Chapter 7 Solar Collector Design For Solar Assisted Desiccant Cooling

Experimental Investigation and Mathematical Modeling of a Low Energy Consuming
Hybrid Desiccant Cooling System for the Hot and Humid Areas of Pakistan
Chapter 7 Solar Collector Design for Solar Assisted Desiccant Cooling

7.1 Introduction
The last chapter has quantitatively shown the benefit of using solar collector to supply part of thermal
energy for the desiccant cooling system. This chapter serves as an essential part of the study to show
the feasibility of solar collector to supply part of the thermal energy needed for the desiccant cooling
system. Both liquid and air collectors can be used for achieving this end but heat supply system based
on the solar air collector offers greater opportunities. This is due to the ease with which the air
collector can be integrated in the cooling system. Present chapter shows that thermal analysis of a
solar collector for the Pakistani city of Karachi can yield valuable information to reinforce this
argument.
This chapter illustrates that from modeling point of view it is critical to be able to predict the useful
energy gain of the collector under wide range of operating conditions. The low heat transfer
properties of air due to its low heat transfer coefficient and low heat capacity necessitate a study of
the factors which have an effect on the performance of air collector. The objective of this study is to
ascertain two important issues regarding the use of collector. First whether a collector with staggered
fins is capable of delivering the amount of temperature and energy needed for regeneration of
desiccant wheel. Second area to be explored is to observe what effects the collector slope has on the
energy collection ability of the solar air collector.
Computation fluid dynamics (CFD) is a suitable technique to perform detailed fluid flow and heat
transfer analysis of a phenomenon. This chapter encompasses computational fluid dynamic technique
and TRNSYS simulation for the climate of Karachi to predict the performance of solar air collector.
Presence of fins is known to have positive effects on the heat transfer in collector absorber. Here an
attempt has been made to evaluate the benefits of fins inside the absorber air passage or duct. CFD
analysis technique is found to be suitable for micro analysis of the processes taking place inside the
solar collector air duct; this analysis will be carried out under steady state working conditions and
under constant heat flux to qualitatively predict behavior of the collector.
The macro analysis of the collector on TRNSYS provides valuable quantitative information about the
behavior of collector in given weather conditions. This chapter suggests that the TRNSYS and CFD
analysis techniques of the solar air collector are basically complementary in nature and they reinforce
the notion that the solar air collector are a viable means to heat the air for the desiccant wheel
regeneration purpose in the weather conditions of Pakistan.
7.2 Pakistans Solar Energy Resources

In the experimental work performed during this study the heat supplied to actual test plant was
obtained from a natural gas heater, however, it was assumed that part of the thermal load for
regeneration air heating will be met by a solar air collector array. This methodology necessitated
detailed analysis of solar air collector for the climatic conditions of Pakistan.
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Use of solar radiation for replacing traditional fossil fuels is becoming increasingly common in the
world because of feasibility of its application in common life. Solar energy has many advantages
such as it is inexhaustible, it is free, and its use does not cause any environmental damage. For space
cooling purpose availability of solar energy coincides with the need for cooling. Similarly the
summer peak demand of electricity due to extensive use of air conditioners matches with the peak
solar irradiance, this situation offers an opportunity to use solar energy in the space cooling system.
Solar radiation striking a surface outside the earth atmosphere at a mean sun earth distance is 1395
W/m2 [Duffie, 1991] which is known as solar constant. Any radiation striking a surface on the earth
will have a value lower than solar constant due to attenuation in atmosphere. Despite being dilute
solar energy nevertheless can be utilized for many useful purposes such heating. In the case of South
Asia sunlight is abundantly available during most of the cooling period. These and other encouraging
attributes of solar energy made it suitable candidate for use in the desiccant cooling system.
Pakistan is a sun-belt country, lying between the latitudes of 24 and 33 degrees, it receives significant
amount of sunshine during summer and winter. This favorable geographical position places it among
the countries which are endowed with enormous potential for solar energy utilization. The sunshine
hours available in Karachi for a cooling season are given in the Figure 7.1; this figure also shows the
effects of cloud cover in the form of reduced radiation during the monsoon period, lasting from late
June to early September. Figure 7.2 shows the extra terrestrial, total and beam radiation for first week
of June for Karachi. It is apparent from these two figures that the amount of radiation available for
this city is considerable that can be utilized as a heating source for the desiccant cooling system.
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350
Sunshine Hours (hour)
300
250
200
150
100
50
Ju
ly
A
ug
Se
us
pt
em t
be
r
O
ct
ob
N
er
ov
em
b
D
e c er
em
be
r
Ja
nu
Fe ary
br
ua
ry
M
ar
ch
A
pr
il
M
ay
Ju
ne
Time (Month)
Figure 7.1 Monthly mean sunshine hours for Karachi
Total radiation
on surface
Solar Energy (kJ/hour.m2)
Beam radiation
on surface
Extraterrestrial
radiation
5000
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
3660
3680
3700
3720
3740
3760
3780
3800
3820
3840
3860
Time of year (Hours)
Figure 7.2 Extraterrestrial, total and beam solar radiation for

the first week of June for Karachi
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7.3 Solar Collector

