INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL CONSULTATION AND THERAPY

2013, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

2013, VOL. 7, NO. 4

ISSN: 15557855

A Comparison of Rational Emotive Therapy and Tibetan

Buddhism: Albert Ellis and the Dalai Lama
Susan A. Holt and Carol Shaw Austad
Central Connecticut State University

Abstract

impartial research which is neither credulous nor

dogmatically skeptical. Buddhists conduct scientific research into religious experience, near death
experiences, out-of-the-body experiences and other
areas of exploration, even rebirth (Wilson, 1986).
Personal reasoning and experience are ones ultimate truths. Both REBT and TB encourage the
individual to approach living his or her life from a
scientific perspective and to use empirical, logical
methods of inquiry.

This article explores conceptual and methodological similarities between Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) and
Tibetan Buddhism (TB). The authors examine some of the values and concepts they share. They compare the two systems on a number of issues: philosophical underpinnings, concepts of what causes human psychopathology, techniques Philosophical Underpinnings
to bring about change, outcome expectancies and goals. The purpose of this exploration is to increase awareness of the Both REBT and TB encourage human beings to
need for Western psychotherapists to develop a comprehensive science of the mind to help humans overcome difficulties pursue happiness and eliminate suffering, when
possible.. They have an existential humanistic oriand to live more fulfilling lives.

Keywords
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy, REBT, Tibetan Buddhism (TB), comparison, similarities

What do Albert Ellis and the Dalai Lama have in

common? This article examines some of the values
and the concepts that they share. It will illustrate
that Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)
and Tibetan Buddhism (TB) have similarities in a
number of areas such as how and what they study,
their philosophical underpinnings, their concepts
of what causes psychopathology, techniques to
bring about change, and outcome expectancies and
goals.
In the way of background, psychotherapists became
more aware and interested in the commonalities between Eastern Buddhism and Western psychotherapy in the 1960s. Two pivotal works fostered these
realizations. In his book, Psychotherapy East and
West, Watts (1961) compared concepts and methods of Eastern Buddhism with Western psychotherapy and demonstrated how both possess deep
human wisdom. In his book, The Relaxation Response, Harvard physician Herbert Benson (2000,
1975) defined the relaxation response as a physical
state which invokes deep physical relaxation, and
is the opposite of the fight-flight response. He used
a staunchly scientific approach to show that meditation, as well as prayer, hypnosis, and yoga were
diverse forms of the relaxation response. Benson
demonstrated that the Tibetan Buddhists meditative practice produced beneficial effects to the mind
and body. Since the 1960s, publications comparing
Eastern and Western ways of thinking have dramatically increased (Tweed & Lehman, 2002) as a
new era has been ushered into Western mainstream
literature with increased attention to mind-body
interconnectedness and attention to similarities between Buddhist constructs and REBT (Thompson
and Waltz, 2007).
Gaining greater recognition now is Tibetan Buddhism, promoted by the Dalai Lama, the spiritual
head of Tibetan Buddhists and exiled previous political head of Tibet. Scientists have collaborated
with Tibetan practitioners, resulting in an increasing belief, both scientific and popular, that Tibetan Buddhism is more than a religion but a form of
inner mental science that can enhance the quality

of life (Dalai Lama, 1991; Goleman, 2003). Most

recently, the Dali Lama has participated in a number of mind-body conferences with a wide variety
of world renowned neuroscientists. They explored
how to focus andcontrol concentration and attention, activities Buddhists have practiced for thousands of years (Mind-Life Institute, 2008).
At a surface level, Buddhist philosophies and Western psychotherapy seem to be worlds apart. However, if we strip away dissimilar vocabulary and attend to the conceptual meanings, it becomes readily
apparent that some forms of psychotherapy have
much common with particular forms of Buddhism.
For example, conceptual concurrences between Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) and Tibetan Buddhism (TB) exist. Albert Ellis himself, in
his last few years of life, saw the similarities between
REBT and TB and wrote about them. He pointed
out how both systems help people to consistently
work at forgiving self, others, and tolerating an often times harsh world (Ellis, 2005).
As this article compares these two systems, and
this exploration will contribute to hopefully, this
exploration will the development of a comprehensive inner science (Dalai Lama, 1991) or science
of the mind to help humans to live more fulfilling
lives. We will compare REBT and TB, specifically,
on their methods of study, philosophical underpinnings, theory of pathology, goals of treatment,
theory of change, methods of change and the role
of therapist.

