Dr.

Karim Heinz Muci

ME-216 Introduction to Solid Mechanics

General State of Stress at a Point:

Principal Stresses and Principal Directions
Example
Problem
Given the following matrix of components of the stress tensor corresponding to a point in a
loaded mechanical component, find the principal stresses and the principal directions.

40 20 10
~
[ ] = 20 80 5 MPa
5
60
10

Solution

The problem statement provides the matrix of components of the stress tensor at a point in a
mechanical component:
x xy xz 40 20 10
~
[ ] = yx y yz = 20 80 5 Mpa
zx zy z 10
5
60

x = 40 MPa
y = 80 MPa

z = 60 MPa
xy = yx = 20 MPa
yz = zy = 5 MPa
zx = xz = 10 MPa
Step 1: Find the Stress Invariants

I1 = x + y + z

I1 = (40 MPa) + ( 80 MPa) + (60 MPa)

I1 = 20 MPa

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Dr. Karim Heinz Muci

ME-216 Introduction to Solid Mechanics

2
2
I 2 = x y + y z + z x xy
2yz zx
I 2 = (40 MPa)( 80 MPa) + ( 80 MPa)(60 MPa) + (60 MPa)(40 MPa)

( 20 MPa)2 (5 MPa)2 (10 MPa)2

I 2 = 6,125 MPa 2

2
2
I 3 = x y z + 2 xy yz zx x 2yz y zx
z xy

I 3 = ( 40 MPa)( 80 MPa)(60 MPa) + 2( 20 MPa) (5 MPa)(10 MPa)

( 40 MPa)(5 MPa) 2 ( 80 MPa) (10 MPa) 2 (60 MPa) ( 20 MPa) 2

I 3 = 211,000 MPa 3

Another option to find the value of I 3 is:

x xy xz
40 MPa 20 MPa 10 MPa
40 20 10
I 3 = yx y yz = 20 MPa 80 MPa 5 MPa = 20 80 5 MPa 3
10 MPa
5 MPa
60 MPa
10
5
60
zx zy z
Using the calculator to evaluate the determinant:
I 3 = 211,000 MPa 3

Thus, the stress invariants are given by:

I1 = 20 MPa
I 2 = 6,125 MPa 2
I3 = 211,000 MPa 3

Step 2: Find the Principal Stresses

Write the cubic equation to find the principal stresses:

3 I1 2 + I 2 I 3 = 0
3 (20 MPa ) 2 + (6,125 MPa 2 ) (211,000 MPa 3 ) = 0
3 (20 MPa ) 2 (6,125 MPa 2 ) + (211,000 MPa 3 ) = 0

Using the calculator, we obtain the three real roots of the cubic equation:
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Dr. Karim Heinz Muci

ME-216 Introduction to Solid Mechanics

= 39.331419 MPa , 64.213203 MPa , 83.544623 MPa

Arranging the values of the principal stresses according to the convention 1 2 3 :

1 = 64.213203 MPa
2 = 39.331419 MPa
3 = 83.544623 MPa

We can do a quick check to see if the values found are correct:

I1 = x + y + z = 1 + 2 + 3 = 20 MPa
1 + 2 + 3 = (64.213203 MPa) + (39.331419 MPa) + ( 83.544623 MPa)
1 + 2 + 3 = 19.999999 MPa = 20 MPa 9

Using Advanced Scientific Calculators to Find the Principal Stresses

Some advanced scientific calculators can find the eigenvalues of a matrix. Providing the
following matrix as input to a calculator

40 20 10
~
[ ] = 20 80 5 MPa
5
60
10

40 20 10
20 80 5

5
60
10

and using a built-in function to find the eigenvalues of a matrix, the following result was
obtained:
Eigenvalue s = 39.331419 , 64.213203, 83.544623

Thus, the principal stresses ( 1 2 3 ) are given by:

1 = 64.213203 MPa
2 = 39.331419 MPa
3 = 83.544623 MPa
Notes:
Unless stated otherwise, in a homework or exam problem you should not use built-in
functions on your calculator to find the eigenvalues of a matrix. However, you can

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Dr. Karim Heinz Muci

ME-216 Introduction to Solid Mechanics

always use them to check if the values that you obtained for the principal stresses are
correct.
In HP advanced scientific calculators (models HP48 and higher) the built-in function to
find the eigenvalues of a matrix is EGVL.
Check the manual of your calculator to see if it allows you to input a matrix and find its
eigenvalues.
When we use a calculator, we input values without units. Thus, we must keep track of the
units on our own.

