Semester III

AR-245
CLIMATOLOGY

WEATHER:
Weather is the momentary state of the atmospheric environment, such as
temperature, humidity, wind, light, rainfall, etc., at a certain location.
CLIMATE:
Climate is integration in time of the physical states of the atmospheric
environment, characteristic of a certain geographical location.
Climate can be defined as the average weather condition for not less than 30 years
of certain geographical location.
GLOBAL CLIMATIC FACTORS:
1. Solar Radiation
2. Tilt of the Earth's axis
3. Radiation at the Earth's surface
4. The Earth's Thermal balance
5. Winds: Thermal forces
6. Trade-winds: the Coriolis force
7. Mid-latitude Westerlies
8. Polar Winds
9. Annual Wind shifts
10.
Influence of Topography

1. Solar radiation: quality:

The earth receives almost all its energy from the sun in the form of radiation, thus
the sun is the dominating influence on climates.
The spectrum of solar radiation extends from 290 to 2300 nm (nanometre = 109
m). According to human means of perception we can distinguish:
o Ultra-violet radiation, 290 to 380 nm, producing photo-chemical effects,
bleaching, sunburn, etc.
o Visible light, 380 (violet) to 700 nm (red).
o Short infra-red radiation, 700 to 2300 nm, radiant heat with some photochemical effects.

Solar radiation: quantity:

The intensity of radiation reaching the upper surface of the atmosphere is taken as
the solar constant: 1395 Watt/sqm but it may actually vary 2% due to variations in
the output of the sun itself and it varies 35% due to changes in the earth-sun
distance.

The earth moves around the sun in a slightly elliptical orbit. One revolution is
completed in 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46 seconds. This orbit results from
the gravitational pull of the sun and the centrifugal force due to the earth's inertial
and momentum. At aphelion the solar distance is 152 million km and at perihelion

it is 147 million km.

2. Tilt of the Earth's axis:

The earth rotates around its own axis, each rotation making one 24- hour day. The
axis of this rotation (the line joining the North and South Poles) is tilted to the
plane of the elliptical orbit, at an angle of 665 (i.e. a tilt of 235 from the
normal) and the direction of this axis is constant.
Maximum intensity is received on a plane normal 'to the direction of radiation.
If the axis of earth were rectangular to the plane of the orbit, it would always be the
equatorial regions which are normal to the direction of solar radiation. Due to the
tilted position, however, the area receiving the maximum intensity moves north
and south, between the tropic of Cancer (latitude 235N.) and the tropic of
Capricorn (latitude 235S.). This is the main cause of seasonal changes.
On 21 June areas along latitude 235N are normal to the sun's rays, the sun's
apparent path goes through the zenith at this latitude, and the longest daylight
period is experienced. At the same time latitude 235S experiences the shortest
day and a radiation minimum.
On 21 March and 23 September areas along the Equator are normal to the sun's
rays and experience a zenith path of the sun. For all areas of the earth these are the
equinox days (day and night of equal length).

Figure 1 clearly explains this relationship.

Fig. 1: Earth Sun Relationship

3. Radiation at the Earths Surface:

This earth-sun relationship affects the amount of radiation received at a particular point
on the earth's surface three ways:
The cosine law, which states that the intensity on a tilted surface equals the normal
intensity times the cosine of the angle of incidence. Figure 2 shows how the same amount
of radiation is distributed over a larger area, therefore less radiation falls on unit area.
1.

Cos = B/C
Area C > Area B
Intensity C < Intensity B
Ic = IB x Cos
Fig 2:

The Angle of Incidence

2. Atmospheric depletion, i.e. the absorption of radiation by ozone, vapours and dust
particles in the atmosphere (a factor of 02 to 0'7). The lower the solar altitude angle, the
longer the path of radiation through the atmosphere, thus a smaller part reaches the earth's
surface. Figure 3 indicates this geometrical relationship and Figure 4 shows this effect in
quantitative terms for points at different heights above sea-level. This atmospheric
depletion is also affected by the momentary state of the atmosphere: its purity, vapour, dust,
smoke, etc., content.