Method of Study
Both REBT and TB encourage people to think critically and to pursue truth. The scientific method is
encouraged, andthought to be necessary. According to REBT people might strive to learn to train
themselves through rigorous thinking about and
working against some of their strongest inborn and
environmental tendencies (Ellis 2005, p 64.). People can acquire skills allowing them to debate their
irrational thoughts and acquire a realistic view of
the world. According to TB, the Dharma can only
gain in strength and universality by open-minded,

entation, and stress holism.. At the same time, both

recognize human limitations.. They consider that
humans are frail and need to accept human nature
for what it is with an unconditional acceptance of
reality. Although humans are frail, they also possess
the potential to improve themselves. Both systems
adhere to the idea that humans are self determined
and create their own mental health and mental illnesses as well as espouse ethical humanism and self
actualization.
For REBT, self actualization means attaining total
rationality. The motivation for doing this is to promote ones own well being. It is in each persons best
interest to treat others well and to respect others
rights, because it makes ones own life easier. For
TB, the highest motivation is to become selfless and
spiritual. TB claims the achievement of selfless happiness occurs by focusing on service toward others
(Ellis, 2001a, 2001b). The person who is progressing
toward enlightenment, the Bodhisattva, is a noble
and courageous figure, who ceaselessly works for
the benefit of others whereby he or she sacrifices
self interest for other interest (Powers, 1995). Ones
own happiness occurs but as a by-product of helping others.

Causes of Pathology
What causes pathology? Cognition is a central concept in both TB and REBT. Thoughts are a main
contributor to happiness and unhappiness in both
systems.
In REBT, crooked cognitions cause pathology and
take the form of self criticism or non self-acceptance.
Human beings tend to make unreasonable demands
on themselves, on others, and on the world. When
an individual fails to fulfill these demands in the
past, present or future, she becomes agitated and
damns herself She labels herself as bad, and gives
herself (and others) a negative global rating. This
lack of self acceptance interferes with achieving her
basic goals. A second cognition that can result in
pathologyoccurs when a person does not get what
he wants. The individual makes a demand on self,
on others and on the world that is characterized by
an all-permeating attitude and dogmatic insistence
that life must be comfortable. When these demands
are not met in the past, present or future, the person has negative feelings. Displeasure and dissatisfaction arise and the person is disturbed (Ellis &

A COMPARISON OF RATIONAL EMOTIVE THERAPY AND TIBETAN BUDDHISM

Dryden, 1987; 1997). Overall, bad mental health is
caused by cognitions which breed low frustration
tolerance and distort reality. Through their own
thinking and through avoidance of reality, people
create their own psychological disturbances.
Specifically, REBT uses the A-B-C framework. A
is a set of activating events which results in cognitive, affective, and/or behavioral consequencesor
so the person delusionally believes. In actuality, it
is not the activating event (Not-A), but the belief
(B) about A andhow a person evaluates the event
that disrupts inner peace and brings about turmoil.
REBT identifies a number of specific irrational
thoughts and attitudes that are harmful and cause
pathology.
In TB, the Four Noble Truths are at the heart of human pathology or what TB calls human suffering
(Kabatznick, 1998). The four noble truths are 1)
the truth of suffering, 2) the truth of the origin of
suffering, 3) the truth of the cessation of suffering,
4) the truth of the eightfold path, or activities that
overcomes suffering.
The first two Noble Truths are similar in content to
the REBT tenets discussed above. The first Noble
truth is that suffering, dukka, is inevitable (Burtt,
1982). Nothing is permanent. Change and loss are
omnipresent. Being born into this world means
you will face sickness, old age, death of self and
loved ones and experience the sadness that accompanies these events. In everyday lives, unpleasant
events occur. There are three types of suffering
which include 1) physical and mental suffering, 2)
the suffering of change, and 3) the suffering of cyclical existence in which sentient beings are prone
to suffering because they are influenced by contaminated actions and the afflictions of self and others.
The second Noble truth is about the causes or origin of suffering. These are attachment to desire
and the tendency to grasp pleasure and to avoid
and reject pain. By nature, humans possess a blind
demandingness which leads them to ask more of
themselves and the universe than it is ready to or
even able to give (Burtt, 1982; Dalai Lama, 2001).
The more you grasp, the more you suffer.
What REBT calls poor mental health or psychological disturbance, TB calls unhappiness or suffering.
While REBT claims the roots of disturbance lie in
the tendencies to think irrationally and cling to self
defeating habits and TB claims that at the root of
unhappiness is the difficulty of accepting suffering
and its inevitability. One can conclude from both
that life is not fair. Also, people do not accept the
reality of life. (Kabatznick, 1998). When individuals make demands on the world by attaching themselves to irrational ideas about self, others, or the
world they become unhappy or disturbed when
these demands are not met in the past, present
or future. The persons attitude towards suffering,
more than the pain itself, affects how a person
copes. If a person can adopt an attitude that allows
acceptance of reality, then it is possible to counteract feelings of unhappiness and dissatisfaction.
Why do humans think in this crooked and self defeating manner? From whence do these tendencies
to fight against reality and to be irrational originate? REBT and the TB have similar underlying
reasons. Both hold that these problems are part of

