP
AN
Direcionarea ateniei
Schimbare cognitiv
Modularea
rspunsului
* p< 0,05
**P< 0,01
R
0,21
0,57**
0,63**
R ajustat
-0,01
0,27**
0,33**
R
0,04
e.s. B
-0,00
0,12
0,12
0,02
0,01
0,01
0,20
0,07
0,06
0,01
-0,09
0,06
0,19
0,05
0,19
-0,01
-0,21
0,10
-0,01
0,02
-0,385
0,28
0,01
0,42
0,06
0,05
0,01
0,09
0,09
-0,17
-0,04
0,15
-0,02
0,29
-0,39**
0,28**
-0,01
0,11
0,08
0,01
0,02
-0,33
0,25
0,33
-0,44
-0,19
0,01
0,17
0,06
0,05
0,01
0,09
0,09
0,16
0,17
0,14
-0,08
0,05
0,12
0,03
0,23
-0,34**
0,25**
0,20*
-0,27*
-0,12
0,28**
0,07*
Studii i Cercetri
p=0,044).
PASUL 1
Vrst
Sex
Studii
Instituie
Vechime
PASUL 2
Vrst
Sex
Studii
Instituie
Vechime
AP
AN
PASUL 3
Vrst
Sex
Studii
Instituie
Vechime
AP
AN
Direcionarea ateniei
Schimbare cognitiv
Modularea
rspunsului
* p< 0,05
**P< 0,01
R
0,18
0,53
0,56
R ajustat
-0,02
0,22**
0,24**
R
0,03
e.s. B
0,01
0,02
0,08
0,01
-0,01
0,01
0,21
0,07
0,06
0,01
0,19
0,01
0,12
0,03
-0,06
0,01
-0,08
0,05
0,01
0,01
-0,49
0,12
0,01
0,19
0,06
0,05
0,01
0,10
0,11
0,06
-0,03
0,07
0,01
0,04
-0,47**
0,11
0,01
-0,01
0,05
0,03
0,01
-0,48
0,08
0,10
-0,08
-0,33
0,01
0,20
0,06
0,05
0,01
0,11
0,11
0,18
0,20
0,16
0,11
-0,01
0,07
0,06
0,01
-0,46**
0,07
0,06
-0,05*
-0,20*
0,24**
0,04
Modularea
rspunsului
2,77
2,97
-2,41
101
0,018
100
e antioane
independente.
Variabila
independent luat n considerare a fost tot
apartenena la tipul de organizaie (similar
ipotezei 2). Variabila dependent a fost
dimensiunea epuizrii profesionale care se
refer la oboseala emoional.
Rezultatele arat c nu apar diferene
semnificative la nivelul oboselii emoionale
(t(99)=0,58, p=0,65), de i ne a teptasem ca
angajaii din comer ce au contact direct cu
clienii s nregistreze scoruri mai ridicate (att
datorit cerinelor emoionale venite din partea
conducerii organizaiilor, ct i datorit unui
program mai prelungit de lucru). Lipsa
diferenelor ne sugereaz c la nivelul
instituiilor publice exist ali factori care
faciliteaz apariia epuizrii profesionale.
Rezultatele obinute n cursul verificrii
primelor dou ipoteze sunt concordante cu
aceste ultime rezultate. Anterior s-a evideniat
faptul c singurele diferene ntre mediul privat
(sector comercial) i cel public n ceea ce
prive te strategiile de reglare emoional se
regsesc la nivelul modulrii rspunsurilor
emoionale. Dar rezultatele obinute n cadrul
verificrii primei ipoteze arat c modularea
rspunsurilor emoionale nu reprezint un
predictor semnificativ al oboselii emoionale.
Diferene ntre cele dou sectoare de
activitate nu se regsesc nici la nivelul
depersonalizrii (t(101)=-0,58, p=0,631), nici la
nivelul ineficacitii profesionale (t(100)=1,02,
p=0,310), nici la nivelul scorului total al
epuizrii profesionale (t(98)=0,44, p=0,66).
Explicaia cea mai probabil este c cele dou
sectoare de activitate au stresori diferii, ce
ajung s aib aproximativ acela i impact la
nivelul epuizrii profesionale.
