Music theory

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Music theory is the study of the practices and possibilities of music. It generally derives from observation
of how musicians and composers make music, but includes hypothetical speculation. Most commonly, the
term describes the academic study and analysis of fundamental elements of music such as pitch, rhythm,
harmony, and form, but also refers to descriptions, concepts, or beliefs related to music. Because of the
ever-expanding conception of what constitutes music (see Definition of music), a more inclusive definition
could be that music theory is the consideration of any sonic phenomena, including silence, as it relates to
music.
Music theory is a subfield of musicology, which is itself a subfield within the overarching field of the arts
and humanities. Etymologically, music theory is an act of contemplation of music, from the Greek ,
a looking at, viewing, contemplation, speculation, theory, also a sight, a spectacle.[1] As such, it is often
concerned with abstract musical aspects such as tuning and tonal systems, scales, consonance and
dissonance, and rhythmic relationships, but there is also a body of theory concerning such practical aspects
as the creation or the performance of music, orchestration, ornamentation, improvisation, and electronic
sound production. [2] A person working in music theory is a music theorist. Methods of analysis include
mathematics, graphic analysis, and, especially, analysis enabled by Western music notation. Comparative,
descriptive, statistical, and other methods are also used.
The development, preservation, and transmission of music theory may be found in oral and practical
music-making traditions, musical instruments, and other artifacts. For example, ancient instruments from
Mesopotamia, China,[3] and prehistoric sites around the world reveal details about the music they produced
and, potentially, something of the musical theory that might have been used by their makers (see History of
music and Musical instrument). In ancient and living cultures around the world, the deep and long roots of
music theory are clearly visible in instruments, oral traditions, and current music making. Many cultures, at
least as far back as ancient Mesopotamia, Pharoanic Egypt, and ancient China have also considered music
theory in more formal ways such as written treatises and music notation.

Contents
1 History of music theory
2 Fundamentals of music
2.1 Pitch
2.2 Scales and modes
2.3 Consonance and dissonance
2.4 Rhythm
2.5 Melody
2.6 Chord
2.7 Harmony
2.8 Timbre
2.8.1 Dynamics
2.8.2 Articulation
2.9 Texture
2.10 Form or structure
2.11 Analysis
2.12 Music perception and cognition
2.13 Expression

2.14 Performance and style

2.15 Mathematics
2.16 Serial composition and set theory
2.17 Musical semiotics
3 Music subjects
3.1 Notation
4 See also
5 Notes
6 Sources
7 Further reading
8 External links

History of music theory

The beginnings of music theory can be observed in
extremely ancient instruments, artifacts, and later,
depictions of performance in artworks.
As early as the Paleolithic, it appears people considered
elements of music in some way. For instance, a bone
flute with carefully placed finger holes found in Hohle
Fels in Germany and dated c.35,000 BCE, [4] may be a
prehistoric example of the manufacture of an instrument
to produce a preconceived set of pitches. For further
discussion of Upper Paleolithic flutes, see d'Errico, et al.
2003, 3948.
Similar bone flutes (gd, ) from Neolithic

Ancient Egyptian musicians playing lutes in an

ensemble.

Jiahu, China dated c. 7,000 BCE [5] reveal their makers

progressively added more holes to expand their scales,
structured pitch intervals closer to each other to adjust tuning, and could play increasingly expressive and
varied music. [6] "Tonal analysis of the flutes revealed that the seven holes [in some of the flutes]
correspond to a tone scale remarkably similar to Western eight-pitch scales."[7][8] These instruments[9]
indicate their makers became familiar with acoustics and developed theories of music comparable to those
of later times. Audio recordings of two of these flutes by Brookhaven National Laboratory are available
here (http://www.bnl.gov/bnlweb/pubaf/pr/1999/bnlpr092299.html).
In North America, similar flutes from the Anasazi Indian culture were found in Arizona and dated c. 600
750 CE, but again, suggest an older tradition. These instruments typically have six finger holes ranging one
and a half octaves.[10] As with all these ancient flutes, it is likely an error to imagine the Anasazi flutes
were limited to only as many tones as they have holes. Changes in embouchure, overblowing, and crossfingering are common techniques on modern flutes like these that produce a much larger range of notes
within an octave and in octaves above the fundamental octave.[11]
The earliest known examples of written music theory are inscribed on clay tablets found in Iraq and Syria,
some of which contain lists of intervals and other details[12][13] from which "...musicologists have been
able to produce credible reconstructions of the Mesopotamian tonal and tuning systems." [14] Tablets from
Ugarit contain what are known as the Hurrian songs or Hurrian Hymns dated c. 1,400 BCE. An