AB>CD
Fig 3:

Length of Path through Atmosphere

3. Duration of sunshine, i.e. the length of the daylight period.

4. The Earth's Thermal balance

The total amount of heat absorbed by the earth each year is balanced by a corresponding heat loss. Without this cooling the thermal balance of the earth could not be
maintained, the temperature of the earth and its atmosphere would increase and
would soon cease to be favourable to most forms of life.
Figure 5 illustrates the distribution of incoming radiation and Figure 6 shows how
the earth's surface releases heat by three processes:
by long-wave radiation to cold outer space (some 84% of this re-radiation is
absorbed in the atmosphere, only 16% escapes to space)
by evaporation: the earth's surface is cooled, as liquid water changes into
vapour and mixes with air
by convection: air heated by contact with the warm earth surface becomes
lighter and rises to the upper atmosphere, where it dissipates its heat to space

5. Winds: Thermal forces:

Winds are basically convection currents in the atmosphere, tending to even out the
differential heating of various zones, (It has been calculated that if the
atmosphere were still, the average temperature at the Equator would be 33C
in lieu of 27C and at the North Pole it would be - 40C instead of -17C as it
is now). The pattern of movements is modified by the earth's rotation.
At the maximum heating zone (which is somewhere between the tropics of Cancer
and Capricorn) air is heated by the hot surface, it expands, its pressure is decreased it
becomes lighter, it rises vertically and flows off at a high level towards colder
regions. Part of this air, having cooled down at the high level, descends to the surface
in the sub-tropic regions, from where the cooler, heavier air is drawn in towards the
Equator from both north and south.
The area where the air rises, where these northerly and southerly winds meet, where
the tropical front is formed, is referred to as the inter-tropical convergence zone
(ITCZ). This area experiences either completely calm conditions or only very light
breezes of irregular directions and is referred to by sailors as 'doldrums'.
The global pattern of thermal air movements is shown in Figure 7. The
following explanation also relates to Figure 7.
6.

Trade-winds: the Coriolis force:

The atmosphere rotates with the earth. As it is light in weight and behaves as
fluid, held against the earth's surface only by gravity and friction, it has a
tendency to lag behind the earth's rate of rotation where this rotation is the
fastest, i.e. at the Equator. There is a 'slippage' at the boundary layer between the
earth and its atmosphere caused by what is known as the 'Coriolis force'. The
effect is experienced as a wind blowing in a direction opposite to that of the
earth's rotation.
The actual wind is the resultant of thermal forces and the Coriolis force (Figure

8): north-easterly winds north of the Equator and south-easterlies south of the
Equator. These are known as North East and South East trade-winds, a term
originated by round the world traders in the days of sailing-ships.

The Coriolis force

Fig 8:

Wind parallelogram

7. Mid-latitude Westerlies:

Around 300N and S there are two bands of continually high barometric pressure
(descending air). Winds in these zones are typically light and variable. Between 30
and 600N and S, however, strong westerly winds prevail, blowing in the same
direction as the earth's rotation.
The origin of these winds was for a long time in dispute, but it is now generally
agreed that the mid-latitude westerlies can best be explained by the law of conservation of angular momentum: The total angular momentum of the earthatmosphere system must remain constant. If it is reduced at the Equator by easterly
winds, this must be compensated for by westerly winds elsewhere. If the air is
moving from about 30 where it has a substantial circumferential velocity, towards
60 where the earth's radius of rotation, thus its circumferential velocity is much
less, the faster rotating air will 'overtake' the earth's surface.

8. Polar Winds:

Further towards the poles from latitudes 60N and S the air flow patterns come once
more under the influence of thermal factors. The pattern is similar to that near the
Equator. Air at the surface moves from the coldest to the slightly warmer regions,
i.e. away from the poles. As the circumferential velocity of air at the poles is almost
nil, the air will lag behind the rotating earth as it moves away from the poles. The
northerly is deflected into north-easterly and the southerly (near the South Pole)
into south-easterly polar winds.

'Since the direction of the rotation of the earth is from west to east all easterly
winds have a braking effect on the earth's surface, whereas all westerly winds
have an accelerating effect. But the law of conservation of angular momentum
requires that the sum of angular momentum in the system "earth + atmosphere"

9.

remains constant. In the easterly wind regions surface friction does indeed
transfer westerly angular momentum from the earth to the atmosphere, whereas in
westerly wind regions the opposite occurs, and the more rapidly rotating
atmosphere transfers angular momentum to the earth. This is possible only when
the atmosphere transfers angular momentum from the tropics and also to a much
smaller extant from the polar caps to the middle latitudes.'
At the meeting point of cold polar winds and the mid-latitude Westerlies, a band of
low pressure - a sub-polar front - is formed, with highly variable and strong
winds.
Annual Wind shifts:

During the course of each year the global wind pattern shifts from north to south
and back again, remaining broadly symmetrical about the inter-tropical
convergence zone. The location of the ITCZ follows the maximum solar heating,
i.e. the zenith path of the sun, with a delay of about a month. Figure 9 gives the
extreme north and south positions of the ITCZ in July (north) and in January
(south).
As a consequence of this annual shift most regions of the earth experience seasonal
changes not only in temperature but also in wind directions and in rainfall (as a
result of air movements which carry water vapour).
10.