Step 3: Find the Principal Directions

Since the three principal stresses are different ( 1 2 3 ), there are only three principal
directions that are mutually perpendicular to each other.

We proceed to find two of the principal directions and obtain the third one using one of the
following relations:
n1 = n2 n3
n2 = n3 n1
n3 = n1 n2
Remember that the unit vectors n1 , n2 , n3 corresponding to the principal directions must
form a right-handed system.

In what follows, first we will find n1 and n2 . Then, we will use the relationship n3 = n1 n2
to find n3 .

Finding the Principal Direction n1

n1 = n x1i + n y1 j + n z1k

We make use of the following equations to find n1

x 1
xy
xz n x1 0

y 1
yz n y1 = 0
yx
zx
zy
z 1 n z1 0

and

In expanded form, the above equations can be written as:

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n x21 + n 2y1 + n z21 = 1

Dr. Karim Heinz Muci

ME-216 Introduction to Solid Mechanics

( x 1 )n x1 + xy n y1 + xz n z1 = 0

yx n x1 + ( y 1 )n y1 + yz n z1 = 0
zx n x1 + zy n y1 + ( z 1 )n z1 = 0
n x21 + n 2y1 + n z21 = 1
Since the determinant of the matrix of coefficients is zero and the three principal stresses are
different ( 1 2 3 ), only two of the first three equations are independent (i.e., one of
the first three equations is redundant).

Substituting values:
20
10
n x1 0
40 64.213203

20
80 64.213203
5
MPa n y1 = 0

n 0
10
5
60 64.213203

z1

20
10
n x1 0
24.213203

20
144.213203
5
MPa n y1 = 0

n 0
10
5
4.213203

z1
20
10
24.213203
n x1 0

n = 0
20
144.213203
5

y1
4.213203 n z1 0
10
5

In expanded form, the above equations can be written as:

24.213203n x1 20 n y1 + 10 n z1 = 0
20 n x1 144.213203n y1 + 5 n z1 = 0
10 n x1 + 5 n y1 4.213203nz1 = 0
Remember that only two of these three equations are independent. The third equation
required to find the values of n x1 , n y1 , n z1 is:

n x21 + n 2y1 + n z21 = 1

which is a non-linear equation.

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Dr. Karim Heinz Muci

ME-216 Introduction to Solid Mechanics

To avoid having to solve a system of equations involving a non-linear equation, we follow

the procedure describe below. However, if you want, you can solve that system of equations
to find n x1 , n y1 , n z1 :
24.213203 n x1 20 n y1 + 10 n z1 = 0

20 n x1 144.213203 n y1 + 5 n z1 = 0 Choose two of these three equations

10 n x1 + 5 n y1 4.213203 n z1 = 0

n x21 + n 2y1 + n z21 = 1

Let:

r
N1 = N1n1 = N1 n x1i + n y1 j + n z1k = (N1n x1 )i + N1n y1 j + (N1n z1 ) k
r
N1 = N x1i + N y1 j + N z1k

Therefore:
r
N1 = N1 = N x21 + N 2y1 + N z21
N x1 = N1n x1 n x1 =

N y1 = N1n y1 n y1 =

r
Magnitude of N1

N x1
N1
N y1

N1
N
N z1 = N1n z1 n z1 = z1
N1

r
Note that, based on the above definitions, N1 is a vector parallel to the unit vector n1 .