interpretation of the only substantially complete Hurrian Hymn, h.6, may be heard here
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ygoCqxjMcEQ). The system of phonetic notation in Sumer and
Babylonia is based on a music terminology that gives individual names to nine musical strings or "notes",
and to fourteen basic terms describing intervals of the fourth and fifth that were used in tuning string
instruments (according to seven heptatonic diatonic scales), and terms for thirds and sixths that appear to
have been used to fine tune (or temper in some way) the seven notes generated for each
scale.[15][16][17][18][19]
Over time, many cultures began to record their theories of music in writing by describing practices and
theory that was previously developed and passed along through oral tradition. In cultures where no written
examples exist, oral traditions indicate a long history of theoretical consideration, often with unique
concepts of use, performance, tuning and intervals, and other fundamental elements of music. The Vedas,
the sacred texts of India (c. 1,000500 BCE) contain theoretical discussion of music in the Sama Veda and
Yajur-Veda. The Natya Shastra,[20] written between 200 BCE to 200 CE and attributed to Bharata Muni,
discusses classes of melodic structure, intervals, consonance and dissonance, performance, and other
theoretical aspects such a "shruti," defined as the least perceivable difference between two pitches. [21]
The music of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica is known through the many instruments discovered. Thirty-two
condor-bone flutes and thirty-seven cornet-like instruments made of deer and llama bones have been
recovered from a site at Caral, Peru dating to c. 2,100 BCE. [22][23][24] Flute No. 15 produces five distinct
fundamental tones. A Mayan marimba-like instrument (c. 350 CE), made from five turtle shells of
decreasing sizes suspended on a wooden frame, has been discovered in Belize.[25]
Later artwork depicts ensemble and solo performance. Taken together, this evidence does not in itself
demonstrate anything about music theory in Mesoamerica from at least 2,000 BCE, though "...it is widely
accepted that finds and depictions of ancient musical instruments are not only markers of musical traditions
in space and time. The information obtained from the archaeological record can be deepened
considerably when ancient scripts, historical treaties, and other written sources concerning music are
related. Such documents offer notes on performance practices and their sociocultural contexts. For some
cultures, hints concerning ancient music theory and musical aesthetics may also be found."[26]
Music theory in ancient Africa can also be seen in instruments .[27] The Mbira, a wood or bamboo-tined
instrument similar to a Kalimba, appeared on the west coast of Africa about 3,000 years ago, and metaltined lamellophones appeared in the Zambezi River valley around 1,300 years ago. [28] In the 20th century,
these instruments produce a number of tones, ranging to 32 separate pitches, and demonstrate a great
variety of tuningstunings "so dissimilar as to offer no apparent common foundation", something that
might have been expected at least by 1932.[29] The djemb, a common type of drum, likely originated from
earlier, extremely ancient drums.[30] Djemb ensembles create complex polyrhythmic patterns,[31] but
produce a variety of pitches depending on size and playing technique, usually producing at least three
separate tones.[32] African music theory is also preserved in oral and cultural traditions that are one
example of the great variety of concepts of fundamental aspects of music around the world. [33]
In China, a variety of wind, string, percussion instruments, and written descriptions and drawings of them
from the Shang Dynasty (c.16th to 11th century BCE), show sophisticated form and design.[34] During the
Zhou Dynasty (c.1046256 BC), a formal system of court and ceremonial music later termed "yayue" was
established. As early as the 7th century BCE, a system of pitch generation was described based on a ratio
of 2:3 and a pentatonic scale was derived from the cycle of fifths,[35] the beginnings of which appear in

7,000 year-old Jiahu bone flutes. In the tomb of the Marquis Yi of Zeng (5th century BCE), among many
other instruments, a set of bronze chime bells were found that sound five complete seven note octaves in
the key of C Major and include twelve semitones.[36] The Analects of Confucius, believed to have been
written c. 475 to 221 BC, discuss the aesthetics of what Confucius considered the most benevolent form
and use of music, in contrast to popular music of his timean example of early music criticism and
consideration of aesthetics. [37][38]
Around the time of Confucius, the ancient Greeks,
notably Pythagoras (c. 530 BCE), Aristotle (c. 350
BCE), [39] Aristoxenus (c. 335 BCE), [40] and later
Ptolemy (c. 120 CE),[41] speculated and experimented
with ideas that became the basis of music theory in
Middle Eastern and Western cultures during the Middle
Ages as can be seen, for example, in the writing of
Boethius in 5th century Rome [42] and Yunus al-Katibin
7th century Medina.[43] Middle Eastern and Western
theory diverged in different directions from ancient
Greek theory and created what are now two distinctly
different bodies of theory and styles of music.

