Hum119

Personality
Assignment submitted by 1001004
Definitions of Personality
While there are many different theories of personality, the first step is to understand exactly
what is meant by the term personality. The word personality itself stems from the Latin
word persona, which referred to a theatrical mask work by performers in order to either
project different roles or disguise their identities.

A brief definition would be that personality is made up of the characteristic patterns of

thoughts, feelings and behaviors that make a person unique. In addition to this, personality
arises from within the individual and remains fairly consistent throughout life.
Some other definitions of personality:

"Personality refers to individuals' characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior, together
with the psychological mechanisms -- hidden or not -- behind those patterns. This definition means
that among their colleagues in other subfields of psychology, those psychologists who study
personality have a unique mandate: to explain whole persons."
(Funder, D. C., 1997)

"Although no single definition is acceptable to all personality theorists, we can say that
personality is a pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique characteristics that give both
consistency and individuality to a person's behavior."
(Feist and Feist, 2009)

Components of Personality
Although traits and patterns of thought and emotion make up an important part, some of the
other fundamental characteristics of personality include:

Consistency - There is generally a recognizable order and regularity to behaviors.

Essentially, people act in the same ways or similar ways in a variety of situations.

Psychological and physiological - Personality is a psychological construct, but

research suggests that it is also influenced by biological processes and needs.

It impacts behaviors and actions - Personality does not just influence how we
move and respond in our environment; it also causes us to act in certain ways.

Multiple expressions - Personality is displayed in more than just behavior. It can

also be seen in our thoughts, feelings, close relationships and other social interactions.

Characteristics of Personality
1.

Personality is organized and consistent. We tend to express certain aspects of our

personality in different situations and our responses are generally stable.

2.

Personality is psychological, but is influenced by biological needs and processes. For

example, while your personality might lead you to be shy in social situations, an
emergency situation might lead you to take on a more outspoken and take-charge
approach.

3.

Personality causes behaviors to happen. You react to the people and objects in your
environment based on your personality. From your personal preferences to your choice
of a career, every aspect of your life is affected by your personality.

4.

Personality is displayed through thoughts, feelings, behaviors and many other ways.

The Study of Personality

There are a number of different techniques that are used in the study of personality.
Each technique has its own strengths and weaknesses.

Experimental methods are those in which the researcher controls and

manipulates the variables of interests and takes measures of the results. This is
the most scientific form of research, but experimental research can be difficult
when studying aspects of personality such as motivations, emotions, and drives.
These ideas are internal, abstract, and extremely difficult to measure.

Case studies and self-report methods involve the in-depth analysis of an

individual as well as information provided by the individual. Case studies rely
heavily on the interpretation of the observer, while self-report methods depend
upon the memory of the individual of interest. Because of this, these methods
tend to be highly subjective and it is difficult to generalize the findings to a larger
population.

Clinical research relies upon information gathered from clinical patients

over the course of treatment. Many personality theories are based upon this type
of research, but because the research subjects are unique and exhibit abnormal
behavior, this research tends to be highly subjective and difficult to generalize.

Theories of psychology
There are a number of different theories about how personality develops. Different schools
of thought in psychology influence many of these theories. Some of these major
perspectives on personality include:

Type theories are the early perspectives on personality. These theories suggested
that there are a limited number of "personality types" which are related to biological
influences.

Trait theories viewed personality as the result of internal characteristics that are
genetically based.

Psychodynamic theories of personality are heavily influenced by the work

of Sigmund Freud, and emphasize the influence of the unconscious on personality.
Psychodynamic theories include Sigmund Freuds psychosexual stage theory and Erik
Eriksons stages of psychosocial development

Behavioral theories suggest that personality is a result of interaction between the

individual and the environment. Behavioral theorists study observable and measurable
behaviors, rejecting theories that take internal thoughts and feelings into account.
Behavioral theorists include B.F. Skinner and John B. Watson .

Humanist theories emphasize the importance of free will and individual experience
in the development of personality. Humanist theorists include Carl Rogers and Abraham
Maslow.

The trait theory

The trait approach to personality is one of the major theoretical areas in the study of
personality. The trait theory suggests that individual personalities are composed broad
dispositions. If someone asked you to describe the personality of a close friend, what kind of
things would you say? A few things that might spring to mind are descriptive terms such as
outgoing, kind and even-tempered. All of these represent traits. A trait can be thought of as
a relatively stable characteristic that causes individuals to behave in certain ways.
Unlike many other theories of personality, such as psychoanalytic or humanistic theories,
the trait approach to personality is focused on differences between individuals. The

combination and interaction of various traits forms a personality that is unique to each
individual. Trait theory is focused on identifying and measuring these individual personality
characteristics.