Discuii i concluzii
Persoanele ce au tendina de a resimi
mai frecvent emoii i dispoziii afective plcute
sunt i cele care i regleaz emoiile mai
frecvent prin schimbarea modului n care ele
neleg situaia i prin redirecionarea ateniei
de la situaiile problematice. n plus, nu au fost
regsite
legturi
semnificative
ntre
afectivitatea pozitiv i reglarea emoiilor prin
modularea rspunsurilor emoionale. Am putea
trage concluzia c persoanele care sunt de
obicei optimiste, vesele, bine-dispuse au
tendina de a- i regla emoiile la un nivel mai
profund. A decela ntre cauz i efect este
destul de dificil, deoarece ambele sensuri de
determinare cauzal sunt plauzibile. Pe de o
parte, afectivitatea pozitiv poate facilita
recadrarea
situaiilor
problematice
i
Studii i Cercetri
101
102
Adresa de coresponden:
mihaelapopa14@yahoo.com
103
Sistemul
LG-DS
nregistreaz
comportamentul
i
conduita
expresivemoional a conductorului autovehiculului pe
traseu urmrind dou axe: longitudinal i
lateral (Figura 2).
105
Rbert Balzsi
Universitatea Babe Bolyai, Cluj Napoca
12
106
M1
M2
A1
B1
A2
B2
M1
A1
X
Z
W
Y
B1
M2
A2
B2
X
Y
W
X
Z
Despre metod
Dincolo
de
problema
fluctuaiilor
de
e antionare n compararea statistic a
corelaiilor din matricea MTMM mai exist o
problem,
i anume nu toate corelaiile
comparate sunt independente, ceea ce impune
un tratament diferit (Hubert & Baker, 1978). n
consecin, analiza MTMM se poate rezuma
doar la compararea intuitiv a celor dou
valori.
Un alt aspect important l reprezint
impactul pe care l are valoarea coeficientului
de fidelitate asupra mrimii coeficienilor de
validilitate. n mod firesc aceasta va
distorsiona estimarea relaiilor dintre diferitele
msurtori i variana explicat de acestea n
factori, trstur i metod (Widaman, 1985).
Ceea ce este pus sub semnul ntrebrii este
msura n care putem trage concluzii
referitoare la factori lateni bazndu-ne direct
pe corelaiile observate ntre variabile
observate (Bollen & Lennox, 1991; Kenny &
Kashy, 1992).
Ca i rspuns la aceste neajunsuri sau dezvoltat dou direcii de cercetare
metodologic, cea care propune analiza de
varian ca i metod de analiz a datelor i
cea, care propune analiza factorial. Metoda
larg acceptat astzi este cea factorial,
aceast linie de cercetare oferind numeroase
modele statistice a cror eficien relativ este
ns i astzi intens discutat.
Primele modele factoriale utilizate sunt
cele exploratorii, ns dezvoltarea tehnologic
i apariia softurilor statistice perormante a dus
la o rspndire a modelelor confirmatorii.
Primul model factorial confirmator
utilizat este cel denumit complet n taxonomia
lui Widaman (1985). n figura 1 am prezentat
modul de specificare a acestui model lund o
situaie ipotetic n care avem 3 trsturi (A, B
i C) i 3 metode de evaluare (M1, M2 i M3).
Conform specificrii din figur, fiecare
variabil manifest este o rezultant a trei
factori lateni: trstur, metod i eroare.
Fiecare variabil ncarc pe o singur
trstur (de ex. A1 ncarc doar pe trstura
A) i variabilele aparinnd aceluia i construct
dar evaluate cu metode diferite ncarc pe un
singur factor (de ex. A1, A2 i A3 ncarc pe
A). La fel i pe latura metodei, fiecare variabil
ncarc pe o singur metod (de ex. A1
ncarc pe metoda M1) i diferitele trsturi
evaluate prin aceea i metod ncarc pe
acela i factor (de ex. A1, B1 i C1 ncarc pe
M1). Modelul specific existena unor corelaii
ntre factorii trstur (A, B i C), respectiv
factorii metod (M1, M2 i M3) dar nu specific
existena unor relaii ntre factorii metod i
107
A1
e2
B1
M1
e3
C1
e4
A2
e5
M2
B2
e6
C2
e7
A3
e8
B3
M3
A1
e9
e1
C3
A
108
B1
e2
C1
e3
A2
e4
B2
e5
C2
A3
e6
e7
B3
e8
C3
e9
Modelul
erorilor
corelate
evit
dificultile de ordin empiric ce caracterizau
modelul complet, ns principala problem a
acestui model este c nu ofer o estimare
direct a efectului metodei. Corelaiile
calculate ntre erorile de msurare (sau factorii
unici) pot fi explicate n diferite moduri, nu doar
prin efectul metodei (Scullen, 1999). Astfel,
aceasta
se
poate
datora:
tendinei
participantului de a fi de acord cu toate
Despre metod
AM1
A
AM2
M1
AM3
BM1
B
BM2
M2
BM3
CM1
A11
e1
A12
e2
A13
e3
A21
e4
A22
e5
A23
e6
A31
e7
A32
e8
A33
e9
B11
e10
B12
e11
B13
e12
B21
e13
B22
e14
B23
e15
B31
e16
B32
e17
B33
e18
C11
e19
C12
e20
C13
e21
C21
e22
C22
e23
C23
e24
C31
e25
C32
e26
C33
e27
C
CM2
M3
CM3
110
Bibliografie
Althauser, R. P., & Heberlein, T. A. (1970). A causal
assessment of validity and the multitraitmultimethod matrix. In E. Borgatta (Ed.),
Sociological methods (pp. 151-169). San
Francisco: Jossey- Bass.