Multiply the first equations of the system of equations by N1 :

N1( 24.213203n x1 20 n y1 + 10 n z1 ) = N1 (0) = 0

N1( 20 n x1 144.213203n y1 + 5 n z1 ) = N1(0) = 0
N1(10 n x1 + 5 n y1 4.213203nz1 ) = N1(0) = 0
24.213203 N x1 20 N y1 + 10 N z1 = 0
20 N x1 144.213203 N y1 + 5 N z1 = 0
10 N x1 + 5 N y1 4.213203 N z1 = 0

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Dr. Karim Heinz Muci

ME-216 Introduction to Solid Mechanics

We can write the above equations in matrix form as follows:

20
10
24.213203
N x1 0

N = 0
20
144.213203
5

y1
4.213203 N z1 0
10
5

Notice that the above expression corresponds to

x 1
xy
xz N x1 0

y 1
yz N y1 = 0
yx
zx
zy
z 1 N z1 0

r
Select an arbitrary value different than zero for one of the components of N1 and obtain the
other two using two of the three equations. In this step you must be careful. Inspect the
r
system of equations to make sure that you are not assigning a value to a component of N1
that can be obtained directly from one of the three equations.

Take N x1 = 1 and use two of three equations to find N y1 and N z1 :

24.213203(1) 20 N y1 + 10 N z1 = 0
20 (1) 144.213203 N y1 + 5 N z1 = 0
20 N y1 + 10 N z1 = 24.213203
144.213203 N y1 + 5 N z1 = 20
20
10 N y1 24.213203

144.213203 5 N =
20

z1
Solving for N y1 and N z1 (using the calculator) we obtain:

N y1 = 5.881238 102

N z1 = 2.303696

N x1 = 1 ,

N y1 = 5.881238 102 ,

N z1 = 2.303696

N1 = N x21 + N 2y1 + N z21 = (1) 2 + ( 5.881238 10 2 ) 2 + ( 2.303696) 2 = 2.512066

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Dr. Karim Heinz Muci

n x1 =

N x1
1
=
= 0.398079
N1 2.512066

n y1 =

N y1

N1
N
n z1 = z1
N1

ME-216 Introduction to Solid Mechanics

5.881238 102
=
= 0.023412
2.512066
2.303696
=
= 0.917052
2.512066

n x 1 = 0 . 398079

nz1 = 0.917052

n y1 = 0.023412 ,

n1 = n x1i + n y1 j + n z1k

n1 = 0.398079 i 0.023412 j + 0.917052 k

In the above result, we added the to the solution that we found for n1 because the nonlinear equation (which is quadratic) admits two solutions (one positive and one negative). Notice
that the two possible solutions for n1 are 180 o apart, that is, they correspond to the same
direction but opposite sense.

Finding the Principal Direction n2

n2 = n x 2i + n y 2 j + n z 2 k

We make use of the following equations to find n2

x 2
xy
xz n x 2 0

y 2
yz n y 2 = 0
yx
zx
zy
z 2 n z 2 0

and

In expanded form, the above equations can be written as:

( x 2 )n x 2 + xy n y 2 + xz n z 2 = 0

yx n x 2 + ( y 2 )n y 2 + yz n z 2 = 0
zx n x 2 + zy n y 2 + ( z 2 )nz 2 = 0
n x22 + n 2y 2 + n z22 = 1

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n x22 + n 2y 2 + n z22 = 1

Dr. Karim Heinz Muci

ME-216 Introduction to Solid Mechanics

Since the determinant of the matrix of coefficients is zero and the three principal stresses are
different ( 1 2 3 ), only two of the first three equations are independent (i.e., one of
the first three equations is redundant).

Substituting values:
20
10
n x 2 0
40 39.331419

20
80 39.331419
5
MPa n y 2 = 0

n 0
10
5
60 39.331419

z2

20
10
n x 2 0
0.668581

20

119.331419
5
MPa n y 2 = 0

n 0
5
20.668581
10
z2
20
10
0.668581
n x 2 0
20
n = 0
119.331419
5

y2
5
20.668581 n z 2 0
10

In expanded form, the above equations can be written as:

0.668581n x 2 20 n y 2 + 10 n z 2 = 0
20 n x 2 119.331419 n y 2 + 5 n z 2 = 0
10 n x 2 + 5 n y 2 + 20.668581n z 2 = 0
Remember that only two of these three equations are independent. The third equation
required to find the values of n x 2 , n y 2 , n z 2 is

n x22 + n 2y 2 + n z22 = 1
which is a non-linear equation.