Gordon Allports Trait Theory

In 1936, psychologist Gordon Allport found that one English-language dictionary alone
contained more than 4,000 words describing different personality traits. 1 He categorized
these traits into three levels:

Cardinal Traits: Traits that dominate an individuals whole life, often to the point
that the person becomes known specifically for these traits. People with such
personalities often become so known for these traits that their names are often
synonymous with these qualities. Consider the origin and meaning of the following
descriptive terms: Freudian, Machiavellian, narcissism, Don Juan, Christ-like, etc. Allport
suggested that cardinal traits are rare and tend to develop later in life. 2

Central Traits: These are the general characteristics that form the basic foundations
of personality. These central traits, while not as dominating as cardinal traits, are the
major characteristics you might use to describe another person. Terms such
as intelligent, honest, shy and anxious are considered central traits.

circumstances. Some examples would be getting anxious when speaking to a group

or impatient while waiting in line.

Raymond Cattells Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire

Trait theorist Raymond Cattell reduced

Secondary Traits: These are the traits that are sometimes related to attitudes or
preferences and often appear only in certain situations or under specific
the number of main personality traits from Allports initial list of over 4,000 down to 171,
3
mostly by eliminating uncommon traits and combining common characteristics. Next,
Cattell rated a large sample of individuals for these 171 different traits. Then, using a
statistical technique known as factor analysis, he identified closely related terms and
eventually reduced his list to just 16 key personality traits. According to Cattell, these 16
traits are the source of all human personality. He also developed one of the most widely
used personality assessments known as the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF).
Eysencks Three Dimensions of Personality

British psychologist Hans Eysenck developed a model of personality based upon just three universal
trails:

1.

Introversion/Extraversion:
Introversion involves directing attention on inner experiences, while extraversion relates
to focusing attention outward on other people and the environment. So, a person high in
introversion might be quiet and reserved, while an individual high in extraversion might
be sociable and outgoing.

2.

Neuroticism/Emotional Stability:
This dimension of Eysencks trait theory is related to moodiness versus eventemperedness. Neuroticism refers to an individuals tendency to become upset or
emotional, while stability refers to the tendency to remain emotionally constant.

3.

Psychoticism:
Later, after studying individuals suffering from mental illness, Eysenck added a
personality dimension he called Psychoticism to his trait theory. Individuals who are high
on this trait tend to have difficulty dealing with reality and may be antisocial, hostile,
non-empathetic and manipulative.4

Assessing the Trait Approach to Personality

While most agree that people can be described based upon their personality traits, theorists
continue to debate the number of basic traits that make up human personality. While trait
theory has objectivity that some personality theories lack (such as Freuds psychoanalytic
theory), it also has weaknesses. Some of the most common criticisms of trait theory center
on the fact that traits are often poor predictors of behavior. While an individual may score
high on assessments of a specific trait, he or she may not always behave that way in every
situation. Another problem is that trait theories do not address how or why individual
differences in personality develop or emerge.
Personality vs. Traits and Character

"Having closed in on a sense of what personality is it may be helpful to compare the concept to
others with related meanings. Two concepts that quickly come to mind are 'temperament' and
'character.' In everyday language these terms are sometimes used more or less interchangeably
with 'personality,' and historically they have often been used in contexts where, in more recent
times, 'personality' would be employed. Within psychology, however, they have somewhat distinct
meanings. Temperament usually refers to those aspects of psychological individuality that are
present at birth or at least very early on in child development, are related to emotional expression,
and are presumed to have a biological basis... Character, on the other hand, usually refers to those
personal attributes that are relevant to moral conduct, self-mastery, will-power, and integrity."
(Haslam, N., 2007)

Big Five Dimensions of Personality

Personality researchers have proposed that there are five basic dimensions of personality.
Today, many contemporary personality psychologists believe that there are five basic
dimensions of personality, often referred to as the "Big 5" personality traits. Previous trait
theorist had suggested a various number of possible traits, including Gordon Allport list of
4,000 personality traits, Raymond Cattells 16 personality factors and Hans Eysenck's threefactor theory.
However, many researchers felt that Cattell's theory was too complex and Eysenck's was too
limited in scope. As a result, the five-factor theory emerged to describe the basic traits that
serve as the building blocks of personality.