Alwin, D. F. (1974). Approaches to the interpretation
of relationships in the multitrait-multimethod
matrix. In H. L. Costner (Ed.), Sociological
methodology 1973-1974 (pp. 79-105). San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Anderson, N. H. (2001). Empirical Direction in
Design and Analysis. Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, New Jersey.
Balazsi, R. (2006). Compararea statistic a
coeficienilor
de
corelaie.
Psihologia
Resurselor Umane, vol. IV, nr.2, p. 103.
Bollen, K. A. & Lennox, R. (1991). Conventional
Wisdom on Measurement: A Structural
Equation Perspective. Psychological Bulletin,
1991, Vol. 110, 2, 305-314.
Browne, M. W. (1984). The decomposition of
multitraitmultimethod matrices. British Journal
of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology,
37, 1-21.
Campbell, D. T, & Fiske, D. W (1959). Convergent
and discriminant validation by the multitraitmultimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin,
56, 81-105.
Cohen, J. & Cohen, P. (1983). Applied multiple
regression/correlation analysis for the
behavioral sciences. Lawrence Elrbaum
Associates, London.
Dawkins, R. (1976). The Selfish gene. Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
Embretson, S., S. & Hershberger, S., L. (1999). The
New Rules of Measurement What Every
Psychologist and Educator Should Know.
LAWRENCE
ERLBAUM
ASSOCIATES,
PUBLISHERS, New Jersey London.
Hubert, L. J., & Baker, F. B. (1978). Analyzing the
multitrait-multimethod matrix. Multivariate
Behavioral Research, 13, 163-179.
Kenny, D. A. (1979). Correlation and causality. New
York: Wiley.
Kenny, D.A. & Kashy, D.A. (1992). Analysis of the
Multitrait-Multimethod Matrix by Confirmatory
Factor Analysis. Psychological Bulletin 1992,
Vol. 112, 1,165-172
Marsh, H. W. (1989) Confirmatory Factor Analyses
of
Multitrait-Multimethod
Data:
Many
Problems and a Few Solutions. Applied
Psychological Measurement 1989; Vol. 13, 4,
335-361.
Marsh, H.W. & Bailey, M. (1991) Confirmatory
Factor Analyses of Multitrait-Multimethod
Data: A Comparison of Alternative Models.
Despre metod
111
Laureniu P. Maricuoiu
Universitatea de Vest din Timioara
Abstract
The present paper discusses the fundamental principles of meta-analysis, as a statistical method
for summarising results of correlational studies. We approach fundamental issues such as: the
finality of meta-analysis and the problems associated with study artefacts. The paper also contains
recommendations for: selecting the studies for meta-analysis, identifying the relevant information
within these studies, computing mean effect sizes, confidence intervals and heterogeneity indexes
of the mean effect size. Finally, we present indications for reporting meta-analysis results.
Key words: meta-analysis, correlations, statistical methods
Rsum
Cet article pressente les principes fondamentales du meta-analyse, un mthode statistique de
rassembler et de ranalyser les rsultats dtudes comparables qui ont utiliser la corrlation.
Larticle pressente problmes fondamentaux dans ltude meta-analytique : la finalit de cette type
dtude et les problmes associe avec les artefacts de la recherche sociale. Nous pressentons des
recommandations pour : la slection dtudes pour la meta-analyse, lidentification des information
relevante contenu dans les tudes analyse, la moyenne de calcul de la magnitude deffets, les
confiance intervalles et les indices l'htrognit des rsultats des tudes individuelles.
Finalement, on pressente les standards de rapporter les rsultats obtenus dans la meta-analyse.
