TWI

Types of Arc
Welding

Solid wire MIG welding

Metal inert gas (MIG) welding was first patented in
the USA in 1949 for welding aluminium. The arc
and weld pool formed using a bare wire electrode
was protected by helium gas, readily available at
that time. From about 1952 the process became
popular in the UK for welding aluminium using
argon as the shielding gas, and for carbon steels using CO . CO and argon-CO
mixtures are known as metal active gas (MAG) processes. MIG is an attractive
alternative to MMA, offering high deposition rates and high productivity.
2

Process characteristics
MIG is similar to MMA in that heat for welding is produced by forming an arc
between a metal electrode and the workpiece; the electrode melts to form the
weld bead. The main difference is that the metal electrode is a small diameter
wire fed from a spool. As the wire is continuously fed, the process is often
referred to as semi-automatic welding.
Metal transfer mode
The manner, or mode, in which the metal transfers from the electrode to the weld
pool largely determines the operating features of the process. There are three
principal metal transfer modes:
Short circuiting
Droplet / spray
Pulsed
Short-circuiting and pulsed metal transfer are used for low current operation
while spray metal transfer is only used with high welding currents. In shortcircuiting or'dip' transfer, the molten metal forming on the tip of the wire is
transferred by the wire dipping into the weld pool. This is achieved by setting a
low voltage; for a 1.2mm diameter wire, arc voltage varies from about 17V (100A)
to 22V (200A). Care in setting the voltage
and the inductance in relation to the wire
feed speed is essential to minimise spatter.
Inductance is used to control the surge in
current which occurs when the wire dips into
the weld pool.
For droplet or spray transfer, a much higher
voltage is necessary to ensure that the wire
does not make contact i.e.short-circuit, with
the weld pool; for a 1.2mm diameter wire,

the arc voltage varies from approximately 27V (250A) to 35V (400A). The molten
metal at the tip of the wire transfers to the weld pool in the form of a spray of
small droplets (about the diameter of the wire and smaller). However, there is a
minimum current level, threshold, below which droplets are not forcibly projected
across the arc. If an open arc technique is attempted much below the threshold
current level, the low arc forces would be insufficient to prevent large droplets
forming at the tip of the wire. These droplets would transfer erratically across the
arc under normal gravitational forces. The pulsed mode was developed as a
means of stabilising the open arc at low current levels i.e. below the threshold
level, to avoid short-circuiting and spatter. Spray type metal transfer is achieved
by applying pulses of current, each pulse having sufficient force to detach a
droplet. Synergic pulsed MIG refers to a special type of controller which enables
the power source to be tuned (pulse parameters) for the wire composition and
diameter, and the pulse frequency to be set according to the wire feed speed.

Shielding gas
In addition to general shielding of the arc and the weld pool, the shielding gas
performs a number of important functions:
forms the arc plasma
stabilises the arc roots on the material surface
ensures smooth transfer of molten droplets from the wire to the weld pool
Thus, the shielding gas will have a substantial effect on the stability of the arc
and metal transfer and the behaviour of the weld pool, in particular, its
penetration. General purpose shielding gases for MIG welding are mixtures of
argon, oxygen and C02, and special gas mixtures may contain helium. The
gases which are normally used for the various materials are:
steels
o CO
o argon +2 to 5% oxygen
o argon +5 to 25% CO
non-ferrous
o argon
o argon / helium
2

Argon based gases, compared with CO , are generally more tolerant to

parameter settings and generate lower spatter levels with the dip transfer mode.
However, there is a greater risk of lack of fusion defects because these gases
are colder. As CO cannot be used in the open arc (pulsed or spray transfer)
modes due to high back-plasma forces, argon based gases containing oxygen or
CO are normally employed.
2

Applications

MIG is widely used in most industry sectors and accounts for almost 50% of all
weld metal deposited. Compared to MMA, MIG has the advantage in terms of
flexibility, deposition rates and suitability for mechanisation. However, it should be
noted that while MIG is ideal for 'squirting' metal, a high degree of manipulative
skill is demanded of the welder.
Copyright by TWI, 1999