A solar collector is a type of heat exchanger which converts solar radiation falling on its absorber
surface into heat that is used to raise the temperature of a fluid [Duffie, 1991]. Fluids used to remove
the heat from the collectors include water, air and thermal fluids. Collectors may have different
shapes and design to achieve different fluid temperatures. Solar collectors can be mainly classified
into two types: concentrating and non-concentrating. They are further categorized on the basis of
their concentrator optical properties and operating temperature that can be obtained at the receiver.
Concentrating systems are used to produce higher temperatures. Fixed orientation flat plat collectors
are simple in design and are most generally used for medium temperature use. Concentrating type
collectors use reflection or refraction of solar radiation to focus it on a smaller area thus increasing its
flux density and hence its ability to achieve higher temperatures, Table 7.1 explain the temperatures
that can be achieved from different collector designs and Figure 7.3 illustrates efficiency curves of
different collector designs.
Table 7.1 Characteristics of typical solar collectors
Solar
collector Max
Concentration
technology
operating
ratio
temperature
(C)
1
Flat plate Collectors Tambient + 100
Solar
fresnel 260-400
8-80
reflector technology
Parabolic
trough 260-400
8-80
collectors
Parabolodial
dish 500-1200
800-8000
concentrators
Tracking
Reference:
No tracking
[Duffie, 1991]
One-axis
One-axis
[Luzzi, 2004]
Two-axis
Due to its low cost and simple design and operation the most frequently used type of solar collectors
is flat plat collector; it is usually none concentrating and has fixed south facing orientation. It consists
of a black colored absorber plate, transparent cover for decreasing radiation and convection losses
and side and back insulation for lessening convection and bottom losses. Figure 7.4 illustrate the
input energy and different form losses for a collector. The functional part of a collector is its absorber
which has passages for the fluid to carry away the heat produced by the absorption of solar radiation.
An absorber is always heated from the top side by solar radiation which is not a good direction from
the point of view of heat transfer.
Flat plate glazed collectors are used when moderate temperatures are required these collectors utilize
both beam and diffused radiation for heating the fluid and are non tracking or fixed orientation type.
Since diffuse light is available during cloudy days a flat plate collector can supply heat during
overcast days albeit at reduced rates.
Based on the cover, flat plate solar collectors are of two types.
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Unglazed solar air collector

Glazed solar air collector
Unglazed collectors have the simplest design and are used in situations where lower temperatures are
acceptable such as swimming pool heating and space heating. Since these collectors operate at lower
temperatures they have lower thermal losses, absence of transparent cover also eliminates much of
the optical losses consequently these collectors tend to have higher efficiencies compared to glazed
collector.
A glazed solar collector on the other hand has a transparent cover over the sun facing side, this cover
allows the visible sun light to pass through it and absorbed by the black colored absorber plate. The
glass cover is opaque to long wave length thermal radiation emitted by the hot absorber plate.
Consequently because of these two features of the cover heat is trapped inside the collector in a
process commonly referred to as green house effect. The transparent cover also reduces convection
losses from the collector front. The overall impact of these factors is relatively high operating
temperature of glazed collector in comparison to unglazed collectors.
7.4 Practical Considerations for Solar Collectors

Mechanical design of a solar collector has direct bearing on its thermal performance. A properly
designed and fabricated solar collector should have following feature to attain maximum possible
efficiency and service life [Solarexpert, 2005].
7.4.1 Glazing Materials

