C I R C U I T D I A GR A M:

FIG 1 BASIC STRUCTURE OF CRO FIG 2 CRO FRONT PANEL

Fig 3 CONNECTION DIAGRAM

M OD E L G R A P H:

T ABULATION:

Amplitude Time
S.No Type of the Signal
(Volts) (Sec)
1. Sine Wave
2. Triangular Wave
3. Square Wave

: EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory

Page 1 of 68
:
 Ex. No.: 1 Date:
STUDY OF CR
O
AIM
To observe front panel control knobs and to find amplitude, time period and frequency
for given
waveforms.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No APPARATUS NAME QUANTITY
1 CRO 1
NO
2 Function Generator 1
3 CRO Probes (Dual Connector) NO
1
NO
THEORY:
The Device consists of a vacuum tube which contains a cathode, anode, grid, X &
Y plates, and a fluorescent screen as shown in fig 1. When cathode is heated by
applying a small potential difference across its terminals, it emits electrons. Having a
potential difference between the cathode and anode, the electrodes accelerate the emitted
electron towards the anode, forming an electron beam which passes to fall on the
screen.
When the fast electron beam strikes the fluorescent screen, a bright visible spot is
produced. The
grid, which is situated between the electrodes, controls the amount of electrons passing
through it thereby controlling the intensity of the electron beam. The X & Y plates are
responsible for deflecting the electron beam horizontally and vertically.
A Sweep generator is connected to the X Plates, which moves the bright spot
horizontally across the screen and repeats that a certain frequency as the source of the
signal. The voltage to be studied is applied to the Y Plates. The combined sweep and Y
voltages produce a graph showing the variation with time as shown in model graph.
APPLICATIONS OF CRO:
1. Measurement of current
2. Measurement of voltage
3. Measurement of power
4. Measurement of frequency
5. Measurement of phase angle
6. To see transistor curves
7. To trace and measuring signals of RF, IF and AF in radio and TV.
8. To trace visual display of sine waves.

PROCEDURE:

1. Understand the significance of each and every knob on the CRO.

2. From the given function generator produces a sinusoidal wave and adjust the
time base knob and the amplitude knob to observe the waveform as a function of
time.
3. Measure the time period and amplitude (peak to peak) of the signal. Find the
: EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory
Page 2 of 68
:
 frequency and verify if the same frequency is given from the function generator.
4. Observe two waveforms simultaneously on the two channels of a CRO.

: EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory

Page 3 of 68
:
 5. Repeat the above steps for pulse and triangular waveforms.
6. Report the readings and the waveforms taken.
MEASUREMENTS:
Amplitude = no. of vertical divisions * Volts/div.
Time period = no. of horizontal divisions * Frequency=(1/T
Time/div.

RESULT
Thus the operation and measurement of various signals using CRO are studied.
VIVA Questions:
1. How do you measure frequency using the CRO?
2. Can you measure signal phase using the CRO?
3. Suggest a procedure for signal phase measurement using the data from CRO?
4. Can you comment on the wavelength of a signal using CRO?
5. How many channels are there in a CRO?
6. Can you measure DC voltage using a CRO?

: EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory

Page 4 of 68
:
C I R C U I T D I A GR A M :

`FORWARD BIAS :

REVERSE BIAS :
Ex. No.: 2 A Date:
C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S O F S E M I C O N D U C T OR D I O D E
AIM:
To observe and Obtain the Forward and Reverse bias V-I Characteristics of a
Semiconductor diode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-

S. No Name of the Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1 PN Diode - IN 4007 1
2 Resistor - 1kΩ 1
3 RPS - (0 -30)V 1
(0 – 30) mA 1
4 Ammeter MC
(0 -500) µA 1
(0 – 1)V 1
5 Voltmeter MC
(0 -30)V 1
6 Bread Board - - 1
7 Connecting Wires - - As Required

THEORY:-
A PN junction diode conducts only in one direction. The V-I characteristics of the diode
are curve between voltage across the diode and current through the diode. When external voltage
is zero, circuit is open and the potential barrier does not allow the current to flow. Therefore, the
circuit current is zero. When P-type (Anode) is connected to +ve terminal and n- t ype (cathode)
is connected to –ve terminal of the supply voltage is known as forward bias. The potential barrier
is reduced when diode is in the forward biased condition. At some forward voltage, the potential
barrier all together is eliminated and current starts flowing through the diode and also in the
circuit. The diode is said to be in ON state. The current increases with increasing forward
voltage.
When N-type (cathode) is connected to + ve terminal & P - Type (Anode) is connected –
ve terminal of the supply voltage is known as reverse bias and the potential barrier across the
junction increases. Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and a very small current
(reverse saturation current) flows in the circuit. The diode is said to be in OFF state. The reverse
bias current is due to minority charge carriers.
M OD E L G R A P H :

T ABULATION:

a. FORWARD BIAS:

Vf If
S.No RPS Voltage (Volts)
(Volts) (mA)

b. REVERSE BIAS:

RPS Voltage Vr Ir
S.No
(Volts) (Volts) (µA)
P ROCEDURE:
FORWARD BIAS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. For forward bias, the RPS + ve is connected to the anode of the diode and RPS – ve is
connected to the cathode of the diode.
3. Switch ON the power supply and increase the input voltage (supply voltage) in Steps of 2V.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage across the
diode for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. Tabulate the reading of voltage and current of the diode.
6. Plot a Graph between voltage (Vf) and current (If).

REVERSE BIAS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram
2. For reverse bias, the RPS + ve is connected to the cathode of the diode and RPS – ve is
connected to the anode of the diode.
3. Switch on the power supply and increase the input voltage (supply voltage) in Steps of 2 V.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage across the
diode for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. Tabulate the reading of voltage and current of the diode.
6. Plot a Graph between voltage (Vr) and current (Ir).

RESULT:
Thus the Forward and Reverse Bias characteristic for a Semiconductor diode are obtained
and the graph was plotted.

Cut in Voltage = Break down Voltage =

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Define depletion region of a diode?