Electro slag welding (February 2001)

by Owen Gorton

Description
Electro slag welding is a very efficient, single pass process carried out in the
vertical or near vertical position and used for joining steel plates/sections in
thicknesses of 25mm and above. It was developed by the Paton Institute in the
Ukraine in the early 1950s and superseded the very high current submerged arc
process for making longitudinal welds in thick-walled pressure vessels.
Unlike other high current fusion processes, electro slag welding is not an arc
process. Heat required for melting both the welding wire and the plate edges is
generated through a molten slag's resistance to the passage of an electric
current.
In its original form, plates are held vertically approximately 30mm apart with the
edges of the plate cut normal to the surface. A bridging run-on piece of the same
thickness is attached to the bottom of the plates. Water cooled copper shoes are
then placed each side of the joint, forming a rectangular cavity open at the top.
Filler wire, which is also the current carrier, is then fed into this cavity, initially
striking an arc through a small amount of flux. Additional flux is added which
melts forming a flux bath which rises and extinguishes the arc. The added wire
then melts into this bath sinking to the bottom before solidifying to form the weld.
For thick sections, additional wires may be added and an even distribution of
weld metal is achieved by oscillating the wires across the joint. As welding
progresses, both the wire feed mechanism and the copper shoes are moved
progressively upwards until the top of the weld is reached. See figure 1.

Fig.1. Electro slag welding

The consumable guide variant of the process uses a much simpler set-up and
equipment arrangement which does not require the wire feed mechanism to
climb. In this case, the wire is delivered to the weld pool down a consumable,
thick-walled tube which extends from the top of the joint to the weldpool. Support
for the molten bath is provided by two pairs of copper shoes which are moved
upwards, leapfrogging each other as welding progresses. The tubular guides can
be further supplemented by additional consumable plates attached to the tube.
Generally, as the thickness of plate increases, the number of wires/guides
increases, approximately in the ratio of one wire per 50mm of thickness, see
figure 2.

Fig.2. Consumable guide welding

Current status
In the fabrication industry, the process continues to be used for thick walled
pressure vessels which are post-weld normalised and for structures such as blast
furnace shells and steel ladles which are used at above ambient temperatures.
The process is also extensively used for the welding of railway points.

Important current issues

Considerable interest was shown in electro slag welding during the 1970s when
ideas for increasing welding speed were investigated. This was seen as an
important parameter for increasing productivity and as a way of reducing heat
input to improve HAZ and weld metal impact properties.
However, since that time little has been done by way of development. Those
developments that have taken place have been limited to the tuning of
parameters and tailoring techniques for specific applications.

Benefits
The principal benefits of the process are:
speed of joint completion; typically 1 hour per metre of seam, irrespective
of thickness
lack of angular distortion
lateral angular distortion limited to 3mm per meter of weld
high quality welds produced
simple joint preparation, i.e. flame-cut square edge
major repairs can be made simply by cutting out total weld and re-welding

Risks
Electro slag welding is not one of the major welding processes because the high
heat input generates large, coarse grained weld metal and HAZs which lead to
poor fracture toughness properties in these areas. Toughness improvements can
only be achieved by post-weld normalising treatment. Additionally, the near
parallel-sided geometry of the weld, combined with the coarse grains, can make
it difficult to identify defects at the fusion boundary by standard ultrasonic NDT
techniques.
The process has considerable potential for increasing productivity. However, its
use has been limited because of relatively poor understanding of the process
and, for specific applications, the significance of the fracture toughness values.
As a result, use of the process has been restricted to a few niche applications.