Mots-cls: meta-analyse, corrlation, mthodes statistiques
Introducere
112
Despre metod
Tipuri de metaanaliz
Problema diferenelor dintre rezultatele
diferitelor studii a fost abordat n mod diferit
de-a lungul timpului. Schimdt i Hunter (2003,
p. 544) analizeaz retrospectiv aceste
abordri, mprindu-le n patru mari categorii:
metaanalize descriptive, metaanalize care
analizeaz
eroarea
de
e antionare,
metaanalize n care sunt eliminate influenele
artefactelor de cercetare i metaanalizele
psihometrice.
Metaanalize
pur
descriptive
se
limiteaz la cuantificarea mrimii efectului
pentru studii diferite i a variaiei acesteia.
Aceast perspectiv afirm c variaia mrimii
efectului este normal i poate fi explicat prin
calcularea corelaiilor dintre caracteristicile
studiilor i mrimea efectului nregistrat de
acestea. Un astfel de demers ridic ns mai
multe
probleme:
cum
nregistrm
caracteristicile studiilor, dac putem nregistra
aceste caracteristici pentru toate studiile i, nu
n ultimul rnd, ce se ntmpl dac aceste
caracteristici nu coreleaz cu mrimea
efectului. n plus, aceast abordare nu este
interesat
de
calcularea
indicelui
de
omogenitate despre care aminteam n
rndurile anterioare.
Metaanalizele care analizeaz eroarea
de e antionare pleac de la constatarea
faptului c cel mai important aspect care
produce variaia mrimii efectului este eroarea
de e antionare. Exist dou mari metode de
analiz a erorii de e antionare: metaanaliza
oaselor goale (bare-bones meta-analysis)
propus de Hunter i Schmidt (2004) i
metaanaliza axat pe testarea heterogenitii
studiilor (Rosenthal, Jhoyt, Ferrin, Miller &
Cohen, 2006; Rosenthal & DiMatteo 2001).
Diferena dintre aceste dou perspective
const n faptul c n metaanaliza oaselor
goale se calculeaz un coeficient de
omogenitate, pe cnd n cealalt variant se
calculeaz un coeficient de eterogenitate
(testul Q). Aceste dou abordri duc de obicei
la rezultate relativ similare.
Metaanaliza artefactelor analizeaz
att eroarea de e antionare ct i erorile de
msurare. Termenul de artefact de cercetare
este utilizat n literatura de specialitate pentru
a desemna acea caracteristic a studiului care
poate duce la influenarea rezultatelor obinute
(Hunter & Schmidt, 2004). Aceast categorie
de metaanalize reprezint o dezvoltare a
metaanalizei oaselor goale prin ajustarea
rezultatelor individuale ale studiilor n scopul
eliminrii influenelor artefactelor.
113
114
Despre metod
115
116
Despre metod
Culegerea
informaiilor
relevante
pentru metaanaliz se face n funcie de
obiectivele cercetrii i n funcie de design-ul
experimental al studiilor care sunt analizate
(studii corelaionale, studii experimentale etc.).
n aceast etap este important ca problema
ce se dore te a fi studiat s fie ct mai bine
delimitat din cele patru puncte de vedere
discutate anterior.
Fiecare studiu conine mai multe tipuri
de informaii, fiecare cu utilitatea ei n
demersul metaanalitic:
informaii de identificare a studiului;
informaii privind poteniale variabile
moderatoare ale mrimii efectului.;
informaii pentru calcularea mrimii
efectului.
Datele prezentate n tabelul 1 nu se
doresc a fi exhaustive sau obligatorii. n funcie
de specificul temei de cercetare lista de mai
sus poate fi completat.
n acela i timp, culegerea tuturor
acestor date nu garanteaz c toate vor fi utile
cercettorului deoarece este posibil ca relaia
studiat s fie una omogen, ceea ce exclude
analiza variabilelor moderatoare. Chiar i n
situaii de eterogenitate a rezultatelor, este
puin probabil ca toate aceste date s fie utile
n explicarea ei. Totu i, omiterea unei
informaii n momentul culegerii datelor poate
obliga cercettorul s reia toate articolele
pentru a introduce respectiva informaie.
Derularea metaanalizei. Metaanaliza
corelaiilor
Materialul de fa i propune
prezentarea principalelor principii de analiz a
omogenitii
studiilor
care
raporteaz
coeficieni de corelaie. n cazul studiilor care
apeleaz la analize statistice ce implic
comparaii, principiile sunt relativ acelea i dar
formulele de calcul sunt u or diferite.
n cadrul acestui articol vom folosi ca
exemplu un set de date reale culese din 31 de
articole de specialitate, care raporteaz 42 de
coeficieni de corelaie obinui n urma testrii
unor e antioane independente. Obiectivul
metaanalizei exemplificate este de a clarifica
relaia dintre scalele Extraversiune
i
Neuroticism din modelul Big Five.