To avoid having to solve a system of equations involving a non-linear equation, we follow

the procedure describe below. However, if you want, you can solve that system of equations
to find n x 2 , n y 2 , n z 2 :
0.668581 n x 2 20 n y 2 + 10 n z 2 = 0

20 n x 2 119.331419 n y 2 + 5 n z 2 = 0 Choose two of these three equations

10 n x 2 + 5 n y 2 + 20.668581 n z 2 = 0

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Dr. Karim Heinz Muci

ME-216 Introduction to Solid Mechanics

n x22 + n 2y 2 + n z22 = 1

Let:

r
N 2 = N 2 n2 = N 2 n x 2i + n y 2 j + n z 2 k = (N 2 n x 2 )i + N 2 n y 2 j + (N 2 n z 2 ) k
r
N 2 = N x 2i + N y 2 j + N z 2 k

Therefore:
r
N 2 = N 2 = N x22 + N 2y 2 + N z22
N x2 = N 2n x2

nx2 =

N y 2 = N 2n y 2

n y2 =

N z 2 = N 2n z 2

r
Magnitude of N 2

N x2
N2
N y2

N2
N
nz 2 = z 2
N2

r
Note that, based on the above definitions, N 2 is a vector parallel to the unit vector n2 .

Multiply the first equations of the system of equations by N 2 :

N 2 (0.668581n x 2 20 n y 2 + 10 n z 2 ) = N 2 (0) = 0
N 2 ( 20 n x 2 119.331419 n y 2 + 5 n z 2 ) = N 2 (0) = 0
N 2 (10 n x 2 + 5 n y 2 + 20.668581nz 2 ) = N 2 (0)
0.668581 N x 2 20 N y 2 + 10 N z 2 = 0
20 N x 2 119.331419 N y 2 + 5 N z 2 = 0
10 N x 2 + 5 N y 2 + 20.668581 N z 2 = 0
We can write the above equations in matrix form as follows:
20
10
0.668581
N x 2 0
20
N = 0
119.331419
5

y2
5
20.668581 N z 2 0
10
Notice that the above expression corresponds to

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Dr. Karim Heinz Muci

ME-216 Introduction to Solid Mechanics

x 2
xy
xz N x 2 0

y 2
yz N y 2 = 0
yx
zx
zy
z 2 N z 2 0

r
Select an arbitrary value different than zero for one of the components of N 2 and obtain the
other two using two of the three equations. In this step you must be careful. Inspect the
r
system of equations to make sure that you are not assigning a value to a component of N 2
that can be obtained directly from one of the three equations.

Take N x 2 = 1 and use two of three equations to find N y 2 and N z 2 :

0.668581(1) 20 N y 2 + 10 N z 2 = 0
20 (1) 119.331419 N y 2 + 5 N z 2 = 0
20 N y 2 + 10 N z 2 = 0.668581
119.331419 N y 2 + 5 N z 2 = 20
20
10 N y 2 0.668581

119.331419 5 N =
20

z2
Solving for N y 2 and N z 2 (using the calculator) we obtain:

N y 2 = 0.185988

N z 2 = 0.438833

N x2 = 1,

N y 2 = 0.185988 ,

N z 2 = 0.438833

N 2 = N x22 + N 2y 2 + N z22 = (1) 2 + ( 0.185988) 2 + ( 0.438833) 2 = 1.107775

N x2
1
=
= 0.902710
N 2 1.107775
N y 2 0.185988
n y2 =
=
= 0.167893
1.107775
N2
N
0.438833
nz 2 = z 2 =
= 0.396139
N2
1.107775
nx2 =

n x 2 = 0.902710 ,

n y 2 = 0.167893 ,

nz 2 = 0.396139

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Dr. Karim Heinz Muci

ME-216 Introduction to Solid Mechanics

n2 = n x 2i + n y 2 j + n z 2 k

n2 = 0.902710 i 0.167893 j 0.396139 k

In the above result, we added the to the solution that we found for n2 because the nonlinear equation (which is quadratic) admits two solutions (one positive and one negative). Notice
that the two possible solutions for n2 are 180 o apart, that is, they correspond to the same
direction but opposite sense.

Finding the Principal Direction n3

n3 = n x 3i + n y 3 j + n z 3k

Although we can use the following equations to find n3

x 3
xy
xz n x 3 0

y 3
yz n y 3 = 0
yx
zx
zy
z 3 n z 3 0

and

n x23 + n 2y 3 + nz23 = 1

we will determine the unit vector n3 using the following expression:

n3 = n1 n2

It is important to note that if we decide to find n3 following the same procedure that was
employed to determine n1 and n2 , if necessary we need to adjust the sense of n3 to make
sure that n3 = n1 n2 .

n3 = n1 n2

)(

n3 = n x1i + n y1 j + n z1k n x 2i + n y 2 j + n z 2 k

n3 = n x1n x 2i i + n x1n y 2i j + n x1n z 2i k +

n y1n x 2 j i + n y1n y 2 j j + n y1n z 2 j k +
n z1n x 2k i + n z1n y 2k j + n z1n z 2k k

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Dr. Karim Heinz Muci

ME-216 Introduction to Solid Mechanics

n3 = n x1n y 2 k n x1n z 2 j n y1n x 2k + n y1n z 2i + n z1n x 2 j n z1n y 2i

n3 = ( n y1n z 2 n z1n y 2 ) i + ( n z1n x 2 n x1n z 2 ) j + ( n x1n y 2 n y1n x 2 ) k

Thus:
n x 3 = n y1n z 2 n z1n y 2
n y 3 = n z1n x 2 n x1n z 2

Formulas to find the components of n3

n z 3 = n x1n y 2 n y1n x 2
Another approach to perform the cross product is using determinants:
i

n3 = n1 n2 = nx1

n y1

n z1 = i

nx 2

ny2

nz 2

n y1

n z1

ny2

nz 2

nx1

n z1

nx 2

nz 2

+ k

n x1

n y1

nx 2

ny2

n3 = ( n y1n z 2 n z1n y 2 ) i + ( n z1n x 2 n x1n z 2 ) j + ( n x1n y 2 n y1n x 2 ) k

n1 = n x1i + n y1 j + n z1k = 0.398079 i 0.023412 j + 0.917052 k

n2 = n x 2i + n y 2 j + n z 2 k = 0.902710 i 0.167893 j 0.396139 k

We will use the values corresponding to the + solution for n1 and n2 in order to find the
components of n3 . Then we will apply to the solution for obtained for n3 .

n x 3 = n y1n z 2 n z1n y 2 = ( 0.023412)( 0.396139) (0.917052)( 0.167893) = 0.163241

n y 3 = n z1n x 2 n x1n z 2 = (0.917052)(0.902710) (0.398079)( 0.396139) = 0.985527
n z 3 = n x1n y 2 n y1n x 2 = (0.398079)( 0.167893) ( 0.023412)(0.902710) = 0.045700
n3 = n x 3i + n y 3 j + n z 3k

n3 = 0.163241i + 0.985527 j 0.045700 k

Answer to the Problem

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Dr. Karim Heinz Muci

ME-216 Introduction to Solid Mechanics

The principal stresses and the principal directions corresponding to:

40 20 10
~
[ ] = 20 80 5 MPa
5
60
10
are:

1 = 64.213203 MPa

n1 = 0.398079 i 0.023412 j + 0.917052 k

2 = 39.331419 MPa

n2 = 0.902710 i 0.167893 j 0.396139 k

3 = 83.544623 MPa

n3 = 0.163241i + 0.985527 j 0.045700 k

Additional Information Useful for Solving This Type of Problems

Using Advanced Scientific Calculators to Find the Principal Directions

Some advanced scientific calculators can find the eigenvectors of a matrix. In this regard, the
following points must be kept in mind.