The Manual Metal

Arc process
Manual metal arc welding was first invented
in Russia in 1888. It involved a bare metal rod
with no flux coating to give a protective gas
shield. The development of coated electrodes did not occur until the early 1900s
when the Kjellberg process was invented in Sweden and the Quasi-arc method
was introduced in the UK. It is worth noting that coated electrodes were slow to
be adopted because of their high cost. However, it was inevitable that as the
demand for sound welds grew, manual metal arc became synonymous with
coated electrodes. When an arc is struck between the metal rod (electrode) and
the workpiece, both the rod and workpiece surface melt to form a weld pool.
Simultaneous melting of the flux coating on the rod will form gas and slag which
protects the weld pool from the surrounding atmosphere. The slag will solidify
and cool and must be chipped off the weld bead once the weld run is complete
(or before the next weld pass is deposited).
The process allows only short lengths of weld to be produced before a new
electrode needs to be inserted in the holder. Weld penetration is low and the
quality of the weld deposit is highly dependent on the skill of the welder.

Types of flux/electrodes
Arc stability, depth of penetration, metal deposition rate and positional capability
are greatly influenced by the chemical composition of the flux coating on the
electrode. Electrodes can be divided into three main groups:
Cellulosic
Rutile
Basic
Cellulosic electrodes contain a high proportion of cellulose in the coating and
are characterised by a deeply penetrating arc and a rapid burn-off rate giving
high welding speeds. Weld deposit can be coarse and with fluid slag, deslagging
can be difficult. These electrodes are easy to use in any position and are noted
for their use in the 'stovepipe' welding technique.
Features:

deep penetration in all positions

suitability for vertical down welding
reasonably good mechanical properties
high level of hydrogen generated - risk of cracking in the heat affected
zone (HAZ)

Rutile electrodes contain a high proportion of titanium oxide (rutile) in the

coating. Titanium oxide promotes easy arc ignition, smooth arc operation and low
spatter. These electrodes are general purpose electrodes with good welding
properties. They can be used with AC and DC power sources and in all positions.
The electrodes are especially suitable for welding fillet joints in the
horizontal/vertical (H/V) position.
Features:

moderate weld metal mechanical properties

good bead profile produced through the viscous slag
positional welding possible with a fluid slag (containing fluoride)
easily removable slag

Basic electrodes contain a high proportion of calcium carbonate (limestone) and

calcium fluoride (fluorspar) in the coating. This makes their slag coating more
fluid than rutile coatings - this is also fast-freezing which assists welding in the
vertical and overhead position. These electrodes are used for welding medium
and heavy section fabrications where higher weld quality, good mechanical
properties and resistance to cracking (due to high restraint) are required.
Features:

low weld metal produces hydrogen

requires high welding currents/speeds
poor bead profile (convex and coarse surface profile)
slag removal difficult

Metal powder electrodes contain an addition of metal powder to the flux coating
to increase the maximum permissible welding current level. Thus, for a given
electrode size, the metal deposition rate and efficiency (percentage of the metal
deposited) are increased compared with an electrode containing no iron powder
in the coating. The slag is normally easily removed. Iron powder electrodes are
mainly used in the flat and H/V positions to take advantage of the higher
deposition rates. Efficiencies as high as 130 to 140% can be achieved for rutile
and basic electrodes without marked deterioration of the arcing characteristics
but the arc tends to be less forceful which reduces bead penetration.

Power source
Electrodes can be operated with AC and DC power supplies. Not all DC
electrodes can be operated on AC power sources, however AC electrodes are
normally used on DC.

Welding current

Welding current level is determined by the size of electrode - the normal

operating range and current are recommended by manufacturers. Typical
operating ranges for a selection of electrode sizes are illustrated in the table. As
a rule of thumb when selecting a suitable current level, an electrode will require
about 40A per millimeter (diameter). Therefore, the preferred current level for a
4mm diameter electrode would be 160A, but the acceptable operating range is
140 to 180A.

What's new
Transistor (inverter) technology is now enabling very small and comparatively low
weight power sources to be produced. These power sources are finding
increasing use for site welding where they can be readily transported from job to
job. As they are electronically controlled, add-on units are available for TIG and
MIG welding which increase the flexibility. Electrodes are now available in
hermetically sealed containers. These vacuum packs obviate the need for baking
the electrodes immediately prior to use. However, if a container has been opened
or damaged, it is essential that the electrodes are redried according to the
manufacturer's instructions.