2. What is meant by transition & space charge capacitance of a diode?
3. Is the V-I relationship of a diode Linear or Exponential?
4. Define cut-in voltage of a diode and specify the values for Si and Ge diodes?
5. What are the applications of a P-N diode?
6. Draw the ideal characteristics of P-N junction diode?
7. What is the diode equation?
8. What is PIV?
9. What is break down voltage?
10. What is the effect of temperature on PN junction diodes?
C I R C U I T D I A GR A M :

FORWARD BIAS :

REVERSE BIAS :
Ex. No.: 2 B Date:
C HARACTERISTICS OF Z ENER D IODE
AIM:
To observe and Obtain the Forward and Reverse bias V-I Characteristics of a Zener
diode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-

S. No Name of the Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1 Zener diode 1z 5.1 1

2 Resistor 1KΩ 1
3 RPS (0 -30)V 1
(0 – 30) mA 1
4 Ammeter MC
(0 -500) µA 1
(0 – 1)V 1
5 Voltmeter MC
(0 -30)V 1
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting Wires As Required

THEORY:

A Zener diode is heavily doped p-n junction diode, specially made to operate in the break
down region. A p-n junction diode normally does not conduct when it is reverse biased. But if
the reverse bias is increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting heavily. This voltage is
called Break down Voltage. High current is passed through the diode can permanently damage
the device
To avoid high current, we connect a resistor in series with Zener diode. Once the diode
starts conducting it maintains almost constant voltage across the terminals whatever may be the
current through it, i.e., it has very low dynamic resistance. It is used in voltage regulators.

P ROCEDURE:
FORWARD BIAS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. For forward bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the anode of the diode and RPS –ve is
connected to the cathode of the diode.
3. Switch on the power supply and increase the input voltage (supply voltage) in Steps of 2 V.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage across the diode
for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. Tabulate the reading of voltage and current of the diode.
6. Plot a Graph between voltage (Vf) and current (If).
M ODEL G RAPH :

T ABULATION :

FORWARD BIAS:
RPS Voltage Vf If
S.No
(Volts) (Volts) (mA)

REVERSE BIAS:
RPS Voltage Vr Ir
S.No
(Volts) (Volts) (µA)
REVERSE BIAS:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram

2. For reverse bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the cathode of the diode and RPS –ve is
connected to the anode of the diode.
3. Switch on the power supply and increase the input voltage (supply voltage) in Steps of 2 V.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage across the
diode for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. Tabulate the reading of voltage and current of the diode.
6. Plot a Graph between voltage (Vr) and current (Ir).

RESULT:
Thus the Forward and Reverse Bias characteristic for a Zener diode is obtained and the
graph was plotted.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. If the impurity concentration is increased, how the depletion layer width is affected?
2. Does the dynamic impendence of a Zener diode vary?
3. Explain briefly about avalanche and Zener breakdowns?
4. Draw the Zener equivalent circuit.
5. In which region Zener diode can be used as a regulator?
6. How the breakdown voltage of a particular diode can be controlled?
C I R C U I T D I A GR A M :

M OD E L G R A P H : INPUT WAVE FORM

OUTPUT WAVE FO
RM
Ex. No.: 3 A Date:
H ALF W AVE R ECTIFIER
AIM:
To obtain the ripple factor of a half- wave rectifier with and without filter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-

S. No Name of the Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1 Diode BY 127 1
2 Resistor 470Ω 1
3 Capacitor 470 µF 1
4 Step down Transformer 12 - 0 - 12 1
5 CRO 1
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting Wires As Required

THEORY: -
During positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode D1 is in forward bias and
conducts through the load resistor R1. Hence the current produces an output voltage across the
load resistor R1, which has the same shape as the +ve half cycle of the input voltage.
During the negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode is reverse biased and
there is no current through the circuit. i.e, the voltage across R1 is zero. The net result is that
only the +ve half cycle of the input voltage appears across the load. The average value of the
half wave rectified o/p voltage is the value measured on dc voltmeter. For practical circuits,
transformer coupling is usually provided for two reasons.
1. The voltage can be stepped-up or stepped-down, as needed.
2. The ac source is electrically isolated from the rectifier thus preventing shock hazards
in the secondary circuit.
THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS FOR RIPPLE FACTOR:-

WITHOUT FILTER:-
Vrms =Vm/2
Vm =2Vrms
Vdc =Vm/ π
2
Ripple factor r= √ (Vrms/ Vdc ) -1 = 1.21
WITH FILTER:-
Ripple factor, r=1/ (2√3 f C R )
Where f =50Hz
C =470µF
RL=470Ω
PRACTICAL CALCULATIONS:-
Vac=
Vdc=
Ripple factor with out Filter =
Ripple factor with Filter =
TABULATION:-

WITHOUT FILTER:-
Vdc=Vm/П,
Vrms=Vm/2,
USING Vm(v) Vac(v) Vdc(v) r= Vac/ Vdc
2 2
Vac=√ ( Vrms - Vdc
CRO

WITH FILTER
V1(V) V2(V) Vdc= (V1+V2)/2 Vac= (V1- V2)/2√3 r = Vac/ Vdc
USING
CRO
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to ac mains and the secondary side to the
rectifier input.
3. By using the CRO, measure the ac input voltage of the rectifier, ac and dc voltage at the
output of the rectifier.
4. Find the theoretical value of dc voltage by using the formula,

Vdc=Vm / π
Where,
Vm= 2Vrms, (Vrms=output ac voltage.)
The Ripple factor is calculated by using the formula
r= AC output voltage / DC output voltage.

RESULT:
Thus the Ripple factor for the Half-Wave Rectifier with and without filters is measured.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is the PIV of Half wave rectifier?
2. What is the efficiency of half wave rectifier?
3. What is a rectifier?
4. What is the difference between the half wave rectifier and full wave Rectifier?
5. What is the output frequency of Bridge Rectifier?
6. What do you mean by ripples?
7. What is the function of the filters?
8. What is the peak factor?
C I R C U I T D I A GR A M :

M OD E L G R A P H :
Ex. No.: 3 B Date:
F U L L W A V E R E C T IF I E R
AIM:
To find the Ripple factor of a Full-wave Rectifier with and without filter.