the human condition, natural biological tendencies. Both believe it is natural state of human beings to possess thoughts and emotions that are wild
and unruly. No matter how competent, intelligent,
religious, moral, or well educated and trained, human beings have irrational thoughts and behaviors
and seem to fall back into self defeating patterns
in both personal and professional lives. They fail to
transcend irrationality.
REBT does not elaborate on the reasons why people think crooked but rather emphasizes how to
stop thinking crooked! The mind has irrational beliefs, absolutist, illusory evaluations of self others
and the universe. Specific evaluations are couched
in terms of must, should, ought, have to, got to.
Core irrational conclusions include awfulizing, I
cant stand it, damnation. The emphasis is on the
present, past and future lives are not mentioned.
TB claims that the relationships among thoughts,
actions and their results lies at the basis of pathology. Every act has consequences. Past actions from
this life and previous lives are important. The mind
fabricates and creates an ego that has preconceived
notions and illusions about the self. Beliefs are
marked by rigid absolutism. One clings to expectations, attachments, objects, hopes, dreams, and
other tangible and intangible entities. Wrong views,
attitudes, and discernments cause disturbance and
misery. Ignorance and attachment lie at the basis
of disturbance. Not applying skillful effort or not
following the right path to become enlightened is
at the basis of pathology(Wallace, 1993).

The Goals of REBT Treatment and

Tibetan Buddhism
In order to achieve happiness in either REBT or
Buddhism, the person must embrace a wholesome
underlying philosophy. In REBT, the primary goal
is to make a profound philosophical change in
the areas of ego disturbance and discomfort disturbance. The person needs to let go of his or her
irrational thinking and replace it with rational
nonabsolutist thinking. The person also needs to
truly accept the self, accept the unchangeable and
to tolerate discomfort in order to attain long range
happiness (Ellis & Dryden, 1987). Self damnation
can be transformed into self acceptance which
means not rating ones self poorly or not at all (Ellis
& Dryden, 1987).
In TB, nirvana is the ideal goal, which is the total elimination of all negative thoughts and emotions, and their underlying false perceptions (Dalai
Lama, 2000). How one perceives life as a whole
plays an important role in what attitudes about suffering are adapted. If a person believes suffering is
negative, a sign of failure, and must be avoided at
all costs, this attitude contributes toward anxiety,
intolerance and a feeling of being overwhelmed
which, of course, results in even more suffering.
However, if a person believes suffering is an inevitable and natural part of existence, this attitude
brings about less distress and a greater tolerance
of lifes adversities. The philosophical view of life
is that freedom from suffering comes from letting
go of attachments to desire. When a person seeks
happiness in things which are impermanent, he is
headed toward suffering. Happiness eludes the per-

son as he or she chases the unattainable, wasting

precious time and energy. A person needs to develop awareness of what the person is doing and, why,
and to control and regulate the mind, or thinking.
A cognitive reorientation which incorporates the
four noble truths and the Eightfold Path is needed
to overcome suffering, and is discussed below.