The function of the glazing is to permit maximum possible short wave solar radiation and minimize
the leakage of long wave thermal radiation from the absorber collector. The glazing should be
transparent having a high transmittance for incident short wave solar radiation and low transmittance
for thermal long wave radiation emitted by collector.
For longest life and maintained transmittance, the most appropriate glazing material is tempered plate
glass. It has above 90 percent transmittance for short wave solar and very low transmittance for long
wave thermal radiation emitted by the absorber. Of the various grades of tempered plate glass, lowiron glass has the highest transmission and lowest reflection of sunlight. These properties result in
significant increases in collector efficiency. Although low-iron glass is slightly more expensive than
ordinary tempered glass but the cost premium for low-iron glass is smaller than the increase in
efficiency. Plastic glazing of various types is some times used on some solar collectors to reduce
weight and cost, but it may reduce performance and lifetime. Plastics inside a well sealed collector
may deteriorate rapidly and will outgas, depositing a haze of condensed oily liquid on the inside
surface of the glazing. Such haze will seriously reduce the collector efficiency by blocking solar
radiation. Plastic used in a collector may also result in limitations or restrictions of collector use in
high fire-risk zones by local building and safety departments.
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7.4.2 Insulation
Solar collector must be insulated form all sides to minimize the heat losses and increase thermal
efficiency. Different materials are used for insulation, best one are those which have low thermal
conductivity low density, long life and low cost. An otherwise well-designed solar collector will
experience excessively high stagnation temperatures that will cause polymer based insulations like
polyurethane and polystyrene to outgas and rapidly destroy the effectiveness of the collector.
Urethane and closely related products may be prohibited in collectors in fire hazard areas, due to their
ability to produce toxic fume at high temperature.. When these materials are used in solar collectors,
they should be used underneath a substantial blanket of other insulation material, such as binder-free
fiberglass to reduce the hazard of exposure to high temperatures, and should have an intervening tight
vapor barrier. When fiberglass is used, a larger thickness is required than would be needed for
urethane or related products. Case insulation is not the only important thermal insulation in a
collector, the absorber plate and connecting tubing penetrating the enclosure must be thermally
insulated from the case at all points of support. Heat losses can be high if either the absorber or
tubing touches the case or is supported through heat-conducting materials to the case.
7.4.3 Enclosure
The enclosure is used to contain insulation, provide support for the absorber and glazing, and to
protect the collector from heat loss due to convection. Enclosure also serves as barrier against
moisture which can get into the insulation from rain and dew. Enclosures are usually made from
various types of materials; some commonly used materials are aluminum sections with sheet
aluminum back, galvanized steel and painted mild steel. The desirable features of a good collector
enclosure are its weather resistance, dimensional integrity, strength and leak tightness. For a leak
tight design the number of joints and seams are usually minimized and completely sealed. Aluminum
is a good metal from the point of view of its light weight and corrosion resistance but its use in
polluted environment can shorten its life.
7.4.4 Selective Surface

To achieve maximum possible air temperatures a solar collector must have high absorptance for solar
radiation and low emittance for thermal radiation or long wave radiation. A surface which has higher
absorptance for short wave solar radiation and low emittance for long wave thermal radiation is
called a selective surface [Tiwari, 2002]. A flat plate collector operating at medium temperature emits
all energy at wave length in excess of 3m. A collector with selective surface will thus have minimal
radiation losses and will thus be able to achieve higher operating temperatures and efficiency.
For collectors intended to operate in the upper end of the medium temperature range and in the high
temperature range, selective absorber coating can improve efficiency by decreasing radiative losses
from the aperture. An effective selective coating is black chrome, applied by electroplating process
over a nickel base. If applied on a material other than copper, the plating must be applied to both
sides to avoid corrosion. Good black chrome plating on nickel base has proven stable and not
susceptible to high stagnation temperatures or aging. Figure 7.5 shows that the efficiency of
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collectors with selective coated absorbers and black painted absorbers; it is obvious that selective
coating results in a better efficiency.
7.5 Solar Air Collector

Solar air collectors are effective devices to harness solar radiation for space heating and cooling and
other purposes. Detailed thermal investigation of a solar air collector was first performed by Whillier
[Whillier, 1964], who showed that the efficiency of solar air collector can be improved by fins. Solar
air collectors may have a number of designs however they can be divided into two categories
according to design of their absorber; porous absorber and non-porous absorber.
A porous absorber design allows the solar radiation to penetrate some depth of the absorber and heats
the air flowing though the absorber. The absorber in this type may be fashioned from slit or expended
metal sheet, overlapped glass plates, and transpired honeycomb. Air collector with overlapping glass
plate absorber was first analyzed by Selcuk [Selcuk, 1971]. Because of the need for greater mass of
the absorber, these collectors tend to be massive and hence have thermal inertia or lag. These
collectors also tend to have larger air pressure drop due to the shape of the absorber. The implication
of the larger pressure drop is that such collectors require more fan power to maintain air flow.
Non-porous absorbers on the other hand are fabricated from metal sheets formed to make a passage
for air flow.. The air may flow between the transparent collector cover and absorber plate or in a
channel below the absorber plate. The channel usually has fins or corrugation or roughness to
increase heat transfer between the absorber and air. Since these collectors can be made from light
gage metal sheets they tend to be lighter with smaller pressure drop
Solar air collectors because of their simple construction and low cost are extensively used in the
world for heating purposes. Presently there are 1.16 million square meter air heaters installed in the
world supplying around 1.1 GW of thermal energy [REW, 2006]. A solar air collector is simple in
construction and can be fabricated from relatively cheap materials which may not necessarily by
expensive corrosion resistant alloys.
7.5.1 Advantages of Using Solar Air Collector