117
Date necesare
-autor(i);
-titlu;
-jurnal;
-numr;
-pagina.
-volumul e antionului
(N)
-distribuia de gen
Caracteristici ale
e antionului
-media de vrst a
subiecilor;
-abaterea standard a
mediei de vrst;
-naionalitatea
subiecilor
-distribuia etnic a
subiecilor
-date specifice
domeniului de
cercetare
- probe utilizate
(autori, variant)
Caracteristici ale
variabilelor de
interes
(VI i VD)
Caracteristici ale
design-ului
experimental
Rezultate obinute
118
-indicatori descriptivi
(medie, abatere
standard, valoare
minim, valoare
maxim)
-consistena intern
-numrul de condiii
experimentale
-modul de formare a
condiiilor
experimentale
-numrul de subieci
din fiecare grup
experimental
-procedura
experimental
Utilitate
Aceste date sunt utile n pstrarea unei evidene a studiilor introduse n
metaanaliz. Ele sunt utile n verificarea datelor culese, scrierea
bibliografiei i n situaia n care obiectivele i ipotezele metaanalizei sunt
completate sau modificate.
N este o informaie central n calcularea indicatorilor de mrimea efectului
i n calcularea rezultatelor metaanalizei. n absena acestei informaii,
rezultatele studiului nu pot fi utilizate.
Cum o teorie nu poate fi valabil doar pentru brbai sau doar pentru femei,
este important ca pentru fiecare rezultat inclus n metaanaliz s tim
distribuia de gen a e antionului deoarece aceasta ar putea fi o important
variabil moderatoare.
Media i abaterea standard a vrstei subiecilor sunt dou variabile
importante deoarece ne permite identificarea i izolarea studiilor care au
utilizat e antioane omogene sau eterogene din punctul de vedere al vrstei
Apelul la rezultatele cercetrilor derulate n ri diferite poate duce la
formularea unor concluzii cu un grad ridicat de generalitate. De Leeuw i
Hox (2003) consider chiar c luarea n considerare a acestor aspecte
poate clarifica o serie de variaii interculturale ale efectului studiat.
Foarte multe dintre studii (n special cele realizate n Statele Unite) au
e antioane multi-etnice. Acest lucru poate influena variabile sensibile la
statutul de majoritate sau minoritate etnic i cercettorul trebuie s in
cont de acest aspect.
Pentru domeniul organizaional, poteniale variabile moderatoare sunt:
vechimea n munc, tipul de angajai (full-time sau part-time), specificul
activitii organizaiei (producie, servicii etc.);
nregistrarea acestor informaii d posibilitatea cercettorului s menin
constant variaia definiiilor operaionale a constructelor analizate, variaie
indus de utilizarea unor probe diferite.
Variabil discret/dihotomizare
Aleatoare/non-aleatoare
Test/retest
-alte caracteristici
Ex.: materiale folosite (texte, desene, grafice etc.), sarcini date subiecilor
(calcul numeric, completare formulare etc.).