Influence of Topography:
On a continental scale, wind and weather are the result of an interaction between
broad global flow patterns and regional pressure and temperature patterns created
by the sun's differential heating effect on land, forest and water.
The force, direction and moisture content of air flows are strongly influenced by
topography. Air can be diverted or funneled by mountain ranges. Air flow
deflected upwards, as it cools, releases its moisture content. A descending air mass
will very rarely give any precipitation, therefore rainfall characteristics vary
sharply between locations on windward and leeward slopes of mountain ranges.
The humidity of air will vary with the rate of evaporation of moisture from the
surface below, i.e. it depends on the availability of water to be evaporated.
Air movements can be generated on quite a small scale, e.g. between a lake and its
shores, between a quarry and a nearby forest, between a town and the surrounding
countryside or even between the sunny and shaded sides of a large building.

Elements of Climates:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Temperature: Measurement & Data

Humidity: Measurement & Data
Vapour pressure
Precipitation
Driving Rain
Sky conditions

7.
Solar radiation: Measurement & data
8.
Wind: Measurement & Data
9.
Special characteristics
10.
Vegetation
Temperature: Measurement:

Temperature of the air is measured in degrees Celsius (C), most often with a
mercury thermometer.
The dry-bulb or 'true air temperature' is a value taken in the shade, the thermometer
being mounted inside a louvered wooden box, known as the 'Stevenson screen'
(Figure 10), at a height of 120 to 180 m above the ground.
Readings can be taken at specified times of the day, or if a maximum- minimum
thermometer is used, one reading daily can give the momentary temperature as well
as the maximum and minimum temperatures reached in the past 24 hours.
Alternatively a thermograph can be used, which is based on a bimetallic
thermometer and gives a continuous graphic recording of temperature variations.

Temperature: Data:

As a broad description" monthly means temperatures can be given for each of the 12
months. The average is taken between each day's maximum and minimum and then
the average of the 30 days' average is found (and possibly as many years' average
for the same month). To give an indication of diurnal variations,
this can be supplemented by monthly mean maxima and minima.
(Monthly mean maximum is the average of 30 days' maximum
temperatures.) These will establish the monthly mean range of
temperatures.
It may be useful to indicate the highest and lowest temperatures
ever recorded for each month, i.e. the monthly extreme maxima and
minima, to establish the monthly extreme range of temperatures.
These five values for each of the 12 months would give a
reasonably accurate picture of temperature conditions, on which the
design work can be based
Fig 10: Stevenson Screen

Humidity: Measurement:

The humidity of air can be described as absolute humidity (AH), i.e. the amount of
moisture actually present in unit mass or unit volume of air, in terms of gram per
kilogram (g/kg) or gram per cubic meter (g/cum).
The relative humidity (RH) gives a direct indication of evaporation potential. The
amount of moisture the air can hold (the saturation-point humidity: SH) depends on
its temperature. Relative humidity is the ratio of the actual amount of moisture present, to the amount of moisture the air could hold at the given temperature expressed
as a percentage:

RH = AH / SH

100%

Humidity is usually measured with the wet-and-dry-bulb hygrometer. This consists of

two ordinary mercury thermometers mounted side by side. The first one measures
the air (dry-bulb) temperature (DBT). The bulb of the second one is covered with a
gauze or wick and is kept wet. Moisture evaporating gives a cooling effect, thus the
reading of the wet-bulb temperature (WBT) will be less than the DBT.
As in dry air the evaporation is faster, the cooling is more pronounced and the
difference between the two readings (the 'wet-bulb depression') is greater. In case of
100% RH the two readings will be identical, as there is no evaporation. The rate of
evaporation, thus the wet-bulb depression, is a function of the relative humidity.

Having made the two readings, the corresponding RH can be found from the
psychrometric chart (Figure 12), from a table or a special slide-rule.

Humidity: Data:

To give an indication of prevailing humidity conditions, it is sufficient to establish the

monthly mean maximum (the average of 30 days' maximum) and the monthly mean
minimum relative humidity values for each of the 12 months. This is only possible,
where continuous hygrograph recordings are available. Where these are not available,
readings are made just before sunrise, e.g. at 6.00 hours (which is likely to be the
maximum value), and at 15.00 hours (which is near the minimum value).
As the early morning values are fairly high in any climate, the afternoon values are
much more characteristic of a given location. They are often used alone, as a brief
indication of humidity conditions.