APPARATUS R EQUIRED:-

S. No Name of the Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1 Diode - BY 127 2
2 Resistor Wire Wound 470Ω 1
3 Capacitor Electrolyte 470 µF 1
4 Step down Transformer Wire Wound 230V/(12-0-12)V 1
5 CRO - - 1
6 Bread Board - - 1
7 Connecting Wires - - As Required

THEORY:-
The circuit of a center-tapped full wave rectifier uses two diodes D1&D2. During
positive half cycle of secondary voltage (input voltage), the diode D1 is forward biased and D2 is
reverse biased. The diode D1 conducts and current flows through load resistor RL. During
negative half cycle, diode D2 becomes forward biased and D1 reverse biased. Now, D2 conducts
and current flows through the load resistor RL in the same direction.
There is a continuous current flow through the load resistor RL, during both the half
cycles and will get unidirectional current. The difference between full wave and half wave
rectification is that a full wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one way) current to the load during
the entire 360 degrees of the input signal and half-wave rectifier allows this only during one half
cycle (180 degree).
 THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS:
Vrms = Vm/ √2
Vm =Vrms√2
Vdc =2Vm/П
(I)WITHOUT FILTER:
2
Ripple factor, r = √ ( Vrms/ Vdc ) -1 = 0.482
(II)WITH FILTER:
Ripple factor, r = 1/ (4√3 f C RL) where f =50Hz
C = 470µF
RL= 470Ω

PRACTICAL CALCULATIONS:
WITHOUT FILTER:-
Vac=
Vdc=
Ripple factor, r=Vac/Vdc
WITH FILTERS:-
Vac=
Vdc=
Ripple factor=Vac/Vdc
TABULATION: Vrms = Vm/ √2
Vdc=2Vm/П
WITHOUT FILTER 2 2
Vac=√( Vrms - Vdc )

USING Vm(v) Vac(v) Vdc(v) r= Vac/ Vdc

CRO

WITH FILTER
USING V1(V) V2(V) Vdc= (V1+V2)/2 Vac=(V1- V2)/2√3 r= Vac/ Vdc
CRO
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the ac mains to the primary side of the transformer and the secondary side to the
rectifier.
3. Measure the ac voltage at the input side of the rectifier.
4. Measure both ac and dc voltages at the output side the rectifier.
5. Find the theoretical value of the dc voltage by using the formula Vdc = 2Vm/ π
6. Connect the filter capacitor across the load resistor and measure the values of Vac and
Vdc at the output.
7. The theoretical values of Ripple factors with and without capacitor are calculated. From
the values of Vac and Vdc practical values of Ripple factors are calculated. The practical
values are compared with theoretical values.

RESULT:
The ripple factor of the Full-wave rectifier (with filter and without filter) is calculated.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Define regulation of the full wave rectifier?

2. Define peak inverse voltage (PIV). And write its value for Full-wave rectifier?
3. If one of the diode is changed in its polarities what wave form would you get?
4. Does the process of rectification alter the frequency of the waveform?
5. What is ripple factor of the full wave rectifier?
6. What is the necessity of the transformer in the rectifier circuit?
7. What are the applications of a rectifier?
8. What is meant by ripple and define ripple factor?
9. Explain how capacitor helps to improve the ripple factor?
C IRCUIT D IAGRAM :

MODEL GRAPHS:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
 Ex. No.: 4 A Date:
C HA R A C T E R I S T I C S O F T R A N S I S T O R U N D E R C O M M O N
E MITTER
C ON F I G U R A T I
ON
AIM:
1. To observe and draw the input and output characteristics of a transistor connected in
common Emitter configuration.
2. To find β of the given transistor.

APPARATUS R EQUIRED:-

S. No Name of the Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1 Transistor BC 547 1
2 Resistor 1KΩ 2
3 RPS (0 -30)V 2
(0 – 10) mA 1
4 Ammeter MC
(0 – 500) µA 1
5 Voltmeter MC (0 -30)V 2
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting Wires As Required

THEORY:
A transistor is a three terminal active device with the terminals emitter, base, and
collector. In common emitter configuration, input voltage is applied between base and emitter
terminals and output is taken across the collector and emitter terminals. Therefore the emitter
terminal is common to both input and output.
The input characteristics resemble that of a forward biased diode curve. This is expected
since the Base-Emitter junction of the transistor is forward biased. As compared to CB
arrangement IB increases less rapidly with VBE. Therefore input resistance of CE circuit is higher
than that of CB circuit.
The output characteristics are drawn between Ic and VCE at constant IB. the collector
current varies with VCE unto few volts only. After this the collector current becomes almost
constant, and independent of VCE. The value of VCE up to which the collector current changes
with VCE is known as Knee voltage. The transistor is always operated in the region above Knee
voltage, where IC is always constant and is approximately equal to IB.
The current amplification factor of CE configuration is given by
β = ΔIC/ΔIB

EC 6361 – Electronics Laboratory

Page 20 of 58
 T ABULATION
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
VCE = 1V VCE = 2V VCE = 4V
S.NO
VBE(V) IB(μA) VBE(V) IB(μA) VBE(V) IB(μA)

O UT PUT CHARACTARISTICS:

IB = 50 μA IB = 75 μA IB = 100 μA
S.NO
VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) IC(mA)

EC 6361 – Electronics Laboratory

Page 21 of 58
 P ROCEDURE:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. For plotting the input characteristics the output voltage VCE is kept constant at 1V and
for different values of VBE, Note down the values of IB.
3. Repeat the above step by keeping VCE at 2V and 4V and tabulate the readings.
4. Plot the graph between VBE and IB for constant VCE.

O UTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram
2. For plotting the output characteristics the input current IB is kept constant at 10μA and for
different values of VCE note down the values of IC.
3. Repeat the above step by keeping IB at 75μA and100μA and tabulate the readings.
4. Plot the graph between VCE and IC for constant IB.

R ESULT:
Thus the input and output characteristics of the transistor were plotted and the value of β
of the given transistor is calculated.

VIVA Q UESTIONS:
1. What is the range of β for the transistor?
2. What are the input and output impedances of CE configuration?
3. Identify various regions in the output characteristics.
4. what is the relation between α and β ?
5. Define current gain in CE configuration.
6. Why CE configuration is preferred for amplification?
7. What is the phase relation between input and output?
8. Draw diagram of CE configuration for PNP transistor.
9. What is the power gain of CE configuration?
10. What are the applications of CE configuration?