-indicatori ai mrimii
efectului;
sau
-valoarea i gradele
de libertate ale
testelor statistice
folosite
Despre metod
medie
AS
Tip
vrsta
vrsta
subieci
%F
Antonioni (1998)
120
45.00
manageri
SUA
-.45
Antonioni (1998)
351
58.00
studeni
SUA
-.30
Avery (2003)
96
67.00
160
32.50
23.09
Naionalitate
Proba
Big Five
studeni
SUA
Goldberg 1992
.02
1.93
studeni
Pakistan
John et el 1991
-.27
855
12.00
18.61
.88
studeni
SUA
-.37
Becker (1999)
113
72.00
24.20
6.60
studeni
Germania
Andersen 1995
-.30
Becker (1999)
113
72.00
24.20
6.60
studeni
Germania
.17
Becker (1999)
113
72.00
24.20
6.60
studeni
Germania
Ostendorf 1990
-.42
Bernard et al (2002)
111
100.00
19.70
3.40
studeni
SUA
-.32
Bernard et al (2002)
79
19.70
3.40
studeni
SUA
-.39
292
74.30
19.68
2.77
studeni
SUA
-.39
181
14.00
42.60
7.67
studeni
SUA
Hogan 1990
.28
De Young et al (2002)
222
64.00
24.50
7.00
Canada
Goldberg 1992
-.07
De Young et al (2002)
245
69.00
21.00
3.10
studeni
Canada
-.37
De Young et al (2002)
245
69.00
21.00
3.10
studeni
Canada
Goldberg 1992
-.27
SUA
Goldberg 1992
-.35
SUA
-.33
UK
-.13
Dwight et al (1998)
437
67.00
21.37
4.49
studeni
Ebert et al (2002)
202
70.00
20.70
4.60
studeni
Gelade (2002)
82
35.00
33.70
9.50
angajai
316
40.00
studeni
SUA
Goldberg 1992
-.30
566
51.00
studeni
SUA
-.33
Kwapil (2002)
858
73.00
studeni
SUA
-.28
Belgia
Hofstee et al 1992
.02
SUA
Lounsbury et al
-.14
403
46.00
Lounsbury et al (2003)
646
53.00
Lounsbury et al (2003)
355
49.00
124
37.00
33.00
7.25
liceu
studeni
SUA
-.38
22.70
4.74
studeni
Vietnam
-.11
3.26
studeni
Germania
-.39
studeni
UK
-.34
studeni
SUA
-.25
Meyer (2002)
212
43.00
24.75
OBrien (1996)
270
63.00
21.00
97
34.00
21.02
Robins (2001)
270
59.00
18.00
studeni
SUA
-.37
Robins (2001)
270
59.00
22.00
studeni
SUA
-.37
Rose et al (2002)
96
50.00
19.30
studeni
SUA
-.11
-.45
4.79
Sadowsky et al (1997)
85
60.00
19.72
1.31
studeni
SUA
Shafer (2001)
374
63.00
20.00
2.70
studeni
SUA
Shafer 1999
-.30
106
86.00
34.70
studeni
SUA
-.22
126
9.00
42.00
SUA
-.40
198
52.00
20.00
1.30
studeni
China
Goldberg 1992
-.52
303
66.00
20.00
3.10
studeni
SUA
Goldberg 1992
-.63
Tsaousis (2001)
225
57.00
Tsaousis (2001)
561
64.90
26.80
4.35
Tsaousis (2001)
1054
61.00
19.90
4.32
400
51.00
883
69.10
75.10
angajai
7.10
angajai
Grecia
Tsaousis 1998
-.33
omeri
Grecia
Tsaousis 1998
-.33
studeni
Grecia
Tsaousis 1998
-.35
studeni
SUA
Goldberg 1992
-.31
SUA
-.39
btrni
119
120
m=
nota nr.credite
nr.credite
(Formula 1)
Despre metod
z mediu.observat =
[z (N 3)] = 0,3192
( N 3)
studiu
studiu
studiu
(Formula 2)
Odat calculat media ponderat a
mrimii efectului, se poate calcula valoarea
testului pentru a vedea dac diferenele
existente ntre mrimile efectului raportate de
studii (valori observate) i media calculat
(valoarea a teptat) sunt semnificative. n
literatura de specialitate, testul folosit pentru
evaluarea eterogenitii este notat cu Q
(Rosenthal i colab. 2006). Formula de calcul
este urmtoarea:
Q = [(N studiu 3) ( z studiu z mediu.observat ) ] = 299,87
(Formula 4)
(Formula 3)
Aflarea pragului de semnificaie a
testului de omogenitate se face cu ajutorul
tabelelor lui , la un grad de libertate egal cu
numrul de e antioane (notat n mod uzual cu
litera k) minus 1. n situaia noastr
Q(41)=299,87 are un prag de semnificaie mai
mic de .0001, ceea ce indic faptul c
diferenele
dintre
studiile
incluse
n
metaanaliz se datoreaz i altor factori n
afara erorii de e antionare.
Principala problem a acestui rezultat
este eterogenitatea mare a studiilor incluse n
metaanaliz, deoarece calcularea unui interval
de ncredere a mediei observate a efectelor
raportate este condiionat de omogenitatea
acestora.
Un
astfel
de
rezultat
impune
identificarea
variabilelor
moderatoare
(artefacte de cercetare) care duc la apariia
sistematic
a
unor
rezultate
diferite.
Principalele modaliti de identificare a acestor
artefacte i de evideniere a efectelor lor vor fi
ns obiectul unui articol viitor.
