Earth Science Module

Earth System Processes
(ES1201)
The Atmospheric Circulation

(Spring 2024 by Gaurav Shukla)
Book: The Earth System by L.R. Kump, J.F. Kasting and R.G. Crane
Atmospheric Circulation
Atmospheric pressure and temperature variation.
• Note that the pressure profile is NOT A LINEAR function of altitude.

Atmospheric pressure and temperature variation.
Global energy distribution
➢ The maximum absorbed solar energy

is found in the tropics and decreases
rapidly towards the poles.
➢ The higher (IR) emission in the

tropics are due to high surface
temperature there.
➢ The gradient in the net radiation

suggests that tropics would get
warmer while the poles get
progressively colder. However, this
does not happen due to atmospheric
circulations.
Adiabatic Lapse Rate
Cloud Formation
➢Usually, there is significant imbalance in the distribution of energy at

various latitudes: the tropics receive surplus radiative energy whereas
the poles run a deficit.
➢ This imbalance causes an equator-to-pole a temperature gradient that

results in pressure and density differences in the atmosphere.
➢The pressure and density differences cause air to move in a global scale
pattern of the wind belts, which are modified by Earth’s rotation
(Coriolis effect) and by the distribution of land and water.
➢ The net effect is to restore the latitudinal energy balance by moving

surplus energy away from tropics to cancel out the deficit at poles.
➢ In the process, energy is used to evaporate water from the land and
ocean surfaces, water vapor is carried by the wind, and energy is
released when the vapor condenses to form clouds. Thus, there are
close interactions between transport of energy and of water by means
of circulating air.
➢We would be focussing on atmospheric circulation in the troposphere,

the lowermost atmospheric layer.
➢ Air moves horizontally over the Earth’s surface due to horizontal
pressure gradient.
➢ The vertical movement of the air is mainly due to buoyancy.
➢ Buoyancy is controlled by the differences in the density between the

object and fluid.
➢Density variations in the air are mainly
caused by thermal variations.
➢ Therefore, all these horizontal and vertical
movement of air can be mostly attributed to
differences in temperature across the globe.
Two important points about air movements:
1. Air tends to move from an area of higher pressure to an area of

lower pressure until two pressure are equalized.
2. If the air is heated until its density is lower than that of its
surroundings, the lower density air will rise (convection).
Conversely, if an air mass is cooled until its density is higher than
that of the underlying air, it will sink (subsidence).
➢ The average global temperature is determined by the balance
between the solar energy absorbed by the Earth and the infrared
radiation emitted to space (Global Energy Balance).
➢ However, neither the radiation received from the sun or nor the
infrared emission from the Earth is distributed uniformly across the
Earth’s surface.
➢ The incoming solar energy varies with latitude and with season,
whereas the outgoing terrestrial radiation depends on the surface
temperature and atmosphere at each location.
General circulation of the atmosphere
➢The large solar input to the tropics heats the surface (primarily ocean),
which in turn heats the overlying air. When heated from below, air will
rise by convection creating a low-pressure region there.
➢This rising air is replaced by surface air moving equatorward from an

area of high pressure to an area of low pressure.
➢The converging air mass that meet at the tropics and rise make up
intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ).
➢ This layer (ITCZ) is characterized by extensive area of cloud cover

and heavy precipitation.
➢ Clouds can often extend up to the tropopause.
➢ As we know that temperatures generally increase in stratosphere.
➢ This higher temperature limits the convection and rising air in the
ITCZ, upon reaching this barrier, is forced to diverge poleward.
General circulation of the atmosphere (Contd.)
➢ This poleward moving air subsides at about 30° N and 30° S latitude,
replacing the air that is moving equatorward at the surface. This
pattern of air circulation is called Hadley cell.
➢ The subsiding air at 30° N and 30° S latitude gets warm, which
prevents the condensation and cloud formation.
➢ These regions are characterized by clear skies and low rainfall.