Moving contact arc welding (March

2001)

by Wayne Thomas

Description and explanation

In moving contact arc welding (MCAW), current is supplied to a shaped metal
consumable electrode through a sliding or rolling contact tool. The lying
consumable (known as a Ridgeback consumable) is flux-covered and features
an exposed metal ridge that protrudes above the flux. Electrical contact between
the tool and the consumable is applied at a relatively short distance from the arc,
eliminating the resistive heating path of the electrode.
TM

The MCAW technique is under development and offers an easy-to-use

alternative cladding, welding and repair method. The process is suitable for either
manual or mechanised operation. It can be applied with restricted access and is
amenable to remote operation.
Fig 1. Basic principle of MCAW using Ridgeback consumable
TM

Present status of MCAW

The process is novel in that it differs from the traditional Firecracker (ElinHafergut) and other lying consumable welding techniques because the contact
point is kept as close as possible to the burning arc. This minimises resistive
heating between the contact point and the arc, enabling the Ridgeback
consumable to carry greater currents, or, almost infinite lengths to be used in one
operation. Restricted access and remote operation capability are two of the major
advantages unique to the MCAW process.
TM

Although the feasibility has been demonstrated, the MCAW process has not yet
been used commercially. Underwater welding under dry conditions in a local
habitat is a possible application. The practicability of restricted access conditions
has been demonstrated using a local habitat chamber. In addition, repair welding

in hazardous surroundings (e.g. in the nuclear industry) and welding or repair

inside steel tubes and pipes are likely to provide ideal application for the process.

Important issues
Ease of manufacture of profiled consumables by hot rolling or extrusion, etc and
application of the flux covering on consumables in a more cost-effective way are
important development issues in successful commercialisation of the process. A
further research requirement will be to develop the process to become positional,
i.e. for vertical and overhead applications.
A potential variant of the MCAW technique is sub-arc in which a plain bar stock or
powder filled consumable is used. The sub-arc variant would not need a specially
shaped rod, and the consumables need not be flux covered. The technique
would make use of a hopper feed, granulated flux and insulated flux saddles. The
sub-arc variant would eliminate the need for any consumable feed system.
Fig 2. Assessing the feasibiltiy of moving contact arc welding (MCAW)

Benefits
Potentially, the MCAW process has many beneficial features compared with
existing processes which utilise consumables.
The process gives greater productivity as the number of start/stops is reduced,
and longer and/or larger consumables can be used in one welding operation.
Stop/starts can be sites for welding defects such as cold laps; reduction in
stop/starts reduces this associated risk.
The use of larger consumables can
reduce/eliminate the need for multi-pass
welding of thick plate.
MCAW uses low-cost, portable
equipment and is readily automated. It is
simple to operate and is essentially a

low-skill welding/cladding technique with less associated operator fatigue. It is

ideal for applying hardfacing and corrosion overlays and can be designed to
operate in restricted access.

Risks
Typically, the risks associated with traditional arc welding equipment will also
apply to MCAW.

Future prospects
It is expected that MCAW will be used for niche applications were existing
techniques are unable to operate.

Plasma Welding
Process characteristics
Plasma welding is very similar to TIG as the arc is formed between a pointed
tungsten electrode and the workpiece. However, by positioning the electrode
within the body of the torch, the plasma arc can be separated from the shielding
gas envelope. Plasma is then forced through a fine-bore copper nozzle which
constricts the arc. Three operating modes can be produced by varying bore
diameter and plasma gas flow rate:

Microplasma: 0.1 to 15A.

The microplasma arc can be operated at very low welding currents. The
columnar arc is stable even when arc length is varied up to 20mm.

Medium current: 15 to 200A.

At higher currents, from 15 to 200A, the process characteristics of the
plasma arc are similar to the TIG arc, but because the plasma is
constricted, the arc is stiffer. Although the plasma gas flow rate can be
increased to improve weld pool penetration, there is a risk of air and
shielding gas entrainment through excessive turbulence in the gas shield.
Keyhole plasma: over 100A.
By increasing welding current and plasma gas flow, a very powerful
plasma beam is created which can achieve full penetration in a material,
as in laser or electron beam welding. During welding, the hole
progressively cuts through the metal with the molten weld pool flowing
behind to form the weld bead under surface tension forces. This process
can be used to weld thicker material (up to 10mm of stainless steel) in a
single pass.

Power source
The plasma arc is normally operated with a DC, drooping characteristic power
source. Because its unique operating features are derived from the special torch
arrangement and separate plasma and shielding gas flows, a plasma control
console can be added on to a conventional TIG power source. Purpose-built
plasma systems are also available. The plasma arc is not readily stabilised with
sine wave AC. Arc reignition is difficult when there is a long electrode to
workpiece distance and the plasma is constricted, Moreover, excessive heating
of the electrode during the positive half-cycle causes balling of the tip which can
disturb arc stability.
Special-purpose switched DC power sources are available. By imbalancing the
waveform to reduce the duration of electrode positive polarity, the electrode is
kept sufficiently cool to maintain a pointed tip and achieve arc stability.

Arc starting
Although the arc is initiated using HF, it is first formed between the electrode and
plasma nozzle. This 'pilot' arc is held within the body of the torch until required for
welding then it is transferred to the workpiece. The pilot arc system ensures
reliable arc starting and, as the pilot arc is maintained between welds, it obviates
the need for HF which may cause electrical interference.

Electrode
The electrode used for the plasma process is tungsten-2%thoria and the plasma
nozzle is copper. The electrode tip diameter is not as critical as for TIG and
should be maintained at around 30-60 degrees. The plasma nozzle bore
diameter is critical and too small a bore diameter for the current level and plasma
gas flow rate will lead to excessive nozzle erosion or even melting. It is prudent
to use the largest bore diameter for the operating current level.
Note: too large a bore diameter, may give problems with arc stability and
maintaining a keyhole.

Plasma and shielding gases

The normal combination of gases is argon for the plasma gas, with argon plus 2
to 5% hydrogen for the shielding gas. Helium can be used for plasma gas but
because it is hotter this reduces the current rating of the nozzle. Helium's lower
mass can also make the keyhole mode more difficult.

Applications
Microplasma welding

Microplasma was traditionally used for welding thin sheets (down to 0.1 mm
thickness), and wire and mesh sections. The needle-like stiff arc minimises arc
wander and distortion. Although the equivalent TIG arc is more diffuse, the newer
transistorised (TIG) power sources can produce a very stable arc at low current
levels.
Medium current welding
When used in the melt mode this is an alternative to conventional TIG. The
advantages are deeper penetration (from higher plasma gas flow), and greater
tolerance to surface contamination including coatings (the electrode is within the
body of the torch). The major disadvantage lies in the bulkiness of the torch,
making manual welding more difficult. In mechanised welding, greater attention
must be paid to maintenance of the torch to ensure consistent performance.
Keyhole welding
This has several advantages which can be exploited: deep penetration and high
welding speeds. Compared with the TIG arc, it can penetrate plate thicknesses
up to l0mm, but when welding using a single pass technique, it is more usual to
limit the thickness to 6mm. The normal methods is to use the keyhole mode with
filler to ensure smooth weld bead profile (with no undercut). For thicknesses up
to 15mm, a vee joint preparation is used with a 6mm root face. A two-pass
technique is employed and here, the first pass is autogenous with the second
pass being made in melt mode with filler wire addition.
As the welding parameters, plasma gas flow rate and filler wire addition (into the
keyhole) must be carefully balanced to maintain the keyhole and weld pool
stability, this technique is only suitable for mechanised welding. Although it can
be used for positional welding, usually with current pulsing, it is normally applied
in high speed welding of thicker sheet material (over 3 mm) in the flat position.
When pipe welding, the slope-out of current and plasma gas flow must be
carefully controlled to close the keyhole without leaving a hole.

Submerged-arc Welding

The first patent on the submerged-arc welding (SAW) process was taken out in
1935 and covered an electric arc beneath a bed of granulated flux. Developed by
the E O Paton Electric Welding Institute, Russia, during the Second World War,
SAW's most famous application was on the T34 tank.