Both liquid and air type solar collectors can be used to heat regeneration air for the desiccant cooling
system. In comparison to air collectors the liquid collectors can achieve higher temperatures and
efficiencies because of superior thermal properties of water. Furthermore liquid type collectors have a
greater variety of designs that allows higher temperatures to be attained. However for regeneration air
heating a liquid type solar heater would require an extra heat exchanger and pump adding to the
system complexity and cost. Moreover the stagnation temperatures of a concentrating type collector
can be very high that requires a drain back system or some other safety measures to ensure that if this
situation arises it does not cause any damage or loss of performance.
An air collector on the other hand does not need to be pressurized and also there is no requirement for
an intermediate heat exchanger as same air can be sent through the solar collector and returned to the
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system. Since desiccant cooling system is usually located on roof tops it is easier to locate air
collector near the plant. It is also possible to integrate the solar air collectors in the roof of the room
housing the desiccant cooling plant this will result into a shorter ducting length and small pressure
drop. Since the air is at ambient pressure the collector and accompanying duct work can be made of
lighter material. Furthermore air is lighter than water consequently the operating collector load on the
structure is lower. Leakage in the case of liquid type solar collector can cause problem and is usually
repaired by shutting the system, while in the case of air heater leakage, except for a loss of some heat,
does not pose any major problem.
Figure 7. 3 Efficiency curves for different classes of solar

collectors, [REW, 2006]
Reflection
Re-radiation
Useful
Energy
Solar
Radiation
Convection
Bottom
Losses
Figure 7.4 Heat losses in a flat plate air heater
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1
0.9
0.8
Efficiency
0.7
0.6
G = 800 W/m2
= 0.96
Black = 0.92
Selective= 0.07
m = 100 g/s
Selective
Surface
0.5
0.4
0.3
Black paint
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.2
Tin - Tamb / G (K . m2 /W )
Figure7.5 Efficiencies of black painted and selective coating absorber air

collectors [Morhenne, 1990]
Transparent
Cover
Absorber plate
Fins
Insulation
Figure 7.6 Solar air collector absorber plate and fins
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7.6 Thermal Analysis of Solar Air Collector

It has been observed that the heat transfer coefficient between the absorber plate and working fluid of
solar air collector is generally low. It is attributed to two contributory factors; first, the formation of a
very thin boundary layer at the absorber plate surface commonly known as viscous sub-layer [Alok,
2006] and second, the low heat capacity of air [Lin, 2006]. The predominant mechanism of heat
transfer through the boundary layer is conduction, since the conductivity of air is very low hence it
can be said that this boundary layer works as an impediment to heat transfer from the absorber plate
to bulk air flow. To increase the heat transfer between absorber and air two variables can be
improved i. e., heat transfer coefficient and heat transfer area [Goldstein, 1976]. The convective heat
transfer coefficient can be increased by providing artificial roughness on the heat transferring surface
[Webb,1987] this technique tends to increase the heat transfer rate between absorber plate and air
[Liou, 1993].
The other technique is to increase the heat transfer area which could result in an overall increase in
heat transfer rate. One technique of increasing heat transfer area is to use fins below the absorber
plate. In view of the fact that absorber channel receives heat from the top side; since solar collector is
heated from this side by the sun. Air receiving heat from the under side of the absorber top plate
tends to cling and move along top side with little heat transfer between top and underlying layers of
air. This stratification results into a heat transfer value that is lower than what would bottom heating
will yield. Fins can be helpful in overcoming this situation by conducting heat from the top side to the
lower layers of air where it is conveyed to air by convection; thus improving solar air collectors
efficiency.
Although the application of fins in a conventional solar air heater has been known to be an efficient
method of enhancement of thermal efficiency of solar air heater and several experimental studies in
this area have been carried out; literature search in this area revealed that few CFD studies have been
done to investigate the effect of slope on the overall heat transfer in an inclined duct with staggered
fins. In this work, an attempt is made to numerically predict effect of staggered fins, low flow
velocity and solar collector slope angle on the heat transfer effects.
Following section gives a general brief overview of modeling procedure in Fluent computational
fluid dynamics software.
7.7 Modeling Procedure in CFD

A Computational fluid dynamics model is based on the concept of dividing the solution domain into
very large number of sub-zones. For each node and a given boundary condition mass, momentum,
and energy conservation equations are solved, consequently the fluid temperature and velocity at that
point are determined. Any small change occurring in the properties of the fluid at a point is used in
the input to next node point. This procedure is repeated for all grid points; the end result of this
computation is that all the properties, like temperature, velocities etc at all the points in the domain
are eventually known. Since this procedure involves solution of very large number of equations
iteratively, it is best done using the computation power of modern digital computers. A computer
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performs extremely quick calculations of large number of equation giving detailed results in
relatively short time. The estimation of temperature, pressure and velocity at each point in the domain
can be easily accomplished using computational fluid dynamic software and results can be obtained
in visual form.
CFD modeling was originally developed for industrial application. Today it is used in research work,
product development, and in almost all sphere of activity where a detailed picture of phenomena
involving heat transfer and fluid flow, phase change etc is desired. A number of software based on
CFD codes have been developed, few of them are: Fluent, Flovent, Phoenics, and CFX. Each
software is usually supported by supplementary software for different applications, such as domain
model preparation, mesh generation etc. Presently CFD techniques are increasingly used to model
flow through solar collectors [Lee, 2001].
7.7.1 Using Fluent Software

The analysis of a process in Fluent involves many steps in sequence to obtain the desired results.
Figure 7.7 shows the steps needed to complete a Fluent analysis. Gambit is pre-processor software
which facilitates the use of Fluent software. Its CAD interface facilities include
Drawing two and three dimensional model,
Defining their boundary conditions
Generating the calculation mesh
The calculation mesh is exported to Fluent software which is mainly used as a calculation tool. These
three steps are explained briefly in the following sections. Other details can be found by referring to
Gambit help menu. [Fluent Inc, 2004]
7.7.2 Defining Boundary and Continuum Conditions

The Graphical User interface (GUI) of Fluent software is mainly a CAD interface with different
commands. These commands have been set to draw the main components of any domain such as a
solar air collector consisting of such components as collector absorber plate, fins and edges. In the
case of complicated geometry it is also possible to use any CAD software such as AutoCAD to
prepare the model. The model can then be imported in Fluent environment as DXF file. It is possible
to draw the two dimensional models using edges and faces and three dimensional model using faces
and volumes.
Generally speaking two dimensional models are used for simple cases where it is anticipated that the
fluid properties will not change in three directions. Two dimensional models require relatively small
computational power and time because of smaller number of cells present in the domain. However
two dimensional models give unrealistic results for complex flows where properties change in all
directions (x, y, z, axes). Three dimensional analysis however significantly increases the computation
time as more cells are present and more equations have to be solved - consequently convergence
takes a longer time. Three dimensional CFD analysis gives a better picture of the processes taking
place in the solution domain and is used where detailed investigation is required [Versteeg, 1995].
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Defining boundary and continuum conditions of a model is a shared task between Fluent and Gambit
preprocessor programs. Generally initial definition is performed in Gambit. Considering three
dimensional modeling type of each entity such as pressure, at the external boundary of the domain
should be defined. Furthermore every entity inside the domain should be defined as fluid, porous or
solid. The fluid and solid zones to be modeled are sketched and the boundaries of the domain are
assigned with respective boundary conditions which can be flow inlet, flow exit, symmetry, rotational
axis etc.
Therefore boundaries of the system should be placed at regions where conditions are known.
7.7.3 Generation of Mesh

Gambit software is used for generating and analyzing grid. Boundary types can also be defined in
Gambit; this task can also be defined in the Fluent preprocessor. Fluent can use unstructured as well
as body fitted structured meshes with all types of mesh elements, such as triangular and quadrilateral
elements in two dimensional, and tetrahedral, hexahedral, pyramid, and wedge elements in three
dimensional analysis. This software is also capable of adapting all types of meshes during the
solution. This allows one to refine the resolution in areas of significant gradients in order to prevent
high numerical errors.
After the pre-processing part has been finished the simulation setup can be stored in a case file. This
file includes information on the grid file, the boundary conditions and the physical as well as
computational models of the run.
It is possible using Fluent software to simulate airflow under the influence of various parameters such
as air velocity, location and size of opening etc. however it is crucial to define the program settings
correctly which requires a good back ground knowledge of the software. Some relevant software
settings are as follows:
3D, Single Precision
Segregated Solver
Implicit formulation
Steady state scheme
Boussinesq Model for modeling density
k- turbulence model
Thermo-physical properties
In the present case the specific heat, viscosity and thermal conductivity values of air were kept
constant at T = 328 K.
7.7.4 Turbulence Model

Most air flow models in solar air collectors consider airflow to be turbulent; the reason for this being
the very low value of air viscosity. Interaction with fins inside the solar collector also induces
turbulence. No universal turbulence model exists that caters for all ranges of flow, internal or
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external. The choice of turbulence model is not only dictated by the type of flow but also by the
availability of computational power and the accuracy desired.
7.7.5 Residual Monitoring

After completing all the relevant settings Fluent starts to perform the calculation in an iterative
manner until a sufficient tolerance, defined by the user, is achieved. This means that solution will
converge after attaining that minimum error. The calculation time increases when a smaller error is
defined.
There residual settings for the analysis were single precision, i.e. 10-3 for the continuity and 10-6 for
energy equation.
Define the modeling goals
Create model geometry

(Gambit or other CAD software)
Generate grid or mesh
Set up Solver and Physical model
Compute and monitor the solution
Examine and save the results

Figure 7.7 Steps involved in the CFD analysis procedure
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7.8 Modeling Solar Air Collector Fluent Analysis

Fluid flow characteristics greatly influence the heat transfer mechanism in a collector absorber
region. To fully appreciate these aspects a complete picture of the flow and heat temperature
variations inside the domain must be available. The flow pattern and turbulence intensity are
principle aspect influencing the local heat transfer coefficients. Researchers [Slanciauskas, 2001] and
[Davidson, 1997] have shown that peak in local heat transfer coefficient occurs at reattachment point.
Hence detailed information of flow pattern including flow direction change, plumes due to buoyancy
effects and dead zones within the domain was desired for this analysis.
7.8.1 Solution Domain

The solution domain for the CFD analysis was adapted from the experimental details of solar air
collector as described by Kurtbas et al [Kurtbas, 2006]. The collector absorber was a rectangular duct
with length of 1960 mm, width 930 mm and height of 60 mm. The duct had 32 fins of 0.012 m2 area
each with a width of 200mm and height of 60 mm. In their experimental work Kurtbas et al placed
fins in staggered fashion in the absorber duct. Because of the symmetrical nature of the solution
domain a quarter portion of the collector was used for the domain to save computational time and
power.
In the experimental details, the thickness of the heated plate was only 1 mm, which was very small in
comparison to the surface area normal to the heat flow. Hence the Biot number was also very small,
that means that the internal resistance could be neglected in comparison to convective resistance. This
permitted a uniform heat flux of 400W/m2 to be applied on absorber top surface, neglecting the
conduction resistance within the plate. A 3-D analysis of heat transfer and air flow through the
quarter portion of the solar air collector duct, inclined at 24 and 45, with parallel fins, insulated
bottom side was done on Fluent 6.2 CFD software.
7.8.2 Mesh Density

Meshing of the domain was done using Fluent complementary software Gambit 2.2, with nonuniform quad grid of 1 mm grid size and 1.01 node size ratio. This size was suitable to resolve the
laminar sub-layer. A general practice is to use fine mesh size in the area where greater details are
desired such as fins and coarse mesh in areas of small changes in domain geometry. Non uniform
high density mesh in inter fin region and on edges and corners were employed while low density
mesh was adapted in the smooth wall regions. The mesh density for th CFD analyses was kept at 200
x 200 x 16. This helped in economizing the number of cells needed for acceptable computational time
and computer memory, Figures 7.8 and 7.9 show the grid pattern for the flow domain.
Quad mesh is very suitable for quadratic upstream interpolation for convective kinetics (QUICK)
scheme [Fluent, 2005]. QUICK is a second-order discretization scheme which yields fairly accurate
results on a lower cell count when flow is aligned with grid. This saved both computational effort and
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time. An inlet air velocity of 0.03 m/s and outlet pressure equal to atmospheric pressure was used.
Because of the scope of the study no attempt was made to validate the model with experimental
results, good judgment based on knowledge of the basic underlying processes helped in ascertaining
the quality of the results.
7.8.2 Turbulence Settings

Standard k- turbulence model is the most widely used turbulence model due to its versatility. This
model was used with the following settings:
Inlet:
Turbulence Kinetic Energy: 1 m2/s2
Turbulence dissipation rate: 1 m2/s3
Model constants are as follows:
Cmu =0.09
C1- =1.44
C2- =1.92
Turbulent Kinetic Energy Pr = 1
TDR Pr = 1.3
Energy Pr = 0.85
Wall Pr = 0.85
Default settings were used for k- model.
7.8.4 Governing Equations

The general transport equation in integral form can be written as [Fluent, 2005]
dV + VdA = dA + SdV ,
A
A
V
t V
Unsteady + Convective = Diffusion + Generation.
The above equation is the general transport equation and can be easily converted into flow and
energy equations by the general variable with:
= 1 will give continuity equation
= u, will give x- momentum
= v, will give y-momentum
= ho, will give energy equation
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Boussinesq approximation model was used to obtain faster convergence of the solution. This
approximation model assumes that the density of the fluid is constant in all solved equations except
for the buoyancy term in momentum equation.
For achieving rapid convergence a transient strategy was adapted.
Figure 7.8 Meshing in quarter portion of the air collector absorber region to save on
computation time and memory
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Figure 7.9 Unequal meshing in the domain - walls have fine and base has coarse grid
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7.9 Results and Discussion - Fluent

The CFD analysis was carried out in two phases. In phase 1, collector slope angle of 45 was chosen.
In the second phase the slope of 24 was selected in light of the optimal solar gain for Karachi
latitude 24. The purpose was to find out the effect of slope angle on the performance of the collector.
A closer inspection of the physics of heating by an inclined overlaying surface revealed that, under
free convection conditions, increase in angle promotes heat transfer. 0 degree inclination or
horizontal plate is the worst case scenario, while vertical plate is the best case
Since heating was carried out from a surface overlaying the absorber, lower convective heat transfer
was anticipated as compared to when the absorber was heated by an underlying plate. Top heating of
absorber results into inefficient heating of air. Hot air due to its low density clings to under side of the
top surface while relatively cool air because of high density stays in the lower regions. This
stratification effect is clearly shown in 45 and 24 slope angles of the absorber in Figures 7.11 and
Figure 7.17
Figure 7.12 shows the surface created in the mid region to illustrate the temperature of the air as it
was heated during its passage through the collector air duct. It is obvious from this picture that
highest temperatures are present the in middle region of the absorber.
For a natural convection situation at lower angle 24, a relatively lower heat transfer should be
expected as compared to the higher angles of 45 as buoyancy forces are more dominant for steeper
angles. This is true if the flow of air is determined by free convection only.
The flow in the present case is low velocity forced flow hence effects of bouncy are not totally absent
but play a part in the heat transfer process along with the forced convection effects. It can be noted
from the Figure 7.10 for 45 absorber slope and Figure 7.15 for 24 slope that buoyancy in the flow
reaches a higher level of strength at steeper angle as apparent from rising plumes of hot air. The
reason for this type of flow behavior is the higher buoyancy induced flow at steeper angle. It is
apparent that the sweep action of the bulk flow velocity is unable to dislodge the dead regions or
diminish their size. This can be attributed to low flow velocity. Low flow velocity however resulted
in a longer resident time for air in the heating zone which caused a larger temperature increase. This
also suggest that the ideal inlet and outlet duct positions should be diagonally opposite so as to have
maximum temperature gain, better heat collection at the outlet and reduced pressure losses
It can also be noticed in both cases, from Figure 7.13 for 45 and Figure 7.16 for 24 , that fins are
effective in transferring heat from top heat absorber plate to lower strata of air and hence raising air
temperature.
The meandering path lines of the air elements are clearly shown in Figure 7.14 as air being heated
from top side passes along and through the gaps between fins. Left side shows the orderly entrance to
side of collector. Longer streak lines imply longer residence time which results in air attaining a
higher temperature in the collector at lower velocity.
Figure 7.18 illustrates the air temperature variation along the height of the air passage in the absorber.
It is obvious from the graph that the temperature of the air increases near the underside of the
absorber the reason being the top heating of the absorber plate.
147

Figure 7.10: Contours of velocity magnitude for 45collector inclination, the

buoyancy effects are apparent as the lateral velocity is low, Inclination 45 degrees
Figure 7.11 Contours of temperature for 45 slope of collector, the air in contact with the
underside of the absorber plate
148

(a)
(b)
Figure 7.12 Surface created in the mid region (a) to show the temperature of the air as it was
heated during its passage through the collector air duct (b), highest temperature in middle
region, collector slope was 45
149

Figure 7.13 Air temperature in the middle of the absorber plate is highest,
collector slope was 45
Figure 7.14 The velocity streak lines show the meandering path of streak
lines as air being heated from above goes through the gaps between fins.
Left side shows the orderly entrance to side of collector, collector slope
45
150

Figure 7.15 Temperature contours on the mid plane (created virtually to view
results) of the heater 30mm from the top. Rising plumes of air indicate that
buoyancy effects are present, collector slope 24
Figure 7.16 Temperature contours on the mid plane of the heater 30mm from the
top, collector slope 24
151

Figure 7.17 Temperature profile for the top heated absorber slope 24
140
Temperature, C
120
100
80
60
Air temperature in the middle region of absorber
40
20
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Average Distance from top plate, mm
Figure 7.18 Temperature variation of air along the thickness of the air passage in the absorber
152

7.12 TRNSYS Simulation of Solar Collector

To confirm the findings of CFD analysis of the solar collector that the staggered fin solar air collector
based on Kurtabas et al design can deliver required air temperature a simulation of a similar collector
was carried out in TRNSYS software.
The solar collector model used in the TRNSYS simulation project was based on Hottel-Whillier
steady state model. The collector model Type73 based on this theory was selected from the library of
the TRNSYS components. Important feature of Type 73 were the flexibility to adjust several
parameter of the collector, these included the optical properties of the selective surface of the
absorber, number of covers and series or parallel arrangement possibility. Some important parameters
of the collector are given below in table 7.2 and Figure 7.19 shows a view of the solar collector
simulation project.
The type 73 solar collector was simulated in TRNSYS for the weather condition of Karachi. For this
purpose a project was created in Simulation Studio with Type73 collector, weather data reader and
radiation processor and output file printer. TMY2 weather file for Karachi was generated in
METEONORM software and was used in the Type 109 data reader and radiation processor. The
collector was simulated for time period of three days, with a simulation time step of 1 hour. The
results of simulation were plotted using plotter type 65.
It is obvious from the observation of Figure 7.20 and 7.21 that for same collector geometry the
collector inclined at 24 collects larger amount of energy than the one inclined at 45. Similarly the
outlet temperature of air follows the same trend. The cause is the larger energy captured by the
collector when it is receives the suns radiation at angle approaching normal to absorber top plate.
This is only possible when the collector is inclined at an angle equal to local latitude which in case of
Karachi is 24.
153

Table 7.2 Parameters for the solar air collector model used in TRNSYS simulation
No.
Parameters
Value
Chosen
Unit
Comments
Number of collectors in series
--
Collector area
12
m2
Fluid specific heat
1.007
kJ/kg.K
Collector fin efficiency factor
0.7
Bottom
and
edge
coefficient
Absorber plate emittance
The numbers of collectors in series

arrangement
Total area of collector arrayfor
achieving suitable outlet air temperature
Specific heat of air flowing through
collector array
Measure of heat transfer from fin to
maximum possible heat transfer from the
fin
Loss coefficient of bottom and edges of
the collector per unit aperture area
0.09
kJ/hr.m2
.K
_
Absorber plate absorptance
0.95
Number of covers
Index of refraction of cover
1.526
10
Extinction coefficient thickness

product
0.0026
loss
From page 208, table 4.7.1 for selective

absorber surface [Duffie, 1991]
one glass cover found to be suitable
Index of refraction of glass was used
The product of extinction coefficient and
thickness of the glass.
154

Figure 7.19 View of TRNSYS Simulation Studio showing the solar air collector
simulation project for weather conditions of Karachi
Figure 7.20 Collector outlet air temperature and useful energy gain for the
climatic conditions of Karachi in three days of May, Ac = 12 m2, Collector
slope 24
155

Figure 7.21 Collector outlet air temperature and useful energy gain for the
climatic conditions of Karachi in three days of May, Ac = 12 m2, collector
slope 45
156

7.13 Conclusions
Solar air collector heat transfer and flow characteristics in the presence of staggered fins were
analyzed using computational fluid dynamic method. Shear stress transport k- turbulence model was
employed for the flow situation in the finned collector absorber heated from top side. The analysis
showed that regions around and between the fins promoted heat transfer from the absorber plate to
air. The results showed a dependence of buoyant flow on low flow velocity and slope of collector. It
was also demonstrated that at low flow velocity inclination of solar absorber affected the temperature
and velocity profile with buoyancy playing a part in determining the flow pattern and the heat
transfer rate.
Stratified flow was found in the duct, top side being at highest temperature and bottom of duct at
lowest temperature. This is attributed to the fact that collector was heated from the top consequently
the air in touch with the underside of the collector absorber top plate was hottest and lightest. The
density gradient with highest density in the bottom part and lowest at the top promoted and sustained
stratification.
The buoyancy effects were observed to be more pronounced at the 45 inclination than at 24
inclination. The bouncy induced flow through the space between the fins resulted because flow
velocity was not very high to promote rapid mixing. Close examination however revealed that the
difference in temperature and hence heat transfer was not very large between the collector slope
angles of 24 and 45.
The presence of staggered fins in the absorber resulted in the heat transfer to lower cooler air. Fins
also helped in increasing the residence time of air consequently increasing air temperature gain.
Presence of fins also supported to the mixing of air masses at different temperature thus increasing
the thermal energy yield.
It has been shown that the presence of fins in the absorber channel enhances heat transfer:
By increasing the heat transfer area,

By promoting mixing of air
By increasing residence time of air in the absorber channel
The actual position of a solar collector used in summer is that the sun is at its high altitude in the
summer months. The maximum heat flux can therefore be captured by a collector which is inclined in
such a way as to receive sun rays at normal angle. To receive sun rays at right angle a solar collector
should have a slope equal to local latitude, which in case of Karachi is 24. This brings into play two
conflicting factors influencing the useful energy output of a solar air collector: the larger inclination
angle favoring a more efficient collector from the point of view of heat transfer and smaller angle
supporting the capture of more solar energy during summer months in the climatic conditions of
Pakistan. Examination of the results solar energy gain was larger at 24 slope than the larger heat
transfer gain due to 45 collector slope revealed that was because of these reasons that an angle of 24
was chosen for simulation purpose in TRNSYS.
157

A TRNSYS collector model Type73 simulated for Karachi summer climatic conditions produced
outlet air temperature similar to the CFD predicted temperatures thus showing agreement between
two methods.
158

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160

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Experimental Investigation and Mathematical Modeling of a Low Energy Consuming