➢The very low temperatures at the poles result in increased air density
and high pressure near the surface, which leads to divergence and
movement of the cold air at the surface equatorward. The divergence is
accompanied by subsidence from above.
➢The equatorward moving cold air meets the warm air from subtropics,
producing a zone of steep temperature gradients known as polar front
zone at about 60° N and 60° S latitude.
➢These cold and warm air masses do not mix easily. Due to density
difference, cold air sinks below the warm air when these air masses
meet. Therefore, the polar front zone slopes poleward with increasing
altitude in the atmosphere (Figure 4.7)
➢Based on the description of Hadley and mid latitude circulation, the

general pattern of the surface wind looks like as shown in Figure 4.8.
Polar front zone (High- and low-pressure region)

Divergence
ITCZ Convergence
This pattern shows only north-south movement of

the wind. However, we know that wind tends to
move in east-west direction as well. To understand
east-west movement, we need to take into account
the effect of Coriolis force.
Coriolis Effect
➢ The tendency for a fluid (air or water) moving across Earth’s surface to be deflected from its
straight-line path due to Earth’s rotational motion.
➢ In Newtonian mechanics, the equation of motion for an object in an inertial (non-accelerating)

frame is 𝑭 = 𝑚𝒂, where F is the force acting on the object of mass m and a is the acceleration
of the object with respect inertial frame. (Bold represent the vector quantities)
➢ However, with respect to a rotating (with a fixed axis of rotation and constant angular velocity
𝜔) frame of reference, equation of motion for an object of mass m moving with linear velocity
v changes to
𝑭 − 2𝑚 𝝎 × 𝒗 − 𝑚 𝝎 × 𝝎 × 𝒓 = 𝑚𝒂.
Coriolis Force Centrifugal Force

Coriolis Effect
Due to Coriolis force, north-south moving object will be deflected to east or west. Air mass
moving in the Northern Hemisphere always gets deflected to the right of the initial motion,
whereas in the Southern Hemisphere it gets deflected to left (because direction of rotation
changes from anticlockwise to clockwise).
Coriolis Effect
Due to Coriolis force, north-south moving object will be deflected to east or west. Air mass
moving in the Northern Hemisphere always gets deflected to the right of the initial motion,
whereas in the Southern Hemisphere it gets deflected to left (because direction of rotation
changes from anticlockwise to clockwise).
By combining the effect of Coriolis

effect and simple north-south circulation,
we obtain the more realistic pattern for
the surface wind.
Seasonal Variability
➢ Considerations of pressure differences (pressure gradient force), buoyancy, and the Coriolis
force have led us to obtain simple (a good first approximation) understanding of general
circulation of the atmosphere (Figure 4.11).
➢ However, this simple pattern of atmospheric circulation is also modified by seasonal

variations.
➢ The difference in the distance between Earth and Sun and (more importantly) the Earth’s tilt
or obliquity (~23.5°) are responsible for seasonal variations.
➢ The solar energy distribution varies with the seasons. (Figure 4.15)
➢ The seasonal variability in the incoming energy shifts the atmospheric circulation patterns
northward and southward as the season change.
➢ Due to tilt, Sun shines continuously for six month at each pole. The hemisphere
experiencing summer has less of temperature gradient between tropics and the pole than that
of the opposite hemisphere.
➢ The reduced temperature gradient weakens the strength of the atmospheric circulation.
➢ At the same time, because the Sun is directly overhead somewhere away from equator (due
to tilt), the steepest temperature gradients are shifted toward the poles and circulation
patterns are also shifted poleward. (Figure 4.16)
➢ In the hemisphere experiencing winter, the equator-to-pole temperature gradient is much
stronger and the steepest gradients are shifted equatorward. Therefore, the atmospheric
circulation is more intense and the circulation patterns are shifted equatorward.
➢ The ITCZ also moves northward and southward as the season shifts. The ITCZ will reach its
maximum northward location late in the Northern Hemisphere summer. It will then migrate
southward crossing the equator in the fall and reaching its most southern location late in the
winter (Southern Hemisphere summer). (Figure 4.16)
➢ The upper tropospheric circulation is also affected by seasonal variations with more intense
wind speeds in the winter and jet streams shifting north and south with seasons.
Notice the curvature