A set of bells from China, 5th Century BCE.

As Western musical influence spread throughout the world in the 1800s, musicians adopted Western theory
as an international standardbut other theoretical traditions in both textual and oral traditions remain in
use. For example, the long and rich musical traditions unique to ancient and current cultures of Africa are
primarily oral, but describe specific forms, genres, performance practices, tunings, and other aspects of
music theory.[44][45]
Major contributors to the field include the ancient Greeks: Archytas, Aristotle, ristoxenus, Eratosthenes,
Plato, Pythagoras, and later Ptolemy. The Middle Ages of Europe had Boethius, Franco of Cologne, Guido
of Arezzo, Hucbald of Saint-Amand, Jacob of Lige, and Jean de Muris. Later in Europe, Zarlino,
Rameau, Werckmeister, and Fux helped further musical knowledge. More recently, Riemann, Schenker,
Boulanger, and Schoenberg contributed (see List of music theorists). Musical theorists in India include
Bharata Muni, Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande, Purandara Dasa, and Sharngadeva. The Middle East had Ibn
Misjah, Ibrahim al-Mawsili. and his son Ishaq, Yunus al-Katib, Ibn Sina (known in Europe as Avicenna).
China had Confucius, Yong Menzhoue, and Cao Rou.

Fundamentals of music
Music is composed of aural phenomena, and "music theory" considers how those phenomena apply in
music. Music theory considers melody, rhythm, counterpoint, harmony, form, tonal systems, scales, tuning,
intervals, consonance, dissonance, durational proportions, the acoustics of pitch systems, composition,
performance, orchestration, ornamentation, improvisation, electronic sound production, etc.[46]

Pitch
Pitch is the lowness or highness of a tone, for example the difference

Pitch is the lowness or highness of a tone, for example the difference

between middle C and a higher C. The frequency of the sound
waves producing a pitch can be measured precisely, but the
perception of pitch is more complex because we rarely hear a single
frequency or pure pitch. In music, tones, even those sounded by solo
instruments or voices, are usually a complex combination of
frequencies, and therefore a mix of pitches. Accordingly, theorists
often describe pitch as a subjective

sensation.[47]

Middle C (261.626 Hz)

Play .

Most people appear to possess relative pitch, which means they perceive each note relative to some
reference pitch, or as some interval from the previous pitch. Significantly fewer people demonstrate
absolute pitch (or perfect pitch), the ability to identify pitches without comparison to another pitch. Human
perception of pitch can be comprehensively fooled to create auditory illusions. Despite these perceptual
oddities, perceived pitch is nearly always closely connected with the fundamental frequency of a note, with
a lesser connection to sound pressure level, harmonic content (complexity) of the sound, and to the
immediately preceding history of notes heard.[48] In general, the higher the frequency of vibration, the
higher the perceived pitch. The lower the frequency, the lower the pitch.[49] However, even for tones of
equal intensity, perceived pitch and measured frequency do not stand in a simple linear relationship. [50]
Intensity (loudness) can change perception of pitch. Below about 1000 Hz, perceived pitch gets lower as
intensity increases. Between 1000 and 2000 Hz, pitch remains fairly constant. Above 2000 Hz, pitch rises
with intensity. [51] This is due to the ear's natural sensitivity to higher pitched sound, as well as the ear's
particular sensitivity to sound around the 20005000 Hz interval,[52] the frequency range most of the
human voice occupies.[53]
The difference in frequency between two pitches is called an interval. The most basic interval is the unison,
which is simply two notes of the same pitch, followed by the slightly more complex octave: pitches that are
either double or half the frequency of the other. The unique characteristics of octaves gave rise to the
concept of what is called pitch class, an important aspect of music theory. Pitches of the same letter name
that occur in different octaves may be grouped into a single "class" by ignoring the difference in octave.
For example, a high C and a low C are members of the same pitch classthe class that contains all C's.
The concept of pitch class greatly aids aspects of analysis and composition. [54]
Although pitch can be identified by specific frequency, the letter names assigned to pitches are somewhat
arbitrary. For example, today most orchestras assign Concert A (the A above middle C on the piano) to the
specific frequency of 440 Hz, rather than, for instance, 435HZ as it was in France in 1859. In England, that
A varied between 439 and 452. These differences can have a noticeable effect on the timbre of instruments
and other phenomena. Many cultures do not attempt to standardize pitch, often considering that it should be
allowed to vary depending on genre, style, mood, etc. In historically informed performance of older music,
tuning is often set to match the tuning used in the period when it was written. A frequency of 440 Hz was
recommended as the standard pitch for Concert A in 1939, and in 1955 the International Organization for
Standardization affirmed the choice.[55] A440 is now widely, though not exclusively, the standard for
music around the world.
Pitch is also an important consideration in tuning systems, or temperament, used to determine the intervallic
distance between tones, as within a scale. Tuning systems vary widely within and between world cultures.
In Western culture, there have long been several competing tuning systems, all with different qualities.
Internationally, the system known as equal temperament is most commonly used today because it is
considered the most satisfactory compromise that allows instruments of fixed tuning (e.g. the piano) to
sound acceptably in tune in all keys.

Scales and modes

Notes can be arranged in a variety of scales and modes.
Western music theory generally divides the octave into a
series of twelve tones, called a chromatic scale, within
which the interval between adjacent tones is called a half
step or semitone. In equal temperament each semitone is
equidistant from the next, but other tuning systems are also
used. Selecting tones from this set of 12 and arranging them

A pattern of whole and half steps in the Ionian

mode or major scale on C Play .

in patterns of semitones and whole tones creates other scales. [56]

The most commonly encountered scales are the seven-toned major, the harmonic minor, the melodic
minor, and the natural minor. Other examples of scales are the octatonic scale and the pentatonic or fivetone scale, which is common in folk music and blues. Non-Western cultures often use scales that do not
correspond with an equally divided twelve-tone division of the octave. For example, classical Ottoman,
Persian, Indian and Arabic musical systems often make use of multiples of quarter tones (half the size of a
semitone, as the name indicates), for instance in 'neutral' seconds (three quarter tones) or 'neutral' thirds
(seven quarter tones) they do not normally use the quarter tone itself as a direct interval.[57]
In traditional Western notation, the scale used for a composition is usually indicated by a key signature at
the beginning to designate the pitches that make up that scale. As the music progresses, the pitches used
may change and introduce a different scale. Music can be transposed from one scale to another for various
purposes, often to accommodate the range of a vocalist. Such transposition raises or lowers the overall pitch
range, but preserves the intervallic relationships of the original scale. For example, transposition from the
key of C major to D major raises all pitches of the scale of C major equally by a whole tone. Since the
interval relationships remain unchanged, transposition may be unnoticed by a listener, however other
qualities may change noticeably because transposition changes the relationship of the overall pitch range
compared to the range of the instruments or voices that perform the music. This often affects the music's
overall sound, as well as having technical implications for the performers. [58]
The interrelationship of the keys most commonly used in Western tonal music is conveniently shown by the
circle of fifths. Unique key signatures are also sometimes devised for a particular composition. During the
Baroque period, emotional associations with specific keys, known as the doctrine of the affections, were an
important topic in music theory, but the unique tonal colorings of keys that gave rise to that doctrine were
largely erased with the adoption of equal temperament. However, many musicians continue to feel that
certain keys are more appropriate to certain emotions than others. Indian classical music theory continues to
strongly associate keys with emotional states, times of day, and other extra-musical concepts and notably,
does not employ equal temperament.

Consonance and dissonance

Consonance and dissonance are subjective qualities of the sonority of intervals that vary widely in different
cultures and over the ages.
Consonance (or concord) is the quality of an interval or chord that seems stable and complete in itself.
Dissonance (or discord) is the opposite in that it feels incomplete and "wants to" resolve to a consonant
interval. Dissonant intervals seem to clash. Consonant intervals seem to sound comfortable together.
Commonly, perfect fourths, fifths, and octaves and all major and minor thirds and sixths are considered
consonant. All others are dissonant to greater or lesser degree.[59]

Context and many other aspects can affect apparent dissonance and consonance. For example, in a
Debussy prelude, a major second may sound stable and consonant, while the same interval may sound
dissonant in a Bach fugue. In the Common Practice era, the perfect fourth is considered dissonant when not
supported by a lower third or fifth. Since the early 20th century, Arnold Schoenbergs concept of
"emancipated" dissonance, in which traditionally dissonant intervals can be treated as "higher," more
remote consonances, has become more widely accepted.[60]
Dissonance is an essential element of music and used in most every culture and genre, not only for effect,
but as a fundamental structural element to create motion and tension. J.S. Bachs music depends in great
part on the effect of dissonance. The art of melody writing depends heavily upon the selection of consonant
and dissonant tones.

Rhythm
Rhythm is produced by the sequential arrangement of
sounds and silences in time. Meter measures music in
regular pulse groupings, called measures or bars. The
time signature or meter signature specifies how many
beats are in a measure, and which value of written note
is counted or felt as a single beat.
Through increased stress, or variations in duration or
articulation, particular tones may be accented. There are
Metric levels: beat level shown in middle with
conventions in most musical traditions for regular and
division levels above and multiple levels below.
hierarchical accentuation of beats to reinforce a given
meter. Syncopated rhythms contradict those conventions
by accenting unexpected parts of the beat. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature is
called polymeter. See also polyrhythm.
In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars.
Recent work in these areas includes books by Bengt-Olov Palmqvist, Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff,
and Jonathan Kramer.

Melody
A melody is a series of tones sounding in succession
that typically move toward a climax of tension then
resolve to a state of rest. Because melody is such a
prominent aspect in so much music, its construction and
other qualities are a primary interest of music theory.
The basic elements of melody are pitch, duration,
"Pop Goes the Weasel" melody[61] Play
rhythm, and tempo. The tones of a melody are usually
drawn from pitch systems such as scales or modes.
Melody may consist, to increasing degree, of the figure, motive, semi-phrase, antecedent and consequent
phrase, and period or sentence. The period may be considered the complete melody, however some
examples combine two periods, or use other combinations of constituents to create larger form
melodies.[62]

Chord

Harmony
Timbre
Timbre, sometimes called "color", or "tone color," is the principal phenomenon that allows us to distinguish
one instrument from another when both play at the same pitch and volume, a quality of a voice or
instrument often described in terms like bright, dull, shrill, etc. It is of considerable interest in music theory,
especially because it is one component of music that has as yet, no standardized nomenclature. It has been
called "...the psychoacoustician's multidimensional waste-basket category for everything that cannot be
labeled pitch or loudness,"[63] but can be accurately described and analyzed by Fourier analysis and other
methods [64] because it results from the combination of all sound frequencies, attack and release envelopes,
and other qualities that comprise a tone.
Timbre is principally determined by two things: (1) the relative balance of overtones produced by a given
instrument due its construction (e.g. shape, material), and (2) the envelope of the sound (including changes
in the overtone structure over time). Timbre varies widely between different instruments, voices, and to
lesser degree, between instruments of the same type due to variations in their construction, and
significantly, the performer's technique. The timbre of most instruments can be changed by employing
different techniques while playing. For example, the timbre of a trumpet changes when a mute is inserted
into the bell, the player changes their embouchure, or volume.
A voice can change its timbre by the way the performer manipulates their vocal apparatus, (e.g. the shape
of the vocal cavity or mouth). Musical notation frequently specifies alteration in timbre by changes in
sounding technique, volume, accent, and other means. These are indicated variously by symbolic and verbal
instruction. For example, the word dolce (sweetly) indicates a non-specific, but commonly understood soft
and "sweet" timbre. Sul tasto instructs a string player to bow near or over the fingerboard to produce a less
brilliant sound. Cuivre instructs a brass player to produce a forced and stridently brassy sound. Accent
symbols like marcato (^) and dynamic indications (pp) can also indicate changes in timbre.
Dynamics
In music, "dynamics" normally refers to variations of
intensity or volume, as may be measured by physicists
and audio engineers in decibels or phons. In music
notation, however, dynamics are not treated as absolute
values, but as relative ones. Because they are usually
measured subjectively, there are factors besides
amplitude that affect the performance or perception of
intensity, such as timbre, vibrato, and articulation.

An illustration of hairpins in musical notation.