EC 6361 – Electronics Laboratory

Page 22 of 58
 C I R C U I T D I A GR A M :

MODEL GRAPHS:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS O UTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

EC 6361 – Electronics Laboratory

Page 23 of 58
 Ex. No.: 4 B Date:
C HARACTERISTICS O F T RANSISTOR U NDER C OMMON C
OL L E C T OR
C ON F I G U R A T I
ON
AIM:
To observe and draw the input and output characteristics of a transistor connected in
common Emitter configuration and to determine its h parameters.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-

S. No Name of the Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1 Transistor BC 547 1
2 Resistor 1KΩ 2
3 RPS (0 -30)V 2
4 Ammeter MC (0 – 10) mA 2
5 Voltmeter MC (0 -30)V 2
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting Wires As Required

THEORY:
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three terminal (Emitter, Base, Collector) device.
There are two types of transistors namely NPN and PNP. It consists of two P – N junctions
namely emitter junction and collector junction.

In Common collector configuration the input is applied between base and collector
terminals and the output is taken from collector and emitter. Here collector is common to both
input and output and hence the name common collector configuration.

Input characteristics are obtained between the input current and input voltage taking
output voltage as parameter. It is plotted between VBC and IB at constant VCE in CC
Configuration. Output Characteristics are obtained between the output voltage and output
current. It is plotted between VCE and IE at constant IB in CC Configuration.

The various h parameters are given below:

1. Input impedance (hie) = ΔVBC / Δ IB
2. Forward current gain (hfc) = ΔIE / ΔIB
3. Output admittance (hoc) = ΔIE / ΔVEC
4. Reverse voltage gain (hrc) = ΔVBC / ΔVEC

EC 6361 – Electronics Laboratory

Page 24 of 58
T ABULATION

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

VCE = 1V VCE = 2V VCE = 4V

S.NO
VCB(V) IB(mA) VCB(V) IB(mA) VCB(V) IB(mA)

O UTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

IB = 2 mA IB = 5 mA IB = 10 mA
S.NO
VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) IC(mA)
P ROCEDURE:

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. For plotting the input characteristics the output voltage VCE is kept constant at 1V and
for different values of VCB, Note down the values of IB.
3. Repeat the above step by keeping VCE at 2V and 4V and tabulate the readings.
4. Plot the graph between VBC and IB for constant VCE.

O UTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram
2. For plotting the output characteristics the input current IB is kept constant at 2mA and for
different values of VCE note down the values of IC.
3. Repeat the above step by keeping IB at 5mA and10mA and tabulate the readings.
4. Plot the graph between VCE and IC for constant IB.

RESULT:
Thus the input and output characteristics of the transistor were plotted and the various h
parameters of the given transistor is calculated.
1. Input impedance (hie) =
2. Forward current gain (hfc) =
3. Output admittance (hoc) =
4. Reverse voltage gain (hrc) =

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are the applications of CC Configuration?
2. Compare the voltage gain and input and output impedances of CE and CC configurations.
3. BJT is a current controlled device. Justify.
4. Why CC Configuration is called emitter follower?
5. Can we use CC configuration as an amplifier?
6. What is the need for analyzing the transistor circuits using different parameters?
7. What is the significance of hybrid model of a transistor?
8. Is there any phase shift between input and output characteristics in CC Configuration?
C I R C U I T D I A GR A M :

MODEL GRAPHS:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS O UTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
Ex. No.: 4 C Date:
C HARACTERISTICS O F T RANSISTOR U NDER C OMM
ON B ASE
C ON F I G U R A T I
ON
AIM:
1. To observe and draw the input and output characteristics of a transistor connected in
common base configuration.
2. To find α of the given transistor.

APPARATUS R EQUIRED:-

S. No Name of the Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1 Transistor BC 547 1
2 Resistor 1kΩ 2
3 RPS (0 -30)V , (0-10)V 1 Each
4 Ammeter MC (0 – 100) mA 2
5 Voltmeter MC (0 -30)V 2
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting Wires As Required

THEORY:
A transistor is a three terminal active device. The terminals are emitter, base, collector. In
CB configuration, the base is common to both input (emitter) and output (collector). For normal
operation, the E-B junction is forward biased and C-B junction is reverse biased. In CB
configuration, IE is +ve, IC is –ve and IB is –ve. So,
VEB=f1 (VCB,IE) and
IC=f2 (VCB,IB)
With an increasing reverse collector voltage, the space-charge width at the output
junction increases and the effective base width ‘W’ decreases. This phenomenon is known as
“Early effect”. Then, there will be less chance for recombination within the base region. Wit h
increase of charge gradient within the base region, the current of minority carriers injected across
the emitter junction increases. The current amplification factor of CB configuration is given by,
α= ∆IC/ ∆IE
 T ABULATION

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

VCB = VCB= VCB =

S. No
VEB IE(mA) VEB IE(mA) VEB IE(mA)
(Volts) (Volts) (Volts)

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

IE=10mA IE=20mA IE=30mA

S. No
VCB IC(mA) VCB IC(mA) VCB IC(mA)
(Volts) (Volts) (Volts)
 P ROCEDURE:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. For plotting the input characteristics, the output voltage VCB is kept constant at 0.5V and for
different values of VBE note down the values of IE.
3. Repeat the above step keeping VCB at 2V, 4V, and 6V and tabulate the readings.
4. A graph is drawn between VBE and IE for constant VCB.

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. For plotting the output characteristics, the input IE is kept constant at 10 mA and for
different values of VCB, note down the values of IC.
3. Repeat the above step for the values of IE at 20 mA, 40 mA, and 60 mA and tabulate the
readings.
4. A graph is drawn between VCB and IC for constant IE.

RESULT:
Thus the input and output characteristics of the transistor were plotted and the value of α
of the given transistor is calculated.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is the range of α for the transistor?
2. Draw the input and output characteristics of the transistor in CB configuration.
3. Identify various regions in output characteristics.
4. What is the relation between α and β?
5. What are the applications of CB configuration?
6. What are the input and output impedances of CB configuration?
7. Define α (alpha)?
8. What is EARLY effect?
9. Draw diagram of CB configuration for PNP transistor.