Process features
Similar to MIG welding, SAW involves formation of an arc between a
continuously-fed bare wire electrode and the workpiece. The process uses a flux
to generate protective gases and slag, and to add alloying elements to the weld
pool. A shielding gas is not required. Prior to welding, a thin layer of flux powder
is placed on the workpiece surface. The arc moves along the joint line and as it
does so, excess flux is recycled via a hopper. Remaining fused slag layers can
be easily removed after welding. As the arc is completely covered by the flux
layer, heat loss is extremely low. This produces a thermal efficiency as high as
60% (compared with 25% for manual metal arc). There is no visible arc light,
welding is spatter-free and there is no need for fume extraction.

Operating characteristics

SAW is usually operated as a fully-mechanised or automatic process, but it can

be semi-automatic. Welding parameters: current, arc voltage and travel speed all
affect bead shape, depth of penetration and chemical composition of the
deposited weld metal. Because the operator cannot see the weld pool, greater
reliance must be placed on parameter settings.

Process variants
According to material thickness, joint type and size of component, varying the
following can increase deposition rate and improve bead shape.
Wire
SAW is normally operated with a single wire on either AC or DC current.
Common variants are:
twin wire
triple wire
single wire with hot wire addition
metal powdered flux addition
All contribute to improved productivity through a marked increase in weld metal
deposition rates and/or travel speeds.
Flux
Fluxes used in SAW are granular fusible minerals containing oxides of
manganese, silicon, titanium, aluminium, calcium, zirconium, magnesium and
other compounds such as calcium fluoride. The flux is specially formulated to be
compatible with a given electrode wire type so that the combination of flux and
wire yields desired mechanical properties. All fluxes react with the weld pool to
produce the weld metal chemical composition and mechanical properties. It is
common practice to refer to fluxes as 'active' if they add manganese and silicon
to the weld, the amount of manganese and silicon added is influenced by the arc
voltage and the welding current level. The the main types of flux for SAW are:
Bonded fluxes - produced by drying the ingredients, then bonding them
with a low melting point compound such as a sodium silicate. Most

bonded fluxes contain metallic deoxidisers which help to prevent weld

porosity. These fluxes are effective over rust and mill scale.
Fused fluxes - produced by mixing the ingredients, then melting them in
an electric furnace to form a chemical homogeneous product, cooled and
ground to the required particle size. Smooth stable arcs, with welding
currents up to 2000A and consistent weld metal properties, are the main
attraction of these fluxes.

Applications
SAW is ideally suited for longitudinal and circumferential butt and fillet welds.
However, because of high fluidity of the weld pool, molten slag and loose flux
layer, welding is generally carried out on butt joints in the flat position and fillet
joints in both the flat and horizontal-vertical positions. For circumferential joints,
the workpiece is rotated under a fixed welding head with welding taking place in
the flat position. Depending on material thickness, either single-pass, two-pass or
multipass weld procedures can be carried out. There is virtually no restriction on
the material thickness, provided a suitable joint preparation is adopted. Most
commonly welded materials are carbon-manganese steels, low alloy steels and
stainless steels, although the process is capable of welding some non-ferrous
materials with judicious choice of electrode filler wire and flux combinations.

TIG Welding
Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding became
an overnight success in the 1940s for
joining magnesium and aluminium. Using
an inert gas shield instead of a slag to
protect the weldpool, the process was a
highly attractive replacement for gas and
manual metal are welding. TIG has
played a major role in the acceptance of
aluminium for high quality welding and structural applications.

Process characteristics
In the TIG process the arc is formed between a pointed tungsten electrode and
the workpiece in an inert atmosphere of argon or helium. The small intense arc
provided by the pointed electrode is ideal for high quality and precision welding.
Because the electrode is not consumed during welding, the welder does not have
to balance the heat input from the arc as the metal is deposited from the melting
electrode. When filler metal is required, it must be added separately to the
weldpool.