The conventional indications of dynamics are abbreviations for Italian words like forte (f) for loud and
piano (p) for soft. These two basic notations are modified by indications including mezzo piano (mp) for
moderately soft (literally "half soft") and mezzo forte (mf) for moderately loud, sforzando or sforzato (sfz)
for a surging or "pushed" attack, or fortepiano (fp) for a loud attack with a sudden decrease to a soft level.
The full span of these markings usually range from a nearly inaudible pianissississimo (pppp) to a loud-aspossible fortissississimo (ffff).
Greater extremes of pppppp and fffff and nuances such as p+ or pi piano are sometimes found. Other
systems of indicating volume are also used in both notation and analysis: dB (decibels), numerical scales,
colored or different sized notes, words in languages other than Italian, and symbols such as those for
progressively increasing volume (crescendo) or decreasing volume (decrescendo), often called "hairpins"

when indicated with diverging or converging lines as shown in the graphic above.
Articulation
Articulation is the manner in which the performer
sounds notes. For example, staccato is the shortening of
duration compared to the written note value, legato
performs the notes in a smoothly joined sequence with
no separation. Articulation is often described rather than
quantified, therefore there is room to interpret how to
execute precisely each articulation.

Examples of articulations. From left to right:

staccato, staccatissimo, martellato, marcato, tenuto.

For example, staccato is often referred to as "separated" or "detached" rather than having a defined or
numbered amount by which to reduce the notated duration. Violin players use a variety of techniques to
perform different qualities of staccato. The manner in which a performer decides to execute a given
articulation is usually based on the context of the piece or phrase, but many articulation symbols and verbal
instructions depend on the instrument and musical period (e.g. viol, wind; classical, baroque; etc.).
There are a set of articulations that most all instruments and voices perform in common. They are, in order
of long to short: legato (smooth, connected); tenuto (pressed or played to full notated duration); marcato
(accented and detached); staccato ("separated", "detached"); martel (heavily accented or "hammered").
Many of these can be combined to create certain "in-between" articulations. For example, portato is the
combination of tenuto and staccato. Some instruments have unique methods by which to produce sounds,
such as spicatto for bowed strings, where the bow bounces off the string.

Texture
Form or structure
Analysis
Music perception and cognition
Expression
Performance and style
Mathematics
Serial composition and set theory
Musical semiotics

Music subjects
Notation
Musical notation is the written or symbolized representation of
music. This is most often achieved by the use of commonly
understood graphic symbols and written verbal instructions and their

Tone row from Alban Berg's Lyric

Suite, mov. I. Play

abbreviations. Computer file formats have become important as

well.[65] Spoken language and hand signs are also used to
symbolically represent music, primarily in teaching.

Tibetan musical score from the 19th

century.

In standard Western music notation, tones are represented

graphically by symbols (notes) placed on a staff or staves, the vertical axis corresponding to pitch and the
horizontal axis corresponding to time. Note head shapes, stems, flags, ties and dots are used to indicate
duration. Additional symbols indicate keys, dynamics, accents, rests, etc. Verbal instructions are often used
to indicate tempo, technique, and other aspects.
There are many systems of music notation from different cultures and different ages. Traditional Western
notation evolved during the Middle Ages and remains an area of experimentation and innovation. [66]

See also
Pitch (psychophysics)
AP Music Theory
Theory of painting
Musicology
List of music theorists

Notes
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30.

OED 2005.
Palisca and Bent n.d., Theory, theorists. 1. Definitions.
Latham 2002, 1517.
Conrad, Malina, and Mnzel 2009, 738.
Zhang and Kuem 2005, passim.
Zhang, Xiao, and Lee 2004, 769, 775.
Zhang, Harboolt, Wang, and Kong 1999, passim.
Zhang and Kuen 2004, passim.
Lee and Shen 1999, passim.
Bakkegard and Morris 1961, passim.
Gross n.d..
Mirelman 2013a, passim.
Mirelman 2013b, passim.
Crickmore 2012, 57.
Civil 2010, text 6.3.1.
Laroche 1955, passim.
Schaeffer and Nougayrol n.d., 463, cuneiform text on 487.
Dietrich and Loretz 1975, passim.
Martin 1994, 166.
Muni 1951.
Bakshi 2005, passim.
Ross 2002, passim.
Haas and Creamer 2001, passim.
Cheong 2012, passim.
Brill 2012, passim.
Both 2009, 1.
Kubik 2010,2128.
Kubik 1998,.
Tracey 1969, 93.
Charry 2000,.

31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
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60.
61.
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63.
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65.
66.

Billmeier 1999,.
Henning 2012.
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Thrasher 2000, 2.
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Confucius 1999, Chapter VI.
Barnes 1984, Politics book VIII, chapts. 57, pp. 212529.
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Ptolemy 1999.
Boethius 1989.
Shiloah 2003, 24.
Kubik 2010, passim.
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Palisca and Bent n.d..
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Despopoulos and Silbernagl 2003, 362.
Nave n.d..
Bartlette and Laitz 2010,.
Cavanagh 1999.
Touma 1996,.
Touma 1996,.
Forsyth 1935, 73-74.
Latham 2002,.
Latham 2002,.
Kliewer 1975,.
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Further reading
Apel, Willi, and Ralph T. Daniel (1960). The Harvard Brief Dictionary of Music. New York: Simon & Schuster
Inc. ISBN 0-671-73747-3
Baur, John (2014). Practical Music Theory. Dubuque: Kendall-Hunt Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1-46521790-5
Benward, Bruce, Barbara Garvey Jackson, and Bruce R. Jackson. (2000). Practical Beginning Theory: A
Fundamentals Worktext, 8th edition, Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-697-34397-9. [First edition 1963]
Brown, James Murray (1967). A Handbook of Musical Knowledge, 2 vols. London: Trinity College of Music.
Chase, Wayne (2006). How Music REALLY Works!, second edition. Vancouver, Canada: Roedy Black Publishing.
ISBN 1-897311-55-9 (book).
Dunbar, Brian (2010). Practical Music Theory: A Guide to Music as Art, Language, and Life. Rochester, Minn.:
Factum Musicae. ISBN 978-0578062471.
Hewitt, Michael (2008). Music Theory for Computer Musicians. USA: Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-59863-5034.
Lawn, Richard J., and Jeffrey L. Hellmer (1996). Jazz Theory and Practice. [N.p.]: Alfred Publishing Co. ISBN 088284-722-8.
Mazzola, Guerino (1985). Gruppen und Kategorien in der Musik: Entwurf einer mathematischen Musiktheorie
(http://books.google.com/books?id=ktPuAAAAMAAJ). Heldermann. ISBN 978-3-88538-210-2. Retrieved
26 February 2012.

Mazzola, Guerino; Daniel Muzzulini (1990). Geometrie der Tne: Elemente der mathematischen Musiktheorie
(http://books.google.com/books?id=LOkDNQAACAAJ). Birkhuser. ISBN 978-3-7643-2353-0. Retrieved
26 February 2012.
Mazzola, Guerino, Stefan Gller, and Stefan Mller (2002). The Topos of Music: Geometric Logic of Concepts,
Theory, and Performance, Vol. 1 (http://books.google.com/books?id=6I9U9-Rls8oC). Basel, Boston, and Berlin:
Birkhuser. ISBN 978-3-7643-5731-3. (Basel). ISBN 978-0-8176-5731-4 (Boston). Retrieved 26 February 2012.
Olson, Harry F. (1967). Music, Physics and Engineering (http://books.google.com/?id=RUDTFBbb7jAC). New
York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-21769-8.
Miguel, Roig-Francoli (2011). Harmony in Context, Second edition, McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN
0073137944.
Owen, Harold (2000). Music Theory Resource Book. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511539-2.
Seashore, Carl (1933). Approaches to the Science of Music and Speech. Iowa City: The University.
Seashore, Carl (1938). Psychology of Music (http://books.google.com/books?
id=p9gUknYfpjYC&printsec=frontcover). New York, London: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
Sorce, Richard (1995). Music Theory for the Music Professional. [N.p.]: Ardsley House. ISBN 1-880157-20-9.
Taruskin, Richard (2009). "Music from the Earliest Notations to the Sixteenth Century: The Oxford History of
Western Music." Oxford University Press ISBN 0195384814.
Taylor, Eric (1989). AB Guide to Music Theory, Part 1. London: Associated Board of the Royal Schools of
Music. ISBN 1-85472-446-0.
Taylor, Eric (1991). AB Guide to Music Theory, Part 2. London: Associated Board of the Royal Schools of
Music. ISBN 1-85472-447-9.
Yamaguchi, Masaya (2006). The Complete Thesaurus of Musical Scales, revised edition. New York: Masaya
Music Services. ISBN 0-9676353-0-6.

External links
Dillen, Oscar van, Outline of basic music theory

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