EC 6361- Electronics Laboratory

Page 30 of 58
 C I R C U I T D I A GR A M :

MODEL GRAPHS:

TABULATION:

INPUT VOLTAGE =

S.NO DISTANCE(CM) CURRENT(µA)

EC 6361- Electronics Laboratory

Page 31 of 58
 Ex. No.: 5 A Date:
C H A R A C T E RI S T I C S O F P H O T O D I O D E
AIM:

To Obtain the distance Vs Photocurrent characteristics of a photodiode

APPARATUS R EQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS TYPE RANGE QUANTITY

1 Photo Diode 1
2 Regulated power supply (0 – 30)V 1
3 Ammeter MC (0 – 500)µA 1
4 Bread board 1
5 Connecting wires As Required

THEORY
A photodiode is capable of converting light into either current or voltage,
depending upon the mode of operation. The common, traditional solar cell used to generate
electric solar power is a large area photodiode. Photodiodes are similar to regular
semiconductor diodes except that they may b e either exposed (to detect vacuum UV or
X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fiber connection to allow light to reach the
sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed for use specifically as a photodiode use a PIN
junction rather than a p-n junction, to increase the speed of response. A photodiode is designed to
operate in reverse bias.
P ROCEDURE
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set the input voltage, Vary the scale of photodiode light Source towards bulb and note
down the corresponding diode current ID.
3. Plot the graph for current ID(µA) Vs Distance (cm)

RESULT
Thus the following characteristics of the photo diode were obtained and the corresponding graph was
drawn.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. How does photo diode work?
2. Give two applications of photo diode?
3. Which biasing is suitable for photo diode application?
4. What is meant by dark current?
5. What is meant by dark resistance?

EC 6361- Electronics Laboratory

Page 32 of 58
C I R C U I T D I A GR A M :

M OD E L G R A P H :

T ABULATION:

S.NO DISTANCE(CM) CURRENT(µA)

Ex. No.: 5 B Date:
C H A R A C T E R IS T I C S O F P H O T O T R A N S I S T O R
AIM:

To obtain the characteristics of a phototransistor.

APPARATUS R EQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS TYPE RANGE QUANTITY

1 Phototransistor. - 1
2 Regulated power supply - (0 – 30)V 1
3 Ammeter MC (0 – 500)µA 1
4 Bread board - 1
5 Connecting wires - As Required

THEORY
Photo transistor is a bit like a photo diode in the fact it detects light waves, however
photo transistors, like transistor are designed to be like a fast switch and is used for light wave
communications and as light or infrared sensors. The most common form of photo transistor is
the NPN collector and emitter transistor with no base lead. Light or photons entering the base
replace the base emitter current of normal transistors.

PROCEDURE
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set the input voltage, Vary the scale of photodiode light Source towards bulb and note
down the corresponding diode current ID.
3. Plot the graph for current ID(µA) Vs Distance (cm)

RESULT
Thus the following characteristics of the photo transistor were obtained and the
corresponding graph was drawn.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is a phototransistor?
2. How is it different from photo diode?
3. Give the applications of phototransistor?
C I R C U I T D I A GR A M :

L OW P A S S F I L T E R H IGH P ASS F ILTER

M OD E L G R A P H :

L OW P A S S F I L T E R H IGH P ASS F ILTER

VOUT VOUT

Low Pass High Pass

F F

T ABULATION:

L OW P A S S F I L T E R H IGH P ASS F ILTER

Frequency = Frequency =
Frequency in Output Frequency in Output Voltage
S. No S. No
(Hz Voltage in (Hz) in (Volts)
) (Volts)
Ex. No.: 6 Date:
R EALIZATION O F P ASSIVE F ILTERS
AIM:

To design and observe the frequency response characteristics of passive filters.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO APPARATUS RANGE TYPE QUANTITY
1. Function Generator - 1
2. Decade Resistance Box - 1
3. Decade Capacitance Box - 1
4. Voltmeter (0– 10) V MI 1
5. Bread board - 1
6. Connecting wires - As required

T HEORY:
Filters are electric circuits that pass, reject, and attenuate signals at various frequencies.
Common types of filters are:
1. Low pass Filter: It allows low frequencies and rejects high frequencies.
2. High pass Filter: It allows high frequencies and rejects low frequencies.
3. Band Pass Filter: It allows some particular range of frequencies and reject other
frequencies outside that band.
4. Band Rejection Filter: It rejects a range of frequencies and pass all other frequencies.

PASSIVE FILTERS:
Passive filters use RLC elements to achieve the desired filter. The half power frequency
is the same as the break frequency (or corner frequency) and is located at the frequency where
the magnitude is 1/√2 of its maximum value. The resonance frequency 0 is also referred to as
the center frequency. The passive filters can be designed appropriately by using the below
formula.
F=1/2RC
R ESULT
:
Thus the frequency response characteristics of passive filters were designed and
observed.

V IV A Q U E S T I O N S :
1. What are the applications of Passive filters?
2. Distinguish between Active and passive filters.
3. What are the limitations of passive filters?
4. What is half power frequency?
5. Define the design parameters of passive filters.
C I R C U I T D I A GR A M :

M OD E L G R A P H :
D R A I N C HA R A C T E R I S T I C S T RANSFER C HARACTERISTICS
Ex. No.: 7 Date:
CH A R A C T E R I S T I C S O F J F E T
AIM:

a). To draw the drain and transfer characteristics of a given FET.

b). To find the drain resistance (rd) amplification factor (μ) and Tran conductance (gm) of
the given FET.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS TYPE RANGE QUANTITY

1. FET BFW 10 1
2. Resistor 1KΩ 2
3. Regulated power supply (0 – 30)V 2
4. Ammeter MC (0 – 10)mA 1
(0 – 10)V 1
5. Voltmeter MC
(0 – 30)V 1
6. Bread board 1
7. Connecting wires As Required

THEORY:
A FET is a three terminal device, having the characteristics of high input impedance and
less noise, the Gate to Source junction of the FET Is always reverse biased. In response to small
applied voltage from drain to source, the n-type bar acts as sample resistor, and the drain current
increases linearly with VDS. With increase in ID the ohmic voltage drop between the source and
the channel region reverse biases the junction and the conducting position of the channel begins
to remain constant. The VDS at this instant is called “pinch of voltage”.
If the gate to source voltage (VGS) is applied in the direction to provide additional
reverse bias, the pinch off voltage is decreased. In amplifier application, the FET is always used
in the region beyond the pinch-off.
2
FDS=IDSS(1-VGS/VP)
 T ABULATION:
D RAIN C HARACTERISTICS
VGS=0V VGS=0.1V VGS=0.2V
S.NO
VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA)