Techniques for Change

The REBT therapist applies emotional, behavioral,
and cognitive interventions vigorously to help clients make the philosophical and cognitive change
and to work at undisturbing themselves. It is difficult to effect profound philosophical change in an
instant. The therapist begins to help the client bring
about inferentially and behaviorally based change.
The therapist uses major treatment techniques of
challenging harmful cognitions and disputing self
defeating beliefs. Specifically, first, the therapist
seeks and detects the irrational beliefs, especially
musts, oughts, shoulds and have tos, which lead
to self defeating emotions and behaviors. Then the
therapist debates with the client. Debating involves
questioning in a way that helps the client give up
irrational beliefs. The therapist also uses discrimination. Discriminating encourages the client to
distinguish between wants, preferences, likes and
desires and needs, demands, and imperatives. The
therapist can use an array of eclectic techniques to
bring about change such as stress management, relaxation, meditation, visualization, and any method
that facilitates the clients ability to think rationally.
Relaxation techniques are not a necessary part of
REBT, but are certainly encouraged.
The REBT therapist encourages the learner to scientifically study the constructs, to not accept without questioning, and to decide independently who
is the best teacher. The client seeks the most compatible therapist. However, the person can be his
or her own therapist since the philosophy of REBT
may serve as a guide.
What techniques do Tibetan Buddhists use to reach
their goals? To move from a transitory life of crushing miseries to true happiness, means constant,
strenuous, alert self-examination while renouncing
what a person may foolishly prize now, including
self, all the ignorant cravings and blind urges (Burtt
(1982). The state of happiness, Nirvana, is free of all
suffering, frustration, and pain. To reach Nirvana,
and end suffering, the person follows the path of
self improvement by following the Noble Eightfold
Path. This takes a lifetime of effort and work (Dalai
Lama, 2000). TB methods are geared to cultivate
the mind so the person can give up attachments
and understand the long term consequences of
ethically wholesome and unwholesome behavior
activities (Wallace & Wolhelm, 1993). Meditation
is a key factor that includes a range of practices and
goals that keep the mind calm and help to develop
an understanding of the four noble truths.
The Noble Eightfold Path is a blueprint, like a
treatment plan, to end suffering. Suffering is desire
based on ignorance, and the plan shows the way to
let go of attachments. Taking the Noble Eightfold
Path means cultivating wisdom, ethics, and meditative absorption or concentration. It includes 1)
correct view, 2) correct intention, 3) correct speech,
4) correct action, 5) correct livelihood, 6) correct

HOLT & AUSTAD

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Table 1. Comparison: REBT and Tibetan Buddhism

Feature

REBT

TB

Goals

Philosophical attitude: replace irrational thinking with no absolutist thinking

Nirvana: replace negative thoughts and emotions underlying false perceptions

Method of study

Critical thinking
Scientific, logical methods of inquiry

Critical thinking
Scientific, logical, methods of inquiry

Philosophical
underpinning

Self determination: create own psychological health and disturbances

Rational, flexible, tolerant
Existential-humanistic, holistic
Unconditional acceptance of reality
Ethical Humanism: emphasize self interest over others
Help self first, respecting others makes life better for me

Personal reasoning and experience provide ultimate truth Self determination:

create own happiness and inner peace and disturbances
Rational, flexible, tolerant
Existential-humanistic, holistic
Unconditional acceptance of reality
Ethical Humanism: emphasize interest of all sentient beings over self interest
Self interest, a by-product of helping others: Bodhichitta

Roots/pathology

Bad mental health cause: negative thinking

Underlying irrational beliefs distort reality, cause psychological disturbance
Negative feelings of dissatis-faction occur when people do not get what they
want.
Biological tendencies: think irrationally, cling to self defeating patterns, fail to
transcend irrationality, low frustration tolerance, avoidance of pain
Why is not important, deal with present life only, no mention of past or future
lives
Mind has irrational beliefs: illusory, absolutist evaluations of self, others and
universe
Specific evaluations: couched in terms of must, should, ought, have to, got to
Core irrational conclusions include awfulizing, cant stand it, damnation