Elements of Big Five Dimensions of Personality

Today, many researchers believe that they are five core personality traits. Evidence of this
theory has been growing over the past 50 years, beginning with the research of D. W. Fiske
(1949) and later expanded upon by other researchers including Norman (1967), Smith
(1967), Goldberg (1981), and McCrae & Costa (1987).
The "big five" are broad categories of personality traits. While there is a significant body of
literature supporting this five-factor model of personality, researchers don't always agree on
the exact labels for each dimension. However, these five categories are usually described as
follows:
1.

Extraversion: This trait includes characteristics such as excitability, sociability, talkativeness,

assertiveness and high amounts of emotional expressiveness.

2.

Agreeableness: This personality dimension includes attributes such as trust, altruism,

kindness, affection, and other prosocial behaviors.

3.

Conscientiousness: Common features of this dimension include high levels of

thoughtfulness, with good impulse control and goal-directed behaviors. Those high in
conscientiousness tend to be organized and mindful of details.

4.

Neuroticism: Individuals high in this trait tend to experience emotional instability, anxiety,
moodiness, irritability, and sadness.

5.

Openness: This trait features characteristics such as imagination and insight, and those high
in this trait also tend to have a broad range of interests.

Each of the five personality factors represents a range between two extremes. For example,
extraversion represents a continuum between extreme extraversion and extreme introversion. In the
real world, most people lie somewhere in between the two polar ends of each dimension.

Big 5 Personality Research

McCrae and his colleagues have also found that the big five traits are also remarkably
universal. One study that looked at people from more than 50 different cultures found that
the five dimensions could be accurately used to describe personality.
Based on this research, many psychologists now believe that the five personality dimensions
are not only universal; they also have biological origins. Psychology David Buss has
proposed that an evolutionary explanation for these five core personality traits, suggesting
that these personality traits represent the most important qualities that shape our social
landscape.

Final Thoughts
Behavior involves an interaction between a person's underlying personality and situational
variables. The situation that a person finds himself or herself in plays a major role in how the
person reacts. However, in most cases, people offer responses that are consistent with their
underlying personality traits.
These dimensions represent broad areas of personality. Research has demonstrated that
these groupings of characteristics tend to occur together in many people. For example,
individuals who are sociable tend to be talkative. However, these traits do not always occur
together. Personality is a complex and varied and each person may display behaviors across
several of these dimensions.

Personality Disorders
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-IV) , a personality disorder is an
"enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the
expectation of the individual's culture, is pervasive and inflexible, has an onset in
adolescence or early adulthood, is stable over time, and leads to distress or impairment."
Because these disorders are chronic and pervasive, they can lead to serious impairments in
daily life and functioning.

Causes of Personality Disorders

The causes of personality disorders are the subject of considerable debate and controversy. Some
experts believe that personality disorders are caused by early experiences that prevented the
development of normal thought and behavior patterns. Other researchers believe that biological or
genetic influences are the root cause of personality disorders.
While a definitive cause has not been established, it is likely that a combination of genetic
predisposition and environmental variables contribute to the development of personality disorders.
How are Personality Disorders Diagnosed?
In order to be diagnosed with a personality disorder, an individual must exhibit symptoms that meet
the diagnostic criteria established in the DSM-IV.

These patterns of behavior must be chronic and pervasive, affecting many different aspects of

the individuals life, including social functioning, work, school and close relationships.
The individual must exhibit symptoms that affect two or more of the following areas: thoughts,

emotions, interpersonal functioning and impulse control.

The pattern of behaviors must be stable across time and have an onset that can be traced

back to adolescence or early adulthood.

These behaviors cannot be explained by any other mental disorders, substance abuse or
medical conditions.
Different Types of Personality Disorders
Personality disorders are described on Axis II of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual. The DSM-IV lists
a total of ten different personality disorders. These disorders are classified into three separate clusters.
Cluster A - Odd or Eccentric Disorders

Paranoid Personality Disorder

Schizoid Personality Disorder
Schizotypal Personality Disorder
Cluster B - Dramatic, Emotional, or Erratic Disorders

Antisocial Personality Disorder

Borderline Personality Disorder
Histrionic Personality Disorder
Narcissistic Personality Disorder
Cluster C Anxious or Fearful Disorders

Avoidant Personality Disorder

Obsessive- Dependent Personality Disorder
Compulsive Personality Disorder

Differential Diagnosis

Before a clinician can diagnose a personality disorder, they must rule out other
disorders or medical conditions that may be causing the symptoms. The symptoms
that characterize personality disorders are often similar to those of other disorders
and illnesses. Personality disorders also commonly co-occur with other illnesses.
The following are potential differentials that must be ruled out before diagnosing an individual with a
personality disorder:

Substance Abuse
Anxiety Disorders
Depression
Dissociative Disorders
Social Phobia
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
Schizophrenia

Physical impact of personality

CHD, or coronary heart disease, is the complete or partial blocking of the arteries
that provide oxygen to the heart. It is the number one cause of death in the US and
accounts for almost a million dollars a day. Scientists began examining the factors
related to CHD and found that your specific type of personality can be associated
with later heart disease.
The results proved that a person with a Type A personality had a higher risk of
developing heart disease. Type A personality can be described as being competitive,
driven, hostile, and ambitious. The individuals with the highest levels of hostility
were shown to have the highest risk of CHD. Other factors such as smoking and diet
may be taken into account, but scientists found that tamping down hostility and
learning had a 37% decrease in deaths from heart attacks.
In conclusion, do you think that personality has as big of a factor on CHD compared
to diet and exercise?

Colors and psychology

White
: Symbolic of purity, innocence and naivet, white has strong connotations of youth
and purity. If you are an older person, your preference for white could indicate a
desire for perfection and impossible ideals, maybe an attempt to recapture lost
youth and freshness. It may also symbolize a desire for simplicity or the simple life.
Red
: The color of strength, health, and vitality, Red is often the color chosen by
someone outgoing, aggressive, vigorous and impulsiveor someone who would like
to be! It goes with an ambitious nature but those who choose it can be abrupt at
times, determined to get all they can out of life, quick to judge people and take
sides. Red people are usually optimistic and cant stand monotony; they are rather
restless andnot at all introspective, so they may be unaware of their own
shortcomings. They findit hard to be objective and may blame others for any
mishaps. Quiet people with a preference for red may feel the need for the warmth,
strength and life-giving qualities of the color, or they blanket their true feelings
under a sober exterior. Red is usually chosen by people with open and
uncomplicated natures, with a zest for life.
Maroon
: Harsh experience has probably matured the Maroon person into someone likeable
and generous. It is often a favorite color of someone who has been battered by life
but has come through. It indicates a well-disciplined Red personalityone who has
had difficult experiences and has not come through unmarked but who hasgrown
and matured in the process.
Pink
: This color embodies the gentler qualities of Red, symbolizing love and affection
without passion. Women who prefer Pink tend to be maternal.
Pink desires protection, special treatment and a sheltered life. Pink people require
affection and like to feel loved and secure, perhaps wanting to appear delicate and
fragile. Pink people tend to be charming and gentle, if a trifle indefinite.
Orange
: This color of luxury and pleasure appeals to the flamboyant and fun-loving person
who likes a lively social round. Orange people may be inclined to dramatize a bit,
and people notice them, but they are generally good-natured and popular. They can

be a little fickle and vacillating, but on the whole they try hard to be agreeable.
Orange is the color of youth, strength, fearlessness, curiosity and restlessness.
Yellow
: The color of happiness, wisdom and imagination, Yellow is chosen by the mentally
adventurous, searching for novelty and self-fulfillment. Yellow usually goes with a
sunny and shrewd personality, with a good business head and a strong sense
of humor. It is the color of intellectuality and all things to do with the mind. Yellow
folks are usually clear and precise thinkers who have a good opinion of their own
mental capacities and who have lofty ideals. They may at times tend to shun
responsibility, preferring freedom of thought and action.
Green
: The color of harmony and balance, Green symbolizes hope, renewal and peace,
and is usually liked by the gentle and sincere. Greens are generally frank,
community-minded people, fairly sociable but preferring peace at any price.
Green people can be too self-effacing, modest and patient, so they may get
exploited byothers. They are usually refined, civilized and reputable.
Blue
: Soft, soothing, compassionate and caring, Blue is the color of deliberation and
introspection, conservatism and duty. Patient, persevering, conscientious, sensitive