ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful and would like to express our warmest gratitude to our supervisor
Dr. Moloy Kumar Banerjee for his guidance, his support, continuous encouragement and
the confidence he has shown in us over the months in continuing this project. His
constant encouragement in our dissertation work that helped to look forward to the future
with enthusiasm and confidence in our abilities. We would like also to express our sincere
thanks to all our course mates and members of the staff of the Mechanical Engineering
Department, FIEM, who helped us in many ways. We acknowledge our sincere
indebtedness and gratitude to our parents for their love, dream and sacrifice throughout
our lives. We cannot find the appropriate words that could properly describe our
appreciation for their devotion, support and faith in our abilities to attain our goals.
Finally, we would like to thank our EIE department faculty (SB sir) and our Jadavpur
University faculty (Runu Banerjee) for their valuable guidance, in progressing with this
endeavour. Without their overwhelming positive influence on our project, we would not
have been able to progress with our study.

TEAM ORGANISATION
Project teams will consist of 7 members assigned by our instructor. Requests for
teammates will not be accepted. There are several benefits to this policy. First, not having
a friend on a team may ensure that you will be friends after the project. Second,
interacting with people you would not normally choose as teammates is always a
valuable teamwork learning experience. Third, we encourage interaction among different
teams. That is, cross-fertilize ideas and work with your friends on other teams in order to
answer questions, develop analysis techniques, and have some fun.
Randomly covering design project activities in an unstructured manner for accomplishing
project goals is not recommended. Areas of responsibility, assignment of personnel to
each area, and setting a time schedule should be formally defined. Maintaining flexibility
and assessing whether modifications are needed should also occur.
Because of the large number of calculations involved in this analysis, assigning a team
member to independently check calculations and unit conversions by hand is strongly
recommended. Spreadsheets and computer programs do exactly what they are told (not
what is intended). A simple factor of two errors may not seem important in a homework
situation, but when it is part of a decision to spend lots of money, it can easily cause
money (and jobs, career advancement) to be wasted.
However your team is organized, it is important that every team member is familiar with
the analyses and assessments made in the written report. That is, any team member is
expected to be able to answer any question posed by instructors regarding project design
reports. Team members responsible for a particular activity must teach other members
about their results. Team grades will be assigned for the written reports.
An anonymous peer-evaluation form will be distributed to team members in order to
assess member participation in activities. Grades for the lab activities are not curved or
scaled in a manner that only allows a specified number of people at each grade level. That
is, helping others does not result in reducing your chances for receiving a high score.
Likewise, peer-evaluations are meant to be a means by which you give your honest
evaluation of your team members participation in order to help distinguish those
individuals who contributed more and those who contributed less than expected.

Finally, the peer evaluation is not meant to be an evaluation of specific team member
skills. Some team members may be very skilled in analysis while others are talented in
report writing or organizing and coordinating activities. All of these contributions are
important.

PROJECT LAYOUT
This basic layout or rather the aim of this project is to make a domestic heat exchanger
that would serve the same purposes as any industry based heat exchanger. The basic path
for a technical project is to obtain maximum efficiency and work output at a minimum
expense this project also aims for the same.

The basic aim of any heat exchanger (primarily the one being made here is a concentric
tube heat exchanger) is to mainly transfer heat between two fluids due to which we obtain
a net temperature difference at the outlet. We will be basically measuring the four
respective temperatures of the inlet and the oulet i.e of the hot and cold fluids with the
help of an RTD and then obtain the digital display of the temperature.This values would
later be used for the calculation of the effectiveness, NTU and other standard quantities
which will be compared with the standard values of industry based heat exchangers to
know about the increased or decreased efficiency.

In this semester we have planned out the inventory list covering the necessary items
required for building our heat exchanger like a 0.25HP pump for the hot water flow now
here to save cost expenses instead of using a pump for cold water we have used it from a
tap source assuming that it has a constant head. Then in order to obtain the flow rate we
will be using a measuring cylinder to obtain the value of discharge. We have also
obtained the dimensions of the base on which the necessary items will be assembled to
make the heat exchanger that being height-3.5ft,length-6ft width-1.5ft.Material has been
chosen to be mild steel. Pipes being used will be made of PVC and aluminium. We have
yet to begin the structure as we have not yet received monetary fundings this semester so
we will be presenting the model next semester. This semester has been spent finalizing
the dimensions and specifications of the items needed and planning out a data sheet with
the items and their costs.

This semester has also been spent on making the required circuit arrangements for the
temperature display starting with a 5V power source circuit for the LCD display which
we have completed and we have also planned the temperature sensing circuit using an
LM35 sensor and a thyristor controlled heater for heating the water. But at the same time
we have not yet been able to purchase the necessary items for further progress. In the
upcoming semester we will be presenting the working model along proper experimental
results. This semester we will be giving an overview on our project aim the items
required, how we plan to use them and the underlying theory of a heat exchanger.

AIM OF PROJECT
(i) To design and construct a concentric-tube heat exchanger in which two tubes are
concentrically arranged and either of the fluids (hot or cold) flows through the tube and
the other through the annulus.
(ii) To achieve high efficiency of the heat exchanger while keeping its construction cost
efficient.
(iii) To carry out test on the concentric-tube heat exchanger and obtain values which will
be compared to theoretically determined ones.

PROJECT DETAILS
In 7th semester:-

In 8th semester:-

INTRODUCTION

PROJECT BACKGROUND:-

A heat exchanger is a device that transfers thermal energy from a high-temperature

medium to a low-temperature medium with both media being in the device. The media
may be separated by a solid wall or they may be in direct contact. Examples in practice in
which flowing fluids exchange heat are air intercoolers and pre-heaters, condensers and
boilers in steam plant, condensers and evaporators in refrigerator units, and many other
industrial processes in which a liquid or gas is required to be either cooled or heated.