Unhappiness cause: negative views

Underlying false perceptions of reality causes negative views
Negative state caused by tendency to grasp, desire, want, to distort reality.
Natural state: wild and unruly thoughts and emotions, Four Noble Truths:
suffering, origin of suffering, cessation of suffering, truth of the Eightfold Path
Every act has consequences,
past actions from this life and previous lives, genetics may be karmic seeds
Mind fabricates, creates ego:
preconceived notions about self illusions fabricated in mind
Clings to expectations, objects, possessions, hopes, dreams, and other
tangible and intangible things.
Holding wrong views, bad attitudes, wrong discernment, greed, wishing to
harm others, faithlessness, resentment, jealousy, anger, disturb our mind and
cause misery of rigid absolutism

Methods to achieve
good mental health/
nirvana

Cultivate rational thinking

By debating it through Socratic method
Gain control of mind through cultivating rational thinking/beliefs
Practice A-B-Cs of REBT Detect /dispute irrational beliefs using cognitive,
emotional, behavioral methods

Control negative, delusional thinking through meditation on compassion

Gain control of mind through cultivation of insight/under-standing/discipline,
purify negative thinking and emotions, remove attachments
Practice meditation using the
Eightfold Path of right thought, understanding, concentration effort, action,
speech, livelihood

effort, 7) correct mindfulness, 8) correct meditative

absorption (Powers, 1995).
Meditation practices are part of the Practice of the
Eightfold Methods. One other notable method,
among many we will mention is the Seven Point
Model, with focal points that inspire compassion
and kindness. For example, a focal point is to meditate on the thought that all sentient beings have
been our mothers in the past. Furthermore, one
could think about the kindness of all beings, how
to repay kindness, and how to generate love and
compassion. Other thoughts are to consider ones
universal responsibility to all and to think about
the Bodhichitta, a being who embodies the altruistic ideal.
The path to enlightenment is often found with
the help of a teacher. Much like finding a suitable
REBT therapist, the person searches for a compatible teacher. The teachings, are more important than
the teacher here also. The TB teacher encourages
the learner to scientifically study the constructs, to
not accept without questioning, and to decide independently who is the best teacher.

Outcome Criteria for Good

Psychological Health or Happiness
According to REBT, good psychological health begins with scientific thinking and nonutopianism. It
is marked by self interest, self direction, self acceptance and self responsibility for ones own emotional disturbance should it arise. Healthy characteris-

tics include acceptance of uncertainty, flexibility,

high frustration tolerance and social interest. The
healthy individual commits to creative pursuits,
takes risks and engages in long range hedonism.
Healthy, appropriate emotions include concern not
anxiety, sadness not depression, regret not guilt,
disappointment not shame / embarrassment, annoyance not anger.
Tibetan Buddhism considers the final goal to be
the attainment of Buddahood for the benefit of all
other sentient beings. A Buddha is a person who
has is free from ignorance and has broken through
the cognitive barriers that impede understanding.
Through mental training comes omniscient and
the person is a happy and possessing open thinking, travels the Eightfold Path, accepts impermanence, and is altruistic with compassion and wisdom (Powers, 1995).
Both include the cause of pathology as primarily
cognitive in origin. Both conclude that profound
philosophical changes are needed to be happy and
to eliminate suffering. To effect such change, it is
necessary of effect inferentially and behaviorally
based change thought the use of a teacher therapist, who acts as a guide, but the change must come
primarily from the learner. In both, the therapist/
teacher challenges the client to confront harmful
cognitions, to dispute self defeating beliefs, to acceptance a high level of frustration tolerance to be
a psychologically and/or spiritually healthy human
being (Ellis & Dryden, 1987; Powers, 1995). The
clients role is to work at undisturbing his or her

self, to undergo profound philosophical change,

confronts harmful or delusional/illusional cognitions, disputes self defeating beliefs, and accepts
reality completely and thus, develop a high level of
frustration tolerance to be a spiritually and psychologically healthy human being.