T RANSFER C HARACTERISTICS

VDS =0.5V VDS=1V VDS =1.5V

S.NO
VGS (V) ID(mA) VGS (V) ID(mA) VGS (V) ID(mA)

PIN DIAGRAM OF BFW 10:

 P ROCEDURE:
1. All the connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. To plot the drain characteristics, keep VGS constant at 0V.
3. Vary the VDD and observe the values of VDS and ID.
4. Repeat the above steps 2, 3 for different values of VGS at 0.1V and 0.2V and tabulate all the
readings.
5. To plot the transfer characteristics, keep VDS constant at 1V.
6. Vary VGG and observe the values of VGS and ID.
7. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for different values of VDS at 1.5 V and 2V and tabulate all the
readings.
8. From drain characteristics, calculate the values of dynamic resistance (rd) by using the
formula
rd = ∆VDS/∆ID
9. From transfer characteristics, calculate the value of transconductace (gm) . By using the
formula
Gm = ∆ID/∆VDS
10. Amplification factor (μ) = dynamic resistance. Tran conductance
μ = ∆VDS/∆VGS
RESULT:
Thus the drain and transfer characteristics of a FET were observed and the followings
parameters were calculated.
The dynamic resistance (rd) =
Amplification factor (μ) =
Transconductance (gm) =

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are the advantages of FET?
2. Differentiate between FET and BJT.
3. Explain different regions in V-I characteristics of FET.
4. What are the applications of FET?
5. What are the types of FET?
6. Draw the symbol of FET.
7. What are the disadvantages of FET?
8. What are the parameters of FET?

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory

Page 40 of 58
 C I R C U I T D I A GR A M :

M OD E L G R A P H :

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 41 of 58

 Ex. No.: 8 Date:
C H A R A C T E R I ST I C S O F U J T
A IM :
To obtain the characteristics of UJT and to observe the pinch off Voltage.
A PPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS TYPE RANGE QUANTITY

1 UJT 2N2646 1
1KΩ 1
2 Resistor 2.2 KΩ 1
220 Ω 1
2 Regulated power supply (0 – 30)V 2
(0 – 100) mA 1
3 Ammeter MC
(0 – 10)mA 1
4 Voltmeter MC (0 – 30)V 1
5 Bread board 1
6 Connecting wires As Required

T HEORY:
A Uni junction Transistor (UJT) is an electronic semiconductor device that has only one
junction. The Uni junction Transistor (UJT) has three terminals which are emitter (E) and two
bases (B1 and B2). The base is formed by lightly doped n-type bar of silicon. Two ohmic
contacts B1 and B2 are attached at its ends. The emitter is of p-type and it is heavily doped. The
resistance between B1 and B2, when the emitter is open-circuit is called interbase resistance. The
original uni junction transistor, or UJT, is a simple device that is essentially a bar of N type
semiconductor material into which P type material has been diffused somewhere along its length.
The 2N2646 is the most commonly used version of the UJT.

The UJT is biased with a positive voltage between the two bases. This causes a potential
drop along the length of the device. When the emitter voltage is driven, approximately one diode
voltage rises above the voltage and the current will begin to flow from the emitter into the base
region. Because the base region is very lightly doped, the additional current (actually charges in
the base region) causes conductivity which reduces the resistance of the portion of the base
between the emitter junction and the B2 terminal. This reduction in resistance means that the
emitter junction is more forward biased, and so even more current is injected. Overall, the effect
is a negative resistance at the emitter terminal. This is what makes the UJT useful, especially in
simple oscillator circuits. When the emitter voltage reaches Vp, the current starts to increase and
the emitter voltage starts to decrease. This is represented by negative slope of the characteristics
which is referred to as the negative resistance region beyond the valley point.

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 42 of 58

 T ABULATION:

S. No VB B
1 2 IE (mA)
(Volts)

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 43 of 58

 P ROCEDURE:

1. Connection is made as per circuit diagram.

2. Output voltage is fixed at a constant level and by varying input voltage corresponding
emitter current values are noted down.
3. This procedure is repeated for different values of output voltages.
4. All the readings are tabulated & Intrinsic Stand-Off ratio is calculated using η = (Vp-VD)/VBB
5. A graph is plotted between VBB and IE for different values of VBE.

R E S U LT:
Thus the characteristics of UJT are observed and the pinch off value is calculated.

V IVA QUESTIONS

1. Draw the symbol of UJT.

2. Draw the equivalent circuit of UJT.
3. What are the applications of UJT?
4. Write the formula for the intrinsic standoff ratio.
5. What does it shows the direction of arrow in the UJT?
6. What is the difference between FET and UJT?
7. Can UJT be used as an oscillator? How?
8. What is the resistance between B1 and B2 is called as?
9. What is its value of resistance between B1 and B2?
10. Draw the characteristics of UJT.

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 44 of 58

 C I R C U I T D I A GR A M :

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 45 of 58

 Ex. No.: 9 Date:

DESIGN AND FREQUENCY RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER.

AIM:

To find the voltage gain of a CE amplifier and to find its frequency response

APPARATUS R EQUIRED:-

S. No Name of the Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1 Transistor BC 547 1
2 Resistor 1KΩ 5
3 Signal Generator 1
5 Voltmeter MI (0 -30)V 1
6 CRO (0-20)MHz 1
7 Bread Board 1
8 Connecting Wires As Required

THEORY:
The CE amplifier is a small signal amplifier. This small signal amplifier accepts low
voltage ac inputs and produces amplified outputs. A single stage BJT circuit may be
employed as a small signal amplifier; has two cascaded stages give much more
amplification.

Designing for a particular voltage gain requires the use of a ac negative feedback to
stabilize the gain. For good bias stability, the emitter resistor voltage drop should be
much larger than the base -emitter voltage. And R e resistor will provide the
required negative feedback to the circuit. CE is provided to provide necessary gain to the
circuit. All bypass capacitors should be selected to have the smallest possible capacitance
value, both to minimize the physical size of the circuit for economy. The coupling
capacitors should have a negligible effect on the frequency response of the circuit.

Precautions:

1.Wires should be checked for good continuity.

2.Transistor terminals must be identified and connected carefully.

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 46 of 58

 TABULATION:
Input voltage (Vi) =

S.NO FREQUENCY OUTPUT GAIN Av=Vo/Vi GAIN IN dB

VOLTAGE(Vo) 20 log gain

MODEL GRAPH:

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 47 of 58

 PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Give l00Hz signal and 20mv p-p as Vs from the signal generator.
3. Observe the output on CRO and note down the output voltage.
4. Keeping input voltage constant and by varying the frequency in the range 100Hz-1MHz,
note down the corresponding output voltages.
5. Calculate gain in dB and plot the frequency response on semi log sheet

Result:

VIVA Q UESTIONS:
1. What is the range of β for the transistor?
2. What are the input and output impedances of CE configuration?
3. Identify various regions in the output characteristics.
4. what is the relation between α and β ?
5. Define current gain in CE configuration.
6. Why CE configuration is preferred for amplification?
7. What is the phase relation between input and output?
8. Draw diagram of CE configuration for PNP transistor.
9. What is the power gain of CE configuration?
10. What are the applications of CE configuration?

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 48 of 58

 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

OBSERVATION

Theoretical Frequency Practical Frequency

S.No % Error
(Hz) (Hz)

MODEL GRAPH

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 49 of 68

 Ex.No:10 (a) Date:
RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR
AIM

To construct a RC Phase shift oscillator and to calculate the percentage error.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

S.No. Name Range Quantity

1. Transistor BC107 1

2. Resistor 22KΩ,2KΩ, 4.7KΩ, 560Ω,6.8KΩ 1,1,1,1,3

3. Capacitor 2.2µF, 2.2pF, 0.01µF 2,1,3

4. CRO 30MHz 1

5. Regulated power supply (0-30)V 1

6. Bread Board 1

7 Connecting Wires As required

FORMULA

f=1/2π RC √ (6+4K) where, R1=R2=R3=R,

C1=C2=C3=C and
K=RC/R.
THEORY

In the RC phase shift oscillator, the combination of RC provides self-bias for the
amplifier. The phase of the signal at the input gets reverse biased when it is amplified by the
amplifier. The output of amplifier goes to a feedback network consists of three identical RC
sections. Each RC section provides a phase shift of 60 0. Thus a total of 1800 phase shift is
provided by the feedback network. The output of this circuit is the same phase as the input
to the amplifier.

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 50 of 68

 PROCEDURE

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 51 of 68

 1. The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. The amplitude and time period of the output waveform are noted.

3. Theoretical value of frequency is calculated using the RC values and compared with the
practical values.

4. The graph is plotted using the amplitude and frequency values.

5. Percentage error is calculated by finding the difference between the theoretical and practical
values.

RESULT

The frequency of RC Phase Shift Oscillator was determined as __________

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 52 of 68

 OBSERVATION

Amplitude Theoretical Practical

Time Period
S.No. Frequency Frequency % Error
(Volt) (ms)
(Hz) (Hz)

Ex.No:10 (b) Date:

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 53 of 68

 COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
AIM
To design a Colpitts oscillator and to measure the frequency of oscillations.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

S.No. Name Range Quantity

1. Transistor BC107 1
2. Resistor 27kΩ,4.7k Ω,1k Ω 1,1,1
3. Capacitor 0.01 µF 3
4. Inductor 2mH, 30mH 1,1
5. Decade Inductance Box (0-1000) µH 1
6. CRO 30 MHz 1
7. Regulated power supply (0-30) V 1
8. Bread Board 1
9 Connecting Wires As required

THEORY

In the Colpitts oscillator shown in fig 1, Z 1, and Z2 are capacitors and Z3 is an inductor. The
resistors R and R2 and RE provide the necessary DC bias to the transistor. C E is a bypass capacitor
CC1 and CC2 are coupling capacitors. The feedback network consisting of capacitors C1 and C2 ,
inductor L determine the frequency of the oscillator.

When the supply voltage +V cc is switched ON, a transient current is produced in the tank
circuit, and consequently damped harmonic oscillations are setup in the circuit. The current in tank
circuit produces AC voltages across C1 and C2 . As terminal 3 is earthed, it will be at zero potential.

If terminal is at positive potential with respect to 3 at any instant, then terminal 2 will be at
negative potential with respect to 3 at the same instant. Thus the phase difference between the
terminals 1 and 2 is always 1800. In the CE mode, the transistor provides the phase difference of
1800 between the input and output. Therefore the total phase shift is 360 0. The frequency of
oscillations is

f = 1/2π√LC where 1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2.

PROCEDURE

1 The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. The amplitude and time period of the output waveform is measured.
3. The Theoretical frequency of the circuit is calculated by using the formulae and compared
with the practical frequency.
MODEL GRAPH

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 54 of 68

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 55 of 68
 4. The difference in the theoretical and practical frequencies are calculated and noted as
% error.

RESULT

The frequency of Colpitts oscillator was practically observed and the % error was calculated
as ___________

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 56 of 68

 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 57 of 68

 Ex. No.: 11 Date:

DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER USING FET

AIM:

To design and obtain the characteristics of a differential Amplifier using FET.

APPARATUS R EQUIRED:-

S. No Name of the Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1 FET BFW 10 2
2 Resistor 1K /5.6 K 3
4 Power Supply (0 -30)V 3
6 Bread Board 1
7 Multimeter 1
9 Connecting Wires As Required

THEORY:

A differential Amplifier is a type of electronic amplifier that amplifies the difference between two voltages
but does not amplify the particular voltages. The differential amplifier operates in two modes. They are
common mode and differential mode.

At common mode, the two voltage followers cooperate with each other working together on the
common high resistive emitter load. They all together increase or decrease the voltage of the common
emitter point. As a result the output collector voltages do not change.

At differential mode, the two voltage followers oppose each other. One of them tries to increase the
voltage of the common emitter point and the other tries to decrease it. As a result the common quiescent
current increases between the two transistors and the output collector voltages changes.

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 58 of 68

 TABULAR COLUMN:

S.NO VG1 VG2 V0=VG1-VG2

(Volts) (Volts)

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 59 of 68

 PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram

2. Then the same voltage or different voltage is applied to the gate terminal.

3. When same input voltage is given, CMRR can be calculated

4. Output can be collected from the source terminals.

RESULT:

Thus the differential amplifier is designed using FET and its output is obtained.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1.Which mode of differential amplifier will have negative feedback? And why?
2.What is CMRR ratio?
3.Give some applications of differential amplifier.
4.State some of the components by which you can construct differential amplifier.
5.What are the drawbacks of differential amplifier?