Vapour pressure:

Another indication or expression of atmospheric humidity is the vapour pressure, i.e.

the partial pressure of water vapour present in the air. The 'atmospheric pressure' (P)
is the sum of the 'partial pressure of dry air' (PI) and the 'partial vapour pressure' (Pv)
Vapour pressure is measured in the standard SI pressure unit, the Newton per metre
square (N/m2): millibar = 100 N/m2.
The vapour pressure concept is rarely used in practical work.

Precipitation:

Precipitation is the collective term used for rain, snow, hail, dew and frost that is, for
all forms of water deposited ('precipitated') from the atmosphere [8]. It is measured by
rain-gauges, i.e. calibrated receptacles, and expressed in millimetre per a time unit
(mm/month, mm/day).
Values indicating the total precipitation for each month of the year (and as many years'
average) would show the pattern of dry and wet seasons. Ever recorded maxima and
minima would give an indication of the reliability of rains or deviations from the
average.
The maximum rainfall for any 24-hour period is a useful guide for the predication of
flooding, and for the design of surface drainage (roofs, paved areas, gutters and down-

pipes) the maximum hourly rainfall intensity (mm/h) should be known.

Driving Rain:

The building designer may want to know whether intense rains are associated with
strong wings, in other words what is the likelihood of driving rain.
The driving rain index [10] characterises a given location and expresses the degree of
exposure. It is the product of annual rainfall (in m) and the annual average wind
velocity (in metres per second: m/s) - thus its dimension is m2/s.
Up to 3 m2/s, the location can be considered as 'sheltered'. The exposure is 'moderate'
if the index is between 3 and 7 m2/s and 'severe' if over 7 m2/s.

Sky conditions:

Sky conditions are usually described in terms of presence or absence of clouds. On

average, two observations are made per day, when the proportion of sky covered by
cloud is expressed as a percentage (some records give cloud cover in 'tenths' or even in
'eighths' or 'octets', e.g. 50%, five-tenths or four-eighths would all indicate that half of
the sky hemisphere is covered by cloud). Few records exist of night-time sky
conditions.
It would be useful for the designer to know the time of day and frequency of
observations. A single average figure giving the sky conditions for a typical day of a
given month may conceal significant differences, e.g. between morning and afternoon conditions, which may affect the design of roofs, overhangs and shading
devices.
Sky luminance values are needed if day-lighting in buildings is to be predicted.

Solar radiation: Measurement:

A simple sunshine recorder will register the duration of sunshine, which can be
expressed in number of hours per day, as an average for each month.
A variety of more sophisticated instruments (solarimeter, heliometer, actinometer
and pyranometer) are used for the quantitative recording of solar radiation, but
reliable and comparable data is few and far between.
The now accepted international standard (SI) unit is the watt per metre square
(W/m2). This is the instantaneous intensity, i.e. the incidence of energy in joules
per square metre of the surface per second (W/m2 = J/m2s, as W = J/s). Total
radiation received over a longer period, one day, for instance, will be expressed in
J/m2day or the multiple MJ/m2day will be used (megajoule = 1 million joules).

Solar radiation: Data:

Average daily amounts of solar radiation (MJ/m 2day) for each month of the year
would give a fair indication of climatic conditions, including seasonal variations.
This could be supplemented by the highest and lowest daily totals for each month,
to set the limits of variations which can be expected.

For the purposes of detailed design, hourly totals (MJ/m 2h), or rather hourly
average intensities (W /m2), must be known for a typical day of each month - or at
least for a typically high and a typically low radiation day of the year.

Wind: Measurement:

Wind velocity is measured by a cup-type or propeller anemometer, or by a Pitot

tube (similar to the air-speed meters of aeroplanes), and its direction is measured
by a wind vane. An anemograph can produce continuous recordings of wind
velocity and directional changes.
Free wind velocities are normally recorded in open flat country at a height of 10m.
Measurements in urban areas are often taken at a height of between 10 and 20 m to
avoid obstructions. Velocities near the ground are a good deal lower than the free
wind speed.
Directions can be grouped into eight or sixteen categories: the four cardinals (N, E,
S and W) and four semi-cardinal compass points (NE, SE, SW and NW) and
possibly the eight tertiary compass points (NNE, ENE, ESE, SSE, SSW, WSW,
WNW and NNW).
Velocities are measured in metres per second (m/s).