Major Differences
We have discussed the similarities between REBT
and TB. There are, of course, many differences between them. Table 1 summarizes and highlights
some of the major similarities and differences. It
would take volumes to identify and describe them
entirely. REBT is a psychotherapy developed by one
founder, Albert Ellis, in this century, and is more
circumscribed and limited in scope than TB. TB
has existed since the 7th century and is based upon
a number of Eastern philosophies, upon monastic discipline, and led by a succession of spiritual
leaders. TB is now better known in the West since
the 14th Dalai Lama fled from Communist China
to take refuge in Dharmsala, India and spread the
teachings. Thus, REBTs scope is limited to psychotherapy in contrast to TB which prescribes the way
to achieve happiness, a continuous life journey. Another major difference worth noting is that REBT
stresses a more materialistic. less spiritual view of
life than TB. REBT clearly advocates individualism
and self-interest tempered with interest in the other. Helping others is a pragmatic goal which serves
the best interests of the individual. It is preferable
to have good relationships with others than to live

A COMPARISON OF RATIONAL EMOTIVE THERAPY AND TIBETAN BUDDHISM

in conflict. TB clearly values altruism, the desire to
dispel suffering in the world, and compassion as a
primary goal. Self interest, happiness, is served indirectly by achieving altruism and helping others.
The loftiest desire is to become a Bodhichitta, that
is, to attain ones own enlightenment in order to
benefit all others.

Final Thoughts and

Recommendations
One theme that arises from both REBT and TB
is that it is as important to devise a science of the
mind as it is to develop a physical science. REBT
and TB both delineate practices that promote control over the mind and emotions through increased
concentration attention, and analysis of thought
process. All of this leads to a greater inner peace.
REBT practitioners might more fully integrate TBs
meditative, quieting response as a way to reduce
unproductive and self defeating cognitive chatter.
As Benson (2000) found among the Tibetan monks
he studied, meditation can produce a mental and
physical state of deep relaxation that can help to
increase the ability to control thoughts and actions
and can increase the human resilience and inner
strength that REBT attempts to promote. Thus, TBs
meditative methods can increase the effectiveness
of REBT by helping persons to increase self control
and self acceptance.
TBs goal is to promote happiness among sentient beings and to foster spiritual development
and inner peace throughout the world. TB might
find greater acceptance into the Western world if
its techniques were shown to be compatible with
and promoted by established western therapeutic
systems. Insight into the human mental condition
based upon a critical understanding of the processes of disturbance and good psychological health
and the means of progressing from one to the other can advance the goal of achieving inner peace.
Furthermore, if everyone were at peace within his
or herself, then it would increase the probability of
outer peace, world peace, which is something TB
endorses.
The purpose of this paper has been to document
the similarities of REBT and TB and expand the
understanding of each. Integrating useful elements
of the two systems may allow the development of
a more comprehensive therapeutic method. Combining the methods and techniques of both systems

might enhance a persons ability to use his or her

inner resources and to assist him or her to accept
and adjust to lifes challenges.
We end with quotes from the Dalai Lama and Albert Ellis. They are so similar in meaning and beliefs.
The Dali Lama stated,

If we have a positive mental attitude, then

even when surrounded by hospitality, we shall
not lack inner peace. On the other hand, if our
mental attitude is more negative, influenced by
fear, suspicion or self-loathing, then even when
surrounded by our best friends, in a nice atmosphere with comfortable surroundings, we shall
not be happy. So, mental attitude is very important.: it makes a real difference to our state
of happiness (Dali Lama, 2001, p.6).
Albert Ellis has written that he reread philosophy
and was reminded of the constructivist notion that
Epictetus had proposed 2,000 years ago: People are
disturbed not by events that happen to them, but
by their view of them. The ABC theory of REBT
follows the views of several ancient philosophers
and holds that activating events (As) in people
lives contribute to their emotional and behavioral
disturbances or consequences (C) largely because
they are intermingled with or acted upon by peoples beliefs (Bs) about these activating events (As).

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Author contact information

Dr. Carol Shaw Austad
Psychology Department
Central Connecticut State University
1615 Stanley Street
New Britain, CT 06053
e-mail: austad@ccsu.edu

Dr. Susan A. Holt

Psychology Department
Central Connecticut State University
1615 Stanley Street
New Britain, CT 05053
e-mail: holts@ccsu.edu

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