of winds moving over
equator as ITCZ shifts
northward or
southward.
Global Distribution of Temperature and Rainfall
➢ As we understood that the cause of atmospheric circulation is the distribution of available

solar energy. We need to keep in mind that interaction between temperature and circulation
is not a one-way process. The circulation is an important component of the Earth’s
thermoregulatory system. Therefore, the global temperature and rainfall distributions are
strongly affected by the atmospheric circulation.
➢ In general, temperature, precipitation, and atmospheric circulation are all closely linked and
interactions and feedbacks exist among all three of these components of Earth’s climate.
Land-Ocean Contrasts and Continentality
➢ Beyond the latitudinal distribution of solar energy, the global temperature patterns are
strongly influenced by the distribution of land and ocean.
➢ Since the albedo of the ocean surface is considerably lower than that of land surfaces, oceans
absorb more of the available solar energy than do the land surfaces at the same latitude.
➢ An ocean surface rapidly transfers heat to atmosphere by convection and downward by

turbulent mixing. The land surface also transfers heat to atmosphere by convection, but it
transfers heat downward relatively slowly by conduction because water has high thermal
conductivity, whereas land surfaces have low thermal conductivities.
➢ The heat capacity (a measure of energy required to change the temperature of an object) of
water is about three to four times that of the dry soil. Thus, the input of a given amount
of energy will raise land temperatures much more than it will raise sea-surface
temperatures.
Land-Ocean Contrasts and Continentality
➢ Land surfaces heat up quickly during the day and cool quickly at night, whereas ocean
surfaces warm slowly in the day and temperatures drops very little at night. The sea breeze
that occurs at coastlines is a direct consequence of this diurnal variability.
➢ As we have already seen that seasonal variations over midlatitudes and high latitudes is
much greater than in the tropics (due to tilt). This variability is much stronger over the land
surface than over the oceans because of their different thermal characteristics. This property
is called continentality.
➢ Land surfaces are much warmer than ocean surfaces in summer and much colder in the
winter.
➢ The greatest seasonal variability is found in the interior of large continental masses and the
lowest variability over the tropical oceans. The oceans provide a moderating effect in the
coastal regions that reduces the temperature extremes. (Figure 4.18)
Global Distribution of Temperatures
Global Distribution of Temperatures
Global Distribution of Temperatures (Annual Range: The difference
between summer and winter)
Average Sea-level Pressure
Average Sea-level Pressure
Monsoons
➢The monsoon is a seasonal reversal in the surface wind. In summer

the large Asian landmass, with its high elevations in the Tibetan
Plateau of central Asia, causes high surface temperatures, low
atmospheric pressures, and intense convection of air above surface.
➢The rising air is replaced by air moving in from the high-pressure

region over the Indian Ocean to the south.
➢The moist air drawn in from Indian Ocean cools as it rises above the
mountains of southwest India and over the Himalayas.
Monsoons
➢In both the instances the rising air produces cloud and heavy rainfall
(the monsoon rain).
➢In winter, the pattern reverses: High elevations and persistent snow
cover enhances the continentality, producing even low temperatures.
➢ This results in high atmospheric pressure and subsidence of air over

the continent and a southward flow of air. (Figure 4.21)
Monsoons
Looks carefully
the wind patterns.
The Blue Planet: An Introduction to Earth System Sciences, 3rd
Edition by Skinner and Murck
Upper-level flow
➢ Based on the solar energy distribution, on the large scale, troposphere has warm air in the
tropics and relatively cooler air at the poles.
➢ As the warmer air expands and cooler air contracts, then the depth of the troposphere
changes with latitude. As a consequence, the troposphere is thicker in the tropics that at the
poles. Therefore, the change in the pressure with height must be slower in the tropics.
➢ At the upper troposphere (away from the surface), the

pressure is always higher on the equatorward side. Air will
flow down the pressure gradient (from tropics to pole).
➢ The wind speed will be greatest at the steepest pressure