Metaanaliza oaselor goale*
Denumirea de metaanaliza a oaselor
goale (bare-bones meta-analysis Hunter &
Schmidt, 2004) provine de la ncercarea
acestui demers de a cuantifica i de a evalua
121
2
=
S total
[(r
] = 0,0197
rmediu.observat ) ( N studiu 3)
2
studiu
(N
studiu
3)
(Formula 5)
O valoare crescut a
2
S total
indicator
S 12 =
lui
S12 este
(1 rmediu .observat )
= 0,0055
N mediu 1
variana
datorat
erorii
de
2
1
S12
0,0055
=
= 0,2836
2
S total 0,0197
(Formula 7)
122
rmediu .observat .
2
rmin = rmediu.observat + 1,96 S total
S12 = 0.070
al lui
2
rmin = rmediu.observat 1,96 S total
S12 = 0.536
(Formula 6)
( S total )
Despre metod
Cutarea articolelor s-a realizat prin folosirea unor cuvinte cheie n baza
de date PsychInfo, ProQuest, Ebsco, Science Direct, PsychArticles,
JSTOR, ScienceDirect (folosind cuvinte cheie: workplace deviance,
counterproductive work behavior, organizational misbehavior,
interpersonal workplace deviance, organizational workplace deviance,
antisocial behavior at work, employee deviance). Au fost cutate n
special articolele care au folosit scala lui Bennett i Robinson (2000) sau
Robinson i Bennett (1995) i au fost luate n considerare doar articolele
care au folosit aceste scale sau scale care au la baz acest model
bidimensional al devianei organizaionale i interpersonale. De
asemenea, au fost identificate i lucrrile prezentate la diferite conferine
n domeniul psihologiei organizaionale. O alt modalitate de cutare a
articolelor a fost reprezentat de analiza bibliografiei metaanalizelor
anterioare.
Baze de date
internaionale i cuvinte
cheie folosite.
Alte metode de
identificare a
cercetrilor relevante.
123
r(obs)
SD(r.aj)
r(min)
r(max)
% er.esant.
E-N
12815
42
-0,3036
0,140
-0,536
-0,070
28,36%
Legend: N=numrul cumulat de subieci din toate studiile luate n considerare; k=numrul de studii luate n
considerare; r(obs)=media ponderat a coeficienilor de corelaie; SD(r.aj)=abaterea standard a lui r(aj);
r(min)=limita inferioar a intervalului de ncredere al coeficientului de corelaie (=.05); r(max)=limita superioar a
intervalului de ncredere al coeficientului de corelaie (=.05); %er.e ant.=procentul de varian observat care
poate fi atribuit erorilor de e antionare.
124
Despre metod
125
126
Despre metod
127
Nicolae Jurcu
Universitatea Tehnic din Cluj-Napoca
2
Marius Druga
Universitatea din Oradea
1 2
Introducere
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
Bibliografie
Bejat, M. (1972). Geneza psihologiei ca tiin
experimental n Romnia. Bucure ti: Editura
Didactic i Pedagogic.
Beniuc, M., Chircev, A., Pavelcu, V., & Ro ca, A.
(1981). Sinteze de psihologie contemporan.
Psihologia muncii industriale. Bucure ti:
Editura Republicii Socialiste Romnia.
Berar, I., Jurcu, N., & Pitariu, N. (2006). Profesorul
Alexandru
Ro ca
i
cercetarea
psihopedagogic departamental. n I. Berar
(coord.), Alexandru Ro ca (1906-1996):
omul, savantul, creatorul de coal (pp. 119132). Bucure ti: Editura Academiei Romne.
Bogathy, Z. (1975). ndreptarul psihologului
industrial. Bucure ti: Editura
tiinific i
Enciclopedic.
Burloiu, P. (1977). Managementul resurselor
umane. Bucure ti: Editura Lumina Lex.
Herseni, T. (coord.) (1969). Laboratorul uzinal.
Bucure ti: Editura tiinific.
Holban, I. (1970). Probleme de psihologia muncii.
Bucure ti: Editura tiinific.
Jurcu, N. (coord.) (2003). Psihologie inginereasc
(ed. a II-a). Cluj-Napoca: U.T. Pres.
Jurcu, N. (1980). Aptitudini profesionale. ClujNapoca: Editura Dacia.
Manolescu, A. (1988). Managementul resurselor
umane. Bucure ti: Editura RAI.
Petroman, P. (2002). Afirmarea psihologiei. Direcii
i orientri n cadrul psihologiei explicite.
Timi oara: Editura Eurostampa.
Pitariu, H. (1978). Psihologie industrial. Lecii.
Universitatea Babe -Bolyai Cluj-Napoca,
Facultatea de Istorie-Filosofie, uz intern.
Ralea, M., & Botez, C.I. (1958). Istoria psihologiei.
Bucure ti: Editura Academiei Republicii
Populare Romne.