Usually the eigenvectors provided by the calculator are not unit vectors. Thus, the calculator
r r r
provides N1 , N 2 , N 3 instead of n1 , n2 , n3 . However, we can easily find n1 , n2 , n3 as
follows:
r
N1 N x1 N y1 N z1
n1 =
i+
=
j+
k
N1 N1
N1
N1

where

N1 = N x21 + N 2y1 + N z21

r
N2 N x2 N y2 N z2
n2 =
i+
=
j+
k
N2
N2
N2
N2

where

N 2 = N x22 + N 2y 2 + N z22

r
N3 N x3 N y3 N z3
n3 =
i+
=
j+
k
N3
N3
N3
N3

where

N 3 = N x23 + N 2y 3 + N z23

In general, the calculator will not provide the eigenvectors is the correct order. Thus, you
r
need to make sure that you select for N1 the eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue

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Dr. Karim Heinz Muci

ME-216 Introduction to Solid Mechanics

1 , for N 2 the eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue 2 , and for N 3 the eigenvector
corresponding to the eigenvalue 3 .
The calculators typically provide only one of the two possible solutions for n1 , n2 , n3 . If that
is the case, we write:

N y1
N
j + N z1 k
n1 = x1 i +
N1
N1
N1
N y2
N
j + N z 2 k
n2 = x 2 i +
N2
N 2
N2
N y3
N
j + N z 3 k
n3 = x 3 i +
N3
N 3
N3
If necessary, you must adjust the sense of n3 so that n3 = n1 n2 (i.e., such that n1 , n2 , n3
form a right-handed system of unit vectors).
r r r
It must be pointed out that the vectors N1 , N 2 , N 3 provided by the calculator may be
different than the ones that we find doing the calculations by hand: Their direction is the
same but their magnitude and/or sense may be different.

Providing the following matrix as input to a calculator

40 20 10
[~] = 20 80 5 MPa
5
60
10

40 20 10
20 80 5

5
60
10

and using a built-in function to find the eigenvectors of a matrix, the results presented in
the following table were obtained:

Eigenvalue
Nx

1
64.213203
0.434085

Ny

Nz

Eigenvectors
2
39.331419
1

3
83.544623
0.165638

2.552958 10 2

0.185988

0.438833

4.637152 102

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Dr. Karim Heinz Muci

ME-216 Introduction to Solid Mechanics

Based on those results and the formulas presented at the beginning of this section, the values
shown in the following table were obtained:

N
nx

1
1.090450
0.398079

Principal Directions
2
1.107775
0.902710

3
1.014685
0.163241

ny

0.023412

0.167893

0.985528

nz

0.917053

0.396139

0.045700

Therefore:

n1 = 0.398079 i 0.023412 j + 0.917053 k

n2 = 0.902710 i 0.167893 j 0.396139 k

n3 = 0.163241i + 0.985528 j 0.045700 k

Checking to see if the sense of n3 is correct:

)(

n1 n 2 = 0.398079 i 0.023412 j + 0.917053 k 0.902710 i 0.167893 j 0.396139 k

n1 n2 = 0.163241 i + 0.985528 j 0.045700 k

n3 = n1 n2 9
Note:

If n1 n2 is equal to n3 instead of n3 , we simply multiply the result that was

initially obtained for n3 by 1 (i.e., we change the by m ).

Notes:
Unless stated otherwise, in a homework or exam problem you should not use built-in
functions on your calculator to find the eigenvectors of a matrix. However, you can
always use them to check if the values that you obtained for the principal directions are
correct.
In HP advanced scientific calculators (models HP48 and higher) the built-in function to
find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a matrix is EGV.
Check the manual of your calculator to see if it allows you to input a matrix and find its
eigenvalues and eigenvectors.

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Dr. Karim Heinz Muci

ME-216 Introduction to Solid Mechanics

When we use a calculator, we input values without units. Thus, we must keep track of the
units on our own. For the case of the eigenvectors we dont need to worry about the units
but for the case of the eigenvalues we do.

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