gradient. In the upper troposphere, this happens at
midlatitude ~60° N and S . Belts of the highspeed winds
are known as jet streams.
Geostrophic winds
➢ Due to pressure gradient force, air parcel flows (perpendicular to isobars) from high to low
pressure.
➢ Under the influence of Coriolis force (always perpendicular to the path of air the parcel),
poleward moving air will curve to right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the
Southern Hemisphere.
➢ As seen in the Figure, as the air parcel moves,

the pressure gradient force is eventually
balanced by the Coriolis force resulting in the
steady flow (zero acceleration) of air parcel.
This flow of air is called geostrophic wind.
Convergence and Divergence
Cyclone Formation
Global Precipitation Patterns
➢Most precipitation takes place as air cools when it is forced to rise.

Two process that result in uplift:
1. Large-scale uplift that occurs with the mixing of air masses of

different densities (polar front zone), and
2. Uplift due to convection.
➢Therefore, there is heavy precipitation along the polar front zone in

the midlatitude ~60°N and S and in the vicinity of ITCZ.
Global Precipitation Patterns
➢ There is also a third process that forces air to rise. The confrontation
between a moving air mass and a mountain range. Such encounters
cause orographic precipitation on the windward (upwind) slopes of
the mountains.
➢ There are regions where precipitation is inhibited. We call such areas

deserts. In general, precipitation is low in the interior of large
landmasses due to the distance from the moisture supplies.
➢ Deserts are located in the vicinity of the descending arms of the

Hadley cells (𝟑𝟎° 𝐍 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒) and on the leeward (downwind) slopes
of the mountains.
Global Precipitation Patterns (January)
Global Precipitation Patterns (July)
Distribution of Deserts
From: https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/deserts/what/world.html
Cloud Formation

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Earth System Processes

The Atmospheric Circulation

• Note that the pressure profile is NOT A LINEAR function of altitude.

➢ The maximum absorbed solar energy

➢ The higher (IR) emission in the

➢ The gradient in the net radiation

➢Usually, there is significant imbalance in the distribution of energy at

➢ This imbalance causes an equator-to-pole a temperature gradient that

➢ The net effect is to restore the latitudinal energy balance by moving

➢We would be focussing on atmospheric circulation in the troposphere,

➢ The vertical movement of the air is mainly due to buoyancy.

➢ Buoyancy is controlled by the differences in the density between the

1. Air tends to move from an area of higher pressure to an area of

➢This rising air is replaced by surface air moving equatorward from an

➢ This layer (ITCZ) is characterized by extensive area of cloud cover

➢ Clouds can often extend up to the tropopause.

➢ As we know that temperatures generally increase in stratosphere.

➢ These regions are characterized by clear skies and low rainfall.

➢Based on the description of Hadley and mid latitude circulation, the

Polar front zone (High- and low-pressure region)

This pattern shows only north-south movement of

➢ In Newtonian mechanics, the equation of motion for an object in an inertial (non-accelerating)

Coriolis Force Centrifugal Force

By combining the effect of Coriolis

➢ However, this simple pattern of atmospheric circulation is also modified by seasonal

Notice the curvature

➢ As we understood that the cause of atmospheric circulation is the distribution of available

➢ An ocean surface rapidly transfers heat to atmosphere by convection and downward by

➢The monsoon is a seasonal reversal in the surface wind. In summer

➢The rising air is replaced by air moving in from the high-pressure

➢ This results in high atmospheric pressure and subsidence of air over

➢ At the upper troposphere (away from the surface), the

➢ The wind speed will be greatest at the steepest pressure

➢ As seen in the Figure, as the air parcel moves,

➢Most precipitation takes place as air cools when it is forced to rise.

1. Large-scale uplift that occurs with the mixing of air masses of

2. Uplift due to convection.

➢Therefore, there is heavy precipitation along the polar front zone in

➢ There are regions where precipitation is inhibited. We call such areas

➢ Deserts are located in the vicinity of the descending arms of the

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