Power source
TIG must be operated with a drooping, constant current power source - either DC
or AC. A constant current power source is essential to avoid excessively high
currents being drawn when the electrode is short-circuited on to the workpiece
surface. This could happen either deliberately during arc starting or inadvertently
during welding. If, as in MIG welding, a flat characteristic power source is used,
any contact with the workpiece surface would damage the electrode tip or fuse
the electrode to the workpiece surface. In DC, because arc heat is distributed
approximately one-third at the cathode (negative) and two-thirds at the anode
(positive), the electrode is always negative polarity to prevent overheating and
melting. However, the alternative power source connection of DC electrode
positive polarity has the advantage in that when the cathode is on the workpiece,
the surface is cleaned of oxide contamination. For this reason, AC is used when
welding materials with a tenacious surface oxide film, such as aluminium.

Arc starting
The welding arc can be started by scratching the surface, forming a short-circuit.
It is only when the short-circuit is broken that the main welding current will flow.
However, there is a risk that the electrode may stick to the surface and cause a
tungsten inclusion in the weld. This risk can be minimised using the 'lift arc'
technique where the short-circuit is formed at a very low current level. The most
common way of starting the TIG arc is to use HF (High Frequency). HF consists
of high voltage sparks of several thousand volts which last for a few
microseconds. The HF sparks will cause the electrode - workpiece gap to break
down or ionise. Once an electron/ion cloud is formed, current can flow from the
power source.
Note: As HF generates abnormally high electromagnetic emission (EM), welders
should be aware that its use can cause interference especially in electronic
equipment. As EM emission can be airborne, like radio waves, or transmitted
along power cables, care must be taken to avoid interference with control
systems and instruments in the vicinity of welding.

HF is also important in stabilising the AC arc; in AC, electrode polarity is reversed

at a frequency of about 50 times per second, causing the arc to be extinguished
at each polarity change. To ensure that the arc is reignited at each reversal of
polarity, HF sparks are generated across the electrode/workpiece gap to coincide
with the beginning of each half-cycle.

Electrodes
Electrodes for DC welding are normally pure tungsten with 1 to 4% thoria to
improve arc ignition. Alternative additives are lanthanum oxide and cerium oxide
which are claimed to give superior performance (arc starting and lower electrode
consumption). It is important to select the correct electrode diameter and tip
angle for the level of welding current. As a rule, the lower the current the smaller
the electrode diameter and tip angle. In AC welding, as the electrode will be
operating at a much higher temperature, tungsten with a zirconia addition is used
to reduce electrode erosion. It should be noted that because of the large amount
of heat generated at the electrode, it is difficult to maintain a pointed tip and the
end of the electrode assumes a spherical or 'ball' profile.

Shielding gas
Shielding gas is selected according to the material being welded. The following
guidelines may help:
Argon - the most commonly-used shielding gas which can be used for
welding a wide range of materials including steels, stainless steel,
aluminium and titanium.
Argon + 2 to 5% H2 - the addition of hydrogen to argon will make the gas
slightly reducing, assisting the production of cleaner-looking welds without
surface oxidation. As the arc is hotter and more constricted, it permits
higher welding speeds. Disadvantages include risk of hydrogen cracking
in carbon steels and weld metal porosity in aluminium alloys.
Helium and helium/argon mixtures - adding helium to argon will raise
the temperature of the arc. This promotes higher welding speeds and
deeper weld penetration. Disadvantages of using helium or a helium/argon
mixture is the high cost of gas and difficulty in starting the arc.

Applications
TIG is applied in all industrial sectors but is especially suitable for high quality
welding. In manual welding, the relatively small arc is ideal for thin sheet material
or controlled penetration (in the root run of pipe welds). Because deposition rate
can be quite low (using a separate filler rod) MMA or MIG may be preferable for
thicker material and for fill passes in thick-wall pipe welds.
TIG is also widely applied in mechanised systems either autogenously or with
filler wire. However, several 'off the shelf' systems are available for orbital welding

of pipes, used in the manufacture of chemical plant or boilers. The systems

require no manipulative skill, but the operator must be well trained. Because the
welder has less control over arc and weldpool behaviour, careful attention must
be paid to edge preparation (machined rather than hand-prepared), joint fit-up
and control of welding parameters.