TYPE OF HEAT EXCHANGERS:There are three main types of heat exchangers based on the pattern in which heat
exchange takes place:a. The Recuperative type in which the flowing fluids exchanging heat are on either side
of a dividing wall. The figure is as shown below.

b. The Regenerative type in which the hot and cold fluids pass alternately through a
space containing a matrix of material that provides alternately a sink and a source for heat
flow. When the hot fluid flows through the matrix heat is stored in the form of an
increase in its internal energy. When the cold fluid flows through it this stored energy is
transferred to it. This is again divided into two types depending on the type of matrix
used:
1. Stationary.
2. Rotary.

Rotary type heat exchanger

c. The Evaporative type in which a liquid is cooled evaporatively and continuously in

the same space as the coolant as shown in figure below.

This report paper is on recuperative type of heat exchanger, which can further be
classified, based on the relative directions of the flow of the hot and cold fluids, into three
types:a. Parallel flow, when both the fluids move in parallel in the same direction.
b. Counter flow, when the fluids move in parallel but in opposite directions.
c. Cross flow, when the directions of flow are mutually perpendicular.

The types of heat exchanger can be classified in three major constructions which are:a. Tubular type
b. Plate type
c. Extended surface type.

In industries, there are lots of heat exchanger that can be seenas follows:-

1. Tubular Heat Exchangers

The tubular types are consists of circular tubes. One fluid flows inside the tubes and the
other flows on the outside of the tubes. The parameters of the heat exchanger can be
changed like the tube diameter, the number of pitch, tube arrangement, number of tubes
and length of the tube can be manipulate. The common types of heat exchangers lie under
these categories are double-pipe type, shell-and-tube type and spiral tube type.
The tubular heat exchangers can be designed for high pressure relative to the
environment and high pressure difference between the fluids. These exchangers are used
for liquid-to-liquid and liquid-to-vapour phase. But when the operating temperature or
pressure is very high or fouling on one fluid side, it will used gas-to-liquid and gas-togas
heat transfer applications.

2. Double-Pipe Heat Exchanger

According to Sadic Kakac, a double-pipe heat
exchanger consists of smaller and larger
diameter pipe where the smaller pipe fitted
concentrically into the larger one in purpose to
give direction to the flow from one section to
another. One set of these tubes includes the
fluid that has to be cooled or heated. The
second fluid runs over the tubes being cooled
or heated in order to provide heat or absorb the
heat. A set of tubes is the tube bundle and it can
be made up of several types of tubes such as
longitudinally plain, longitudinally finned, and
more. If the application requires an almost constant wall temperature, the fluids may flow
in a parallel direction. It's easy to clean and convenient to disassemble and assemble. The
double-pipe heat exchanger is one of the simplest.
Usually, it is used for small capacity applications because it is so expensive on a cost per
unit area basis. Figure presents the model of double-pipe heat exchanger.

3. Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger

This exchanger is built of a bundle of round
tubes mounted in a large cylindrical shell
with the tube axis parallel to the shell to
transfer the heat between the two fluids. The
fluid flows inside the tubes and other fluid
flows across and along the tubes. But for
baffled shell-and-tube heat exchanger the
shell side stream flows across between pairs
of baffles and then flows parallel to the tubes
as it flows from one baffle compartment to
the next. This kind of exchanger consists of
tubes, shells, and front-end head, rear-end
head, baffles and tube sheets. The different
type of shell-and-tube heat exchangers
depends on different application. Usually in
chemical industry and process application, it
is used as oil-coolers, power condensers, and preheaters in power plants and also steam
generators in nuclear power plants. The most common types of shell-and-tube heat

exchanger are fixed tube sheet design, U-tube design and floating-head type. Cleaning
this heat exchanger is easy. Instead of easily cleaning, it is also low in cost. But among all
tube bundle types, the U-tube is the least expensive because it only needs one tube sheet.
Technically, because of its construction in U shape, the cleaning is hardly done in the
sharp bend. An even number of tube passes only can be achieved. The figure shows the
type of shell-and-tube heat exchanger.

4. Spiral-Tube Heat Exchanger

A spiral heat exchanger is a helical or coiled tube configuration. It consists of spirally
wound coils placed in a shell or designed as co-axial condensers and co-axial evaporators
that are used in refrigeration systems. The heat transfer coefficient is higher in a spiral
tube than in a straight tube. Since the cleaning is impossible, the spiral tubes are suitable
for thermal expansion and clean fluids. The biggest advantage of the spiral heat
exchanger is its efficient use of space. A compact spiral heat exchanger can lower costs,
while an oversized one can have less pressure drop, higher thermal efficiency, less
pumping energy and lower energy costs. Spiral heat exchangers are frequently used when
heating fluids that have solids and therefore often foul the inside of the heat exchanger.
Spiral heat exchangers have three types of flow arrangements. Firstly, the spiral flow
and cross flow has one fluid in each. The spiral flow passages are welded at each side and
this type of flow is good for handling low density gases which pass through the cross
flow. This can be used for liquid-to-liquid applications if one fluid has a much greater
flow rate than the other. A second type is the distributed vapour and spiral flow. The
coolant moves in a spiral and exits through the top. The hot gases that enter will leave as
condensate out of the bottom outlet. The third type is the counter current flow where both
of the fluids will flow in opposite directions and are used for liquid-to-liquid applications.
The spiral heat exchanger is good for pasteurization, heat recovery, digester heating,
effluent cooling, and pre-heating.

5. Plate Heat Exchangers

A second type of heat exchanger is a plate heat
exchanger. It has many thin plates that are
slightly apart and have very large surface areas
and fluid flow passages that are good for heat
transfer. This can be a more effective heat
exchanger than the tube or shell heat exchanger
due to advances in brazing and gasket
technology that have made this plate exchanger
more practical. Large heat exchangers are called
plate and frame heat exchangers and there allow

for periodic disassembly, cleaning, and inspection. There are several types of
permanently bonded plate heat exchangers like dip brazed and vacuum brazed plate
varieties, and they are often used in refrigeration. These heat exchangers can further be
classified as gasket plate, spiral plate and lamella.

6. Gasketed Plate Heat Exchangers

A gasketed plate heat exchanger consists of a series of thin plates that have wavy surface
which function as separating the fluids. The plates come with corner parts arranged so
that the two media between which heat is to be exchanged flow through interchange
exclaim spaces. Appropriate design and gasketing permit a stack of plates to be held
together by compression bolts joining the end plates. Gaskets prevent leakage to the
outside and direct the fluids in the plates as desired. The flow pattern is generally chosen
so that the media flow countercurrent to each other. Since the flow passages are quite
small, strong eddying gives high heat transfer coefficients, high pressure drops, and high
local shear which minimizes fouling. These exchangers provide a relatively compact and
lightweight heat transfer surface. Gasketed plate are typically used for heat exchange
between two liquid streams. This type can be found in food processing industries because
of the compatibility to be cleaned easily and sterilized as it completely disassembled.
Figure presents the gasketed plate heat exchanger.

7. Spiral Plate Heat Exchanger

Spiral heat exchangers are formed by rolling two long, parallel plates into a spiral using a
mandrel and welding the edges of adjacent plates to form channels. The distance between
the metal surfaces in both channels is maintained by means of distance pins welded to the
metal sheet. The two spiral paths introduce a secondary flow, increasing the heat transfer

and reducing fouling deposits. These heat exchangers are quite compact but are relatively
expensive due to the specialized fabrication. The spiral heat exchanger is particularly
effective in handling sledges, viscous liquids, and liquids with solids in suspension
including slurries. The spiral heat exchanger is made in three main types which differ in
the connections and flow arrangements.
Type has flat covers over the spiral channels. The media flow counter current through
the channels via the connections in the centre and at the periphery. This type is used to
exchange heat between media without phase changes
such as liquid-liquid, gas-liquid, or gas-gas. One stream
enters at the centre of the unit and flows from inside
outward. The other stream enters at the periphery and
flows towards the centre. Thus the counter flow is
achieved.
Type is designed for cross flow operation. One channel
is completely seal welded, while the other is open along
both sheet metal edges. The passage with the medium in
spiral flow is welded shut on each side, and the medium
in cross flow passes through the open spiral annulus.This
type is mainly used as a surface condenser in evaporating
plants. It is also highly effective as a vaporizer. Two
spiral bodies are often built into the same jacket and are mounted below each other.
Type , the third standard type is in principle similar to type with alternately welded up
channels, but type is provided with a specially designed to cover. This type of heat
exchanger is mainly intended for condensing vapours with sub-cooling of condensate and
no condensable gases. The top cover, therefore, has a special distribution cone where the
vapour is distributed to the uncovered spiral turns in order to maintain a constant vapour
velocity along the channel opening. The figure presents the types of spiral plate.

8. Lamella Heat Exchangers

The lamella type of heat exchanger consists of a set of parallel, welded, thin plates
channels are lamellae placed longitudinally in a shell. It is a modification of the floatingtype shell-and-tube heat exchanger. These flattened tubes, called lamellae are made up of
two strips of plates, profiled and spot- or seam-welded together in a continuous operation.
The forming of the strips creates space inside the lamellae and bosses acting as spacers
for the flow sections outside the lamellae on the shell side. The lamellae are welded
together at both ends by joining the ends with steel bars in between, depending on the
space required between lamellae. Both ends of the lamella bundle are joined by
peripheral welds to the channel cover which at the outer ends is welded to the inlet and
outlet nozzle. The lamella side thus completely sealed in by welds. At the fixed end, the

channel cover is equipped with an outside flange ring which is bolted to the shell flange.
Figure presents the lamella heat exchanger.
8. Direct Contact Type Heat Exchangers
Direct contact heat exchangers involve heat transfer between hot and cold streams of two
phases in the absence of a separating wall. Thus such heat exchangers can be classified
as:

Gas liquid

Immiscible liquid liquid

Solid-liquid or solid gas

Most direct contact heat exchangers fall under the Gas- Liquid category, where heat is
transferred between a gas and liquid in the form of drops, films or sprays.
Such heat exchangers are used predominantly in air conditioning, humidification,
industrial hot water heating, water-cooling and condensing plants.

Phases[9]

Continuous phase Driving force Change of phase

Gas Liquid Gas

Liquid

Gravity

Examples

No

Spray columns, packed columns

Yes

Cooling towers, falling droplet evaporators

Forced

No

Spray coolers/quenchers

Liquid flow

Yes

Spray condensers/evaporation, jet condensers

Gravity

No

Bubble columns, perforated tray columns

Yes

Bubble column condensers

Forced

No

Gas spargers

Gas flow

Yes

Direct contact evaporators, submerged combustion

DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS:In designing heat exchangers, a number of factors that need to be considered are:1. Resistance to heat transfer should be minimized.
2. Contingencies should be anticipated via safety margins; for example, allowance for
fouling during operation.
3. The equipment should be sturdy.
4. Cost and material requirements should be kept low.
5. Corrosion should be avoided.
6. Pumping cost should be kept low.
7. Space required should be kept low.
8. Required weight should be kept low.
Design involves trade-off among factors not related to heat transfer. Meeting the
objective of minimized thermal resistance implies thin wall separating fluids. Thin walls
may not be compatible with sturdiness. Auxiliary steps may have to be taken, for
instance, the use of support plates for tubing, to realize sturdiness.

THE ENERGY BALANCE:Since the flow in a tube is completely enclosed, an energy balance may be applied to
determine how the mean temperature (Tm) x varies with position along the tube and how
the total convective heat transfer Qconv is related to the difference in temperatures at the
tube inlet and outlet from Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Control volume for internal flow in the tube.

In Fig.1, fluid moves at a constant flow rate m, and convection heat transfer occurs at
the inner surface. If the fluid kinetic and potential changes, as well as energy transfer by
conduction in the axially direction are negligible. Therefore, if the fluid is doing no shaft
work as it passes through tube, the only significant effects will be those associated with
thermal energy change with flow work. Flow to move the fluid with pressure p and per
unit mass of flow of fluid is given by the product of the fluid pressure p and specific
volume ( = 1/).
Applying conservation of energy to difference control volume to Fig. 1 and recalling
the definition of the mean temperature, we have:
DQconv + M(CvTm + pv) + [M(CvTm + pv) d(pv)/dx] = 0, (1)
or
Qconv = MCp(Tm,o - Tm,i). (2)
The rate of convective heat transfer to the fluid must equal the rate at which the fluid
thermal energy increases plus the net rate at which work is done in moving the fluid
through the control volume. A good approximation of incompressible fluid is:
DQconv = MCpTm. (3)
In this case, Cp = Cv, and v is very small, d(pv) is generally much less than d(CvTm). A
special form of the equation above relates to conditions for the entire tube. In particular,
integrating from the tube inlet, i, to the outlet, o, it follows that:
Qconv = MCp(Tm,o - Tm,i) , (4)
where Qconv is the total tube heat transfer rate. It is a general expression that applies
irrespective of the nature of the surface thermal or tube flow conditions.

THE OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT:A heat exchanger typically involves two flowing fluids separated by a solid wall. Heat
is first transferred from the hot fluid to the wall by convection through the wall by
conduction and from the wall to the cold fluid again by convection. Any radiation effects
are usually included in the convection heat transfer coefficients (Holman 2002).
For a double-pipe heat exchanger, Ai = DiL and Ao = DoL, and the thermal resistance
of the tube wall in this case is
Rwall = In(ro/ri)/2KL, (5)

where K is the thermal conductivity of the inner pipe material and L is the length of the
tube. Then the total thermal resistance becomes:
R = Rtotal = Ri + Rwall + Ro = [(1/hiAi) + In(ro/ri)/2KL + (1/hoAo)], (6)
where Ai and Ao are the areas of inner and outer pipes respectively.
The rate of heat transfer between the two fluids is:
Q = T/Rtotal = UAT = UiAiT = UoAoT, (7)
where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 oC).
Equation (7) can be reduced to:
1/UA = 1/UiA = 1/UoAo = Rtotal = 1/hiAi + Rwall + 1/hoAo. (8)
If the thickness of the tube is small and the thermal conductivity of the tube, material is
high, as is usually the case, the thermal resistance of the tube is negligible (Rwal 0) and
(Ai Ao A). Overall heat transfer coefficient becomes,
1/U 1/hi+1/ho, (9)
where i and o represent inside and outside respectively (Yunus and Robert 2001).

LOGARITHMIC MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE:The method used in the analysis of the heat exchanger in this research work is the
Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD), and it is defined as that temperature
difference which, if constant, would give the same rate of heat transfer as actually occurs
under variable conditions of temperature difference.
In order to derive expression for LMTD, the following assumptions were made:
The overall heat transfer coefficient U is constant, the flow conditions are steady, the
specific heats and mass flow rates of both fluids are constant, the is no loss of heat to the
surroundings, there is no change phase either of the fluid during the heat transfer, the
change in potential and kinetic energies are negligible, axial conduction along the tubes
of the heat exchanger is negligible (Saunders 1981).
In this design, counter-flow LMTD was adopted (Fig. 2) because it is always greater than
that for a parallel flow unit, hence counter-flow heat exchanger can transfer more heat
than parallel-flow one; in other words a counter-flow heat exchanger needs a smaller
heating surface for the same rate of heat transfer.
Let us consider an elementary area dA of the heat exchanger in Fig. 3. The rate of flow of
heat through this elementary area is given by
dQ = UdA(th tc) = UdAt. (12)

Fig. 2. Flow arrangement and temperature distribution for a counter-flow

In this case also, due to heat transfer dQ through the area dA, the hot fluid is cooled down
by dth whereas the cold fluid is heated by dtc. The energy balance over a differential area
dA may be written as:
dQ = -MhCphdth = -McCpcdtc. (13)
In a counter-flow system, the temper-atures of both the fluids decrease in the
direction of heat exchanger length, hence the negative signs,
dth = -(dQ/MhCph) and dtc = -(dQ/McCpc). (14)
Let MhCph = Ch and McCpc = Cc,
dth - dtc = -dQ[(1/Ch) - (1/Cc)], (15)
or
d = -dQ[(1/Ch) - (1/Cc)]. (16)
Inserting Eq. (12) into Eq. (16) above:
d = -UdA(th - tc) [(1/Ch) - (1/Cc)]
= -UdA [(1/Ch) - (1/Cc)],
or
d/ = -UdA [(1/Ch) - (1/Cc)]. (17)
Integrating Eq. (17) above from A = 0 to A = A:
In(2/1) = -UA [(1/Ch) - (1/Cc)]. (18)
Now, the total heat transfer rate between the two fluids is given by
Q = Ch(th1 - th2) = Cc(tc1 - tc2), (19)
or
1/Ch = (th1 - th2)/Q,
or
1/Cc = (tc1 - tc2)/Q.
Substituting the values of 1/Ch and 1/Cc into Eq. (17) above:
In(2/1) = -UA[(th1 - th2)/Q - (tc1 - tc2)/Q]
= -(UA/Q) [(th1 - th2) - (tc1 - tc2)]
= -(UA/Q) (1 - 2) = (UA/Q) (2 - 1), (20)
or
Q = UA(2 - 1)/In(2/1).
Since:
Q = UAm, (21)

then
UAm = UA(2 - 1)/In(2/1).
Therefore:
m = (2 - 1)/In(2/1) = (1 - 2)/In(1/2), (22)
where: m = Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD).

HEAT EXCHANGER EFFECTIVENESS AND NUMBER OF

TRANSFER UNITS:A heat exchanger can be designed by the logarithmic mean temperature difference
(LMTD) when inlet and outlet conditions are specified. However, when the problem is to
determine the inlet or exit temperatures for a particular heat exchanger, the analysis is
performed more easily, by using a method based on effectiveness of the heat exchanger
and number of transfer units (NTU).
The heat exchanger effectiveness () is defined as the ratio of actual heat transfer (Q) to
the maximum possible heat transfer (Qmax).
= Q/ Qmax. (23)
If:
Q = MhCph(th1 - th2) = McCpc(tc2 - tc1), (24)
and
Qmax = Ch(th1 - tc1) or Qmax = Cc(th1 - tc1),
(25)
then:
= [Ch(th1 - th2)/Cmin(th1 - tc1)]
= [Cc(tc2 - tc1)/Cmin(th1 - tc1)]. (26)
Once the effectiveness is known, the heat transfer rate can be very easily calculated by
using the equation:
Q = Cmin(th1 - tc1). (27)
When using NTU method to determine the effectiveness of a heat exchanger (counter
flow), is expressed as a function of three dimensionless parameters
= {1 - exp[-NTU(1 - R )]}/{1 - R exp[-NTU(1 - R )]}, (28)
where R = Cmin/Cmax, NTU = UA/Cmin.

FOULING FACTOR:The performance of heat exchanger usually deteriorate with time as a result of scaling
or deposits from over the interior surface. Scaling or deposits on the inside and outside of
the tubes is really a gradual build-up of layers of dirt due to impurities in the fluid,
chemical reaction between the fluid and the metal, rust etc. The deposits can severely

affect the overall heat transfer coefficient U. It is related to the overall heat transfer
coefficient.
Under clean conditions and under fouled conditions by the equation:
1/Ufoul = Rf + 1/Uclean. (10)
So, for fouled conditions
Rtotal = 1/hiAi + Rfi/Ai + In(ro/ri)/2KL + Rfo/Ao + 1/ho, (11)
where Rfi and Rfo are the fouling factors for both inside and outside of the tube
respectively.

Maintenance:Plate heat exchangers must be disassembled and cleaned periodically. Tubular heat
exchangers can be cleaned by such methods as acid cleaning, sandblasting, high-pressure
water jet, bullet cleaning, or drill rods.
In large-scale cooling water systems for heat exchangers, water treatment such as
purification, addition of chemicals, and testing, is used to minimize fouling of the heat
exchange equipment. Other water treatment is also used in steam systems for power
plants, etc. to minimize fouling and corrosion of the heat exchange and other equipment.
A variety of companies have started using water borne oscillations technology to
prevent biofouling. Without the use of chemicals, this type of technology has helped in
providing a low-pressure drop in heat exchangers.

UNDERLYING THEORY:As with any process the analysis of a heat exchanger begins with an energy and material
balance. Before doing a complete energy balance a few assumptions can be made. The
first assumption is that the energy lost to the surroundings from the cooling water or from
the U-bends in the inner pipe to the surroundings is negligible. We also assume negligible
potential or kinetic energy changes and constant physical properties such as specific heats
and density. These assumptions also simplify the basic heat-exchanger equations.
The determination of the overall heat-transfer coefficient is necessary in order to
determine the heat transferred from the inner pipe to the outer pipe. This coefficient takes
into account all of the conductive and convective resistances (k and h, respectively)
between fluids separated by the inner pipe, and also takes into account thermal

resistances caused by fouling (rust, scaling, i.e.) on both sides of the inner pipe. For a
double-pipe heat exchanger the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, can be expressed as

In a heat exchanger the log-mean temperature difference is the appropriate average

temperature difference to use in heat transfer calculations. The equation for the log-mean
temperature difference is

Fluid properties such as density, viscosity and heat capacity are evaluated at the average
temperatures. The average is found by using the inlet and outlet values

Thermal conductivity, k, can be evaluated at the average of the average temperatures. In a

double-pipe heat exchanger the inner pipe is made of a conductive metal and is thin.
The problem can be further simplified if the equipment is assumed to be clean, which
means that no scaling exists. This is a poor simplification with the double-pipe heat
exchanger in the laboratory, because it is many years old. The fouling factors Rfo and Rfi
can be looked up from various sources, including Standards of the Tubular Exchange
Manufacturers Association, or lumped together and determined experimentally
The only part of the overall heat-transfer coefficient that needs to be determined is the
convective heat-transfer coefficients. Correlations are used to relate the Reynolds number
to the heat-transfer coefficient. The Reynolds number is a dimensionless ratio of the
inertial and viscous forces in flow.

In the inner pipe if the Reynolds is less than 2000 this is considered to be laminar flow
and the Nusselt number is equal to 4.36. If the Reynolds number is greater than 10,000,
the Nusselt number is given by

This gives a Nusselt number that can then be use to find h i

The convective heat transfer coefficient in the annulus is more difficult to determine. The
hydraulic diameter is used to find the Reynolds number. The hydraulic diameter is
defined as the cross-sectional area perpendicular to flow divided by the wetted perimeter.
With the Reynolds number calculated the same correlations apply and with these ho can
be determined.
Once all the separate heat-transfer coefficients are calculated an overall heat transfer
coefficient is calculated. Now everything that was necessary for an energy balance is
available.
With the previous assumptions made earlier the dynamic equations would be

With the transient data taken experimentally an overall heat-transfer coefficient can be
determined at each time step. This can be solved numerically.

SELECTION OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

Heat exchangers are complicated devices, and the results obtained with the simplified
approaches presented above should be used with care. For example, we assumed that the
overall heat transfer coefficient U is constant throughout the heat exchanger and that the
convection heat transfer coefficients can be predicted using the convection correlations.
However, it should be kept in mind that the uncertainty in the predicted value of U can
even exceed 30 percent. Thus, it is natural to tend to overdesign the heat exchangers in
order to avoid unpleasant surprises.
Heat transfer enhancement in heat exchangers is usually accompanied by increased
pressure drop, and thus higher pumping power. Therefore, any gain from the
enhancement in heat transfer should be weighed against the cost of the accompanying
pressure drop. Also, some thought should be given to which fluid should pass through the
tube side and which through the shell side. Usually, the more viscous fluid is more
suitable for the shell side (larger passage area and thus lower pressure drop) and the fluid
with the higher pressure for the tube side.
Engineers in industry often find themselves in a position to select heat exchangers to
accomplish certain heat transfer tasks. Usually, the goal is to heat or cool a certain fluid at
a known mass flow rate and temperature to a desired temperature. Thus, the rate of heat
transfer in the prospective heat exchanger is Q max =m Cp(Tin _ Tout) which gives the
heat transfer requirement of the heat exchanger before having any idea about the heat
exchanger itself.
An engineer going through catalogs of heat exchanger manufacturers will be
overwhelmed by the type and number of readily available off-the-shelf heat exchangers.
The proper selection depends on several factors such as:-

Heat Transfer Rate

This is the most important quantity in the selection of a heat exchanger. A heat exchanger
should be capable of transferring heat at the specified rate in order to achieve the desired
temperature change of the fluid at the specified mass flow rate.

Cost
Budgetary limitations usually play an important role in the selection of heat exchangers,
except for some specialized cases where money is no object. An off-the-shelf heat
exchanger has a definite cost advantage over those made to order. However, in some
cases, none of the existing heat exchangers will do, and it may be necessary to undertake
the expensive and time-consuming task of designing and manufacturing a heat exchanger

from scratch to suit the needs. This is often the case when the heat exchanger is an
integral part of the overall device to be manufactured. The operation and maintenance
costs of the heat exchanger are also important considerations in assessing the overall cost.

Pumping Power
In a heat exchanger, both fluids are usually forced to flow by pumps or fans that consume
electrical power. The annual cost of electricity associated with the operation of the pumps
and fans can be determined from
Operating cost = (Pumping power, kW) *(Hours of operation, h)*(Price of
electricity, $/kWh)
Where the pumping power is the total electrical power consumed by the motors of the
pumps and fans. For example, a heat exchanger that involves a 1-hp pump and a -hp fan
(1 hp _ 0.746 kW) operating 8 h a day and 5 days a week will consume 2017 kWh of
electricity per year, which will cost $161.4 at an electricity cost of 8 cents/kWh.
Minimizing the pressure drop and the mass flow rate of the fluids will minimize the
operating cost of the heat exchanger, but it will maximize the size of the heat exchanger
and thus the initial cost. As a rule of thumb, doubling the mass flow rate will reduce the
initial cost by half but will increase the pumping power requirements by a factor of
roughly eight. Typically, fluid velocities encountered in heat exchangers range between
0.7 and 7 m/s for liquids and between 3 and 30 m/s for gases. Low velocities are helpful
in avoiding erosion, tube vibrations, and noise as well as pressure drop.

Size and Weight

Normally, the smaller and the lighter the heat exchanger, the better it is. This is especially
the case in the automotive and aerospace industries, where size and weight requirements
are most stringent. Also, a larger heat exchanger normally carries a higher price tag. The
space available for the heat exchanger in some cases limits the length of the tubes that
can be used.

Type
The type of heat exchanger to be selected depends primarily on the type of fluids
involved, the size and weight limitations, and the presence of any phase change
processes. For example, a heat exchanger is suitable to cool a liquid by a gas if the
surface area on the gas side is many times that on the liquid side. On the other hand, a
plate or shell-and-tube heat exchanger is very suitable for cooling a liquid by another
liquid.

Materials
The materials used in the construction of the heat exchanger may be an important
consideration in the selection of heat exchangers. For example, the thermal and structural

stress effects need not be considered at pressures below 15 atm or temperatures below
150C. But these effects are major considerations above 70 atm or 550C and seriously
limit the acceptable materials of the heat exchanger. A temperature difference of 50C or
more between the tubes and the shell will probably pose differential thermal expansion
problems and needs to be considered. In the case of corrosive fluids, we may have to
select expensive corrosion-resistant materials such as stainless steel or even titanium if
we are not willing to replace low-cost heat exchangers frequently.

Other Considerations
There are other considerations in the selection of heat exchangers that may or may not be
important, depending on the application. For example, being leak-tight is an important
consideration when toxic or expensive fluids are involved. Ease of servicing, low
maintenance cost, and safety and reliability are some other important considerations in
the selection process. Quietness is one of the primary considerations in the selection of
liquid-to-air heat exchangers used in heating and air-conditioning applications.70

USES AND APPLICATIONS OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

Heat exchangers are used to transfer heat from one media to another. It is most commonly
used in space heating such as in the home, refrigeration, power plants and even in air
conditioning. It is also used in the radiator in a car using an antifreeze engine cooling
fluid. Heat exchangers are classified according to their flow arrangements where there are
the parallel flow, and the counter flow. Aside from this, heat exchangers also have
different types depending on their purpose and how that heat is exchanged But the fact is
that there are heat exchangers even in the circulation system of fishes and whales. The
veins of these animals are intertwined such that one side is carrying cold blood and the
other has cold blood. As a result, these species can prevent heat loss especially when they
are swimming in cold water. In some whales, the heat exchanger can be found in their
tongues. When it comes to the manufacturing industry, heat exchangers are used both for
cooling and heating. Heat exchangers in large scale industrial processes are usually
custom made to suit the process, depending on the type of fluid used, the phase,
temperature, pressure, chemical composition and other thermodynamic properties. Heat
exchangers mostly can be found in industries which produce a heat stream.
In this case, heat exchangers usually circulate the output heat to put it as input by heating
a different stream in the process. The fact that it really saves a lot of money because when

the output heat no longer needed then it can be recycled rather than to come from an
external source as heat is basically recycled. When used in industries and in the home, it
can serve to lower energy costs as it helps recover wasted heat and recycle it for heating
in another process. Typically, most heat exchangers use fluid to store heat and heat
transfer can take the form of either absorption or dissipation.
For instance, heat exchangers are used as oil coolers, transmission and engine coolers,
boiler coolers, waste water heat recovery, condensers and evaporators in refrigeration
systems. In residential homes, heat exchangers are used for floor heating, pool heating,
snow and ice melting, domestic water heater, central, solar and geothermal heating. Of
course, heat exchangers have different designs which depend on the purpose it is intended
for. Brazed heat exchangers, a collection of plates which are brazed together, are used for
hydraulic systems like swimming pools, floor heating, snow and ice melting. The shell
and coil heat exchanger design is best for areas with limited spaces as it can be installed
vertically. Of course, for the highly industrial process, the shell and tube heat exchanger
is the perfect solution.

SYSTEM OVERVIEW
The double-pipe heat exchanger that is to be made and used in experimentation describes
the setup of double-pipe heat exchanger. Fluid from the tank is first heated in water
chamber by thyristor controlled heater and this water is cooled by the cooling-water in
single passes. Once cooled the fluid is then returned to the tank.
The flow of the fluids in the double-pipe heat exchanger is counter flow. Mixed flow
cannot be used in double-pipe heat exchanger. Parallel flow has not been used in this case
because we know from our previous knowledge that counter flow heat exchangers give
the best results, i.e. they have higher heat transfer rates than other types.
There are four RTDs that record temperatures at 4 different points that can be seen in the
following figure. The first records the temperature of the cold water at the inlet, the
second records the process fluid temperature after heating, the third records the
temperature after cooling with the water, and the fourth records the cooling-water
temperature at the outlet. There is a control valve that controls the hot water inlet and the
cooling-water inlet. There are gate valves that also need to be opened before the process.
The flow rate of water can be measured with the help of a measuring flask. The water
from the outlet of the concerned pipe is to be taken in a measuring flask for a particular
period of time (in seconds). The water level in the measuring flask and the time is to be

noted. The ratio of the amount of water collected in the measuring flask to the time taken
would give the flow rate of water in the concerned pipe, i.e. inner or outer pipe.

EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATIONS:
The following is a list of all pieces of equipment and their specifications for
the double-pipe heat exchanger.-

1) Pump
Manufactured by: KIRLOSKAR
Model: AQUAMAST (TINY 180)
Material of Construction:
Impeller: H.T. Brass

Casings: Bronze
Shaft: Stainless Steel
Motor Body: Aluminium
Technical Specification:
Head-(3-24) metres
Capacity-(2000-300) LPH
Power rating-up to 180kw (.25 HP)
Voltage rating-180-220 volt
2) Double-Pipe Heat Exchanger
Material: inner pipe: aluminium
Outer pipe: PVC pipe
Length: 6 ft
Inside Pipe Diameter: 15mm
Outside Pipe Diameter: 30mm
3) Structure:
Material: mild steel (angle section)
Dimension:
Height-3.5 ft.
Breadth-1.5 ft
Length-6 ft.
4) Water sump:
Capacity-10 litres.
Material- Tin
5) Flow measuring device:
Measuring cylinder: 500ml.
Stop watch
6) Valves:
Control valves, gate valves and others.