Wind: Data:
The designer must try to determine whether there is a prevailing direction of
winds, whether predictable daily or seasonal shifts occur and whether there is a
recognisable pattern of daily or seasonal velocities. It is also important for him to
note the calm periods in each month.
All observatories record the occurrence of storms, hurricanes, typhoons or
tornadoes. It is customary to tabulate winds according to their direction and velocity
categories, in terms of their frequency of occurrence, over a significant time, generally 25 to 50 years.

Special characteristics:
Most regions experience conditions which are particularly unfavourable, such as
hail and thunder-storms, line or arched squalls, earthquakes, tornadoes, hurricanes
and dust-storms. Although such events may be rare, it is important to extract from
meteorological data their frequency, likely duration and nature.
The designer must classify rare events into those which affect human comfort and
those which may endanger the safety of buildings and the lives of inhabitants.
Discomfort - even if it impedes work or sleep - can be accepted if it is rare enough
and lasts only for a few hours. Structural safety, on the other hand, must be guaran teed however infrequent the danger.

Vegetation:

Although generally regarded as functions of climate, vegetation can in its turn

influence the local or site climate. It is an important element in the design of outdoors spaces, providing sun-shading and protection from glare.
This section of the climatic survey may range from a few notes about local species
of plant life to a lengthy compendium of the major native plants and trees - their
shape and colour, also their preferred orientation and situation.

Classification of Tropical Climates:

Tropical Climates:
Tropical climates are those where heat is the dominant problem, where, for the greater
part of the year buildings serve to keep the occupants cool, rather than warm, where the
annual mean temperature is not less than 20C.
Accordingly the tropical regions of earth are divided into three. major climatic
zones and three subgroups:
1. Warm-humid equatorial climate - subgroup: warm-humid island or
trade-wind climate
2. Hot-dry desert, or semi-desert climate - subgroup: hot-dry maritime
desert climate
3. Composite or monsoon climate (combination of 1 and 2) - subgroup:
tropical upland climate

Characteristics of Warm-Humid Climate:

Warm-humid climates are found in a belt near the Equator extending to about 15 N
and S. Examples of cities in this zone: Lagos, Dar-es-Salam, Mombasa,
Colombo, Singapore, and Jakarta. Figure 18 shows a climate graph for
Mombasa.
There is very little seasonal variation throughout the year, the only punctuation
being that of periods with more or less rain and the occurrence of gusty winds and
electric storms.
Air temperature, i.e. DBT, in the shade reaches a mean maximum during the day of
between 27 and 32C, but occasionally it may exceed the latter value. At night the
mean minimum varies between 21 and 27C. Both the diurnal and annual ranges of
temperature are quite narrow.
Humidity, i.e. RH, remains high, at about 75% for most of the time, but it may vary
from 55 to almost 100%. Vapour pressure is steady in the region of 2500 to 3000 N/m2.
Precipitation is high throughout the year, generally becoming more intense for several
consecutive months. Annual rainfall can vary from 2000 to 5000 mm and may exceed
500 mm in one month, the wettest month. During severe storms rain may fall at the rate
of 100 mm/h for short periods.
Sky conditions are fairly cloudy throughout the year. Cloud cover varies between 60
and 90%. Skies can be bright, a luminance of 7000 cd/m2 or even more when it is

thinly overcast, or when the sun illuminates white cumulus clouds without itself being
obscured. When heavily overcast, the sky is dull, 850 cd/m2 or less.
Solar radiation is partly reflected and partly scattered by the cloud blanket or the high
vapour content of the atmosphere, therefore the radiation reaching the ground is
diffuse, but strong, and can cause painful sky glare. Cloud and vapour content also
prevents or reduces outgoing radiation from the earth and sea to the night sky, thus the
accumulated heat is not readi1y dissipated.
Wind velocities are typically low, calm periods are frequent, but strong winds can
occur during rain squalls. Gusts of 30 m/s have been reported. There are usually one or
two dominant directions.
Vegetation grows quickly due to frequent rains and high temperatures and it is difficult
to control. The red or brown laterite soils are generally poor for agriculture. Plantsupporting organic substances and mineral salts are dissolved and washed away by
rain-water. The subsoil water table is usually high and the ground may be waterlogged.
Little light is reflected from the ground.
Special characteristics: high humidity accelerates mould and algal growth, rusting
and rotting. Organic building materials tend to decay rapidly. Mosquitoes and other
insects abound. The thunder-storms are accompanied by frequent air-to-air electrical
discharges.