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 60 of 68

 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

MODEL GRAPH

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 61 of 68

 Ex.No:12 (a) Date:

ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

AIM
To construct and study the operation of astable multivibrator using transistors and to
observe the response of the transistors.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
S.No. Name Range Quantity

1. Transistor BC107 2
2. Resistors 5.6 kΩ, 470 Ω 2,2
3. Capacitors 0.02 µF 2
4. CRO 30 MHz 1
5. RPS (0-30)V 1
6. Bread board 1
7. Connecting wires As required

THEORY

Multivibrators are electronics circuits that are used to generate non-sinusoidal waveform. A
multivibrator have two states if these states are semi stable states it is called an astable
multivibrator. Astable multivabrator is called free running multivibrator. This vibrator changes its
state from one to another on its own without any application of external trigger .The duration of
each of the two semi stable state is dependent upon two RC times constants within the multivibrator
circuit.
Depending upon the hfe value we can confirm which transistor is in ON position. Higher
value of hfe is first switched ON, here consider Q2 enter into saturation and Q1 is in cut-off when
Q2 is conducting, C2 changes to VCC as Q1 is off C2 cannot force its voltage on to the base of the
Q2. Base of Q2 gets sufficient bias voltage to operate in saturation through base resistor of Q2.
Therefore, Q2 continues to conduct even though C2 is charged to VCC. but when Q2 is conducting
+ve plate of the C1 is grounded though short circuited Q2 . C1 is already charged to V CC thus –ve
plate is connected to base of Q1, which reverse biases NPN transistor and therefore Q1 remains in
cut-off.
Now capacitor starts charging through base resistor of Q1 and short circuited Q2 from –V CC
to +VCC. When charged voltage on C1 becomes 0v, the base of Q1 starts getting +ve potential from
C1 and it enters into saturation. When Q1 is short circuited as it is ON, +ve plate of the C2 is
effectively grounded and its –ve plate is connected to the base of T2. Therefore Q2 comes out of
saturation and it becomes OFF. When Q2 is OFF, C1 which is at this time charged to +ve V CC is not
connected to the base of Q1 and required base drive for

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 62 of 68

 TABULAR COLUMN:

S.NO Amplitude in Ton Toff Frequency in Hz

Volts
(ms) (ms)

VO1

VO2

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 63 of 68

 Q1 be in saturation is obtained from base resistor of Q1. Capacitor C2 which starts charging
from –VCC to +VCC through base resistor of Q2 and short circuited Q1. When charge on C2 becomes
0v, Q2 starts conducting and therefore –ve plate of C1 is connected to the base of Q1, so Q1 comes
out of saturation.

T1 = 0.69Rb1*C1

T2 = 0.69Rb2*C2

When Rb1 =Rb2 and C1=C2 (for square wave)

T = T1 + T2.

PROCEDURE

1. All the connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. The different voltages are measured at base and collector points of two transistors with respect to
ground as VC1, VC2, VB1 and VB2.
3. All the waveforms are plotted on the graph sheet, the amplitudes and time periods are noted
down.

RESULT

Thus the astable multivibrator using transistors was constructed and operation was studied.
The response at base and collector points of the transistors was also observed.

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 64 of 68

 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

MODEL WAVEFORMS

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 65 of 68

 MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

AIM

To construct and study the operation of monostable multivibrator using transistors and to
observe the response at base and collector points of the transistors.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

S.No. Name Range Quantity

1. Transistors BC547 2Nos.
2. Resistors 1 kΩ, 17.6 kΩ, 7.8 kΩ, 3.6 kΩ 2,1,1,1
3. Capacitors 0.01 µF, 0.1 µF 2,1
4. CRO 30 MHz 1
5. RPS 0-30 V 1
6. Bread board 1
7. Connecting wires As required

THEORY

In the monostable multivibrator one state is stable and the other is semi or quasi stable state.
So it is called Monostable multivibrator. It requires an external force to change from stable state to
semi stable state. Where as on its own after a small duration it changes its state from semi stable
state to stable state. This duration of staying in semi stable state completely depends upon timing
elements resistor and capacitor with in the circuit.
When no trigger pulse is applied to the base of Q2 transistor Q1 is OFF and transistor Q2 is
ON. During this stable state of this circuit capacitor C charges through resistor R to V CC. This
charging will not affect the base drive of Q2 as Q1 is opened and the charged voltage as Q1 is open
and the charged voltage Vcc is not w.r.t ground. Due to Q2 is conducting, the collector voltage Q2
is very small , which is applied through potential R1&Rb1 cannot drive Q1 into saturation, Thus Q1
remains in cut-off during stable state.
When a negative triggering pulse is applied to the base of ON transistor Q2, which
decreases base drive and Q2 becomes OFF. Due to this collector voltage of Q2 rises to V CC in turn
this increases base drive of Q1. Now Q1 becomes ON. Due to Q1 becomes short circuit, the +ve
plate of charged capacitor C is effectively connected to the ground. The –ve plate is connected to
the base of Q2. Charged capacitor C provided the –ve voltage to the base of Q2. To turn on Q2 it
requires a +ve drive as it is an npn transistor.

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 66 of 68

 The capacitor C starts charging from –VCC to +VCC through resistor R. When the charging
on capacitor reaches 0 volts base of Q2 starts getting +ve base drive and it turns ON the Q2.
Depending upon RC constant, circuit returns to its stable state. When Q2 is ON, the collector
voltage of it falls to Vce(sat) and there by Q1becomes OFF. This stable state exists as long as again
external triggering voltage is applied to the base of Q2.

TABULAR COLUMN:

Width Input Output

(ms)
Ton Toff Voltage Ton Toff Voltage

(ms) (ms) (volts) (ms) (ms) (volts)

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 67 of 68

 PROCEDURE

1 All the connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Different voltages are measured at base and collector points of two transistors with respect to
ground as VC1, VC2, VB1 and VB2.
3. All the waveforms are plotted on the graph sheet, the amplitudes and time periods are noted
down.

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 68 of 68

 RESULT

Thus the monostable multivibrator using transistors was constructed and operation was
studied. The response at base and collector points of the transistors was also observed.

EC 6361 - Electronics Laboratory Page 69 of 68