Ro ca, A. (red.) (1967). Psihologia muncii
industriale. Bucure ti: Editura Academiei
Republicii Socialiste Romnia.
Ro ca, A., & Bejat, M. (1976). Istoria tiinelor n
Romnia. Psihologia. Bucure ti: Editura
Academiei.
***Jurnalul Naional, 30 ianuarie 2008.
***Jurnalul Naional, 5 februarie 2008.
http://www.cnsas.ro/Publicatii/memoriam.pdf.
135
delimiteaz
strategic
formele
ncrederii
organizaionale i explicitez diferite abordri
ale ncrederii n organizaii.
Stresul organizaional ocup un loc
aparte
i este abordat relaionat cu
comportamentul organizaional n capitolul al
cincilea Stres organizaional i comportament
organizaional. Astfel, sunt prezentate succint
tendinele actuale n studiul i managementul
stresului ocupaional: modele teoretice care
analizeaz relaia dintre stresul la locul de
munc i sntate, stresori ce rezult din
conflictul munc-familie, ageni inductori de
stres la locul de munc, msurarea stresului
ocupaional i managementul acestuia. n
continuare
este
explicitat
un
model
comprehensiv-integrativ de diagnoz
i
management al stresului ocupaional fiind
detaliate: premisele clasice pentru conturarea
modelelor stresului ocupaional, abordri
tradiionale ale stresului organizaionalocupaional, direcii de cercetare pentru
elaborarea unor modele comprehensive de
diagnoz i n final abordarea sistemic holist
de gestionare a stresului ocupaional: un
model comprehensiv de diagnoz i intervenie
al stresului ocupaional.
Ca o incursiune n
realitatea
necrutoare din viaa organizaiilor, sunt
abordate
detaliat:
mobbingul,
comportamentele
contraproductive
n
organizaii i vocea i tcerea organizaional.
O realitate considerat tabu n Romnia cu
ani n urm, haruirea i abuzul pe plan
intelectual i emoional este abordat sub
denumirea de mobbing. Autorul prezint
detaliat: conceptul de mobbing, manifestri ale
mobbingului, dinamica mobbingului, un model
de analiz a mobbingului, msuri de cercetare
a mobbingului i mobbingul n contextul
socioeconomic din Romnia.
Cel de-al aselea capitol Tendine n
cercetarea i dezvoltarea organizaional are
menirea de a dezvlui cititorilor aspecte
relevante ale utilizrii metodelor calitative i
cantitative n programele de intervenie
organizaional, simulrilor organizaionale,
eticii n mediul organizaional
i rolului
procesului de mentoring n dezvoltarea
carierei. Astfel, este evidenat necesitatea
diagnozei
i interveniei calitative n
organizaii, fiind aduse n prim plan
metodologia Q i hrile conceptuale ca
modaliti de identificare a reprezentrilor n
organizaii. Simulrile organizaionale joac un
rol primordial att n nvarea activ a
angajailor dar i n necesitatea implemetrii
136
137
138
CONFERINA INTERNAIONAL
WORK, WELL-BEING AND PERFORMANCE:
NEW PERSPECTIVES FOR THE MODERN WORKPLACE
18-20 iunie 2008, Sheffield, Anglia
139
1.
1.
2.
2.
Les manuscrits
manire claire.
3.
3.
4.
4.
La
longueur
des
tudes
thoriques,
exprimentales, dinvestigations appliques et des
mta-analyses sera de 25 pages maxim, crites
avec un interligne de 1, y compris les tableaux, les
figures et les rfrences bibliographiques. Les
commentaires et les interviews ne seront pas plus
longs que de 10 pages. Pour les critiques, la
longueur sera de 3-4 pages. La longueur des
articles prnant des MRU en practique ne peut
pas excder 10 pages.
5.
5.
textului se vor
i a anului de
Ro ca, 1963;
de la finalul
Pentru carte:
140
doivent
tre
labors
dune
Pour un livre:
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following conditions are a must in order that an article be published:
1.
Manuscripts should follow the publication standards existing in the Publication Manual of the American
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2.
3.
Articles must be sent to the newspaper office in two copies: one of the copy must be printed on A4
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email to the following address: office@apio.ro
4.
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pages, 1 line spaced (including tables, graphics and biographical references). Comments and interviews
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5.
Armenakis, A.A., & Bedeian A.G. (1992). The role of metaphors in organizational change.
Group and Organizational Management, 17, 242-248.
For a book:
Katzenbach, J.R. & Smith, A. (1993). The Wisdom of Teams. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.