Characteristics of Warm-Humid Island Climate:

Islands within the equatorial belt and in the trade-winds zone belong to this climate
type. Typical examples are the Caribbeans, the Philippines and other island groups
in the Pacific Ocean.
Seasonal variations are negligible.
Air temperature, i.e. DBT, in the shade reaches a day-time mean maximum between
29 and 320C and rarely rises above skin temperature. Night-time mean minima can be
as low as 180C, but it is normally between this figure and 24 0C. The diurnal range is
rarely more than 8 0C and the annual range is only about 14 0C.
Humidity, i.e. the R H, varies between 55 and almost 100%, the vapour pressure being
between 1750 and 2500 N/m2.
Precipitation is high, 1250 to 1800 mm per annum, and 200 to 250 mm in the 2
wettest months. Up to 250 mm may fall in a single storm of a few hours' duration.
Spray is driven nearly horizontally on windward coasts.
Sky conditions are normally clear or filled with white broken clouds of high
brightness, except during storms, when the skies are dark and dull. Clear blue skies
are of low luminance, between 1700 and 2500 cd/m2.
Solar radiation is strong and mainly direct, with a very small diffuse component
when the sky is clear, but varies with the cloud cover.
Winds: the predominant trade-wind blows at a steady 6 to 7 m/s and provides
relief from heat and humidity. Much higher velocities occur during cyclones (see
below).
Vegetation is less luxuriant and of a lighter green colour than in the warm-humid
zones. It varies 'with the rainfall. Sunlight reflected from light coloured coral, sand
and rock can be very bright. The soil is often dry with a fairly low water-table.

Special characteristics are the tropical cyclones or hurricanes with wind velocities from 45 to 70 m/s, which constitute a serious seasonal hazard. The high salt
content of the atmosphere encourages corrosion in coastal areas.

Characteristics of Hot-Dry Desert Climate:

These climates occur in two belts at latitudes between approximately 15 and 30 0 north
and south of the Equator. Examples of settlements in this zone: Assuan, Baghdad,
Alice Springs, and Phoenix. Figure 19 shows a climate graph for the last named.
Two marked seasons occur: a hot and a somewhat cooler period.
Air temperature, i.e. DBT, in the shade rises quickly after sunrise to a day-time mean
maximum of 43 to 490C. The ever-recorded maximum temperature of 58 0C was
measured in Libya in 1922. During the cool season the mean maximum temperature
ranges from 27 to 320C. Night-time mean minima are between 24 and 30 0C in the hot
season and between 10 and 18 0C in the cool season. The diurnal range is very great:
17 to 22 0 C.
Humidity, i.e. the RH, varies from 10 to 55%, as the wet-bulb depression is large
(rapid evaporation). The vapour pressure is normally between 750 and 1500 N/m 2
Precipitation is slight and variable throughout the year, from 50 to 155 mm per
annum. Flash-storms may occur over limited areas with as much as 50 mm rain in a
few hours, but some regions may not have any rain for several years.
Sky conditions are normally clear. Clouds are few due to the low humidity of the air.
The sky is usually dark blue, with a luminance of 1700 to 2500 cd/m2, and further
darkened during dust or sand-storms to 850 cd/m 2 or even less. Towards the end of the
hot period, dust suspended in the air may create a white haze with a luminance of
3500 to 10000 cd/m2, which produces a diffuse light and a painful glare.
Solar Radiation is direct and strong during the day, but the absence of cloud permits
easy release of the heat stored during the day-time in the form of long-wave radiation
towards the cold night sky. Diffuse radiation is only present during dust haze periods.
Winds are usually local. The heating of air over the hot ground causes a temperature
inversion, and as the lower warm air mass breaks through the higher cooler air, local
whirlwinds are often created. Winds are hot, carrying dust and sand - and often
develop into dust-storms.
Vegetation is sparse and difficult to maintain because of the lack of rain and low
humidities. The soil is usually dusty and very dry. Strong sunlight illuminating a
highly reflective light coloured and dry ground can create a luminance of 20000 to
25000 cd/m2. Soils dry quickly after rain and would generally be fertile if irrigated.
The subsoil water-table is very low.
Special characteristics: during certain months dust and sand-storms may be
frequent. The high day-time temperatures and rapid cooling at night may cause
materials to crack and break, up.