7) Hot water temperature control:

Thyristor control- 0 to 1200C
8) Temperature measuring device:
RTD circuit:Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), are
sensors used to measure temperature by correlating the resistance of the RTD element
with temperature. Most RTD elements consist of a length of fine coiled wire wrapped
around a ceramic or glass core. The element is usually quite fragile, so it is often placed
inside a sheathed probe to protect it. The RTD element is made from a pure material,
platinum, nickel or copper. The material has a predictable change in resistance as the
temperature changes; it is this predictable change that is used to determine temperature.
Common RTD sensing elements constructed of platinum, copper or nickel have a unique,
and repeatable and predictable resistance versus temperature relationship (R vs T) and
operating temperature range. The significant characteristic of metals used as resistive
elements is the linear approximation of the resistance versus temperature relationship
between 0 and 100 C. This temperature coefficient of resistance is called alpha, . The
equation below defines ; its units are ohm/ohm/C.

the resistance of the sensor at 0C

the resistance of the sensor at 100C
9) Power source of LCD for temperature sense:

This is a power circuit. This was made to convert A.C. power source to a D.C. power
source of 5 volts to be supplied to the LCD display for displaying the temperature sensed
by the RTDs.
The components used for this circuit are as follows:1. Vero board It is the base on which the circuit is to be made.
2. One 230 - 12 volt transformer of 500 mA capacity It is used to step down the
AC voltage from 230 volts to 12 volts.
3. One bridge rectifier of 1 A rating
One bridge rectifier of 1 A rating A rectifier is an electrical device that converts
alternating current (AC), which periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC),
which flows in only one direction. The process is known as rectification. Physically,
rectifiers take a number of forms, including vacuum tube diodes, mercury-arc valves,
solid-state diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers and other silicon-based semiconductor
switches.
Half-wave rectification
In half wave rectification of a single-phase supply, either the positive or negative half of
the AC wave is passed, while the other half is blocked. Because only one half of the input
waveform reaches the output, mean voltage is lower. Half-wave rectification requires a
single diode in a single phase-supply. Rectifiers yield a unidirectional but pulsating direct
current.

Full-wave rectification
A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity
(positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the
input waveform to DC (direct current), and yields a higher mean output voltage. Two
diodes and a center tapped transformer, or four diodes in a bridge configuration and any
AC source (including a transformer without center tap), are needed. Single
semiconductor diodes, double diodes with common cathode or common anode, and fourdiode bridges, are manufactured as single components.

4. Four capacitors each of 25 volt rating.

A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical
component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors
vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric
(insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated
by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical
circuits in many common electrical devices.
When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric
field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and
negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal
capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads.
This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference
between them.

Capacitors And Ripple Effect:- The most common meaning of ripple in electrical
science is the small unwanted residual periodic variation of the direct current (dc)
output of a power supply which has been derived from an alternating current (ac)
source. This ripple is due to incomplete suppression of the alternating waveform
within the power supply.
The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier (which
is left over AC signal) into a smooth DC output voltage.
A smoothing capacitor after either a half-wave or full-wave rectifier will be charged
up to the peak of the rectified a.c.
Between peaks of the a.c. the stored voltage will drop by a degree dependent on how
much current is drawn from it by the load. The larger the value of the capacitor, the
less drop there will be, and therefore less ripple when loaded.

Capacitor C1 is of 1000 microFarad.

Capacitor C2 is of 0.22 microFarad.
Capacitor C3 is of 0.1 microFarad.
Capacitor C4 is of 10 microFarad.
Capacitors C1 and C2 have polarity while the others do not have any polarity.
The capacitors are used to nullify the ripple effect after conversion of A.C. power
supply to D.C. power supply. Thus with the different capacitors we obtain a
power supply with negligible ripple effect.
5. One 7805 This is a Linear Voltage Regulator Integrated Circuit. It has 3 pins.
One is connected to the positive terminal. The middle one to the ground and the
other to the output. Its function is to give a voltage of 5V. The last two digits of

the component name is the voltage the component gives at the output. Thus in this
case we get a voltage of 5 volts.
The 78xx (sometimes LM78xx) is a family of self-contained fixed linear voltage
regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family is commonly used in electronic
circuits requiring a regulated power supply due to their ease-of-use and low cost.
For ICs within the family, the xx is replaced with two digits, indicating the output
voltage (for example, the 7805 has a 5 volt output, while the 7812 produces 12
volts). The 78xx line are positive voltage regulators: they produce a voltage that is
positive relative to a common ground. There is a related line of 79xx devices
which are complementary negative voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be
used in combination to provide positive and negative supply voltages in the same
circuit.

78xx ICs have three terminals and are commonly found in the TO220 form factor,
although smaller surface-mount and larger TO3 packages are available. These
devices support an input voltage anywhere from a couple of volts over the
intended output voltage, up to a maximum of 35 to 40 volts depending on the
make, and typically provide 1 or 1.5 amperes of current (though smaller or larger
packages may have a lower or higher current rating).
78xx series ICs do not require additional components to provide a constant,
regulated source of power, making them easy to use, as well as economical and
efficient uses of space. Other voltage regulators may require additional
components to set the output voltage level, or to assist in the regulation process.
Some other designs (such as a switched-mode power supply) may need
substantial engineering expertise to implement.
78xx series ICs have built-in protection against a circuit drawing too much power.
They have protection against overheating and short-circuits, making them quite
robust in most applications. In some cases, the current-limiting features of the
78xx devices can provide protection not only for the 78xx itself, but also for other
parts of the circuit.

6. Six 2 pin RMC It has a male and a female and is used to connect power the
circuit to the transformer.
7. Twelve 3 pin RMC Same as above, but has an additional ground connection.
8. A soldering kit was required to solder the above components to the vero board.
9. A multi-meter to measure the voltage difference at various points on the circuit as
well as to measure the voltage at the output.
10. The measured output voltage of the circuit has been found out to be 5.0391 volts.