Characteristics of Hot-Dry Maritime Desert Climate:

Maritime desert climates occur in the same latitude belts as the hot-dry desert

climates, where the sea adjoins a large land mass. These are regarded to be amongst
the most unfavourable climates of the earth. Typical examples are Kuwait,
Antofagasta and Karachi.
There are two seasons: a-hot one and somewhat cooler one,
Air temperature, i.e. DBT, in the shade reaches a day-time mean maximum of about
380C, but in the cool season it remains between 21 and 260C. The night-time mean
minimum temperatures of the hot season range from 24 to 300C and of the cool season
from 10 to 180C. The diurnal mean range varies between 9 and 12 0C, the larger diurnal
variation occurring during the cool season.
Humidity, i.e. the RH, is steadily high, between 50 and 90%, with vapour pressures of
1500 to 2500 N/m2, as the strong solar radiation causes strong evaporation from the sea.
The moisture is, however, not precipitated but remains suspended in the air, creating
intensely uncomfortable conditions.
Precipitation, as in other desert regions, is very low.
Sky conditions are as for hot-dry desert climates, a little more cloud may occur in the
form of a thin, transparent haze, which is likely to cause glare.
Solar Radiation is strong, with a higher diffuse component than in desert climates, due
to the thin clouds and suspended moisture.
Winds are mostly local, coastal winds, caused by the unequal heating and cooling of
land and sea surfaces. These tend to blow off the sea towards the land during the day
and in the reverse direction during the night.
Vegetation is sparse, not more than some dry grass. The ground and rocks are brown or
red; it is dry and dusty throughout the year. Ground glare can be intense.
Special characteristics: dust and sand-storms may occur. The salt laden atmosphere
accelerates corrosion.

Characteristics of Composite or Monsoon Climate:

These climates usually occur in large land masses near the tropics of Cancer and
Capricorn, which are sufficiently far from the Equator to experience marked
seasonal changes in solar radiation and wind direction. Examples of cities with
composite climates: Lahore, Mandalay, Asuncion, Kano and New Delhi. The
latter is shown as an example in Figure 20.
Two seasons occur normally. Approximately two-thirds of the year is hot-dry and the
other third is warm-humid. Localities further north and south often have a third
season, best described as cool-dry.
Air temperature, i.e. DBT, in the shade is as follows:
Seasons
Day-time mean max

Hot-Dry
32 430C

Warm-Humid
27 320C

Cool-Dry
upto 270C

Night-time mean min

21 270C

24 270C

4 10 0C

Diurnal mean range

11 22 0C

3 6 0C

11 22 0C

Humidity, i.e. the RH, is low throughout the dry periods at 20 to 55%, with a vapour
pressure of 1 300 to 1 600 N/m 2. During the wet period it rises to 55 to 95%, with a vapour

pressure of 2000 to 2500 N/m2.

Precipitation: the monsoon rains are intense and prolonged; occasionally 25 to 38 mm can
fall in an hour. Annual rainfall varies from 500 to 1300 mm with 200 to 250 mm in the
wettest month. There is little or no rain during the dry seasons.
Sky conditions markedly vary with the seasons. The sky is heavily overcast and dull
during the monsoons, and clear, with a dark blue colour, in the dry seasons. Towards the
end of the hot-dry seasons the sky becomes brighter with frequent dust haze. The intensity
of sky glare varies accordingly.
Solar radiation alternates between conditions found in the warm-humid and the hot-dry
desert climates.
Winds are hot and dusty during the dry period. Directional changes in the prevailing winds
at the beginning of the warm-humid season bring rain-clouds and humid air from the sea.
Monsoon winds are fairly strong and steady.
Vegetation, which is sparse - characteristic of a hot-dry region - with brown and red barren
ground, changes rapidly and dramatically with the rain. The landscape becomes green and
fertile within a few days. Plants grow quickly. In the cooler period vegetation covers the
ground, but diminishes as the temperature rises. The soil is damp during the rains but it
dries out quickly. There is a risk of soil erosion during monsoons. In the dry season strong
ground glare may be experienced.
Special characteristics: seasonal changes in relative humidity cause rapid weakening of
building materials. Dust and sand-storms may occur. Termites are common. Occasional
condensation causes problems.

Characteristics of Tropical Upland Climate:

Mountainous regions and plateau more than 900 to 1200 m above sea-level
experience such climates, between the two 20 0C isotherms. Examples of cities in
such regions: Addis Ababa, Bogota, Mexico City and Nairobi. A climate graph for
Nairobi has been given in Figure 15.
Seasonal variations are small in upland climates near the Equator, but when further
away from the Equator, the seasons follow those of the nearby lowlands.
Air temperature, i.e. the DBT, in the shade decreases with altitude. At an altitude of 1800
m the day-time mean maxima may range from 24 to 300C and the nighttime mean minima
are around 10 to 13 0C. At some locations it may fall below 4 0C and ground frost is not
uncommon. The diurnal range is great. The annual range depends on latitude: at the
Equator it is slight; but at the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn it may be 11 to 20 0C.
Humidity, i.e. the RH, varies between 45 and 99% and the vapour pressure between 800
and 1600 N/m2
Precipitation is variable, but rarely less than 1000 mm. Rain often falls in heavy
concentrated showers, reaching an intensity of 80 mm per hour.
Sky conditions are normally clear or partly cloudy, to the extent of about 40%. During the
monsoon rains the sky is overcast - and the clouds are heavy and low.
Solar radiation is strong and direct during the clear periods, stronger than at the same
latitude, but at sea-level. Ultra-violet radiation especially is stronger than at lower altitudes.
It becomes more diffuse as cloud cover increases.
Winds are variable, predominantly north-east and south-easterlies, but may be drastically

deflected by local topography. Wind velocity rarely exceeds 15 m/s.

Vegetation is green although not very luxuriant during the wet season but it may wither in
the dry season, when the ground can turn brown or red. The soil may be damp in the rains
but dries quickly.
Special characteristics: heavy dew at night. Strong radiation loss at night during the dry
season, which may lead to the formation of radiation fog. Thunder-storms with a fair
proportion of electric discharges - air to ground. Hail may also occur.

The Bodys Heat Balance:

Heat is continuously produced by the body. Most of the biochemical processes

involved in tissue-building, energy conversion and muscular work are exotherm,
i.e. heat producing. All energy and material requirements of the body are supplied
from the consumption and digestion of food. The processes involved in converting
foodstuff into living matter and useful form of energy are known as metabolism
The total metabolic heat production' can be divided into basal metabolism, i.e. the
heat production of vegetative, automatic processes which are continuous, and the
muscular metabolism, i.e. the heat production of muscles when carrying out
consciously controlled work. Of all the energy produced in the body, only about
20% is utilised, the remaining 80% is 'surplus' heat and must be dissipated to the
environment.
This excess heat production varies with the overall metabolic rate, and depends on
the activity. The following table indicates the rate of excess heat output of the body
in various activities.

The Bodys Heat Loss:

The deep body temperature must remain balanced and constant around 370C. In
order to maintain body temperature at this steady level, all surplus heat must be
dissipated to the environment. If there is some form of simultaneous heat gain
from the environment (e.g. solar radiation or warm air) that also must be
dissipated.
The body can release heat to its environment by convection, radiation and
evaporation - and to a lesser extent by conduction (Figure 26).
Convection is due to heat transmission from the body to the air in contact with the
skin or clothing which then rises and is replaced by cooler air. The rate of convective heat loss is increased by a faster rate of air movement, by a lower air temperature and a higher skin temperature.
Radiant heat loss depends on the temperature of the body surface and the
temperature of opposing surfaces.
Evaporation heat loss is governed by the rate of evaporation, which in turn
depends- on the humidity of air (the dryer the air, the faster the evaporation) and
on the amount of moisture available for evaporation. Evaporation takes place in the
lungs through breathing, and on the skin as imperceptible perspiration and sweat.

Vaso-motor Regulation:

As soon as this sum is more than zero, vasomotor adjustments will take place: blood

circulation to the skin surface is increased, more heat is transported to the surface
and the skin temperature is elevated - all forms of heat loss processes are
accelerated. Conversely, if the sum of the above equation is less than zero, the blood
circulation to the skin is reduced, skin temperature is lowered and the heat loss
processes are slowed down.
If the vasomotor regulation is still insufficient, and overheating continues, sweating
will start. The rate of sweating may vary from about 20 glh to 3 kg/h during periods
of physical effort combined with hot environmental effects.
If, in a cold environment, under-heating continues in spite of vasomotor adjustments,
violent shivering may occur, which can cause a ten-fold increase in metabolic heat
production for short periods.
Long-term, endocrine adjustments constitute the acclimatization process. These may
involve the change in the basal metabolic heat production, an increase in the quantity
of blood (to produce and maintain a constant vaso-dilation) and an increase in sweat
rate.

The Comfort Zone:

HUMAN THERMAL COMFORT:
The main factors influencing human comfort are:

Temperature.

Humidity.

Air movement (breeze or draught).

Exposure to radiant heat sources.

Cool surfaces to radiate to for cooling.

The range of conditions within which at least 80% of the people would feel com fortable, can be termed 'comfort zone'. This has been shown on the bioclimatic
chart (Figure 29), and it is shown superimposed on the CET nomogram (Figure 30).

Figure 29:

Bio-Climatic Chart

Effective Temperature (ET):

Climate Zone Map of India: