TOP MANAGEMENT LANGUAGE

Conf. Dr.
VIOLETA NEGREA

CONTENTS
PART I. BUSINESS COMUNICATION
UNIT 1. COMUNICATION IN BUSINESS..................................................
UNIT 2. FIGURES IN BUSINESS...........................................................
UNIT 3. DRAFTING FORMAL WRITTEN DOCUMENTS..............................
UNIT 4. EMPLOYEMENT FILE; JOB INTERVIEW.......................................
UNIT 5. INTERNAL FORMAL BUSINESS DOCUMENTS.............................
5.1. MEMORANDUM ..........................................................................
5.2. REPORTS...................................................................................
5.3. MINUTES....................................................................................
5.4. SURVEYS....................................................................................
UNIT 6. EXTERNAL FORMAL BUSINESS LETTERS ....................................
6.1. INVITATION .................................................................................
6.2. STATUS INQUIRY ..........................................................................
6.3. RECOMMENDATION LETTER............................................................
6.4. INQUIRY for GOODS and SERVICES.................................................
6.5. OFFERS/QUOTATIONS.....................................................................
6.6. ORDERS; ORDERS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...........................................
6.7. COMPLAINTS..................................................................................
PART II BUSINESS RELATIONSHIP
UNIT 1. BUSINESS CONVENTIONS...........................................................
UNIT 2. ORDINARY CLAUSES IN BUSINESS CONVENTIONS.........................
UNIT 3. SPECIFIC CLAUSES IN BUSINESS CONVENTIONS..........................
UNIT 4. PAYMENT METHODS...................................................................
4.1. LETTER OF CREDIT..........................................................................
PART III BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
UNIT 1. MANAGEMENT OF BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS...............................
UNIT 2. PRODUCTS, SERVICES, TRADE MARKS and BRANDS .......................
UNIT 3. ADVERTISING............................................................................
PART IV INTERNATIONAL BUSINEES ISSUES
UNIT 1. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY AND INTERNATIONAL BODIES AND PROGRAMMES
1.1. ENLARGEMENT OF THE EUROPEAN UNION
1.1.1. ACCESSION PROBLEMS..................................................................
1.1.2. ACCESSION STRATEGIES................................................................
1.1.3. CONCLUSIONS................................................................................
1.2. PHARE PROGRAMME..........................................................................
UNIT 2. INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS.......................................................
2.1. THE UNITED NATIONS........................................................................
2.2. REGIONAL INSTITUTIONS.....................................................................
2.3. NORNS AND LEGAL PRACTICE OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
3. THE NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTERNATIONAL LAW
3.1 INTERNATIONAL LAW TODAY
PART V INFORMATICS
UNIT 1 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY..........................................................

PART I
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

UNIT 1
COMMUNICATION in BUSINESS
Objectives:
-

become familiar with notions and importance of non verbal communication

in business

learn and use specific vocabulary

adopt and perform appropriate tone and attitude

Communication is important to the point that without it an organization cannot

operate. Its activities require human beings to interact, react, and communicate.
If you can communicate effectively in speaking and writing, you are highly
evaluated. Managers and top-level executives are concerned with the need for better
communication. Business executives usually rank the ability to communicate in the first
place among the personal factors necessary for promotion within management, and
business communication ability is considered one of the most useful.
Oral communication obviously preceded written communication. The ancient Greek
and Roman world depended heavily on oral communication especially in government
assemblies and in the law courts.
A school of teachers called sophists taught ancients to speak well, for to defend one
and to speak eloquently were marks of a learned person. More formal instructors were
called teachers of rhetoric and taught ideas: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, and
Quintilian.
During the Medieval and Renaissance period the oral tradition continued. But writing
became more and more important as a permanent record of communication, and authors
and books on written communication principles appeared. Desiderius, Erasmus, Richard
Sherry, Angel Day are the forerunners of those associated with our modern principles of
written communication. Some of today's principles of writing are a mixture of ancient oral
and written traditions. Business communication is one offshoot from an earlier world where
communicating well was a foundation of learning.
Correspondence is essential in establishing and confirming conventions in business
activity. Typed or produced on a word processor, it is a mirror of the writer and of the
business itself. Therefore what is written and how it is written expressed is as much a part
of a business education as accountancy and economics.
On the other hand, information is power. Speed and efficiency in written business
communication depend on a great extent on how the organization handles information. As
an employee, manager, owner or supervisor, in a rapidly changing business environment
you will need to understand to use the technology of today's information age, to create,
transmit and store information.
Nowadays thousand of hours are devoted daily to interviews, conferences, memos,
report, employee manuals, letters, advertising, news, articles, bulletins, newsletters and
other messages. They require the time of executives and assistants for researching,
thinking, planning, organizing, dictating, typing, editing, revising, proofreading, mailing
(the written), presenting (the oral), and filing records. That is why it is to be considered the
wasteful cost of unclear, incomplete, inaccurate inconsiderate and unduly long or late
letters. Poor messages are more expensive because they destroy goodwill, waste time, and

alienate the customers. Successful messages help to enhance efficiency, goodwill, safety,
productivity, profits and public credibility.
Many surveys and articles confirm that effective communication is essential for a
successful career and promotion in business. Top, middle and operation managers confirm
that business communication skills influence the advancement to executive positions. Like
any other worthwhile activity the quality of the individual attitude and preparation affects
communication. The personality, the image and culture of a company are the extension of
the many personalities and traditions of its employees. Any of them, whether an executive
or a new clerk, is responsible for this image, for building the goodwill. Most people can
learn to communicate effectively for business and build the goodwill attitude by developing
intelligent, sound judgement when choosing ideas and facts for each message. The
integrity of the writer, backed up by a valid code of ethics, a reasonable facility with the
English language and applied knowledge of the communication process and principles are
also important for a successful and effective communication skill.
Appearance conveys a non-verbal impression that influences the recipients' attitude
toward the message even before they read it. As for written messages, the envelopes
overall appearance size, color, weight, postage may impress the receiver as
important, junk or routine mail. The letter report or title page communicates
nonverbally even before its contents are read. The appearance of the messages stationery
and its length, format and typing is meant to lead to a certain attitude and impression of
the receiver. The enclosure quantity and attractiveness (charts, graphs, pictures) also
give nonverbal impression.
Whether when speaking to a person face to face, or to a group in a meeting,
personal appearance conveys nonverbal stimuli that influence attitudes, even emotions,
towards spoken words.
Clothing, jewelry, hairstyles, cosmetics, fingernails, neatness, and stature represent
parts of the appearance. They convey opinions regarding occupation, age, sex, nationality,
social and economic status, job level and good or poor judgment.
Aspects of surroundings that communicate include room size, location, furnishing,
machines, architecture, wall decorations, floor (carpeted or bare) lighting, windows and
other aspects.
The body language also communicates by facial expressions, gestures postures,
smell and touch. Sometimes, they are more meaningful than words. They are also
important for special occasions, interviews, speeches, etc.
The eyes' expression can make the receiver understand hidden emotions anger,
annoyance, confusion, enthusiasm, fear, hatred, joy, love, interest, sorrow, surprise, and
uncertainty. They can sometimes even contradict verbal statements sometimes Direct eye
contact is desirable when people have a face-to-face conversation. Eyes that drop or shift
away from the listener may show a shy, dishonest or an untrustworthy person.
Continual gestures with arms while speaking may reveal nervousness, or they also
may distract listeners attention from the spoken words. One's handshake can also show
firmness or limpness, promptness attitudes.
Legs position can reveal certain nonverbal attitudes for a man sitting with legs
stretching on top of this office during an interview, or a standing person shifting weight
from one leg to another in a rhythmic motion while humming or pacing back and forth
while speaking.
Confident executives may have a relaxed posture and yet stand more erect than a
timid subordinate. Interested persons may lean forward toward the speaker, while those
who are bored or annoyed may slump as well as yawn and repeatedly glance at their
watches.

Touching people in different ways and places can communicate friendship, love,
approval, hatred, anger or other feelings. A kiss on a cheek, pat on the shoulder or slap on
the back is prompted by various attitudes and emotions. Various odors and artificial
fragrances on human beings can sometimes convey emotions and feelings better than
spoken words.
Different meanings can also be conveyed by the rate, pitch and volume of the voice.
Speaking fast can reveal nervousness, but a soft voice soothes and calms. Even silence can
determine serious hard feelings, loss of business or profits.
Time is also an important conveyor of nonverbal communication. Being on time for
appointments, for work every day, and for deadlines communicates favorable messages in
our culture.
Human sounds communicate non-verbally such as clearing the throat, sighing,
laughing, etc. The ability to communicate and understand the messages is an important
business skill that that is to be developed.
Advantages of Using Electronic Technology in Business Communication
Information now doubles every six years, causing managers to spend an increasing
amount of time receiving, absorbing, creating and distributing information. The abundance
of information is called information overload .It is forcing managers to look for ways to
reduce the amount of paperwork. They realize that information is an extremely valuable
resource only if received in a timely, concise and accurate manner. Thus, control becomes a
key factor in the management of information. Using electronic technology is highly
recommended because of the advantages it offers:
-

elimination of monotonous routine tasks

cost effectiveness
Greater accessibility of data (information)
The accuracy and quality of output
The ability to forecast outcomes
People are interested in work that is satisfying and enjoyable. Routine tasks such as
formatting, editing, filing, copying, calculating and mailing mean drudgery to many people.
With a word processor or a personal microcomputer most of these tasks can be handled
electronically. By pressing one or more special keys, you can convert a draft into a finished
text, print it immediately at high speed or store electronic data for later use. Because of
the worldwide competition, all businesses are interested in ways to help employees
accomplish more output in less time. In integrated office system computers, word
processors telephones, facsimile devices, scanners, printers and copiers linked together
accomplish numerous tasks in a semi or fully automated fashion. In such an environment
executives can feed information into the system or check the electronic mailbox for
messages via a phone line or terminal, whether in or out of the office. The decreasing cost
of computers and peripherals (equipment tied to the computer) will continue to make
technology a cost-effective tool in the future.
A New Era of Bright Hopes and Terrible Fears
When we try to comprehend something as vast, amorphous and downright scary as
the Internet, it's no wonder we grope for familiar historical precedents - the railway, the
interstate highway system, the telephone network. But none of those really captures the
Internet's earth shaking impact on the business world. Out of this primordial technological
swamp called the Internet are emerging new companies, business models, corporate
structures - even new industries. It's a time of such tumult and confusion that no one can
agree on what's happening now, much less on what's coming next. Unknown upstarts with
head scratching labels such as vertical portals, e-markets threaten to hijack the leadership
of countless industries, from plastic to financial services. Some of the most innovative
corporate companies are likely to prove the commercial equivalent of mammals, which
started out small and rodent like but proved swift and highly adaptable.

Consider how the Net differs from microprocessors or other disruptive technologies
that have gone before. It's a readymade marketplace essentially $1 trillion worth of
network connections, computer power, and limitless database full of information. And it is
largely free to anyone with a phone line and a personal computer, wherever he may be in
the world and anytime, day or night. In short, the Net offers an entry point to all comers in
every market and industry. And business people know that the Net is no laughing matter.
The Internet economy already amounts to $301 billion if you include on-line sales of
industrial and consumer goods and services as well as the equipment and software to
support e-commerce. With growth like that in just five years, the commerce on the Net will
be as perilous for many businesses - and entire industries - as it is profitable for others.
There's hardly an industry that isn't undergoing an upheaval in how it deals with customers
and partners, organizes itself, or defines its essential purposes.
All of these consequences flow from one inescapable fact: The Net puts the customer
in charge as never before. Until the Net, buyers faced huge obstacles to extracting the best
prices and services. Research was time-consuming, and everyone - from producer to
retailer - guarded information just like the crown jewels.
Interactive TV (ITV) is the television that can offer from online shopping, e-mail
personalized news and entertainment to T-banking. This is possible by
combining TV with Internet. Still at its beginning in Europe, ITV is expected to become
soon an everyday reality. In 1996 Television Par Satellite became the first broadcaster in
the world to launch fully digital interactive services via satellite. The subscribers have
access only to informational and e-commerce sites offered by TPS commercial partners
who have paid for the privilege. Soon a new generation of satellite decoders is expected to
enable viewers to switch from TV and movies to full Internet browsing via a single set-top
box. Specialized companies offer interactive games plus ability to exchange e-mails while
watching films. Online auction channel and full Internet access are planned for later. Some
of them offer already interactive personal programming thanks to digital video recorders
that customize your TV schedule by learning your viewing habits and automatically
recording your favorite shows. New competitors keep entering the fray, starting to roll out
interactive services which include full Internet access, video and audio on demand,
enhanced sports programs and channels with content partners.
To make sound decisions, relevant information must be available when needed.
Information sharing is one of the most effective tools of today's information society. Large
databases (stockpiles of information by subject and type) make tens of millions of pieces of
information available within minutes. You can broaden or narrow your search from relevant
information by specifying one or more categories of key words.
To ensure accuracy of information, computers can be programmed to perform a
number of important functions, relevant to business communication, such as grammar
checkers, programs to generate forms, maintain calendars and produce schedules.
These programs (software packages) are extremely beneficial and can be purchased
rather inexpensively.
The ability to take past data and chart future business operations, on the basis of
trends and conditions is essential in today's ever-changing economic environment. Goals
are important for success. By taking data generated in recent weeks, months and
sometimes even years, managers plan budgets, produce schedules, control inventories,
determine pricing and plan for the best use of their resources. With computerized
operations, information that once took weeks or months to obtain can now be available in a
matter of hours.
EXERCISES
I. Match the following terms with their definitions about the new technology in
business: 1) computer conferencing; 2) desktop publishing; 3) facsimile; 4)

communication satellites; 5) CD-ROM; 6) electronic meeting; 7) electronic

messaging; 8) access to on-line data bases; 9) audio conferencing 10) electronic
mail.
a) Makes possible the extension of basic communication and broadcasting services
throughout a country or region, including the most remote islands and villages. They can
be used to provide basic telephony as well as radio and television networks with multiple
sound tracks for local languages, where appropriate.
b) A means of communication via computers as an immediate exchange of information.
Messages can be sent from one computer to another through a host computer equipped
with communications and message-processing software including so-called mailboxes for
subscribers. These services are cheaper than voice communications and overcome the
differences in tie zone that hinder real-time communications.
c) Interaction of many users through a central host computer. Each member can share
ideas with others and respond to their comments. Participants may log on at their
convenience, thus avoiding the need to accommodate different schedules at time zones.
d) Microcomputers are now enhanced with graphic capabilities to produce newsletters and
other printed material without typesetting.
e) Facsimile transmission and electronic mail may be particularly viable alternatives to
sending hard copies of correspondence and documents through the mail in areas where
service is often slow and unreliable. The technologies can also be used to link staff in the
field with one another and with headquarters.
f) Managers, development experts and project staff may now stay in touch electronically
rather than through face-to-face meeting. It allows group members to interact at their
convenience by reading and contributing
g) A technology with widespread development applications that enables any type of hard
copy, including print, graphics and handwritten messages to be transmitted over a
telephone line. It can also be transmitted from a personal computer.
h) A thin route service by which several sites can be linked together through a bridge at as
watching point or through a common frequency assigned on a satellite audio channel. Used
for holding meetings, tutor students in rural areas or train staff in the field.
i) Information in the form of databases, full texts of journals, video images, and other
graphics stored on a compact disk and retrieved with a relatively inexpensive reader
attached to a microcomputer. It has a vast storage potential, low cost, durability and ease
of use.
j) Users of a computer terminal and modem can dial into a database and search for
information using key words or phrases. Relevant information is then displayed as a
citation, abstract or sometimes a complete text of documents. Users can then select the
relevant information and download it into their own computer or print it out.
II. Re-arrange the following characteristics under the separate titles:
A. Oral communication

B. Written communication

1. Short sentences; 2. Possibility of review; 3. Immediate feedback; 4. More detailed,

technical information; 5. More conversational sentences; 6. Focus on interpersonal

relations; 7. Possibility of detailed documentation; 8. Less colloquial quality; 9. Less
spontaneity; 10. Highly contextual nature; 11. More slang and contractions; 12. More
involved sentence structure 13. Less detailed technical information; 14. More personal
pronouns; 15. Possibility of review; 16. Useful for permanent record; 17. Prompter action;
18. Greater linguistic emphasis; 19. Later action; 20. Delayed action; 21. Focus on
content; 22. More imperative, interrogative, exclamatory sentences; 23. useful for
permanent record
III. Give examples of non-verbal communications that can contradict spoken
words.
IV. Look at the following images. Make a written description of each item and of
the way they work.

UNIT 2
FIGURES in BUSINESS
Objectives:
- use of figures and numbers appropriately in business
- make use of figures in oral and written presentation; graphs, statistics
Saying numbers correctly
A) 0 is pronounced:
- oh: - after a decimal point: 6.06 = six point oh six
- when dictating or indicating a telephone number: 0944532680 - oh nine
double four five three two six eight oh
- a room number: 303: three oh three
- a bus number: 105 one oh five
- in years: 1909 nineteen oh nine; 2003: two thousand oh three (American); two
thousand and three (British);
Nought: - when expressing a leading zero: 0.001% - nought point oh one
Zero: - for the number zero: 0
- for temperature: 5 five degrees below zero
- Nil: - sports scores: Romania won the match two nil (2-0)
Love: - in tennis scores: The score is thirty love after the break.
B) The decimal point
Point, not comma is used for decimals in English. Comma is used for writing
thousands, but computers do not use it. When reading, all the figures after a
decimal are pronounced separately:
- 10.33 - ten point three three (double three) but NEVER ten thirty three
- 0.25 nought point two five
- 10.002 ten point, oh oh, (double oh) two
- 10,002 ten thousand and two
Units of money are read like this:
- $5.25 = five dollars twenty five. (when doing business, pronounce each figure
separately, carefully)
- 0.250 nought point two five oh
C) When dealing with rates, in percentage, bear in mind the following reading:
- 0.3% - one third of one percent
- 0.25% - a quarter of a percentage point
D) Hundreds, Thousands and Millions
- British English: 225 - two hundred and twenty five
- American English: 225 - two hundred twenty five; 1,999: one thousand nine hundred
ninety nine
year 1999: nineteen ninety nine
year 2000: two thousand
year 2005: two thousand and five
year 2010: two thousand and ten or, twenty ten
1,000,000: million, or ten to the power six (106 )
1,000,000,000: a billion or ten to the power nine (109)
E) Squares, Cubes and Roots
52 five squared
53 five cubed
5 the square root of 5
F) Fractions

10

Fractions are usually similar to ordinal numbers: a half, a fifth, a quarter, 2/3 two
thirds, 3/4 three quarters
G) Foreign currency
1. How many lei-s are there to the dollar?
2. How many Euros shall we get per dollar?
3. The current rate is 35,000 lei to the dollar.
H) Numeric adjectives
Numbers can be used as adjectives before a noun:
1. A fifteen-minute meeting but NEVER a fifteen minutes meeting.
2. A twenty-dollar allowance, but NEVER a twenty dollars allowance.
I) Mathematical symbols and expressions:
1. 2+5=7 two plus five equals seven
2. 8-3 eight minus three
3. 7x6 seven times six
4. 12:3 twelve divided by three
5. A>B A is more than B; A is greater than B
6. A<B A is less than B; A is smaller than B
7. A B = A is more or equal than B
8. A B = A is less or equal to B
9. 30 % = thirty per cent
10. AB approximately equal to
11. A B = plus or minus
12. A x B= multiplied by/times(or, when giving dimensions, by)
13. x2 = x squared
14. x3= x cubed
15. x 4= x to the power of four/five, etc
J) Approximation is expressed by:
- nearly: ...nearly eight thousand pounds for each year;
- just under/over: ...just under the previous figure;
- approximately: ...the rise was approximately equal to the one expected;
- coming/ going up/down to: ...the trend is coming down to...;
- roughly: ...its entry price level was roughly 1 million dollars;
- more or less: ...the fall was more or less of ten pounds;
- well over/under: ...the price raise was under the one predicted by specialists last year.
K) Rates and ratios are expressed:
- population density per (unit): ten items in one hundred were...
L) When presenting trends, some specific expressions are used:
upward movement:
- a rise: ... a significant rise has occurred in;
- an increase: ... an incredible increase in real estate prices;
- a climb/jump:... a dramatic jump of the expenditures;
- go up: ... the prices went up substantially last year.
downward movement:
- a fall: ... a dramatic fall in consumers goods sales;
- a drop: a sudden drop in cars sales;
- a decline: ...an important decline is noticed in book sales lately;
- decrease: ... business sector has decreased gradually.
M) Other ways of expressing tendencies and trends of different economic
phenomena:
- to level out/off: ... the prices leveled out this year;
- to remain stable: ... sales level remained stable for the whole year;
- to fluctuate: ... the export level fluctuated the last years;
- to reach/come to a peak: ... the Japanese car industry reached its peak in 1995.
N) Specific prepositions:
- productivity raised from 50% to 75%
- productivity fell from 60% to 40%
- the salaries in budgetary sectors stayed /stood/remained at the same level

11

- a basic salary increase of minimum 37,5%

- productivity rose by three percent
O) The extent of change is indicated through certain specific vocabulary:
- fractionally/marginally/slightly/a little lower/higher
- somewhat lower/higher
-considerably/substantially/a
great
deal/noticeably/far
lower/much
lower/dramatically/lower/higher
- grow - dramatically/sharply/rapidly
- grow gradual/steady fall
P) Contrast is also expressed specifically:
- although/despite/in spite of/whereas/however/nevertheless/
- phrases like: in contrast (to); ...while ...;...against...; ...compared to...; in comparison
(to)... on the other hand...; on the contrary.
R) Similarity is shown using: - like/ alike/ the same/is similar to/ neither... nor/
similarly
S) Describing size and dimensions:
a. It is 6 meters wide and 12 meters long.
b. It is 6 meters by 12 meters.
c. It is square/rectangular/round
d. It is L-shaped.
e. Its like an H.
f. It has a seating capacity of sixty
g. It can take up to sixty people.
I Read the following aloud:
1. 0. 02 per cent only! Incredible!
2. Room service, for 609, please!
3. I'm shivering! It must be less than 10 degrees below 0.
4. My favorite team won 1-0.
5. My grandmother was born in 1909.
6. We shall get the 209 bus to reach to the zoo.
7. Write down my telephone number: 0945306558.
8. The score has already reached 15-0 for our tennis team.
9. How much did the dollar raise? 5.04 percent.
10. 0 is the first natural figure in mathematics.
II. Read aloud and write the following:
1. The exchange rate has raised 3.233 per cent.
2. The difference is hardly over 0.02 per cent.
3. The price is around 20.50 in sterling.
4. Repeat, please, 0.25 or 0.025?
5. The dollar rose to 3.595 lei.
6. I said 12.002, not 12,002.
III. Dictate and write:
1. Say it clearly, once again, 2,000,000,000 or 2,000,000?
2. The leu rate of exchange has become more stable in 2004.
3. The denomination of $ banknotes are 1; 2; 5; 10; 20; 50; 500; 10,000.
4. The divisions of the $ are silver coins of 1 and 5 (nickel), 10 (dime); 25
(quarter); 50 (half a dollar).
IV. Calculate and read aloud:
1. 35+25=
2. 17-12=
3. 4+7+12+9-5-3=
1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8+9=
5. 5 =; 121 =
6. 32 =; 252 =; 35=

12

V. The following text includes measurements in feet and inches, which are still
used when talking about the peoples height in some English-speaking countries.
However, it is easy to calculate the equivalent height in meters.
1 foot () = 30 cm
1 inch () =2.5 cm
5 feet
= 5x30 cm = 1.5 m
6 inch
= 6x2.5 = 15 cm
So five feet six (56) = 1.5 m + 15 cm, which is 1.65 m
VI. Look at the way numbers and figures are used in the dialogues. Compare the
spoken form with the written form on the right.
"That'll be thirty-seven pounds twenty, please..."
(37.20)
"Room four oh eight."
(408)
"Two hundred divided by one point four equals one hundred and forty-two pounds eightysix..." (200:1.4=142.86)
"... less two pounds commission ... comes to one hundred and forty pounds eighty-six
pence" (- 2.00 = 140.86)
VII. Read these amounts to a partner and get them to make the final calculation:
1. 2.50+4.15 =
2. 10% of $150 =
3. 5 x 14 =
4. 206 + 2,324 =
5. $16.95 x 2 =
6. $1000 -10% =
7. 60+ 15% =
8. $4,396 + $3,221 =
VIII. How quickly can you find the answer to this sum?
Five add three, divide by four, subtract one, multiply by six, take away five, three times,
plus eleven, minus four, halved, equals what?
IX. Give an example of each item below:
1. an odd number
2. a three-figure sum
3. four consecutive numbers
4. a multiple of 17
5. an even number
6. a fraction
7. a number with three digits after the decimal point
8. an equation
X. Write a short paragraph about the beliefs and superstitions you know about
numbers.
After having revised the main ways of using figures in written and oral English for
business, let us have a look on how to use them when having a business presentation to
make possible a correct decision-taking process.
X. Describe the following graphs:

a)

b)

c)

13

..d)

e)

f)

XI. Name the following types of graphs:

1. column chart; 2. pie chart; 3. stacked chart; 4. doughnut chart; 5. bar chart.

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

a)
Food

Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun

70
60
50
40
30

Motel

20

Gas
Food

10
0
Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

b)
c)

14

10%

4%

24%
62%

d)

Japan

Others

10

Europe

24

America

62

10

20

30

e)

15

40

50

60

70

XII. Read the following introduction text describing the development of ATM use
and its future growth. Look at the graph and complete its description.
More ATMs
Between 1998 and 2004 world automatic teller machine (ATM) installations were
predicted to rise by 45% according to Retail Banking Research. The growth began
immediately after 1975 and...
1200
1100
1000
..900
..800
..700
600
500
400
XV. Translate into English:
A.

Agenia de turism JInfo Tours a nregistrat n aceast var o cretere cu peste 3o% a

numrului de clieni fa de perioada similar a anului trecut, fiind estimat o cifr de

afaceri pentru acest an, de aproximativ 11 milioane de dolari, superioar cu 30%
ncasrilor din 2001. In perioada mai-septembrie, aceast agenie a avut n total 12.000 de
clieni, dintre care peste 8.000 au fost turiti romni, 1.500 au fost strini, iar restul este
reprezentat de participanii la diverse congrese i conferine internaionale. Cele mai
importante creteri ale numrului de clieni au fost nregistrate la plecrile n strintate i
la sectorul de business. Destinaia preferat a turitilor romni care i-au petrecut
concediile n strintate a fost n acest an Spania, motiv pentru care agenia a organizat
curse charter n colaborare cu operatorul SpainAir.
B. Principala for a Ordinului Templierilor rmneau afacerile monetare. Intruct
dispuneau de sedii ntrite i puternice fore de aprare ntr-o epoc de arbitrar i
nesiguran, templierii ofereau clientelei, n care se includeau i capete ncoronate, locuri
de siguran destinate depozitrii banilor i obiectelor preioase, convoaie puternic
escortate pentru transportarea valorilor, ascunztori n care se puteau face depuneri
tainice.
Avnd la dispoziie resurse imense, templierii erau n msur s acorde mprumuturi
care, din punct de vedere valoric, nu i aveau egal pe atunci. Amnuntele operaiunilor au
rmas nvluite de mister i nu se cunosc prea multe despre termene i dobnzi. Dar este

16

tiut faptul c ordinul s-a ocupat, ntre altele, de finanarea celor mai importante aciuni
ntreprinse n acele vremuri - cruciadele. Astfel, au fost fcute transferuri de aur dispuse de
suverani pontifi, mari avansuri acordate regelui Ludovic al VII-lea pentru a porni spre
locurile sfinte; mai trziu au fost pltite soldele trupelor trimise acolo de Ludovic al IX-lea;
alt client important, cu ocazia cruciadelor, era faimosul rege britanic Richard Inim de Leu.

UNIT 3
DRAFTING FORMAL WRITTEN DOCUMENTS
Objectives:
-

make familiar with general formal rules in business letter writing

use appropriate tone, attitude and vocabulary

Letter Layout and Style of Formal Business Letters

When preparing for a successful and effective written business message, it is

important to have in mind several steps to take even if your organization has the best
modern office technology for inputting ideas, processing messages, and storing, retrieving,
reproducing and disseminating them: planning, organizing, composing, drafting, editing
and revising. The written message must also be proofread and corrected before being
mailed, sent by fax or by Internet.
Apart for the specific purpose of the written message, there is the underlying general
purpose of building goodwill. In a refusal o a collection letter, the purpose should be
twofold to refuse the request or ask for money, but also to maintain the customers
goodwill. For this reason, the writer must take into account his message adapting to the
recipients views and needs, even if the sender has never met him or her. It is of great help
to picture the recipient, - a business or professional person; a superior (boss), colleague,
or subordinate; man or woman; new or longtime customer; young, middle aged or elderly;
educational level, attitudes. All types of communication will also take into account areas in
which the recipient is well informed, pleased or displeased, positive or negative, or neutral;
interested, enthusiastic or uninterested or unreceptive.
The next step is to choose the ideas to be written. When replying to a letter the main
points to be dealt with can be jotted briefly in the margin or on a memo pad. For a
welcome letter for a new customer, that selected your bank, for example to open an
account, only one or two sentences will not suffice. He should be made aware of your bank
policy concerning the opening accounts, and the message will also contain information
about overall services available to them and the senders association eagerness to become
his financial headquarters.
After deciding what ideas to include it is important to select any specific facts,
updated figures or quotations according to the senders organization policies, procedures.
The order, in which the ideas are outlined, is often as important as the ideas
themselves, as disorganized writing reflects disorganized, illogical thought process or
careless preparation. The organizational plan will be pendent on the reaction expected from
the recipient: direct-request; good-news, bad news, or persuasive request plan.
These are considered flexible guide patterns.

17

A direct approach can be used when the message conveys good news, favorable or
neutral information or exchange routine information between companies. The directrequest plan is used when the main purpose of the letter is making a request that requires
no persuasion.
Direct-Request Plan/Good-News Plan
1. Main idea/Best news
- request, main statement, or question
- reasons
2. Explanations
- all necessary details
- easy-reading devices
- educational material
- promotion material
3. Courteous close, with motivation to action
- clear statement of action desired
- easy action
- appreciation and goodwill

The indirect-approach is used when an unfavorable reaction is expected to the

information or request conveyed by the message. The main idea will never be present in
the first paragraph. Some relevant, pleasant, neutral or receiver-benefit statements and
then some reasonable explanations before the introduction of the unpleasant idea will take
its place.
Bad-News/Persuasive-Request Plan
1. Pleasant, neutral or readers interest statements
2. Explanation
- details, tactfully stated
3. Decision implied/statement of request and offer of additional help
or suggestion
4. Positive, friendly close/action
- invitation to future action/clear statement of action desired
- easy action (stamped envelope, etc); dated action
- willingness of further help
- recipient benefit

Mind the following formal characteristics of a business letter shown in the following
pieces of correspondence:

Main Idea
Main Idea

ICC
INTERNATIONAL CHAMBER OF COMMERCE
The World Business Organization
Department of Commissions
Mr. Hernando Zerda N.

18

International Trade Office

Ecopetrol
Fax 563 447 2465
2 November 2000
Dear Mr. Zerda,
With regard to your query number T.S.134 to the ICC Banking Commission, please be
advised that our initial response to this query, set out in our letter to you of 15
September, 2000, has been amended by the Banking Commission at its meeting of
October 3-4. The full-amended text is the official response of the Banking Commission
to your query. Please find below the opinion of the officers of the Banking Commission.
ANALYSIS & CONCLUSION
1. Sub-article 39b covers the situation where the credit prohibits partial shipments and
the quantity of goods shown in the credit is not given as individual items or packing
units. This could be where there is no quantity described or where the quantity is
expressed as a unit of weight such as metric tons. In these circumstances, the
beneficiary has the ability to ship up to 5% less or 5% more provided the credit
amount is not exceeded. If the shipment falls within 5% less than a quantity stated it
will be deemed to be a partial shipment.
2. When issuing credits, banks wish to be aware of the total liability hereunder
therefore the credit needs to express a maximum amount that could possibly be drawn
hereunder. The credit would then have a clause that states that only one drawing is
allowed hereunder and the drawing may be for any value not exceeding the value of
the credit. In this way the provisions of Article 39 would not apply.
The opinion rendered on this query reflects the opinion of the ICC Banking
Commission.
Neither the ICC nor any of its employees, nor any member of the Banking Commission,
shall be liable to any person for any loss or damage arising out of any act or omission
in connection with the rendered opinion.
Yours sincerely,
Ron Kats,
Policy Manager - Banking Commission

The letter shown is sent from an institution (International Chamber of Commerce to

an individual as an answer to his inquiry. The first main parts of a business letter is the
letterhead that is printed on the top of the sheet of paper, usually of white color, It can be
replaced by the senders address which is usually placed on the top left hand side of the
letter. It is of considerable assistance to business correspondence when letters include the
senders name and appropriate letters at the top:
From Dir. Marshall, Sir David Smith, K.L.T. (The custom of printing letters after
peoples names has arisen in modern times and has been determined by the great
expansion of the Orders of Chivalry and higher honors, together with the multiplication of
degrees and appointments. In business and officially it is polite to get all that lettering
right: Letters are but abbreviations, and customs has evolved certain standards
abbreviations and most people seek guidance about conventions.)
A reply is often wrongly addressed because the writer has no knowledge of the
letters recipient or sometimes his or her rank. When the writer is a woman, the practice
gives the recipient the advantage of knowing whether she should be styled with a title
(Lady Brown) or, much more often, Mrs. or Miss Brown. One also knows that the correct
form of address is Mrs. Joan Davidson, instead of, according to her signature, Mrs.
Davidson Joan, or Mrs. J. Davidson. Esq. or Mr. may be omitted because it sounds
pretentious, but it presents no difficulty to which it replies.
This system has some advantages over typing the name under the signature. It is
not customary to include the letters after the name here and seldom a title.

19

The inside or the receivers address is positioned on the left hand side, also, under
the letterhead. It will contain either the surname of the addressee if the writer knows it, on
the first line of the address, preceded by a courtesy title or the persons initial(s) or his or
her first given name. The writer should know or be able to assume the addressees position
in the company (Sales Manager, The Finance Director, etc). The letter can be also
addressed to a particular department of the company. If the sender does not have any
information about the person or department, the letter should go to, he can simply address
it to the company itself. In UK, after the name of the addressee the followings are written
in the order:
Name of the building
Number building and name of the street, road, or avenue
Name of town or city and the postcode
Name of the country
Or the number of the fax code or/Internet address
Both the addresses may be blocked (i.e. each line is vertically aligned with the one
above), or indented.
There are no rules stating that one style or other must be used, but any of them
used, the writer must be consistent, i.e. not to block the senders address and then indent
the inside address or the body of the letter.
A comma, except for the last line, can follow each line of the address but the
majority of firms now use the open punctuation, i.e. without commas.
In order to direct the letter to a certain addressee, there is also the alternative
Attention line:
For the attention of the Security Department:
For the attention of the Deputy General Manager
Which is placed between the date and the salutation line.
The date is written below the senders address, separated by it with a space, on the
right hand side of the page. The month should not be written in figures, as they can
become confusing. Should be abbreviated, as it simply looks untidy. It takes a moment to
write the date in full, but it can take a lot longer to find a misfiled letter that was put in the
wrong file because the date was written in a confusing way.
As a salutation line is usually used Dear. The American Style of including both the
Christian and the surname is growing in Europe, for example Dear John Watson. The
younger generation considers it to be useful in the business world where informality is on
the increase.
When corresponding with a firm, letters should be addressed to an individual,
whenever possible, such as the Chairman, The Managing Director, The Secretary or The
Manager. When a firm writes to another firm Gentlemen is used instead of the usual
Dear Sir, which is also adopted by a private individual when addressing to an organization
or group.

Mesdames is not normally used in business letters and it can be avoided by writing
Dear Madam or Dear Mrs. Stephenson. Messrs has become archaic but it is still used
for the profession of law or to firms with personal names: Messrs Berkley & Co. Messrs
John & Mary Bloomfield, but it is never used when the firms name bears a ladys name:
Josephine Dowel & Associates.
The body of the letter may be full-block or indented, according to the senders wish.
The length of the letter depends on the subject, but the right length includes the right
amount of information. The letter should also make all the necessary points in a logical
sequence, with each idea or piece of information linking up with the previous one in a

20

pattern that can be followed. No jumping around statements or switching to other subjects
are allowed. Before passing to the drafting of the letter, it is advisable to make a plan and
then check if all the necessary information was included and put it into the right order.
The first paragraph of the letter will settle the tone of the whole letter, and gives the
reader his first impression about the writer and the company. The writer should thank his
correspondent if he is replying to him, setting also the purpose of the letter.
The main paragraph will concern the points that need to be made, answers to give or
questions to ask.
When closing the letter a thank-you line should be included in the letter as a reply if
there was not such a line in the beginning. The letter will invite for further enquiries or
correspondence and mention that the writer looks forward to hearing from the addressee
soon.
Simplicity and clear style, accuracy of the business letter lead to a better
understanding and closer relationship of the business partners. But the style should not,
however, be so simple that the letter become discourteous, and sound rude: complex
sentences, passive rather than active, full forms, rather than abbreviated ones should be
used.
The stereotype formal style of ending business letters has become almost obsolete,
except for official and formal letters to Ambassadors, High Commissioners, Governors,
senior officials. The following endings of letters are now generally used, but the very formal
style may occasionally be preferred:

Formal: I remain (or am)

Your Grace, Most Reverend Sir, Right Reverend Sir, Your Excellency, My Lord, Mr. President,
Mr. Chairman, Sir, Madam, etc.
Yours Faithfully, (or Yours truly)
Faithfully is used on a matter of business, but truly is used when the writer does
not know the recipient, but the subject of the letter is not business. For social style of
ending a letter Yours sincerely (or Yours very sincerely) is commonly used.
It is important that the letter actually have the right documents enclosed: if, in the
body of the letter a document is mentioned as enclosed, the writer makes sure that it is
that document itself enclosed, with it specific number of pages registered also on the
bottom of the letter.
The signature of the sender is laid on the right hand side of the letter, after the name
of the writer and position typed not to induce confusion for the receiver. When the person
entitled to sign the letter is not available, then a p.p. is mentioned down before the
signature to make the receiver understand who signs the letter actually.
When not having a letterhead, the sender's address is written on the top right-hand
side of the page. As for the date, the abbreviation "th" can be left out after the date: e.g.
June 12 instead of June 12th. The inside address (receiver's address) is written below the
sender's address, on the opposite side of the page. When writing the salutation line, the
surname of the addressee is to be written when it is known, preceded by a courtesy title. If
you know nothing about the 5) company you are addressing to, the letter can be addressed
simply to the company itself. If the letter begins with "Dear Sir/ Sirs/ Madam", it will close
with "Yours faithfully", but if it begins with "Dear Mr. Peter/ Mrs. Weldon/ Ms. Duddles, it
ends with "Yours sincerely". At the end, it is common and safe to sign with the given name
and title.
So that your written and oral communication will be easily understood, friendly
and accurate, make your message clear by using words that are familiar to your receiver.
Aim for unity, coherence, and emphasis in your sentences and paragraphs. Have an
average sentence length of around 15-20 words and an average sentence length of around
4-5 lines in letters and 8-9 lines in reports.
To make figures stand out clearly, you may find headings to be useful. Give your
reader examples with appropriate easy-to-read characteristics or other visual aids. The

21

courteous communicator is sincerely tactful and appreciative: he omits expressions that

irritate, belittle, or have questionable humor and he also grants and apologizes and
answers mail as soon as possible.
Overall corectness requires correct language level and accurate facts, figures, word
choices, grammar, spelling and punctuation. Nondiscrimination toward people because of
their gender, race, ethnic origin or physical disableness is necessary.
The body of the letter should be displayed in a block form or indented. Whichever
style you use, you must be consistent and use that style all through the letter. Mind the
different styles of the two letters:

A.
Dear Sirs:
Thank you for your letter of 7th March in which you enquire about insurance cover
for your shipments of computer components from Sydney to Rio de Janeiro.
In view of the very different nature of the consignments, I would recommend that
you adopt two different solutions. I suggest that you take out our marine all-risk
valued policy. This provides cover against all standards risks such as wreckage, fire,
theft and damage while loading and unloading, but you would be also strongly
advised to include a "with particular average" clause. Thus, in the event of barratry
(voluntary damage to goods in order to save the rest of the cargo) you would receive
compensation.
This solution would mean a policy at 70p% and therefore a total premium of
$564,390, but the extra outlay is less worthwhile. for the extent of cover provided.
Should you require further information, please do not hesitate to contact us.
Yours faithfully,
T.L. Lawrence
Insurance agent
The Commercial Bank Ltd
Stratford Street Branch
Barcelona

CAS
Blvd. des Italiens
3256
France
Dear Sirs,
We are still missing your reply to our letter of December 16 (a photocopy is
enclosed).
As we have not advised our customer due to the difference in the amount
claimed and the invoices, please advise us as soon as possible whether the
documents may be released against payment of FF 32,305,413.
As already advised, the relative documents are held at your disposal.

Yours faithfully

22

D. Bartolomeo
Encl: Letter No. 237/December, 16 2001

EXERCISES
I. Look at the following letter structure and identify its main parts and their
position: a) date; b) letterhead; c) subject line; d) inside address; e) copies; f)
body ; g) reference line; h) salutation line; i) signature; j) complimentary line.

II. Correct the following sentences so that the meanings become clear. If
necessary use more than one concise sentence:
From one insurance company to another insurance company:
Frankly, the information we have while it may disclose some contributory negligence
on our assured's part which of course, is questionable, we still feel that your assured had

23

he not been driving at the high rate of speed, that he was could have swerved to his right
and avoided our assured's vehicle but due to the fact he was coming down a hill at such a
tremendous rate of speed with no control over his car and struck our assured there was
enough room to the right of our assured to have turned slightly and, therefore, avoided the
accident.
III. Match the following "main parts" of a business letter with their "content" and
those from the letter before: 1. letterhead; 2. inside address; 3. attention line; 4.
addressing line (salutation line) 5. reference line/ subject line; 6; body of the
letter; 7. date; 8. complimentary close; 9. signature; 10. enclosure; 11. copies.
a) draws attention to the topic of the letter and it can be used as reference
throughout the letter; b) usually at the end of the letter when copies are sent to people
other than the named recipient (c.c. - carbon copy); c) main part of a business letter
containing: name and type of the company, the address of the main office or registered
office, telephone, fax, the registered number with the country or city in which the company
was registered, the logo of the company; d) ending line of a business letter before the
signature: G.B. Yours faithfully, Faithfully yours, Sincerely; U.S.A.: Yours truly; e) the
address of the addressee; f) It will include the typed position in the firm; p.p. (per pro)
means for and on behalf of; g) the content of the letter; h) reference to a certain person in
the recipient firm: for the attention of / private and confidential; i) courtesy titles: Dear
Sirs (U.S.A. Gentlemen)/Sir/ Madam/ Sir or Madam; Dear Mr./Mrs./Miss./Ms.; j) copies of
the letter sent to other recipients or different other documents attached; k) written below
the sender's address or in the right hand side of the page: month never written in figures
or in short.
IV. Write Letter, Fax, or e-mail next to each of these descriptions:
1. This is used in routine day-to-day communication where the correct choice of words is
not so important. The subject title is important to help the reader find it in files later. The
style is informal and very direct. The content is very short as only the basic information is
mentioned.
2. This is used for those situations where the writer wants to make a good impression or
where the correct choice of words is important (e.g.) for a first contact with a possible new
customer or for making a complaint). The style is careful and polite and there is much use
of standard expression.
3. This is used for some day-to-day communication, particularly to transmit copies of
documents that are not in electronic form. Then style is intermediate and depends on who
will read it: informal, direct language can be mixed with some longer, standard
expressions.

24

UNIT 4
EMPLOYMENT FILE; JOB INTERVIEW
Objectives:
- students will learn to self assess: draft application letter; CV; prepare the interview
- formal letter skills development
- interviewing skills
ROMANIA CABLE SYSTEMS
Is looking for:
FINANCIAL EXECUTIVE FOR RCS OPERATIONS IN HUNGARY
Requirements:
Relevant bachelor degree (post graduation degree is a plus)
Minimum 3 year experience as consultant in international company
Very good knowledge in International Accounting Standards
Relevant experience in preparation of consolidated accounts
Fluency in English is a must
Knowledge of Hungarian is an advantage
__________________________________________________________
Candidates should send their CV and letter of intention to :39.20.832,
latest 28.10.2000

INSURANCE TRAINEE
$5,000 per annum plus bonus plus luncheon vouchers
We are seeking a young ambitious person with
mathematical ability, to be trained an all aspects of marine
insurance. Full training will be given.
Call 001 342 9044 for further details and speak to Philip
Donaldson
Philip Donaldson Insurance Brokers
It is highly likely that you will change jobs and positions several times during your
life. Responding to advertisements, to posted job openings in your current organization or
to recruiters demands, some form of written presentation. Most "ads" use abbreviated
forms: "Wntd" (wanted); "smll co" (small company); "slry" (salary); "usl bnfts" (usual
benefits); "clk" (clerk); "accnts" (accounts); "mngr" (manager); "asst" (assistant), "vcs"
(vacations); etc.
When you seek a first position or you desire a new position, you must promote and
"sell" yourself as a product. Therefore, market research is needed concerning job and
career opportunities before starting to write and make a product attributes analysis that
will attract the employer.
For an adequate self-appraisal take an inventory of your employment qualifications.
List your specific achievements, capabilities, interests, attitudes and characteristics under
certain heading:
1. Work experience: dates, employers, titles, duties, responsibilities, successes,
promotions.

25

2. Education: schools you attended: junior colleges, colleges, universities, technical

schools, -dates, names, locations, degrees, scholastic standing in each, accomplishments.
3. Extracurricular and professional organization achievements: membership in sports,
church, social community, projects, coaching, student teaching, tutoring; achievements,
honors, awards-scholarships, honor rolls, recognitions.
4. Interests, preferences, attitudes: integrity, enthusiasm, dependability, ability to
communicate in writing and orally, intelligence, ability to listen, maturity, analytical, ability,
to cooperate with others, emotional stability, decision-making ability, capacity of
leadership, self-confidence, adaptability, sense of humor, determination, health and energy,
etc, etc.
The next step will be your job-getting campaign and determine which job and
employers require what you have to offer. Published sources and various people can help to
inform you about careers and jobs available in your domain. Annual reports, recruiting
booklets, occasional articles in business and professional journals present companies' new
ventures, expansions, additional products.
After having evaluated your assets, and researched job opportunities and employers'
requirements, you are ready to prepare your written "sales promotion". Prepare a CV
(resume) organizing pertinent facts under appropriate headings, emphasize your strong
points honestly. Write then an application letter.

4.1. CV (Resume)
The CV gives the reader a general image of the applicant - who you are, what you
want, what you have to offer, where you can be contacted.
Prepare your resume ready for any time you may need it. Its content will provide
information required by any employer and its layout will follow some general rules. Dates
may be arranged in reverse chronological order, if preferred, and the headings and dates
are placed usually either on the left margin or centered, and the subheadings begin at the
left margin and dates near the end of the same line. It is desirable that the CV have only
one page. The content will comprise:
I) Opening section:
a) Your name, address, telephone number
b) job or career objective
II) Summary of basic qualifications
a) Education
-school names and locations, dates attended, degrees, certificates
-major, significant courses; academic honors, grade-point average
achievements
III) Work experience

if

high;

- employers' names and locations, dates (beginning and ending month and year),
titles, positions, specific accomplishments
- volunteer work, research, publications
IV) Achievements, awards
-honors, publications
-travel, foreign languages, self-support, other facts
V) Personal data
-age, health, military service, hobbies
VI) References -usually provided upon request

26

4.2. Cover Letter

What Experts Say About Cover Letter

" ... you need to make it easy for the employer to buy. You need to clearly state when you
will be available to talk to the employer. Be specific: give telephone numbers where you
can be reached both at work and off work. You could have a tremendous background and
see yourself very well, but if the employer can't reach you, everything could be lost."
(Lola M. Crawford, Resume Writing Made Easy)
"A CV without a cover letter is like an unannounced sales person showing up at your
door. If you are going to let in a perfect stranger, you at least, want to see their credentials.
This is exactly what a cover letter does- it introduces you, a total stranger to the reader. It
must be compelling, personable, and brief. It needs to specifically relate to the position in
question. Remember you only have eight seconds to convince the reader to invite you in".
(Barbara B. Vinitsky and Janice Y. Benjamin, "How to become Happily Employed")
"No cover letter should carry the salutation: 'To whom it may concern'. It will
concern no one if you don't personalize it. The surest way to get the information is to find
the name in trade journals or call the company and ask for the name of the appropriate
person".
(Kenneth and Sheryl Dawson, Job Search, The Total System)
The cover letter is rarely anything but a liability, but you must include it because its
absence is worse".
(Jeff B. Speck, Hot Tips, Sneaky Tricks & Last Ditch Tactics)
"Poor grammar, bad punctuation, and misspelled words suggest that the applicant is
either poorly educated or simply doesn't care about the impression created. The chances
are unusually high that the employer is going to forgo
reading the accompanying resume and quickly move on to the next job applicant".
(Richard H. Beatty, The Perfect Cover Letter)
A cover letter should be sent together with the applications forms and C.V., either
explaining points that might not be clear, or giving information to emphasize your
suitability for the job. The cover letter should not be used to repeat the details of your
resume, such as work history, education, or personal objectives. The CV is about you, your
experience and your skills. The cover letter is about what you can do for the employer.
What the cover letter should contain:
The first paragraph needs to grab the hiring manager's attention: you are interested
in the company and you want to fill a need they have. Show that you work in the same
field, that you have common professional interests, or you have been following the
company in the news. Mention the source of information: a mutual friend or an associate.
The manager will feel more obligated to reply to your letter. Be as specific as possible:
Don't just mention the job position, but describe what the company requires from the
position.
In the second part of the letter state briefly the skills you bring that will specifically
meet the employer's needs. The CV will give details.
This section will highlight the way you will use your endowments and experience to
benefit of the company. The use of the personal pronoun is to be kept at a minimum. It can
be used this way: "Here is how I can help you".

27

The letter will close by indicating what you would like to happen next. Take action:
Tell the potential employer where you can be reached, either by phone or by e-mail, but
don't wait for his or her call. Let him know that if you don't hear from them within a few
days, you will follow up with a phone call to make sure your CV and cover letter have
reached the intended recipient, and to settle an interview. Be assertive but polite.
As for the formatting of the cover letter there are some basic rules to keep in mind
when drafting it.
A three-line block, flush left, one space below the date and one space above the
greeting. This block contains the address, the zip code, and the date. (The date may be
separated from the block by one line)
Another three-line block, flush, one space below the date and one space above the
greeting. This block contains the addressee's full name and address, including zip code.
A colon is better to use instead of a comma. The greeting should address a specific
person in a formal manner: Dear Mr. Johnson, but not Dear William. If you don't know the
name, address the letter to "Hiring Manager", "Human Resources Manager" or simply
"Manager".
You may use bullets and bold print in the body of your cover letter to organize and
highlight information, and make it easier to read. If you do decide to use them, do it
conservatively.
The closing should read Sincerely, because you don't know the person. Leave enough
room for the signature between the closing and your name when you print your cover
letter.
EXERCISES
I. Mind the following text of a cover letter and comment upon the ideas, their
order and tone. Match the following parts where possible:
a) If the name of the person you are to write to is given in the advertisement, then include
their name in the salutation.
b) In the first body paragraph give examples of what you do now and underline how that
makes you suitable for the post you are applying for.
c) Remember that if you begin the letter Dear Sir or Madam, then you should end Yours
sincerely, If you include the persons name in the salutation, end the letter with Yours
faithfully,
d) Make yourself as flexible as possible when it comes to interview availability.
e) The heading gives a quick idea as to the content of the letter. The harassed reader can
see at a glance what the letter is about.
f) Always quote the reference number if it appears in the advertisement.
g) In the second paragraph outline what you would expect from the job. Sound enthusiastic
about it. Let your prospective employer know you feel challenged by and you are confident
that you have the requisites to meet that challenge.
h) Read the advert carefully, and in the body of your letter refer to all the points about the
job that were mentioned there.
i) Its best to put the phone number at the top left, so that the reader doesnt mix it up
with the address.
j) Always include the post code (GB) or the zip code (US) with the address.k) Check in the
advert if you need to ask for an application form or a full job description.

November, 15, 2001

28

Astoria Federal Savings

Dear Sir or Madam,
Please consider my enclosed curriculum vitae in application for the position of
Personal Banker as announced on the Internet, on www.careerbuilder.com.
I am particularly interested in your announced position because of your stated
desire for a person able to fulfill the mentioned responsibilities. As you will see
in my curriculum vitae, my continuing interest in this field is reflected not only
in my education but also in the additional courses I have taken and the work
experience I have achieved.
I am willing, qualified and experienced in the area, I have excellent
communication skills and my PC literacy, as mentioned in the CV is fully
satisfactory. As far as the customer service background is concerned, I
developed specific skills during my last job, which offered me the opportunity
to meet various customers but did not meet my work location and work time
conditions.
I am aware of the reputation of Astoria Federal Savings and I believe I can
make a meaningful contribution to the Marketing Department.
Thank you for considering my application. I look forward to meeting you in
Suffolk at your convenience.
Sincerely,
Anita Smithfield

4.3. JOB INTERVIEW

The employment interview is one of the most important events in the average
person's experience, as the 20-30 minutes spent with the interviewer may determine
entirely the future course of one's life. The marks of inexperience can be avoided by
knowing a little of that actually is expected of you and by making a few simple preparations
before the interview.
Whether you are the interviewer or the interviewed person, you should plan the
following steps:
a) know the specific purpose;
b) find out as much as possible about the other person - name, position, attitude,
work, needs, background, biases;
c) collect all the necessary facts and materials for attaining the objectives.
d) plan questions you will ask and consider answers you may give to questions of the
other person asks you;
As for the interviewee, he should prepare himself mentally for success, and add
some other particular aspects:

29

a) the applicant should know himself - compare his or her strengths and weaknesses with
the job requirements;
b) read the latest annual report of the company or on-line database, talk to friends who
work for that company;
c) know the current beginning salary range for your type of job and experience;
d) pay a lot of attention to your appearance as it always conveys significant non-verbal
impression. Wear conservative, neatly pressed, appropriate clothing of good quality. Avoid
gaudy colors and style (Men suits and ties, and women tailored skirted suits). Be well
groomed, with a neat hairstyle, clean fingernails and shined, unstuffy shoes. A pleasant
smile is desirable;
e) know exactly when and where the interview will be held. Arrive a few minutes before.
Know the interviewers name and how is it pronounced;
f) rehearse your opening statement and handshake perhaps in front of a mirror;
g) avoid negative body language as signs of nervousness and tension: frequently touching
your mouth, faking a cough to think about the answer; gnawing on your lip; tight or forced
smile; swinging your foot or leg; folding or crossing your arms, slouching, avoiding eye
contact; picking at invisible bits of lint, etc.
EXERCISES
I. Separate the following attitudes according to the table
A. Desirable Behavior

B. Attitudes to avoid

1. Stick to the facts, state achievements without exaggeration.

2. Use expressions that indicate you are competent and dependable, with a positive
attitude.
3. Smoke and use the first name (unless invited to do so), show disinterest, chewing gum,
doodling.
4. Let the interviewer finish each question, then reply precisely to the question. Link your
achievements to this answer.
5. Use expressions like: "yeah", "y' know", "cool", "stuff like that".
6. Make negative reference about former teachers or employers.
7. Tactfully relate your achievements to employer's needs whenever possible.
8. Show superiority complex and "know-it-all" feeling.
9. Take a time to weigh pros and cons of an idea- note the long and short-term benefits
and consequences of your decision.
10. Communicate clearly and accurately.
II. Mind the body language; add to the list different other significant gestures in
business:
- dont display dominant body positions, such as standing too upright, or with hands
on your hips and your elbows sticking out, that would suggest too much confidence and
dominance.
- business man should smile and raise his eyebrows when meeting his partners,
estimate the physical distance between them. An acceptable distance in Western Europe is
an arms length, but an elbow length is suitable in the Mediterranean, and closer contact is

30

acceptable in Eastern Europe

- when covering the mouth, or touching the nose, means that the partner does not
necessarily tell the truth, or he is thinking, or he thinks that the interlocutor is lying.
- crossing legs in front of an American customer, should appear rather effeminate
- using hands when expressing an opinion represents vagueness
- open palm indicates firmness, truth, honesty and sometime submission
- persuasiveness can be increased by an open body position when addressing to an
audience arms and legs outward, upright position, frequent head nods and hand gestures
III. Answer sincerely to the typical questions of an interview where possible:
1. Why did you leave the last job?
2. What are your future vocational plans?
3. What sort of professional position are you most interested in?
4. What course did you like best? Least?
5. What do you know about our company?
6. Why did you choose to work with us?
7. Do you prefer working with us or by yourself?
8. Can you take instructions without feeling upset?
9. Do you like routine work?
10. What size of city do you prefer?
11. Mention your major weakness.
12. What kind of books do you prefer?
13. What is the last book you read and when?
14. Describe your special abilities.
15. Mention the disadvantages of the professional field you chose.
16. Tell me about likes and dislikes of your last position.
17. Describe me a difficult situation you handled in your last position.
18. Mention some short-term and long-term goals. (5 and 15 years)
IV. After the interview send a brief "thank-you note" or an "e-mail" through the
Internet (if the job contact was made through the Internet or e-mail)
immediately after the interview, then mail a second letter by post timed to arrive
the week before the hiring decision will be made.
V. Translate into English:
a) Din moment ce este destul de uor s faci un "click" pe un site, muli dintre
candidai presupun, n mod eronat, c este la fel de uor s-i gseti i de lucru prin
Internet, astfel nct ei renun s mai urmnreasc anunurile de angajare care apar n
diverse publicaii. Cutarea Locului de munc n variant electronic presupune aceleai
abiliti ca i n cazul cautrii tradiionale. Candidatul trebuie s fac cercetri, s-i
stabileasc obiectivele, s fie rbdtor i s munceasc pentru a avea succes.
b) Pentru businessmeni, selectarea inutei trebuie fcut innd cont de interlocutorii
profesionali din timpul zilei. In cazul unei cltorii de afaceri peste hotare, ara vizitat
trebuie s reprezinte un factor cheie n selectarea hainelor. Facei o impresie mai buna
superiorului dvs dac v mbrcai mai formal. Felul n care v mbrcai v influeeaza
direct chiar nivelul salariului sau al cifrei de afaceri.
c) Pregtirea unui interviu nseamn s fii obinuit cu prezentarea propriilor caliti i
mai ales a felului n care aceste caliti pot prezenta un avantaj pentru un potenial
angajator. Iat cteva ntrebri tipice pentru un interviu:
"Spune-mi cte ceva despre tine!" i se cere o descriere scurta, bine organizat a
pregtirii tale, a carierei profesionale, a principalelor realizri i a obiectivelor de viitor.
De ce dorii s lucrai la noi? Ce cunoatei despre societatea noastr? Ce cri v
place s citii? Cum v petrecei timpul liber? Spunei-ne cte ceva despre avantajele i
dezavantajele trsturilor dumneavoastr de caracter?

31

UNIT 5
INTERNAL FORMAL BUSINESS DOCUMENTS
Objectives:
- familiarize with the principles and rules of internal documents drafting and wording
- get used with the formal rules of drafting formal internal documents

Human activity of an organization is based on exchange of information, ideas, plans;

the decision-making process implies internal communication in oral and written forms,
making rules, proposals, concluding contracts and agreements. Both within and outside,
communication is the lifeblood of the effectiveness of any organization.
The company's goals are attained due to "downward", "upward" and "horizontal"
effective communication. If the employees receive appropriate downward messages from
the management they become more motivated and more efficient. They need and want not
only clear job directions and rules of the activity in the organization, but also information
about the strategy of the company, viewpoints on controversial matters. They need clear
and correct information about their benefits- health care, fringe benefits, promotions,
pensions, training, and work environment. Employers are then accountable for their
decisions through effective downward communication. Upward internal communication has
become increasingly more significant as the executives seek for comments from employees
on controversial issues, listen more closely to their opinions, complaints, problems,
suggestions turning them into participants to the management of the company.
Horizontal communication is also important for the effectiveness of the company's
activity. Peers must exchange information and ideas to solve problems, perform job duties,
prepare for meetings, and cooperate on important projects.
Memorandums,
staff
meeting
reports,
meetings,
teleconferencing
and
videoconferencing, audiotapes, represent some ways of internal communication within
companies. But there is still another oral communication channel, though unplanned by the
sender, the "grapevine" through which news and rumors often travel quickly -often times
quite accurately, sometimes inaccurately.
EXERCISES
I. Fill in the blanks the following words: a) executives; b) messages; c) mail, d)
devoted; e) generate; f) alienate.
Thousands of hours are 1) ___________ daily to interviews, conferences, memos, reports,
employees' manuals, letters, advertising, news articles, bulletins, newsletters and other types of
messages. 2) ________ and their assistants need time for researching, thinking, planning,
organizing, dictating, typing, editing, revising, proofreading, mailing, presenting and filing records.
Computers, electronic
3) ___________, videoconferences, are developments and ways to reduce costs and time of
communicating efficiently. A significant fact to be considered is the wasteful cost of poor messages,
inaccurate, inconsiderate unduly long and late communication that destroys goodwill and 4)
_________ customers. They require additional 5) _________, or they can determine even loss of
life or money. It is worth bearing in mind that successful messages help 6) __________ efficiency,
goodwill, safety, profits and public credibility.

II. Match the words with the definitions: A) denotations; B) connotations; C)

euphemisms; D) bypassed instructions.

32

1) The meaning on which most people will probably agree according to the dictionary definition.
2) Communication errors when instructing or discussing issues; words or sentences may convey
unclear messages to the recipient; he should ask before putting them to practice, to determine the
sender's intended meaning.
3) Mild, innovative expressions with which most people do not have negative associations. E.g.:
maintenance worker or staff member instead of janitor; slender instead of skinny; laid off,
terminated instead of victim of reorganization or staff cutbacks.
4. Qualitative judgments and personal reactions added to the connotative meaning of words:
"Director's lounge", "executive suite", "rickety firetrap", and "rat-filled joint". They tell how the
communicator evaluates the subject.

III. Make the difference between connotations and denotations:

Free enterprise
Free manners
Cheap product

Sucker (customer)
Sucker (candy)
Cheap price

IV. What was the feedback of the new employee?

An office manager handed a new assistant a letter, with the instruction "Take it to your
stockroom and burn it." In the office manager's mind (and the firm's jargon the word "burn" meant
to make a copy on a company machine that operated by a heat process. As the letter was extremely
important, she wanted an extra copy. However, the puzzled new employee afraid to ask questions,
burnt the letter and thus destroyed the only existing copy!

5.1. MEMORANDUM
In market economy system organizations are autonomous entities, so they become
able to build their own specific culture. One of its characteristics is the internal
correspondence that usually follows internal specific rules and regulations according to their
target addressees.
Memos have a format which is simpler than the correspondence conceived for
external destinations. They miss the heading, but they bear a subject line which is
compulsory, but they can omit the salutation line and complimentary clause.
Memos are pieces of internal correspondence that are used to inform the staff
upward, downward and horizontally. They are informative and can be conveyed either on
paper or on internet mail.
The purposes of memos are defined on two-tier stages:
- I. they give professional information to the reader and make him acknowledge it
- II. built positive images of the writer
- build positive image of the organization itself
- set and consolidate good relationship between the writer and the reader
- avoid further correspondence on the same subject
Memos provide detailed verbal and numerical information, classifications,
background that is specific for the matter. Any negative elements should be presented as
positively as possible. The reader should be focussed on his benefits that must be clearly
and convincingly stated. The message will also indicate the steps the reader has to follow
to set the problems. A positive and a goodwill ending will always make the addressee act
accordingly to the writer's wish.
The printed standard block form lines up the name of the writer, of the reader and
the subject line vertically. Some organizations have the option to alter the order of these
items, or request the sender to sign the document instead of initialing it. The signature
goes below the last line, starting half-way over on the page, this way adding unauthorized
information is prevented. The possible second page of the memo is set up as an ordinary

33

external business letter. The format of the memo allows fast and easy typing, so that
information should be easily filed. The body is typed in block fashion. The message is not
supposed to end by calling for further information, as the reader might understand that the
memo was not complete.
Memo stationery quality is improving according to the increasing use of word
processing systems. Memos can be sent via electronic mail (E-mail) or simply can be
printed out on a computer paper. Formal memorandum reports may use a higher quality
paper. Here you have an example of pre- printed memo stationery:
MEMORANDUM
(Compnay's name)
DATE:
FROM:
TO:
TELEPHONE:
DEPT:
SUBJECT:
Message, comment or reply
For your:
Approval

Comment

Information

The standard memo parts presented can be programmed to appear automatically

with just a keystroke in a word processing system. Items as: reference initials, enclosures,
file number, sender's department and telephone number are optional. It requires no inside
address, salutation, complimentary close or full signature. A message-reply form of memo
is a good time and expense saver for both sender and recipient. It can be transmitted in a
three perforated sheets packet in different colors making up a message-reply packet.
MEMORANDUM
(Company's name)
DATE:
FROM:
TO:
TELEPHONE:
DEPT:
SUBJECT:
Message, comment, or reply
Approval

For your:
Comment

Here are some samples of memos:

a)
Memo
To: International Department
From: Accounting Department
CC:
Date: December 7, 2000

34

Information

Subject: Opening of new customer nos. for banks

Please be informed that we opened in our evidences the respective customer
numbers for the following banks:
ABN Amsterdam - 4 000 537
Banca Commerciale Italiana - 4 000 412
Credit Commercial de France - 9 00247
Royal Bank of Canada - 4 000 328
Bayerische Landesbank 4 000 495
Rabobank Utrecht 4 000 867
Should you have any query do not hesitate to contact us.
Angela Little

Josie McKennitt

___________________________________________________________
Page 1 of 1
Memo-Open Nos

b)
Memo
To: International Department
From: Accounting Department
CC:
Date: 10 February
____________________________________________________________
Re: WHT payment for January 2001
_____________________________________________________________
Please debit the account 9 800 438 00 ROL by the amount of ROL 2520 342.37
representing 1% tax withheld on term deposit interest paid in January 2000
which must be paid to the state budget.
Please verify the amount against individuals' deposits maturing by the end of
January.
Alex Warner

Gina Lopez

c)

GRAND HOTEL
From: The General Manager
DATE: September, 6, 2004
TO: All Front Office Staff
SUBJECT: Pricing policy
35

It is clear that some clarification of our policy on pricing and room rates are needed.
BASIC RATES: We have a basic rate of all room types. However, it is common for different rates to be charged. This is because the Sales
and Marketing Department negotiate special rates for different agents, corporate clients and other clients.
The basic rates are:
Standard room: 8o (double) Luxury/Executive Plus: 115 (double) Suite: Individually priced
Standard discounts:
Weekend rate (Fri/Sat or Sat/Sun) 15% discount
Weekly rate: seven nights for the price of five
Specially negotiated rates:
Most guests come as part of a tour, through a tour operator, or as a corporate guest. In this case a special
Rate will have been negotiated and will be on the computer for Reservations and the Front Office to access.
Free Sales Agents:
Free Sale Agents are sent availability charts every two weeks. They sell rooms at an agreed rate (usually the corporate rate). They don't have
to check with us, so administration costs are kept low.
Allocation Holders:
Allocation Holders have a certain number of rooms which they agree to sell (usually at FIT rates). The customer pays them directly and they
take commission and pass on what is left to the hotel.
For week-ends they have the rooms on a 48-hour release (in other words the hotel can take them back by Thursday and resell).
If you have any more questions, please speak to the Reservations Manager or the Sales and Marketing Department.( chenar )

EXERCISES
I. Your employer encourages young executives to enroll for additional university
training whenever possible, and the firm pay tuition for the desirable programs.
You would like to attend the Graduate School of Business Administration
Management Program at Cambridge University branch in Bucharest. Because
most classes meet three evenings a week and a few on Saturdays, they will not
interfere with your job. You believe that the course definitely makes a graduate
more knowledgeable in the management field, thereby increasing his or her
worth to the insurance company where you work. Some of the topics you foresee
as particularly valuable to your present job are management communication,
performance appraisals and basic human motivation. The program over one
academic year costs $ 1,500; $ 300 is required to be submitted with your
application and the remaining $ 1,200 by September 30. Today is July 14. Enclose
your application with your memo to Mr. James Dawson executive vice president
for his approval.
II. To conserve fuel, because of the current fuel shortage, you, as an Executive
General Manager of an important bank, want to request all management officers
to observe certain simple fuel -saving steps for fringe cars in service. You ask
that all vehicles be shut off when idle. Examples include when drivers are on
lunch breaks or any other break. Also, you want that operators run machines in
such a manner as to conserve fuel without loss of efficiency. Excessive speed
where it is not necessary consumes more fuel. You believe that cooperation of all
employees could result in a 5 to 10 percent savings. Mention in your memo that
you will make personal inspections periodically. Plan an attractive, easy-to-read
format for your requests.
III Translate into English
A. V rugm s revedei prevederile Codului de Conduit privind inuta i luai msurile
corespunztoare. Angajaii mbrcai neadecvat vor fi imediat trimii acas i nu vor fi
pltii pentru ziua respectiv.
Tinuta

36

Ca reprezentani ai bncii, angajaii trebuie s poarte haine potrivite locului de munc. Toi
angajaii trebuie s fie totdeauna mbrcai adecvat. Imbrcmintea sport , extravagant,
ocant, provocatoare nu este acceptat n mediul de afaceri. Atenia clienilor nu trebuie
distras de modul n care suntem mbrcai i inuta noastr trebuie s le par decent.
Doamne:
s poarte haine care se potrivesc cu mediul de lucru, preferabil fust i jachet n culori
nchise, cu cma de culori deschise
-

pantalonii pot fi purtai numai n combinaie cu sacou

bluzele sau rochiile cu bretele sau fr mneci nu sunt admise i nici
hainele din materiale sau culori speciale (care s-ar potrivi mai bine pentru
sear sau pentru vacan)
s nu se exgereze cu accesoriile
prul va avea o culoare uniform (nu sunt admise uvie de alt culoare)
machiajul i manechiura vor fi n culori naturale
pantofii lustruii, nu sunt permise sandale sau cizme
parfumul n cantiti controlate

Domni:
-

S poarte costum i cravat, cu sacou n special n holul bncii sau n alte

zone n care clienii au acces
Culorile acceptate sunt:
- Costume: preferabil albastru nchis, gri, negru
- Cmi: cu mnec lung preferabil albe sau albastru deschis
- osete: culori nchise
- pantofii: n culori nchise, lustruii tot timpul
Este obligatoriu s se brbiereasc zilnic

5.2. REPORT
In Great Britain, the adoption of limited liability as the usual system of corporate
organization gave important impetus to the movement in favor of publication of balance
sheet as a report of the activity of the commercial banks. The tide was running in favor
to publicity, the growing strength of important joint-stock banks that voluntarily
published reports on their activity, helping to turn the fashion. The publication of an
Annual Balance Sheet in no way altered the private character of the Bank, or the
responsibility of the partners to the full extent of their property.
Governments in the European Union set the rule of publishing reports of the largest
businesses according to criteria including revenue, employment and assets that
should disclose the material social and environmental impacts on their operations each
year, as part of the operating and financial review in their annual report. This new
requirement will be welcomed as a move towards greater transparency. The growth of
such reporting has been prompted partly by demand from investors who are
increasingly concerned about the risks attached to the social, ethical and environmental
impacts of businesses. Many companies seem to regard a sustainability report as
primarily, a public relations document, but readers of the reports say that their purpose
is to provide accountability and transparency. The guidelines give companies a clear
template for what to include in reports, how to go about it and how to make sure that
readers will value and trust the content.
Reports can be about many things: an analysis of a problem, a summary of a
completed job, the progress of a project, the results of an investigation.
Reports provide information collected for a target specialized audience; it is made in
order to find solutions for the problem it evaluates. They can be informative reports,
providing both information selected carefully and its interpretation, while

37

recommendation/problem-solving reports recommend/suggest solutions.

Informative reports can be
- Sales/production reports: numerical lists of sales/production for a stated period of
time
- Accident reports: description and evaluation of the nature and causes of a work
accident
- Audit report: states and evaluates facts revealed by an audit
- make-good/pay-back reports makes reference to the period of time at which a
capital investment will pay back
- Scouting reports: identify strengths and weaknesses of a newly employed person
or a potential customer/business partner and recommend/deny them or recommend
strategies for getting the best of them.
- Feasibility report: evaluate alternatives and make recommendations for a new
product/service, a strategical step in business, a promotional campaign, etc
- Justification report: makes reference to the need of an investment, a change in
procedure/technology/strategy
- credit report: make evaluations of business plans for being granted a loan
- progress/interim reports - evaluate the work done so far and the still remaining on
to the completion of a project
- trip reports: share information and achievements/shortcomings drawn out after a
visit to a customer/supplier
- closure reports: a research upon feasible conditions for a new product/service
evaluated economically/technologically under current conditions
Planning and writing reports, making summaries, taking notes are important skills in
business environment. There are several types of reports: long, short, formal and informal
and, according to their way of delivery, reports may be oral or written (letters, memos,
separate documents). They can be periodic and occasional. Its main parts are the
Introduction, the body of the report and the terminal section. The first one will state the
terms of reference, the objectives, and the procedure required, then the authority to do it.
The body of the document will present a detailed account of what has been accomplished,
and how much remains to be done. The terminal section will mention future plans and
recommendations. As for the technical aspects, it is recommended for the paragraphs not
to be bigger than 100 words, to contain just one idea, and to be separated by larger
spaces. Typographical elements should be used, such as underlying capital letters, graphics
in boxes, italics, etc. The sentences are recommended to be concise, and clear. Longer
reports may have a summary, a table of contents or perhaps appendices with extra, nonessential information. Many in-company reports have a standard format and so the writer
does not have to worry about the structure. Here are some techniques of report writing:
- focus the first drafting of the ideas not on the language and grammar until
the editing and rewriting stage
-

keep the briefness of phrases and simplicity of grammatical structure

use impersonal style and focus on relevant facts
balance your points of view showing careful consideration for arguments
the report writing style should keep with the target reader: a report written
for a senior manager should be respectful and polite, with suggestions for
the manager to consider. A report for junior staff is more likely to use a
direct style and have short sentences and statements rather than
suggestions.

Report drafting will take into consideration some technical basic steps:
a) statement/definition of the matter
b) selection of the sources and information needed
c) data interpretation
d) presentation of relevant criteria for reorganizing the information
e) report wording and drafting
Reports will be audience oriented to achieve effectiveness. The message will

38

be clearly stated in a readable document by keeping the sentences short and simple,
using familiar words. Verbs of action should be used to communicate ideas instead of
redundant words. Simplicity and directness will improve the quality of the document,
as a highly knowledgeable writer will always select the best words to convey plain
and convincing ideas and solutions.
Reports can be exclusively numerical or they can simply provide information
that employees must know and use to solve professional problems. Reports can be
formal or less formal. The formal ones will have specific format and elements:
- title page/subtitles
- a transmittal
- Table of contents
- Body
- conclusions
- List of illustrations,
figures/drawings/graphics
- List of references/ bibliography
- Appendixes
- Abstract
The preparatory elements will personalize the document:
- Name of the author
- Target audience
- Date
- Subject
- Coverage
- Organization
They are numbered by Roman numeral.
Title report will name the report object will provide the name and position of the
author date and the document submission.
Preface or the Letter of transmittal states the purpose of the document, object and
content. It is used when the audience reader is a single person or a well defined
group.
Table of contents: a list of the headings and subheadings of the report
Body: the longest section of the document presenting the detailed information and
messages ordered logically, according to the criteria selected and considered by the
author(s). Heads, sub-heads graphics, quotations, footnotes should be used.
Conclusions: the ending part will bring forth and summarize the main ideas, state
clearly the solutions or recommendations according to the type of report.
Abstract: it is a short overview of the most important ideas in the content of the
document. It may consist of few paragraphs to be turned into an oral presentation,
explaining the purpose, the plan and order of its ideas.
Reports readability and legibility should be reader-oriented as it has a highly practical
use. Here are some drafting techniques:
- a two/three centimeters margin is needed to be kept all around the
document page
- a 2/three centimeter margin is needed on the left hand side if the document
is bound
- a double space between paragraphs is recommended for easy reading
- headings and subheadings will separate ideas, verbal/numerical lists,
quotations, graphics
- typographical elements should make words, ideas stand out
- bullets or dashes, numbers or letters should be used to systematize random
information
- paragraphs and phrases will be achieved by avoiding redundant and complex
words by using action verbs, familiar words and non prepositional phrases

39

Reading the Annual Report

For more complete information about an individual company's financial health one
may want to review the company's annual report. Each listed company in a security
exchange is required to issue its financial report card to its shareholders. In the report, a
shareholder must find detailed information about the company's economic condition and
management policies. Annual reports help shareholders evaluate their investment and
decide how to vote at the next shareholders' meeting. But they are also helpful to potential
investors - people who are considering buying shares in the company. Here are the key
topics contained in most annual reports:
The Balance Sheet
It is a summary of assets and liabilities that offers a "snapshot" of the company's
financial health at a specific point of time. A balance sheet compares data from the end of
the current year with the data from the previous year. The first section lists all the
company's current assets, or resources: (assets cash, outstanding bills, inventories, the
land owned by the company, working machines, etc).
The second section lists liabilities, or debts, its accounts payable, unpaid wages,
outstanding loans, taxes, and the dividends it will pay to shareholders. This section lists the
value of the company's preferred and common stock, the money made from selling stock
and the profits that have been reinvested in the company. The assets side of the ledger
must equal the liabilities section, hence the name balance sheet.
Stockholders' equity is also called the net worth of a company. It is not a tangible
amount of money stored in a bank, but the value of all the shareholders investment in the
company.
Statement of Income and Retained Earnings
If the balance sheet is a snapshot of the company's finances at a single moment, the
income statement is more like a movie. It links together several balance sheets and shows
the company's financial performance over the period of a month, a quarter, or even several
years. The income statement tallies up all income, subtract expenses and show how much
money is left to reinvest in the company. It compares that number over a period of time.
Statement of Changes in Financial Position
This statement deals with working capital - money used on daily operations of the
company. The statement, which may compare several years, shows how much working
capital was available, and how it was spent.
Accountants' Report
Every annual report includes a report from an independent accountant. The
accountant's report usually says that the annual report is a truthful reflection of the
company's finances. It states that the report was compiled in compliance with normal
auditing standards and accounting principles. The accountant will note if the annual report
fails to meet one of these standards.
Understanding a company's financial status will help in making appropriate
investment decisions.
LANGUAGE OF REPORTS
Reports are formal business writing. There are three areas of grammar useful when
more formal, impersonal style is needed:
The passive:

40

An important decision is to be taken by the end of this month.

In exchange for the flexibility, employees are expected to remain in close contact with their
managers.
It+passive:
It is recommended that the commercial banks should cut down their interest.
It was suggested that we use another carrier.
Compound nouns:
a planning meeting, a production planning meeting; the producers conference; the summer
sales session; insurance documents; transport insurance documents
Informal language elements, like: contractions (It's; we'll; there's) or words and
phrases like big, OK, nice; no way, fantastic, should not appear in reports
EXERCISES
I. Match the missing words in the following text: 1. Situation; 2. Pattern; 3.
Insurance; 4. Influence; 5. Area; 6. Investigations; 7. Statements; 8. Current; 9.
Increasing; 10. Evidences; 11 conclusion; 12. Circumstances.
Reports are widely used in every economic a) ________ they announce, explain or
recommend a policy drawn as a b) _______ of a specific study. They can represent a
starting point for new approaches, developments of new methods and operations, or they
can be a result of c) _________ of certain events and evolution. They may be external,
called in by a firm reviewing problems, such as business associates, surveyors reports or
credit and d) _______ investigation. Internal sources may lead to the drafting of a report,
when management investigates e) ________ efficiency. Reports follow a similar f) _____,
their length depending on the subject it deals with. Its title is its content for short:
Evolution of Industrial Structures between 1990-2000, Report on Transport
Infrastructure Up-grading and possible foreign investments, Financial Conditional upon
Reforms, etc. As a beginning, the report may start with its own summary or with the g)
______ and conditions that determined it. Objectives and limitations may be also stated as
reports must give a background to the subject they study, allowing the reader or the
listener to understand how the h) _____ arose, how it can be corrected, improved on or
changed.
The body of the report itself consists of explaining the existing situation and offering
evidence to support the i) ________ that the writer is making. Well selected and well
presented facts, using visual aids also, are meant to convince and j) ________ the reader
or the listener.
The last part of the report is represented by conclusions formed on the k)
_________, and brought about by objective statements, drawing together all the
information about the situation. The conclusions draw out recommendations, suggestions
to improve or change the l) ________ situation.
II. Read the following Auditors report to the members of BPP Holdings PLC.
using the dictionary when necessary. Make relevant its structure according to the
following headins:
Parts
Introduction

Elements
Terms of reference or objectives
Procedure

Body of the report

Findings

41

Terminal section

Conclusions
Recommendations if asked for
Appendices

AUDITORS REPORT
We have audited the accounts that have been prepared under the historical
cost convention as modified by the revaluation of certain land an buildings and
on the basis of the accounting policies set out on pages 26-28.
Respective responsibilities of directors and auditors
The directors are responsible for preparing the Annual Report including,
as described on page 16, the accounts. Our responsibilities, as independent
auditors, are established by statute, The Auditing Practices Board, the Listing
Rules of the London Stock Exchange and by our professions ethical guidance.
We report to you our opinion as to whether the accounts give a true and
fair view and are properly prepared in accordance with the Companies Act. We
also report to you, if in our opinion, the directors report is not consistent with
the accounts, if the company has not kept proper accounting records, if we
have not received all information and explanations we require for our audit, or
if the information specified by law or the Listing Rules regarding directors
remuneration and transactions with the company is not disclosed.
We review whether the statement on pages 9 and 10 reflects the
companys compliance with those provisions of the Combined Code specified for
our review by the Stock Exchange, and we report if it does not. We are not
required to form an opinion of the effectiveness of either the companys
corporate governance procedures or its internal controls.
Basis of audit opinion
We conducted our audit in accordance with Auditing Standards issued by
the Auditing Practices Board. An auditing includes examination, on a test basis,
of evidence relevant to the amounts and disclosures in the accounts. It also
includes an assessment of the significant estimates and judgments made by
the accounts and whether the accounting policies are appropriate to the groups
circumstances, consistently applied and adequately disclosed.
We planned and performed our audit so as to obtain all information and
explanations that we considered necessary in order to provide us with sufficient
evidence to give reasonable assurance that the accounts are free from material
misstatements, whether caused by fraud or by irregularity or error. In forming
our opinion we also evaluated the overall adequacy of the presentation of
information in the accounts.
Opinion
In our opinion the accounts give a true and fair view of the state of
affairs of the company and of the group as at 31 December 1998 and of the
profit of the group for the year then ended and have been properly prepared in
accordance with the Companies Act 1985.

ERNST & YOUNG

Registered Auditor
London
March 4, 1999

42

III. Translate into English:

Raport al Preedintelui Consiliului de Administraie si al Directorului General
Banca TDR a confirmat n anul 2000 creterea conturat n anul precedent, dei
contextul macroeconomic a rmas dificil, n ciuda anumitor semne de relansare economic.
Rezultatele bncii sunt elocvente: cu un rezultat net de 1030,8 miliarde lei, care indic o
noua mbunatire a indicatorilor si financiari, TDR si-a manifestat capacitatea de a depi
dificultile inerente perioadei de transformari pe care o traverseaz.
Banca deine n prezent peste 29% din piaa creditului pentru persoane fizice, peste
19% din piaa creditului pentru societi i ca urmare a ncrederii de care se bucur, a atras
un volum de depuneri ale clienilor mai mare cu 23% dect cel de la sfritul anului
precedent.
Preocuparea noastr a fost de a ntri prestigiul i imaginea bncii, de a-i consolida
identitatea, ca membra a unui grup internaional de marc, de a se
implica n economia rii, de a crea produse i servicii noi, de a se adapta economiei
romneti. In anul 2000 am reuit s mrim cota de pia a bncii noastre (market quota),
calitatea serviciilor, profitul bncii i deci i veniturile acionarilor, n condiii de deplin
siguran a resurselor clientelei noastre.

5.3. MINUTES
A business meeting is considered a gathering of businesspersons where purposive
discourse occurs for exchanging information on a common topic or problem, for its better
understanding or for solving a problem.
Their goals are sorted out, patterns of problem solving are resolved, personal and
authority relationship are clarified. A part of the meeting is devoted usually to giving
information and the other is devoted to problem solving. Three types of meetings help
achieve these objectives:
Informative meetings are held to disseminate information and check on the
understanding of those who attend. The staff learns, ask questions, and understand. No
problem is solved, no recommendations for change, but rather each person gains an
improved understanding of the issue. A usual format is to have an opening informative
speech, by a person highly knowledgeable, on the topic, followed by a discussion. A
suggested-solution meeting is called for comments on the options and a potential final
solution to be discussed, but not decision is made. This meeting is informative and
exploratory but the final decision may be taken at a second problem-solving meeting.
Sometimes a committee is authorized to call the group together. Then the secretary
of the group is empowered to implement the board's decision, working with the chairperson
to appoint the committee and set out the initial planning involves: purpose, members,
meeting date, and time, place, and announcements responsibilities.
Minutes are documents that record the talks and decisions taken by the participants
to a meting to fulfill a certain goal. The notes are usually taken by the secretary and then
the document is fully drafted after the meeting from the notes, objectively and factually.
A minute should carry the following type of information:
- names of the participants
- kind of meeting (occasion al, regular)
- date /place of meeting
- time the meeting opens
- action of the group, stating exactly the decision and steps taken, the person in
charge, motions and amendments, the voting results

43

- the time of adjournment

- the signature of the secretary and of the chairperson
EXERCISES
I. Match the following steps in organizing the meeting and their content:
1. Consider the problem and determine the purpose; 2. Decide who should
participate; 3. Arrange for meeting date; Time and Place; 4. Announce the
agenda; 5. Physical Arrangements.
a) Generally the better days for meetings are Tuesday through Thursdays. However, some
executives consider a good time for meetings early Monday or Friday. A poor time is Friday
afternoon and immediately after lunch. Good times are 9 to 11 a.m. and 2 to 4 p.m.
psychologically desirable as the participants work more alertly to help accomplish the goals
of the meeting so that it will end on time. Depending on the audience size and the purpose
of the meeting, the chosen place may be in the executive suite, a company conference
room, an auditorium, a hotel, or a convention center.
b) Most often it is the meeting leader who words the question and prepares the agenda.
The announcement is sent early enough to give the participants adequate time to prepare
their thoughts on the matter.
c) If the purpose of the meeting can be better attained by telephone, memos, letters, video
teleconferencing or electronic mail, the participants should not be called together for a
meeting.
The meeting topic must be genuine, really important and meaningful for the
conferees. It must present a difficulty within the experience of the meeting attendees. The
problem should also be limited adequately in order to have enough time to solve it within
the meeting or decided by the group or about which recommendations can be made to a
higher administrative body.
d) Business committees have a consistent group of attendees. The invitees should always
be those that can have a special contribution to the problem solving. The more difficult the
problem the smaller the group - sometimes five or fewer people. But a solution discovery
meeting can have 10 or 20 participants for a brainstorming session. To review and discuss
regular department activities 30 might be invited. For informational meetings, hundreds
may be interested and gain useful explanations.
f) Most likely the chairperson will arrange the seating, perhaps in a circle, or around
the conference table, or U shape, so the conferees can easily see one another and
the chairperson. Items to consider are chalk boards, whiteboards, marking
pencils, chalk, erasers, pencils, papers, flip sheets, microphones, projectors,
visual aids (charts, tables, and graphs). Drinking water, glasses and ashtrays (if
smoking is allowed) should be handy. Name cards may be useful if the
participants are not personally acquainted.
II. Methods of solving problems in meeting: There are three ways that may be
used to solve problems in meeting: Intuition (rapid insight into a problem),
rationalization (justification attempts over time) or scientific, reflexive thinking
(logical progression) to come to an answer. The last one will be the object of this
exercise. Match the solution steps and their description:
1. State the problem in the form of an affirmative question; 2. Collect facts on the
history of the problem 3. Establish criteria for the solution discovery; 4. List
possible solutions; 5. Solution evaluation. 6. Choice of action.
a) After having taken the final decision, the solution must be implemented. A precise office

44

or person within the firm is asked to do that and the proposal is assigned a budget. Setting
a time for completing the solution is central to the action step.
b) All group members and others will judge solutions according to well-established criteria.
Criteria for assessing solutions include workability, feasibility, acceptability, positive or
negative consequences, costs, number of people impacted, and return of investment.
c) Facts are collected about the problem having in view the following possible questions:
- The history of the problem
- Symptoms of the problem
- The extent and the seriousness of the problem
- Size of the problem
- Possible causes and effects (management, labor unions, governmental policy)
- The way other companies handle the problem
- Analyze previous solutions taken without positive results
d) The process of listing as many ideas as possible without judgment from any group
member - even for off-the-wall solutions (brainstorming) is a favored method. The
chairperson and the participants consider several alternative solutions, ranging from
practical to highly innovative. The list is then shortened, in the light of stated criteria.
Several good ideas may thus arise, and later serve as a list from which the final solution
may come.
e) The central issue is phrased in a neutral question form. Affirmative wording is
preferable; because a negatively worded question is confusing and has a negative impact
on the group members. If the issue is clearly set, it follows that the answer or answers will
help to solve the problem. Conciseness, concreteness, clarity should be the criteria to
follow when raising the issue of any meeting.
f) It follows the evaluation of suggestions in light of the stated criteria. The pros and cons
of each solution are weighed, to see one particular solution truly will solve the problem or
will create new ones. The discussion may end by creating entirely new solutions or combine
new parts of several solutions.
III. Use the dictionary and supply definitions for the following:
1. Conference; 2. Colloquy; 3. Symposium; 4. Committee; 5. Panel forum; 6.
Debate.
IV. Follow-up meeting:
After having decided upon the matter discussed in the meeting, responsible
committees, departments or individuals are appointed to carry out the chosen
action. Copies of the minutes the secretary or assistant prepared should be sent
to the meeting attendees soon after the meeting. They usually include:
Name of the organization
Date, time, place of the meeting
Names of the members present
Names of any other present as invited
Name of the chairperson, rank the recording secretary
Brief summary of the reports, if any, by those listed on the agenda
Highlights of solutions presented and decisions made
Time of adjournment and (if announced) date of the next meeting
Read the following two minutes and mind the differences.
A.
Minute
Of the meeting held at the Head Office of Insuconsult on 7/4/99
Present:
Richard Mandel (Chairman)

45

Amanda Adam (Designer)

Jonathan Belgrave (Accountant)
Sarah Windmill (bank officer)
Subject:
Project of a new building for Insuconsult
- RM opened the meeting and underlined the importance of reaching a decision on
the project. He pointed out the importance of having a new building for the
company branch for the following reasons:
- the evolution of the new projects in insurance consultancy
- the enhance the company's reputation
- open new markets
- J.B. agreed that the project was viable for the following reasons:
- the bankers were favorable and ready to provide finance
- raw material was to be bought from cheap sources
- Local labor was cheap enough
- A.A. outlined that the design for the new building can be ready within 30 days
and the license for the construction in the same due time.
- RM closed the meeting and announced that the loan contract will be concluded
next week with the TUBank. SW confirmed.

B.
MINUTE of the meeting held at the Head Office of Computer Jar Co.
23/3/99
1. Present: Mr. Adam Williamson (chairman)
Sven Taco (secretary)
2. No business remained from the last meeting
3. Subject: Promotion of new banking products on the Internet
Mr. Williamson presented a detailed report about the new ways up-dated to
promote banking products through electronic devices, to challenge the new
markets. He proposed that Publicity and Marketing depts. Should be involved in a
promotion project through their representatives and have short presentations
about the new opportunities. Dead line - 23/4/99
Proposer: Mr. Williamson
Seconder: Ms. Jacqueline Drott
Marketing Dept
Carried unanimously
Other developments: Next year budget report.
Departments concerned are to form a committee to work on this. Mr.
Williamson will chair the committee and he will notify the people concerned.
Since there was nothing further, the meeting was adjourned.

V. Translate into English:

Recomandri privind ntocmirea unei convocri pentru o edin eficient:
1. Specificai data, locul ora de ncepere i ora de ncheiere a ntlnirii.
2. Prezentai, n linii generale, scopul ntlnirii. In cel mult doua fraze, specificai motivul
pentru care se ine edina i ce se urmrete.
3. Menionai particitpanii la edin. Acetia trebuie s tie cine va mai lua parte la
edin, n ce departamente lucreaz i care va fi contribuia lor la desfurarea edinei.
4. Enumerai subiecte n ordinea n care vor fi abordate.
5. Anunai ct timp alocai discutrii fiecrui subiect. Atunci cnd alocati o limit de timp
pentru tratarea fiecrei probleme, aceasta se va stabili n funcie de importana fiecreia
dintre ele.
6. Specificai ce materiale trebuie consultate nainte de edin sau ce se cere fiecrui

46

participant.
7. Distribuii ordinea de zi (agenda) tuturor membrilor grupului, cu cel puin o saptmn
naintea edinei.

5.4. SURVEYS
Question a large group of people called respondents or subjects. The questions will
be drafted under the form of a questionnaire. The questions will be worded neutrally,
avoiding assumptions about the respondents and having the same meaning to different
people.
1. Match the following meanings of the word "survey:
a). look carefully from a distance
b). study/description of the general condition
c). investigate the behaviour, opinion of a group of people
d) act of surveying
1. Of the five hundred householders surveyed, 40% had dishwashers.
2. He surveyed the crowds from the balcony.
3. Surveys show that 75% of people approve on the new law.
4. He hold a speech in which he surveyed the international political situation.

UNIT 6
EXTERNAL FORMAL BUSINESS LETTERS
Objectives:
- students will become familiar with the aspect, structure, language, attitude and
tone of some types of external correspondence: invitation, inquiries, recommendation and
claim letter.

6.1. INVITATION: ACCEPTING and DECLINING

A formal invitation, usually in the form of a letter or printed card, is written in the
third person. And reply follows in the same style. Other invitations are written less formaly.
Any written invitation should be answered in writing too, not by phone. Invitations are
organized according to the same three-part plan: main idea, explanation, and action. The
main idea in the first paragraph is the invitation request. It includes as many w 's as
possible: who, when, where, why, etc. e.g. it includes all the details that the reader will
appreciate and need. The ending paragraph will state clearly the desired action of the
reader, and makes it easy. When a reply is needed by a certain date, ask that in this
paragraph. Information about the event will also be provided: to introduce a new product,
or service, to celebrate a certain anniversary date, etc. The writer will state if an extention
to a colleague or spouse is available and if any fee is necesary to be paid. An ask for a
dead-line response or confirmation is needed.

47

When accepting an invitation an appreciation for the invitation should be expressed

first, and the pleasure to accept it. The date, time, place and subject or travel and
accommodation arrangement and will be confirmed. The letter will also mention any need
for special equipment, hand-outmaterial, room arrangement.
When declining an invitation an appreciation for the invitation will be expressed
firstly, then the regret for declining it and some reason. The writer will also wish success for
the event.
EXERCISES:
I. Read the following letter of invitation and identify the paragraphs conveying
the following ideas: Request., What?, Who? Where? When? Details about the
program; Easy action; dated; Reader benefit.
HELLENIC BANK ASSOCIATION
No. 131
Mr. Roberto Paviani
Secretary General
Italian Banking Association
2nd International Meeting
on the Cooperation among the Banking Associations,
Athens, October 18-20, 2001
Dear Mr. Paviani,
Further to my previous letter regarding the organization of the 2nd International
Meeting of Secretary Generals of Banking Associations from Balkan, Black Sea
and Mediterranean countries, I would like to inform you that this is to be held
between 18 and 20 October2000 at the Athens Hilton Hotel.
Hoping that you will accept our invitation and that the proposed dates are
convenient for you, I would appreciate it if you could complete and return the
attached Participation form at your earliest convenience and preferably no later
than July 7. 2001. The second attached form Traveling details is expected, if
possible, no later than September 22, 2001. This will enable us to proceed with all
the necessary details.
Also, we would like to remind you that a parallel meeting will be held among
participants, who come from BSEC member countries. The purpose of this
meeting will be, as you are already informed, to explore the possibility of
establishing a Union/Association of BSDEC member-states' Banks.
For the time being we are working on the details of the agenda, which will be sent
to you in due course.
Finally, with the opportunity of this communication, I enclose our latest Annual
Report on the H.B.A. activities during 2000.
Looking forward to receiving your response.
Best Regards,
Andreas Paskalis
General Manager
1, Massalias Street, Athens, Greece. Tel. 88564320.E-mail: jmanos@jba.gr
URL: http://www.lba.gr

48

III. Read the following declining semi formal letter of invitation:

Alice Arnaud, 10-14 Beauchamp Street, London W1

Dear Mrs. Arnaud,
Dr. Backbone, Chairman of the Bell Group, thanks you very much for the invitation to a
dinner party at the Ambassador Hotel on 12 th September, in honour of ther senior
management of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company. He would be delighted to
accept, but as he has already made arrangements to attend another important meeting
which cannot be cancelled, Dr. Backbone unfortunately will not be able to attend the dinner.
Dr Backbone has asked me to extend his cordial greetings to you, Mr Schneider, Mr.
Bronson, and Mr. Templer.
Yours sincererly,
Secretary to Dr B. Backbone
II. As Administrative Assistant to the president of Romanian Savings Association,
write a letter inviting customers and their families to be your special guests at a
grand opening of your new quarters on Thursday, Friday, and Saturday, the last
three days of this month. There will be handsome gifts for both ladies and
gentlemen, special door prizes with drawings every two hours, and refreshments.
Children will receive balloons. Also, each current passbook holder will receive a
special present. Your new building is graciously furnished with a number of
authentic period antiques. A "SPECIAL GUEST" nametag, which you will enclose
with your invitation letter, entitles customers to their gifts.
III. As customer relations director of Executive Services, you now have the
pleasure of announcing your firm, individually addressed to local and regional
directors of banks that have supervisors and assistant managers in customer
service department. Make clear that from each bank one or more of these
managers may attend. Enclose with your announcement a formal seminar folder,
giving the cost and the detailed program. Make clear in your letter the place,
dates and highlights of the training sessions and create a pleasant, goodwillbuilding tone.
IV. Write a letter of invitation to which you have the following reply:
Ross Consulting
Chartered Accountants
Ross Consulting
Stonecutter Court
1, Stonecutter Street
London EC4A 4TR
Rinaldi Loren
Secretary General of Italian Banking Association
143, Dominicani Str. Rome
Our Ref: /mls12ac
Dear Mr. Rinaldi,
I would like to thank you for your help in arranging the meeting In Rome last
month to discuss the Technical Report prepared by Ross Consulting as a part of
the EC PHARE project on technical assistance to Italy in the field of Money

49

Laundering. The meeting was, for us, a very successful one and we have taken
into account the opinions made at the meeting.
The final version of the Technical Report has now been approved by the EC and
we will be distributing it the next few weeks.
I also passed on to the EC the request made at the meeting for further
assistance; however I have not yet received a reply from them on this matter.
I have enclosed with this letter a Ross Consulting publication on International
Treasury Management. It was produced for treasurers of both banks and
corporations, and I thought it might be a useful material for you. In addition, if
you have any specific requirements for information and I can be of assistance,
please do not hesitate to contact me.
Finally please pass on my thanks and best wishes for the future for those
members of the Association who have attended the meeting with us and
therefore contributed to the project.
Yours sincerely,
Malcolm Moore
Ross Consulting

V. Translate in English the following invitation:

Conducerea
Bancii Veracruz Madrid
Si conducerea
Bancii Veracruz Romania
Au placerea sa va invite (request the pleasure of your presence) la receptia de
inaugurare a
Subsidiarei
Banca Veracruz Romania
Care va avea loc in Bucuresti,
Marti 22 septembrie 2000, ora 18.00
In sala de Marmura a Casei Centrale a Armatei,
Str. Constantin Mile nr 1

6.2. STATUS INQUIRY

Bankers maintain strict secrecy about the affairs of their customers, but they are
allowed to provide an opinion about their financial standing, in response to a request from
another business or bank, as knowledge about their integrity, financial standing and
creditworthiness is needed. The customers may supply goods or services on credit and will
naturally want to know whether it is safe to do so.
If a business person proposes to enter into a business agreement, the other party
may require a reference, preferably a banker, to give an opinion concerning the customer's
financial standing. The other party asks his own bankers to follow up this reference. They
write to the bankers named, asking for an opinion in confidence as to the respectability and
truthfulness of the customer concerned, in the way of business to the extent of a certain
amount of money, the price of the business. The reply will contain a general indication of
the creditworthiness of the customer, without giving any specific detail of the account. A
usual form of an opinion is: "respectable and considered good for your figures".
Banks take every possible care to protect their own business and their customers,
and the practice of providing a status opinion about a customer, without that customer's

50

express authority, does not harm at all. Usually, when the creditworthiness of a customer is
a subject of an enquiry, he does not even know that any enquiry has been made.
EXERCISES
I. Match the following missing words with the gaps:
a) departments; b) meet; c) arrangements; d) references; e) worthiness.
When preparing credit 1) _________ even an insurance cover, customers will supply
references, i.e. names of concerns or companies to assess his reputation and creditworthiness. Banks usually supply this kind of information, but only in a general form as the
companys capital or its capacity to 2) _________ its obligations. Trade organizations,
representing the profession of the customers, can also supply trading 3) ________.
Another source of information should be the customers business associates or partners,
commercial 4) __________ of embassies or credit enquiry agencies. These one can give
much more details against a fee about a firms activity as it can research its financial
activity, standing, credit 5) ________ and capacity to repay loans or fulfill obligations.
II. Inquiries requesting information are usually written when facts are needed
about a company, or a person. The way the questions are ordered, organized,
drafted, whether they are written under the form of a memo, letter, or long
survey questionnaire, makes it a clear and effective document. Mind the following
suggestions and arrange them into a convenient and logical order:
a) Cover only one topic in each question.
b) Word your questions to get more than yes or no answers if you need a detailed
opinion or description, such as: What kind of duties requiring responsibility did the
applicant perform especially well?
c) If you wish the respondent to rate a person, product or service, it may be better to
define each category on your rating scale.

egotistical
unfriendly
tactless

approachable
likeable
somehow
pleasant
neutral

exceptionally
agreeable
will
easily
attract
friends
team-worker
tactful

d) Make your suggestions specific. Include specific characteristics of the product or service
you want information about. A single, and general question will probably bring a reply so
general that it will be almost useless.
e) Number the questions if you have more than one.
f) Use a separate paragraph for each main question.
g) Word your questions in a neutral way so you will not influence the answer.

h) Questions must be carefully arranged starting with the ones that are easier to answer.
III. Read the following letters of status inquiry and draft a reply to each of them.
X Commercial Bank
234, Strasbourg Bd.
International Division

51

web site: http:// www.trd.fr e-mail: rof@trd.fr

phone: 40- 2- 2110657; fax: 40 2110656
Vienna, December,19th, 2001
To:.......
Fax:.......
For the kind attention of............

Dear sir/ Madam,

We have been recently contacted by a company named Commercial Trans ltd
which has been presented itself as importer-exporter of computers proposing us
a co-operation in this field.
As we are not in the possession of any data regarding this entity, we would very
much appreciate providing us with relevant information, as well as your opinion
on the mentioned company.
Please, rest assured that information offered will be confidentially treated and for
our professional use only.
We thank you in advance for your valuable assistance and hope to have the
opportunity to reciprocate to you on similar occasions in the future.
Hoping to hear from you soon, we remain
Yours truly,
..............

K Commercial Bank
253, Bouquinistes Bd. Rouen
International Division
web site: http://www.k.fr.; e-mail: somebody@k.fr
phone: 40-1-3220864; fax:40-1-322928
Rouen, May 28th 2001
To:.............
Fax:.................
For the kind attention of Mr. Thorndike Deputy Manager

Dear Sir,
We hereby take liberty to approach with the kind request of assisting us in
obtaining a complete report on one of our customers, Larex Co. Ltd., address
23, Noiret St. account no. 22.1.354 located/headquartered in BTR Commercial
Bank in Brazil.

52

We would highly appreciate, Dear Sir, providing us with data regarding their
shareholders, activities, financial standing for the last two years (if possible),
and also your opinion on their reliability in relationship with your good bank and
business partners.
We assure you that this information will be confidentially treated, strictly for our
own professional use.
Please note that we will be ready to reciprocate by render similar services to
you at any time your institution will request us to do so.
Thanking you in advance for your prompt, kind assistance, we are looking
forward to hearing from you soon we remain,
Yours sincerely,

IV. Read the following memo and right an appropriate letter:

8 pm
Friday, 25
October 2004
KRK,
I've sent part of the New Art Order all the block boards and 3,ooo
pine planks. We can't send the over 2.000until Monday when they
arrive from Mill Zetter. Explain that to them. I don't have time to
V. Translate into English:
A). Stimai domni,
Am primit o comand n valoare de ..... pentru roii, castravei i ardei gras de ser
de la clienii dvs Messrs X & Sons pentru care intenionm s tragem o trat la 3 luni.
Avnd n vedere c nu cunoatem situaia financiar a acestei societi, v-am rmne
ndatorai dac ne-ai sftui n aceast privin. Informaiile pe care ni le vei furniza vor
rmne confideniale i contai pe servicii similare din partea noastr la nevoie. V
mulumim pentru nelegere i colaborare.
Al dvs,
B). Stimai domni,
Ca rspuns la scrisoarea dvs prin care ne solicitai informaii n privina societii X, ne face
plcere s v confirmm c aceast firm este bine cotat pe piaa noastr i are reputaia
de soliditate i solvabilitate financiar. In ceea ce privete creditul comercial pe care
intenionai s-l acordai acestei firme, considerm c i va putea achita la termen
obligaiile pe care le va angaja fa de societatea dvs.
V rugm s considerai aceste informaii ca strict confideiale i neangajatoare.

6.3. RECOMMENDATION
Any progressive organization replies to reasonable requests courteously, helpfully,
and promptly. Such a message will always start with the best news -information that is

53

useful to the reader, emphasizing the positive aspects. Among the most frequent inquiries
are the request for information about personnel and credit applicants.
Pertinent information about an applicant's qualifications, character, and general
conduct in a message should be preferably addressed to the specific person interested,
instead of "To whom it may concern". A letter of recommendation must be fair to the
applicant, to the inquirers (prospective employer, creditor, landlord, or whomever) to the
writer's conscience and reputation for integrity. The writer must abide by civil rights laws
and be aware of possible legal problems.
Favorable or neutral confidential recommendation letters (or even phone calls) are
based on some main ideas:
- the full name of the subject will be stated and the type of relationship he or she had with
the writer - employee, customer, friend, business partner. The dates, length of time, type of
job, credit, or whatever is pertinent, using only facts.
- an expression of pleasure, if sincere, will be present in the statement of purpose for the
letter, replying confidentially to a request. A subject line can cover a part of the item:
"Confidential report by request on James Thorndale as a credit applicant"
- the letter will answer to all questions - direct or implied unless doing so would be legally
risky. They will be arranged in the best psychological order, depending on facts.
- the statements of evaluation (excellent, outstanding, and so on), will be backed by
specific facts about performance record.
- mention specific duties performed by the applicant
- mention work habits showing personality characteristics
- negative material will be treated honestly and fairly.
- a candid statement of the writer's opinion will be included about the applicant's probable
fitness for the position, lease, credit, membership, etc
EXERCISES
I. Identify the main ideas and their order in the in the following:

Academy of Economic Studies-Liverpool

Faculty of Finance, Banks Stock Exchange and Insurance
Dear Sirs,
I had the opportunity to know Mrs. Amelia Warren when she attended my
Financial Management of the Enterprise course during the Academic year 19971998.
In this capacity I observed her high intellectual potential. As the course required,
she developed analytical, quantitative and reasoning skills. She proved to be very
motivated for individual work, a very hardworking and devoted person.
A special mention should be made with respect to her deep insights on topics
such as Evaluation Models of Options. This I can assess based on the discussions
that I had with her in preparing a presentation on this topic.
For all the above reasons, it is my opinion that she can easily face the
international competition at high standards of your institution. Therefore, I
strongly recommend her to be granted the scholarship she is applying for.
Yours sincerely,
Professor John Doe
Dean of the Faculty
Finance, Banking, Stock Exchanges and Insurance

54

II. Translate the following letter of recommendation:

Firma TAREX, prin obiectul su de activitate i profesionalismul, seriozitatea i
priceperea personalului calificat, a demonstrat practic avantajele tehnologiilor moderne de
curare, ntreinere, igienizare pentru mochete, marmur, gresie, faian, geamuri i
perei cortina (curtain walls).
De aceea, recomandm clduros serviciile oferite de firma TAREX.

6.4. INQUIRY for GOODS and SERVICES

An inquiry (also spelt enquiry) is sent when a businessman wants some information
about:
- the supply of goods
- leaflets or catalogues
- quotations or prices
- terms and dicounts
- availability of goods
- delivery times and deadlines
- method of transport
- insurance
If a prospectrive supplier approaches suppliers for the first time, it is useful that he
tell them something about his own business, the kind of goods he needs and for what
purpose they are required. In the case of customers of long standing or repeat orders, the
inquiry may be very simple.Often a phone call will do.
The reply to an enquiry will be polite, direct, and prompt. It will start with the
expression of gratitude for the enquiry and will end with the expression of interest in the
addressee requirements.

WBP WORLDWIDE BICYCLE PRODUCTION

The Bradbury Cycle Works
P.O. Box 328
Sydney

June, 14, 2004

Dear Sirs,
We are open to consider quotations for an export of 10,000 bicycles in India, Sri Lanka
and Nepal.
You will be very helpful to inform us the quantities that you are able to deliver at regular
intervals, quoting your best terms f.o.b., Brisbane. We shall handle export formalities, but would
ask you to calculate container transport to Brisbane for onward shipment
Yours faithfully,
Nicholas Milton
Export Manager
Specific vocabulary:

55

- We are retailers/importers/wholesalers in the ........trade and wolud like to get in touch

with suppliers/ manufactrurers of...........
- We are in the market
- We are interested in importing...
- We know about your products from...
- Please send us prices and samples of......
- We would like to send us a firm offer for..../your current catalogue showing.....
- We read your advertisement and we
require ...for immediate delivery of ...........
are interested in buying.............................
and would like to have further details about..............
and would like to know if you can provide us with.........
- Would you kindly quote us your best/lowest prices and terms of payment for....
- What qualities /quantities are you able to supply from the stock
- If your prices are competitive/ if the qualkity of the goods comes up with our
expectation/If the samples meet our customers' agreement we can probably place regular
orders with you
- We look forward to receiving your quotation/prices/reply by return/as soon as possible
- Thank you for the information you can provide to us.
- An early reply would be appreciated.
- We usually settle accounts/make payments by...........
- Payment will be made by.......
- Please send us a pro-forma invoice for customs purposes.
EXERCISES
I. Fill in the blanks the missing words in the following letter of inquiry for goods:
1. quote; 2. place; 3. business
Dear Sirs,
We are in the a)................... of seasonal fruits and we are interested in importing
for our developing market. We kindly ask you to b)................ us your best prices, qualities
and terms of delivery and payment for bananas, mangoes, oranges and figs. We can
c)................ large and regular orders if the quality, prices and terms are convenient for
us.
II. Mind the the structure of a) the inquiry and b) the reply to the enquiry. Use
then the reference sentences to write the corresponding inquiry and reply
letters.:
a). Inquiry: 1. How did you get in contact
2. Some information about your company, and the reasons for which you
decided to write the letter
3. General request for information
4. Specific questions
5. Close, perhaps some reference to a future successful business.
b). Reply: ...1. Thank-you line and reference to the inquiry for goods
2. Reference to the attachment to the letter if any.
3. Highlight several key points.
4. Answer any specific questions
5. Close the letter with the promisse to supply any further information.
a) We are a distributor of bathroom furniture.
b) We are attaching our current catalogue and price list.
c) We look forward to an early reply, as we are sure that there is a market for your
products in Romania.
d) Could you also provide details of your delivery times, and whether there is any
minimum order?
e) Thank you for your email of 14 June inquiring about our products.

56

f)
g)
h)
i)
j)

You will note that our line of Magic mirror wardrobes is a special offer.
Please send us information about your product range, including a price list.
We met last Thursady on our stand at the Bucharest Trade Fair.
If you need any further information, please do not hesitate to contact us.
We dispatch the goods within 24 hours of a firm order, and for first-time customers
our minimum order is 5,000.
k) We are intgerested in trading your products on our market
III. Translate into English the following:
Stimai domni,
Ne face plcere s v informm c ai fost recomandai de firma X...ca fiind cei mai
eficieni pe piaa de materiale de construcie. Firma noastr a ctigat cteva licitaii pentru
restaurri de imobile din patrimoniul naional de art i, din acest motiv, suntem interesai
n achiziionarea de materiale de construcie de bun calitate dar la preuri rezonabile i
condiii de plat convenabile.
V rugm s ne transmitei cataloagele dumneavoastr i lista de preuri aferet n
cel mai scurt timp posibil. Avnd n vedere posibilitatea unor comenzi substaniale pe o
durat ndelungat, colaborarea noastr poate devin strns i benefic de ambele pri.
Ateptm cu interes oferta dumneavoastr,

6.5. OFFERS/QUOTATIONS
Offers are sent without a preceding inquiry when a supplier wants to draw the
attention of customers and new customers to a special product or range of goods. A firm
offer is a subject to certain conditions, a deadline for the receipt of orders, or a special
price for certain quantities.
The quotations in reply to an inquiry may be a simple one, containing simply the
prices and other information asked for. The sales businessman will take the opportunity to
stimulate his correspondent's interest in the goods or services by including a sales message
and the assurance ROMANIA
that the customer
will receive personal attention.
VETMELLAS
SRL
Animal
Health Products, Feed Additives, Breeding Material
EXERCISES
I. Mind
the information provided in thefollowing offer and the way they are
Dear
Mr. Kalderimis,
presented:
We want to present you our offer of premix with vitamins of different compositions
that are created in accordance with the recommendations of the hybrid producing
companies. The concentration of the premixes may vary from 400 g to 2 kg for one tone of
final feed.
The premix with minerals is the same for all the hybrids. Our offer includes premixes with
both minerals and choline or with minerals only.
The prices that we propose to you are negotiable and they depend of the means of
payment, the quantity ordered, the duration of the contract, etc.
The prices are in Euro and include the transportation to your warehouse and they refer to
the quantity of vitamins and minerals needed for one tone of final feed.
Premix with vitamins Cobb
up to 28 days
14, 8
Premix with vitamins Ross
up to 28 days
12, 6
Premix with vitamins with Arbor up to 28 days
11, 5
Premix with vitamins Cobb
29 days to slaughter 10, 5
Premix with vitamins Ross
"
9, 3
Premix with vitamins Arbor
"
8, 9
Premix with minerals
from birth to slaughter 9, 3
We look forward to your answer.
Best regards,
George Ruskin

57

II. Mind the phrases use in quotations and offers:

Phrases:
- Thank you for your interest/inquiry in/about...........
- We are pleased to submit our lowest prices/to enclose our latest price/for the goods you
inquired about.
- We can make a firm offer for.............
- This offer is firm subject to acceptance by ..............
- Kindly remember: this offer expires on.....
- Subject for prior sale
- Prices subject to change wuthout notice.
- The goods you inquired about are sold out, but we can offer you a substitute.
- Please let us have your order as soon as possible, since supplies are limited.
- While stocks last.
- We look forward to receiving a trial order from you.
Discounts
- For a quantity of 6o or more we allow you a special discount of 20% on the prices quoted.
- The quantity discounts vary according to the size of the order.
- Your initial order is subject to a special discount of......

58

- We can grant you % discount on orders exceeding ...in value /on repeat orders.
- We quoted special prices, a,d therefore the offer is not subject to the usual discounts.
Terms of payment
- Cash in advance.
- Cash on delivery (c.o.d.)
- Cash with order (c.w.o.)
- Our usual terms are cash against documents (c.a.d.)/pro-forma invoice
- We can allow you three months' credit for future orders
- As our prices are so favourable, our terms of payment are 30 days net.
Delivery terms
- c.i.f./C.I.F. (cost insurance and freight)
- c&f/CF (cost and freight)
- f.o.b./FOB (fre on board)
- f.a.s./FAS (free alongside ship)
- franco domicile, free (buyer's address)
- ex works/ex factory.
- Prices are ex warehouse.
- Freight and insurance to be paid by buyer/you.
- Delivery can be made from stock/is not incliuded in the price.
- Delivery will be made within two months of receipt of your order.
Offers for hotel accommodation
- We are able to accommodate all the members of your group in single and double rooms.
- The rooms at the back of the hotel are very quiet.
- There is an extra charge of for private bathrooms.
- Please let us know your expected date of arrival and the duration of your stay.
- We shall reserve accommodation for you accordingly.
III. Add the following spare parts to the following letter:
Dear Sirs,
As a reply to your letter of 21st of February, we have the pleasure to enclose the
quotation for women dresses and trouser suits. You can obtain all the models you saw at
our fashion show, except trouser suits in red which the smaller and medium sizes are out of
stock for the moment. They will be available again in September. All other models can be
supplied by the middle of July 2004, subject to our receiving your firm order by 15th April.
Our c.i.f. prices are understood to be for sea/land transport to Bucharest. If you would
prefer the goods to be sent by air freight, this will be charged extra at cost.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)

We hope you agree that our pieces are very competitive for these quality clothes.
We look forward to receiving your unitial order.
Payment: irrevocable letter of credit
Trouser suits sizes 8-16 in white, yellow, pink, turquoise, navy blue, black per 100
$2,650.oo
Prices: valid until 30 April
Delivery: c.i.f. Bucharest
You will be receiving cuttings of our materials and color chart.
Transport: sea freight
Yours faithfully,

R. Brown
Fashionland
Export Department

59

IV. Draft a corresponding letter of inquiry following the quotas offered for a hotel
accommodation:

RCA
hotel

HOTEL
JL Kebun Karet 16
Jakarta
Indonesia

Mr. Joseph Turner

10 Gresham St., Glasgow
Dear Mr. Turner,
Thank you for your letter of 5th June asking for hotel accommodation for the
participans in the conference organised by the World Banking Federation in our
town. We are pleased that you selected again RCA HOTEL. Our terms are as
follows:
Bed and breakfast
Room and full board
Up to two nights
Per person, single room
60
75
2 persons, double room
8o
120
three nights or more
per person, single room
2 persons, double room

45
75

70
115

Accomodation is still available for September, but we are almost booked up for July.
Would you therefore let us know your wishes as soon as possible, so that we can
reserve the rooms you need.
We look forward to the pleasure of seeing you here again soon.
V. Translate into English the following offer:
A). Stimai domni,
Ca urmare a solicitrii dumneavoastr prin scrisoarea nr....... din data......, dorim s v
propunem oferta noastr de mobil pentru birouri. Piesele sunt executate dup cele mai
nalte standarde de calitate, din materiale uoare i rezistente, alctuite din module uor de
manevrat i asamblat n forme diferite i ntr-o gam larg de culori, dup dorina
clientului. Preurile i termenele de livrare i vnzare sunt prezentate n catalogul anexat
prezentei oferte. In situaia n care se fac comenzi mai mari, acestea se pot modifica n
funcie de cantitatea i calitatea solicitate.
V invitm la sediul nostru din strada..............pentru a v convinge i a negocia cele
mai convenabile preuri.
In sperana unui rspuns favorabil care s ne conduc la bune afaceri mpreun,
rmnem ai dumneavoastr,
B). Urmare cererii dvs de ofert nr 26 din 14.Sept. 2004 alturat v transmitem
urmtoarea ofert a "Circuitului a la carte" n Jogjakarta, Indonezia.
4 zile/3 nopi
Leagnul civilizaiei javaineze unde putei descoperi vestigiile i urmele unei culturi
milenare. De semnalat n primul rnd Borobudur, capodoper a arhitecturii religioase.
Ziua 1:
Sosirea la Jogjakarta. Primirea la aeroport i transferul la hotel. Vizita oraului: palatul
sultanului, Kraton, muzeul Sonobudoyo, atelierele pentru baticurile musulmane i de
argintrie.

60

Ziua a 2-a:
dimineaa se viziteaz templul Borobudur, temple budiste din secolul VIII i IX. Considerat
ca cel mai mare din lume, cele 9 nivele simbolizeaz accesul ctre Nirvana. Dup-amiaza,
excursie la templele hinduiste de la Pranbanam. Din luna mai pn n octombrie se poate
participa la faimosul festival Ramayana care se desfoar n nopile cu lun plin (excursie
facultativ).
Ziua a 3-a:
Jogiakarta. Zi liber. Posiblitatea organizrii unei excursii n Dieng, un interesant i pitoresc
orael de provincie, n inima Javei.
Ziua a 4-a
Jogiakarta. Zi liber pn la ora trasferului la aeroport. (2 pn la 6 persoane)
Pre: $ 350 /persoan: cazare cu mic dejun inclus; transferurile de la i la aeroport;
excursiile prezentate n program; ghid vorbitor de limb englez/francez /german
- nu sunt incluse: zborul pn la Jogjkarta; taxele de aeroport
Orice modificare de program sau itinerariu aduce cu sine modificri ale preului. V rugm
s ne confirmai, n termen de 30 zile numrul de turiti pentru care dorii organizarea
acestui sejur.
Director general

6.6. ORDERS. ORDER ACKNOLEDGEMENTS

An order is a piece of business correspondence by which a purchasing department or
a buyer asks for the goods or services that he intends to be provided with. Although orders
are usually ordinary forms to be filled in, it is preferable that a letter is written and certain
points are made clear. There could be some import regulations which makes it necessary to
complete formalities or delivery instructions or other matters that might be underlined
better in a letter. The supplier usually sends an order acknowlwdgement and thanks his
customer for the order. If any terms are changed, or if the goods are no longer available,
the customer is notified in due time. Ordinary expressions used in cover letters for orders
and acknowledgement of orders:
Placing orders:
- Please supply/send/reserve us the undermentioned goods/ number of rooms.
- With reference to your qoutation, we enclose our order for prompt delivery of...
- We accept your offer on these terms, and are pleased to place an order for.....
- As the goods are urgently required, we should be grateful for delivery by....
- Please confirm that you can supply this quantity by the required date.
Acknowledgement of orders
- By the present we let you know that the delivery will be made immediately on
receipt of your cheque/remittance of credit
- We trust that this initial order lead to further dealings between our companies.
- By the present we confirm that the delivery will be made according to your
instructions
- Your order is already being carried out/executed/processed, and delivery will be
made by January, 15, as requested.
Refusal of Orders
- By the present we inform you that the goods ordered are out of stock for the
moment/no longer available. We can offer you a substitute which is the same price and of
similar quality.
I. Match the words or expressions with the definitions:

61

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

to order
a) official request for goods to be supplied
order
b) to ask for goods to be supplied
to fulfill an order
c) supplying items which have been ordered
order fulfilment
d) to supply items which have been ordered
cash with order
e) ordered but not delivered
on order
f) the goods will be delivered only if payment in
cash is made at the same time as the order is
placed
7. order back
g) official paper which places an order for
something
8. order picking
h) record of orders
9. purchase order
i) collecting various items in a warehouse to
make up an order to be sent to a customer
10. delivery order
j) instructions given by the customer to the
person holding his goods, telling him to deliver
them
II. Write a cover letter for an order according to the following instructions ofthe
memo you received from your office manager, the information provided in the
order form you sent previously and the swatch catalogue of the supplier by which
a discount of 10% and 12% is alowed for orders of over 60,000 and 80,ooo
respectively. Calculate the total price. Is there any higher discount possible? Use
the spare parts the cover letter of the order as a reply to the following memo.

MEMO:

To: Supplies Officer

From: Office Manager
Date: Thrusday, 12, June
Could you please make some alterations to the order nr 36/10. June that we
discussed recently within the board?
Please, order two more drawer filling cabinets over the 4 ones that we already
ordered.. We also need 20 fax rolls and 10 computers, two shredders and two binders. We
do not need a postal scale, so please deleate it entirely, but we need one overhead projector
please check the items code in the catalogue. Please specify that the 100 chairs we
ordered for the conference room should be dark blue, the filling cabinets should be grey
and the wall clock must be grey too. Should it bring us to over 5,000 to be entitled to ask
for a discount and free delivery?
Office Manager
Geffrey Austen
ORDER FORM
ITEM CODE:
DESCRIPTION
QUANTITY
UNIT PRICE
J24
drawer cabinets
4
236
K30
chairs
80
40
128 MNP
M1 FAX
6
65
DG 445
Fax rolls
30
12
X136 MNP
Computers
50
1,100,00
20XCL
Binders
25
199
7.38.GH
Postal scale
1
225
10 FY
Shredder
1
110
97OP
Wall clock
2
50
12 S 8734
Flip chart
3
239
===========================================================================
TOTAL:
6,271,500
DISCOUNT:
5%
62
DELIVERY CHARGE:
350
TOTAL:
5,993,80

III. Translate into English:

Stimai domni,
Ne face o deosebit plcere s v comunicm c rezultatele testelor efectuate asupra
eantioanelor pe care le-am primit de la dumneavoastr sunt satisfctoare. In consecin,
suntem gata s comandm 25 tone de ciment cu preul de 250/ton, conform ofertei pe
care ne-ai trimis-o n data de 23 Martie, 2004, n condiiile n care livrarea se poate face
pn la data 15 Aprilie anul curent. (inst)
Inelegem de asemenea, c plata pn la 60 zile beneficiaz de o reducere de 2,5%.
De asemenea, ne rezervm dreptul de a refuza orice cantitate de
ciment care nu corespunde eantioanelor pe care ni le-ai pus la dispoziie i pe care noi leam testat.
Avnd convingerea c derularea contractului se va face n bune condiiuni, sperm
ntr-o colaborare mnoas i de lung durat.

6.7. COMPLAINTS
There is a fly in my software A computer program
A software called Custom has been founded by the employment department's learning
technologies unit, and is designed to help hotel and catering trainees to cope with
customers complaints taht can usually make or break a business. The idea of such a
program grew out of an unpleasant evening when its maker and
his wife had a hotel. The couple were left standing in the hotel lobby while the receptionist
continued making a personal phone call. During the meal they were ignored by the waiter
and had thei drinks at the bar and carry them back to the table. The couple complained to
the manager who sympathises but said it was difficult train staff in customer care. Hence
the computer based training package. The first part analyses how complaints arise. The
complaints included those from the few customers who go to a restaurant determined to
make a fuss, perhaps in the hope of a free meal.
The program includes ways of spotting those complaints, and the one that can arise
because of previous bad experience that somebody had before entering the restaurant.
The program also identify the complaints that can occasionally arise merely from customer
boredom. Somebody may have decided he cannot stand his dining companion and takers
his unhappiness out on the food or the unfortunate waiter. The computer asks the waitertrainee to make a profile of the customer according to the way he is dressed shabby,
average or immaculate, to his accent a local or a non local, the way he speaks English, if
he belongs to a group or he is alone, or how much alcohol he seems to have drunk. Then
the computer suggests successful ways of tackling the customer. In the second part of the
program the computer becomes less friendly. The trainee-waiter or recptionist takes part in
arole play game with the complaining client. The computer is programmed to be angry,
rude, reasonable or rambliong. The trainee's task is to recognize the warning signs and

63

calm down the situation. At the end of a sesion, trainees are told how many attempts it has
taken to reach the correct response. The results are saved for the course tutor to read.
But although the program uses graphics and text to good efect, it cannot yet convey
complex factors such as the ciustomers 's tone of the voice, body posture, or facial
expression. However, the program producers say that there are no plans to incorporate a
robot arm that grabs the user by the lapels.
1. Who is the software program going to help?
2. What are the three causes of complaint that have nothing to do with
the quality of service of food. What are they?
3. What questions does the computer ask in order to construct a
customer profile?
4. Which factors decide how a customer will react during a complaint?
5. Do you believe in the efectiveness of this kind of training? Give
arguments.
XV. Listen to the following conversation between a guest and a receptionist.
Make a list of the things the guest complains about. What is the outcome of the
conversation? What attitude do you suggest the receptionist should have?
XVI. Match each document type on the left with a definition on the right:
1. an enquiry...............a) a request to supply (sent by the customer)
2. a quotation..............b) a request for information sent by the customer
3. an estimate..............c) an approximate calculation of the cost of something
4. a counter-proposal....d) the price given for goods or a piece of work
5. an order...................e) a letter where the customer tries to get better terms
6. an invoice................f) a document that proves you have paid for some goods
7. a reminder..............g) a list of amounts paid and still owed, sent every month
9. a receipt..................h) a bill for goods or work done
9. a statement..............i) a letter to customer about an unpaid invoice
10. a complaint.............j) a letter saying you are not satisfied about something
XVII. Complete the sequence 1-15 with following business documents:
Enquiry; complaint; counter-proposal; Order, with a cover letter; receipt; quotation;
statement; reply to an enquiry; reminder reply to a complaint
Customer sends:

Supplier sends:

1........................................................2.......................
2. request for a quotation

4.......................

5. ......................................................6..........................
7.....................................................................................
Goods are dispatched
8 invoice
Goods arrived but there is a problem
9.........................................................10........................
The problem is solved

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11
12. Payment......................................13..............................
The customer starts to place regular orders
14
15. Further payments
XVIII. Work in pairs. You are going to exchange correspondence with your
partner because you are interested in each other's products.
A.

Student A worksheet: Your company manufactures and supplies office furniture. Your
address is 89 Cannon Street, Redford Notts, QT, Your partner company sells computers.
1. Enquiry. Write a letter to the Sales Manager of Voltec Computer to ask for general
information about their computers. Use the full layout of a business letter.
2. Reply to an enquiry. Reply to Voltec 's letter enclosing some brochures, price list, etc.
3. Request for a quotation. Write an e-mail to Voltec asking for a quotation for some
specific products.
4. Quotation. Write a fax to Voltec. Give them a quotation. State your terms of sale:
price, any discounts (e.g. prompt payment), delivery time. Deal with any other questions in
Voltec's last e-mail.
5. Counter-proposal. Send an e-mail to Voltec. , making a counter-proposal. For
example, you may want a better price, a larger discount or a shorter delivery time.
6. Reply to a counterproposal. Reply by e-mail. Begin by apologizing for the delay in
replying. Tell them that you can't accept their counter-proposal. However, you are prepared
to offer something (less than they want).
7. Order. Their reply is acceptable and you want to make an order. Write a short letter to
Voltec to send with your order form.
8. Dispatch advice. Write an e-mail to Voltec. Thank them for their order and tell them
that the goods were sent this morning.
9. Complaint: The computers have arrived! However, one of them has a small fault. Also,
there is a mistake on the invoice. Write an e-mail to Voltec.
10. Reply to a complaint: Reply by e-mail. Apologize for the damaged furniture. Ask
Voltec to return the piece, and say you will send a replacement immediately. Apologize and
give a reason for the mistake in the invoice say you will send a new one.

Student B worksheet. Your company supplies office computers. Your address is

Springtime Road, Milton Keynes, TQ8 5KP.
1. Enquiry. Write a letter to the Sales Director of Easilife Office Furniture to ask for general
information about their office furniture. Use the full layout of a business letter.
2. Reply to an enquiry. Reply to Easilife's letter, enclosing some brochures, price list, etc.
You know the name of their Sales Director, so use it.
3. Request for a quotation. Write an e-mail to Easilife, asking for a quotation for some
specific products (four executive desks, and four executive armchairs). You may think of
other questions.
4. Quotation. Write a fax to Easilife. Give them a quotation. State your terms of sale:
price, any discounts (e.g. prompt payment), delivery time. Deal with any other questions in
Easilife's last e-mail.

65

5. Counter-proposal: Send an e-mail to Easilife, making a counter-proposal. For example,

you may want a better price, a larger discount or a shorter delivery time.
6. Reply to a counter-proposal: Reply by e-mail. Begin by apologizing for the delay in
replying, then tell them that you can't accept their counter-proposal. However, you are
prepared to offer something (less than they want)
7. Order: Their reply is acceptable and you now want to make an order. Write a short
letter to Easilife to send with your order form.
8. Dispatch advice: Write an e-mail. To Easilife. Thank them for their order and tell them
that the goods were sent this morning.
9. Complaint: The office furniture has arrived! However, one piece is damaged. Also, there
is a mistake on the invoice. Write an e-mail to Easilife.
10. Reply to a complaint: Reply by e-mail. Apologize for the faulty computer. Ask Easilife
to return it, and say you will send a replacement immediately. Apologize and give a reason
for the mistake in the invoice say you will send a new one.
XIX. Pair work. The directors of a travel agency, "Treasures of the countryside"
and an agro-countryside residence "Green Horse" exchange some business
correspondence.

A) Worksheet: Student A: the Director of "Treasures of the countryside.

1. Write a letter to "Green Horse" residence
- you enclose the latest cheque and apologize for its delay
- provide the details about the following group of tourists coming from Paris Charles
De Gaule to Bucharest Henry Coand. You will have probably 11 people. Ask for a
quotation for 5 double rooms and a single
- ask diplomatically, for some information about "The Green Horse'' residence's
financial situation, mentioning that you read some rumors in the newspapers
2. Reply to the Director of "Green Horse" residence
- refer to "Green Horse" 's letter and mention that you hope they received your
cheque
- make a counter-offer as you do not agree to the new terms
- inform Green Horse that your company in good financial situation.
3. Reply by e-mail to "Green Horse"
- refer to the "Green Horse" letter; you accept the quotation but not the new terms
- a meeting is a good idea suggest a time
- you ask for a copy of "Green Horse" 's last annual accounts before the meeting
4. Reply by e-mail
- thank for the "Green Horse's e-mail. You consider that the meeting will be useful
- you do not agree to the extra-charge due to the re-modeling of the
residence, as you can't recover it from your customers in your catalogue it is written that
there will be no hidden extra-costs. Suggest you talk about that in the meeting
You have some bad news two of your customers have cancelled their holiday at the
last moment and now you only need 4 double rooms and a single

B). Worksheet. Student B: The director of "Green Horse" residence ; Your

companies have been doing good business together for several years
1. Write a letter to your partner "Treasures of the Countryside"
- remind your partner that payment of your last invoice is overdue
- explain your decision that you started a new financial policy: to improve cash-flow:
all clients must pay a deposit of 50% two months before the check-in day and 5o% one
month after
2. Reply to the Director of "Treasures of the Countryside"
- make reference to Treasures' letter and thank them for the cheque

66

- give them a quotation for the accommodation: 60 for a double and 40 for a
single. You would like a 50% deposit now, as mentioned in the last letter. This will
guarantee the availability of the rooms.
- let Treasures know that your company is in good financial situation.
- suggest a meeting to discuss the matter in detail. When would be convenient to
"Treasures..."
3. Reply by e-mail to Treasures' letter
- Treasures' counter-proposal is not acceptable. You need to discuss this in the
meeting. You express your confidence in a compromise to acceptable on both sides
- you have some bad news the government has raised a 6% tax for small business
and so, your previous quote will have to go up
4. Reply by e-mail
- thank Treasures for their e-mail. The time they suggest for the meeting is
convenient.
- confirm that the 4 double rooms and 1 single are available in the residence. You
will discuss the new terms at the meeting, but you still need the deposit now to guarantee
the availability of the rooms
- Your annual accounts are confidential and cannot be shown to the clients. However,
you are prepared to answer any questions in the meeting.
B) Meet your partner to negotiate all the issues
XX. Translate into English:
A)
Imaginai-v urmtorul scenariu: Primii o reclamaie de la un client nemulumit. Dvs
i scriei imediat i reuii s-l mulumii cu rspunsul dat. Inseamn c i-ati scris clientului
o scrisoare bun. Dar dac reuii s-l trasformai, prin aceast scrisoare, dintr-un client
ocazional, ntr-unul fidel, atunci este o scrisoare aductoare de profit.
Indiferent dac trimitei un fax sau o scrisoare, n ziua de azi, cu concurena mereu
crescnd, este foarte important ca toat corespondena dvs. s aibe efecte maxime.
Pentru dvs. ca om de afaceri, efecte maxime nseamn afaceri profitabile, nseamn bani n
cont.
B. V mulumim pentru oferta dvs din data de ... pentru costume brbteti din stof.
Considerm, ns, c raportul pre/calitate din catalogul nu este satisfctor, mai ales n
condiiile unor comenzi permanente i substaniale pe care intenionm s le facem. Avnd
n vedere exigenele pieei Uniunii Europene, v sugerm o reducere cu 10% a preurilor
oferite, cu plata la 30 zile de la expedierea mrfii. Pentru discutarea i a altor detalii,
considerm bine venit o ntlnire ntre reprezentanii firmei lor dvs ntr-o perioad pe care
lsm la latitudinea dvs. Ateptm cu interes rspunsul dvs ct mai curnd.
C. Stimai domni,
Regretm s v informm c, dei ai respectat termenul de livrare al celor dou loturi de
margarin, nu ai inut cont de specificaiile comenzii noastre. Acestea prevedeau un
ambalaj corespunztor transportului cu tir frigorific care s protejeze marfa att mpotriva
temperaturilor exterioare ridicate ct i a celor joase din interiorul mijlocului de transport.
Avnd n vedere cele de mai sus, v facem cunoscut c ambalajul s-a degradat pe timpul
transportului n proporie de 40%, ceea ce a determinat i perderea unei cantiti
nsemnate a coninutului i deteriorarea calitii acesteia.
In consecin, ne considerm ndreptii s v solicitm daunele aferente pierderilor
suferite ca urmare a nerespectrii instruciunilor de ambalaj stipulate n contract.
Considerm binevenit o ntlnire a reprezentanilor firmelor noatre pentru negociere la
data de 25.Octombrie 2004.
V rugm s ne comunicai n cel mai scurt timp decizia dumneavoastr n aceast
privin.

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PART II
BUSINESS RELATIONSHIP
UNIT 1
BUSINESS CONVENTIONS
Objectives:
-

familiarize with specific terminology and concepts of different

business agreements
acquisition of specific vocabulary
train ability of drafting different contract clauses

Contracts are agreements between two parties as a result of an "offer" and

"acceptance". Other requirements must also be met for an agreement to become legally
binding. The two parties must have full and legal capacity to enter into a legal agreement,
i.e. they must be competent, so that the agreement should not be considered void either
by law, statutory rule or an inherent defect. The setting of a valid contract does not require
any particular formality, as it can be concluded in an oral or in a written form or even
implied from conduct. However, certain contracts are valid only if made by deed: transfers
of shares, certain types of lease, hire-purchase agreements, bills of exchange, promissory
note. There are some different types of contracts :
-

Hire-purchase contract (HP) by which goods are passed in the

possession of the purchaser as soon as he has paid an initial
installment of the price. A hire purchase agreement often
involves a finance company as a third party. The owner of the
goods sells them outright to a finance company entering a
hire-purchase agreement with the hirer.
Franchising agreement by which a licence is granted by the
franchisor to the franchisee to enable him to manufacture, or
sell a product or service in a particular area or stated period.
He pays a royalty on sales to his franchisor.
Contract of employment (service) by which an employer and a
employee set an agreement. It stipulates the job title, salary,
payday, holiday entitlement, sick pay, pension, notice
requirements, and disciplinary procedures. Larger
organizations provide a company handbook giving a detailed
account of company policies, disciplinary rules and any other
relevant matters.
Loan Agreement is the type of a contract by which the creditor
undertakes to provide financing to a debtor who obliges
himself to pay back the amount within a stated period of time
together with an interest.
Contract of licence: the licensor grants the licensee the right
to sell, to produce or render a service under the name of the
former. The licensor provides the latter with all the necessary
technical
documentation and information needed to exercise the right
under the contract while he is bound to keep the
confidentiality of this information against a third party.

68

Mandate agreement: the mandatory undertakes to arrange

business matters in the name of a mandator at his request
against the payment of a certain amount of money for the
service rendered called a commission.
Silent partnership agreement: the silent partner provides an
investment to an entrepreneur that will pay him back an
amount deriving from the profits obtained in the
entrepreneur's business results.
Leasing contract: the lessor undertakes to allow the lessee the
temporary use of equipment, means of transportation,
buildings for a stipulated period of time and the lessee
undertakes to pay the lessor a hire-pay as remuneration.
Security Brokerage Contract: a Brokerage company
undertakes execute buy/sell orders on the behalf of a
natural/legal person as a Client.
Insurance Policy: an Insurance company undertakes to cover
the different types of risks: transportation, damages, fire,
floods, accidents, life, etc.
Charter Party: a ship-owner agrees to place his ship, or part of
it, at the disposal of a charterer against a certain freight on
the cargo to be carried.

A. Sales Contract
The Hire/Purchase contract has the object of transfer of the ownership from the
seller to the buyer for an amount of money or for any other consideration. The seller
undertakes to deliver the assets sold or hired and the buyer/purchaser undertakes to pay
the purchase price according to the clauses negotiated and stipulated din the contract.
The main parts of the contractare:
Preamble of the contract that will include information about the number of the
contract, date and place of conclusion, the seller and the buyer, their legal address, logoes,
telephone number, bank account number. If the seller and buyer are legal persons they will
always be represented by natural persons that will be identified by the data in their identity
card
Terms or Clauses of the contract:
- Object of the contract: goods or assets sold or hired named)
- Quantity of the goods/assets that make the object of the contract
- Quality accoording to the nature of the goods/assets
- Packing
- Marking
- Unit/Total Price and Terms of Payment
- Sales/Hire Terms of delivery
-Transportation
-Insurance
- Jurtisdiction and Arbitration
- Contingencies. Claims and Penalties
- Other clauses: guarantee, technical documentation, taxes, customs duties,
amendments, cancellation, stamps
- signatures of the two parties
B. Franchising Agreement:

69

The two main parties of the franchising contract are the franchisor that licenses the
franchesee (a manufacturer, a distributor, trader, etc) to manufacture or sell a product or
render a service on his behalf for a stated period of time. The franchesee, i.e the holder of
the licence pays the grantor of the licence (franchisor) a royalty on sales, often as a lump
amount as an advance against royalties. The franchisor undertakes to supply the
franchesee with finance and technical expertise.
C. Employement Contract
This type of contract is concluded between the employer and the emploee for a
determined or undetermined period of time. The clauses are negotiated and stipulated in
the contract and guaranteed by the two parties who undertake their rights and
responsibilities that become binding under their signatures.
D. Credit Facility Convention
In order to execute a loan, banks need paid-in capital that is earned from financial
activities, borrowed funds, and from customers' deposits. The source for lending is always
the money deposited with the bank by the bank's customers, whether in a demand or time
account. This will always limit considerations in the degree of risk that the commercial bank
will take. It cannot jeopardize the safety of the depositors. The domestic and the
international bank will always obtain certain basic information that usually is forthcoming in
a meeting with the potential borrower. It will learn how much money is being sought, the
purpose of the loan, how long it is needed for, and how it will be repaid.
Banks make loans for worthwhile purposes: financing trade, expanding businesses,
house building, and so on. They need evaluate the three C's of credit: character, capacity,
and capital. That is the integrity of the borrower, his capacity to repay the loan, and the
soundness of his financial position.
Sometime the loan applicant's ability to repay the loan is pendant on the purpose of
the loan itself. Loans can be self-liquidation, when the source of repayment is from the sale
of imported merchandise, or capital-expansion, when the source of repayment is from
increased sales.
The financial statement of the borrower represents the financial position of the
borrower and it usually consists of a detailed balance sheet and a profit and loss account
statement. An audited financial statement requested by the credit officer will cover a
certain period of the customer's activity.
In international banking activity, the credit officer will consider the economic and
political outlook of the foreign country before loaning money to a foreign borrower, its
balance of payments being an important source of information. The bank's prior experience
with the borrower and the nature of his
business represents a subjective factor in the decision-taking process. When the loan is
granted, the bank will also decide upon the interest rate to charge. That will depend on the
cost of money to the bank. This includes the average interest rate the bank is paying to its
depositors, the bank's operating costs, the return that the bank expects. The bank must
also take into account possible losses and provide dividends to the bank's shareholders.
There are also other considerations to take into account when a bank decides to
allow a loan. If it is about a term loan, that is a second rate borrowing, the risk is greater
and it must be compensated through a higher interest rate against the prime-rate
borrowings that are short-term loans.
The appropriate credit instrument is to be decided upon for the repayment of the loan too.
The promissory note is the most customary that can be payable "on demand" of the bank.
The banker's acceptance can be used for loans involving international trade. It is saleable
to investors so that the bank merely commits itself to pay on maturity. The bank does not
have to commit its own funds. Credit extension may involve advances, discounting of
accounts receivable, overdrafts, or advances against collections. A loan can be secured by
collateral assigned to the bank, such as securities or precious metals, or guaranteed. When
an agreement is reached, the borrower signs the necessary documents and the amounts
are disbursed to him.

70

For large loans, banks often form a syndicate each of them disbursing a portion of
the loan. One bank puts the deal together and carries the administrative burden during the
life of the loan, being the "lead bank". A syndicate is sometimes desirable because of the
legal lending limits on banks, the general relationship of the total demand for credit
compared to the supply of loanable funds, or the prudent banker's desire to spread the
risk.
E. Contract of Licence
The agreement is concluded between the licensor who grants a licence to the
licencee to sell a certain product, manufacture a preoduct, render a service, run a business.
The licensor is entitled to continue performance of his rights but may also grant the same
object of the contract to other persons. The licencee is not entitlerd to transfer the rights
and obligations undertaken by the licence contract to another person without the consent
of the licensor. The contract will also provide the providing of the technical documentation
and the information needed to the licencee to perform his undertaken obligations. The
latter is bound to keep confidential both the documentation and the information provided
under the contract, against a third person.
F. Mandate Agreement
The two parties of the Mandate contract are the mandatory who undertakes to set
certain business matters by taking legal steps in the name and for the account of the
mandator, while the mandator undertakes to pay him a certain amount of money a
commission. The mandatory will perform his obligations undertaken by the contract in
accordance to the mandator's instructions and interests and keep him informed on the
matter.
G. Silent Partnership
The silent/sleeping partner will participate into a business managed by an
entrepreneur by providing him investment. The entrepreneur undertakes to pay a certain
amount or percentage of the profits arising form the silent partnership. The object of the
business will be passed to the entrepreneur to be used for a
certain period of time in business activities. The silent partner is entitled to check the books
of the business regarding its activity. The silent partner is not bound to give back his profit
share in case of loss. The contract ends when the stipulated time elapses.
H. Leasing contract
Almost any asset can be purchased through leasing, from aircraft to zithers. Even
renting a car for a few days is being considered a convenient short-term lease.
Corporations lease both short-term and long-term as a method of financing property, plant,
and equipment. Every leasing contract has two parties: the lessee the user and the
lessor the owner. When the lessee decides on the asset needed, he negotiates a lease
contract with a lessor. From the lessee's standpoint of view, long term leasing is compared
to a form of financing with a secured loan. The principal benefit of long-term leasing is the
tax reduction. If the corporate income tax were repealed, long term, leasing would virtually
disappear. The contract is called lease by which the lessee has the right to use an asset and
in return must make periodic payments to the lessor, the owner of the asset. The lessor is
either the asset's manufacturer or an independent leasing company that has to buy the
asset from the manufacturer, and then the lessor delivers the asset to the lessee: the lease
goes into effect. If the lessor is an independent leasing company who purchase s the assets
from a manufacturer, leases contracts that it concludes are called direct leases. It issues
both debt and equity to finance the purchase. But of course, a manufacturer could lease its
own merchandise. This type of lease contract is called sales-type leases. The most
interesting feature of an operating lease is the cancellation option. This gives the lessee the
right to cancel the lease contract before the expiration date. If the cancellation option is
exercised, the lessee must return the equipment to the lessor. The value of a cancellation
clause depends on whether future technological and /or economic conditions are likely to

71

make the value of the asset to the lessee less than the value of the future lease payments
under the lease.
There are different types of lease agreements as it follows:
-

financial lease does not provide for maintenance or service by

the lessor and it is fully amortized; the lessee, in this case,
has the right to renew the contract on expiration, but never to
cancel it. In other words, the lessee must make all payments
or face the risk of bankruptcy. Two special types of financial
lease are the sale and lease-back arrangement and the
leveraged lease.
- sale and lease-back occurs when a company sells an asset it owns to another
firm and immediately leases it back. In this case the lessee receives cash from the
sale of the asset, and the lessee makes periodic lease payments, thereby retaining
use of the asset.
- leveraged lease is a three-sided arrangement among the lessee, the lessor
and the lender by which the lessor purchases the assets, delivers them to the
lessee, and collects the lease payments from the lessee. The lessor puts up no more
than 40-50 per cent of the purchase price, while the lender supply the remaining
financing and receives the interest payment from the lessor. The arrangement would
be a leveraged lease if the bulk of the financing was supplied by creditors.

Manufacturer
of the asset

Lessor
owns the asset
Does not use the asset

Equity

Lessee (firm U)
uses asset
does not own asset

Creditors

I. Security Brokerage Contract

A member of the public wishing to buy or sell shares can only do so through a
broker. Finding a broker is most commonly done by personal recommendation, but
otherwise the Stock Exchange provides, on request, a list of brokers willing to deal, and all
a prospective client has to do is approach one of the firms and ask them to act for him. The
person becoming the client of a broker has to complete a Security Brokerage agreement,
which sets out the terms and conditions under which business shall be done. The broker
usually wants to know details of his new clients financial position and his investment
objectives.
J. Insurance Policy
Insurance is based on the principle of paying a relatively small amount of money,
called a premium that is to cover against the risk of accidents, damage, theft, which could
determine financial loss. When deciding to take out insurance, a broker or an underwriter
can give advise on the specific type of insurance that cover certain requirements. The third
party insurance type is compulsory when driving a motor vehicle, as the owner of a write-

72

off car may lose a lot of money in case of an accident. The most advantageous insurance
type is the all-in which enables the insured party to claim for any damage that might occur
to his car. The insured party fills in a notice of claims when the damage, loss or theft occur
and lodges it with the insurer and an independent surveyor assesses the compensation
claimed. Properties can also be insured against fire, floods or burglary. But because of
depreciation, little compensation is usually paid. Life insurance called assurance is more
and more convenient for the people retiring
as the state pension funds are lower and lower as they provide an additional source for
them. Their premiums are calculated according to actuaries. Trade is also covered by
insurance policies.
K. Charter Party
Foreign shipping is backed by Charter Party contract that is an undertaking of a ship
owner to place his ship or a part of it, at the disposal of a charterer, the latter agreeing to
pay the corresponding freight on the cargo to be carried. The
contracting parties are the ship-owner and charterer.
EXERCISES:
I. Translate into English:
Dei nu poate fi definit exact, leasing-ul operaional este caracterizat de unele
trsturi importante:
-

echipamentele achiziionate n leasing operaional nu sunt de

regul amortizate integral pe perioada contractului. De aceea,
plile prevzute n contractul de leasing nu sunt suficiente
pentru ca locatorul s recupereze ntregul cost al bunului care
face obiectul contractului. Aceasta se ntmpl deoarece
durata contractului de leasing operaional e de regul mai
mic dect durata de via a bunului. Astfel, locatorul se
ateapt s recupereze costurile activului prin renoirea
contractului de leasing sau prin vnzarea bunului la valoarea
lui rezidual. (residual value)
caracterisitica cea mai interesant a leasing-ului operaional
este opiunea de anulare. Utilizatorul are dreptul de anulare a
contractului nainte de data expirrii acestuia. In acest caz
utilizatorul trebuie s napoieze echipamentul locatorului.
Valoarea clauzei de anulare depinde de valoarea activului care
trebuie s fie sub valoarea plilor prevzute n contractul de
leasing.

Contractul este un acord, o nelegere ntre dou sau mai multe pri contractante,
sub form scris sau verbal. De obicei, pentru aceste contracte societile, instituiile,
organizaiile au pregtite contracte tip pe care le completeaz atunci cnd este nevoie.
Unele clauze, cu variaii nesemnificative de coninut, se gsesc n toate tipurile de
contracte, cum ar fi: obiectul contractului, notificri, for major, cesiunea, ncetarea
contractului. Conveniile scrise permit determinarea clar a obligaiile i drepturile prilor.
Dac acestea nu pot ajunge la consens deplin n ceea ce privete fiecare termen n
contract, aceasta nu trebuie s mpiedice semnarea contractului totui atunci cnd
majoritatea condiiilor au fost ndeplinite i tranzacia este destul de important.
Orice notificare/comunicare ulterioar semnrii contractului devine valabil pentru
nelegerea ntre pri numai dac va fi transmis prin scrisoare, fax sau telex confirmat.
Aceleai comunicri nu pot deveni parte integrant din contract dac ele nu capt o forma
scris i confirmat de ctre cealalt parte contractant.
II. Fill in the blanks using the following words:

73

1. installments; 2. security; 3. amount; 4. money; 5. paid; 6. statement; 7.

agreement; 8. default.
When a person borrows a) ____________ or sells goods on credit, the lender wants
a guarantee to cover the loan. If the borrower does not pay back the borrowed b)
___________, the lender may sell the goods which were given
to him as a guarantee and may also use the guarantee amount in order to cover the loan.
Such a contract is called a "loan c) __________". On the basis of this contract, the
borrower obliges himself to pay back the loan at a certain date, or in several equal d)
_____________ at periods established throughout a month or a year. If the borrower does
not pay back at required date, makes any false e) _____________ to lender, dies,
becomes insolvent or terminates his business by all reason, the payment of the loan is
"accelerated" and the borrower or his successors must pay immediately the whole amount
which remained unpaid. When a f) ____________ and loan agreement is drawn up, the
identity of the parts, the total amount of the loan, the interest rate and the date the loan
must be paid back must be taken into consideration. The contract will stipulate the
description of the goods which secures the loan, and the date on which the installment is to
be g) __________ back. It will also mention the lender's obligation not to sell or destroy
the good and the right of the lender in case of the borrower's h) ___________ on his
obligations.

UNIT 2
ORDINARY CLAUSES in BUSINESS CONVENTIONS
2.1 Quantity
Quantity and quality clause is present in any business contract according to its
object and nature. The seller, hirer, franchisor, licensor, mandator, the silent partner,
lessor, broker, insurer or the ship-owner will make reference to the quantity and the
quality of the object of the contract in the quantity and quality clause. They are both
established according to the type of contract, nature of assets/goods/services and
international trade usage. Different measurement units are used to determine the
different quantities.

Length...............................

.....GB/US

Centimetre

0,394 inch (in)

Metre

49.4 inches or 1.094 yards (yd)

Kilometre (km)....................................

......0.6214 mile

Surface ..................................
Square metre (m2).............1 are (a)

.GB/US
0.025 acre

Ares .................................1 hectare (ha)

2.471 acres

Hectares ............................1 square kilometre (Km 2) 0.386 square miles

Weight GB/US

Metric
1 grain

437 grains

o.065 gram (g)

1 ounce (oz)

28.33 grams

74

16 drams (dr)

1 ounce

28.35 grams

16 ounces

1 pound (lb)

0.454 kilogram (kg)

14 pounds

1 stone (st)

6.356 kilograms

1 quarter

12.7 kilograms

4 quarters

1 hundredweight (cwt)

50.8 kilograms

112 pounds

1 hundredweight

5o.8 kilograms

100 pounds

1 short hundredweight
(US)

45.5 kilograms

1 ton

1016.o4 kilograms

2000 pounds

1 short ton

0.907 tonne

2240 pounds

1 long ton

1.016 tonnes

2 stone

20 hundredweight

Linear Measure
G&B

Metric
1 inch (in)

25.4 milimetres (mm)

12 inches

1 foot (ft)

30.48 centrimentres (cm)

3 feet

1 yard (yd)

0.914 metre (m)

5 yards

1 rod, pole or perch

5.029 metres

22 yards

1 chain (cn)

20.17 metres

220 yards

1 furlong (fur)

201.17 metres

1 mile

1.609 kilometres

1 mile

2.609 kilometres

1 league

4.828 kilometres

1 square (sq) inch

6.452 sq centimetres

1 sq foot

929.03 sq centimetres

1sq yard

0.836 sq metres

484 sq yards

1 sq chain

404.62 sq metres

4840 sq yards

1 acre

0.405 hectare

..40 sq rods

1 rood

10.1168 ares

4 roods

1 acre

0.405 hectare

1 sq mile

2.59 kilometres or 259

hectares

1 cubic (cu) inch

16.39 cu centimetres

1 cu foot

0.028 cu metre

8 furlongs
1760 yards
3 miles
Square Measures
GB/US
144 sq inches
9 sq feet

640 acres
Cubic Measure
GB/US
1728 cu inches

75

27 cu feet

1 cu yard

0.765 cu metre

There are numerous standard measurement units used in international trade :

o

barrel for crude oil

bale for cotton, wool or paper

bag (70 kos)

sack (100 kos)

bushel for grains

drum, demijohn, carboy, can, for chemicals

sets for china, glass

Allowances are also used for fungible goods. The time, the place and
the way of ascertaining the weight will also be mentioned in the
quantity clause. The contract will always mention whether gross or
net weight is understood.

The documents needed to ascertain the quantity are:

-

the B/L (Bill of Lading) for the sea transportation

the Way Bill or Air Consignment Note for river transportation,

land and air

the mail receipt for mail transportation

Mind also the ways various products are prepared and packed for sale:
A string of bretzels; a bar of soap; a tube of tooth paste; a sample of packet of hair
conditioner; a loaf of bread; a cartoon of beer; a 400 g tin of baked peas; a packet of
cornflakes; a bunch of grapes, a pack of different soup vegetables; a few sheets of paper;
a pair of shoes.

2.2. Quality
Quality clause refers to the quality of the goods, services that make the object of the
contract. It may involve detailed description from physical, chemical, biological point of
view, or the goods state (solid, gaseous, liquid) , shape, colour, size, content, place of
origin, crop year for wines. The technical specification is enclosed to the contract making
detailed reference to the specific characteristics of the merchandise that makes the object
of the contract.
-

material that the product is made of

power consumption

output per time unit

operation speed

operation /use instructions, etc

Before concluding the contract the content of the quality clause will be established
according to samples, specimens, patterns that will represent references for the goods
delivered. In certain situations the brand name /trade mark will be mentioned. Catalogues
are also means of confronting the quality of the products offered to those ones delivered.
Roman trade rules and principles are mentioned till nowadays by the expressions:
"tale quale" or "tel quel" when the product is taken delivery of and paid by the buyer as it
is. He takes the risk of any subsequent damage. Products can also be qualified by specific

76

expressions: Fine (F), finest (FF), super fine (FFF) or fair, good, extra, waste, rejects, f.o.q.
(fair average quality), g.o.b. (good ordinary brand).
The quality checking will be confirmed by a specialized document: Works Test
Certificate (WTC) which guarantees the quality of the goods for a limited period of time

UNIT 3
SPECIFIC CLAUSES in BUSINESS CONVENTIONS
UNIT 4.
PAYMENT METHODS
Objectives:
-

Get familiarized with specific terminology in written formal

documents

Improve correct use of specific vocabulary in writing

Nations, companies and individuals have engaged in trade for centuries and from the
beginning have searched for the best financing alternative. Financing the flows of goods
and services has become a key component of maximizing profit from trade. Today sellers
have different alternatives to get paid for the goods shipped or services rendered. But each
alternative addresses certain risks for the buyer and the seller. Trade payment methods
have been used effectively to expand markets for goods and services and to facilitate a
variety of financial transactions, either as a method of payment or as a credit
enhancement, within as well as across the borders of sovereign states. They provide
powerful leverage for importing and exporting customers. Trade solutions are customized to
the customers' needs, integrating different methods of payment to form a truly end-to-end
trade proposition.
If one of the following payment methods is selected by the business partners,
documents covering shipment of the merchandise are handled outside banking channels.
The banking system is involved only in the remittance of funds.
1. Cash in advance: the seller receives cash from the buyer prior to shipment. The seller
ships the goods when convenient while using the buyer's funds. The buyer has no control
over the goods, as the seller may refuse to ship them.
2. Open account: Goods are shipped to the buyer and payment is made on terms
negotiated in advance with the seller. The buyer has full control over the goods and can
pay when convenient, even refuse.
3. On consignment: The seller ships goods to the buyer, but retains ownership. Payment is
made if and when the buyer sells the goods, i.e. payment is contingent upon sale of
goods.
However, if the seller selects payment under a Collection or a
Letter of Credit, a bank adds its service and documentary expertise on behalf of either
the buyer, the seller or both.

77

4. Collection: the goods are shipped to the

buyer. The seller's draft and documents covering the shipment are presented through the
buyer's bank for payment, so the title documents are in control of the bank, although
the buyer may refuse to pay or accept the draft.
Trade involves buyers and sellers seeking to exchange goods or
services despite their differences in language, national custom, credit procedures and
accounting practices. Historically, merchants have sought ways of minimizing these
differences and facilitating trade. The special protection and opportunities offered by
Letters of Credit apply to both domestic and international trade.
4. Letter of Credit. If the contract of sale establishes Letter of Credit as method of
payment, the buyer must apply to its bank for a Letter of Credit in favor of the seller.
The application and the agreement with the bank is separate and distinct from the
underlying contract of sale between the buyer and the seller. The contract between the
buyer (as Applicant) and its bank evidences the buyer's reimbursement obligation and
responsibility to its bank and sets forth the terms and conditions to be included in the
Letter of Credit. The Applicant is obligated to the bank for any amount paid under the
Letter of Credit. Therefore, the Applicant must use sound business judgement when
entering into a contract with a party in whose favor the Letter of Credit will be issued.
The buyer's bank (Issuing bank) undertakes to the Beneficiary (seller) and provides a
specialized service. The seller presenting the documents must comply strictly with the
terms of the Letter of Credit to have the right to receive payment from the bank. This
right is not contingent upon the seller's actual compliance with the underlying contract of
sale but rather upon the bank's determination of complying documents. By the Letter of
Credit the seller may be requested to present quality and quantity certificates of the
goods (laboratory testing certificates, inspection certificates) along with other
documents. The buyer and the seller must agree beforehand on the responsibility for
payment of these services, as the buyer's and seller's integrity are paramount in any
exchange of goods or services regardless of payment methods.
The parties to the Letter of Credit are:
-

Applicant: the party that makes the application for the Letter of Credit to the Issuing
bank, usually the buyer or the importer

Beneficiary the party in whose favor the Letter of Credit is opened, usually the seller
or the exporter

Issuing Bank the Applicant's bank, the bank that undertakes to the Beneficiary to
issue the Letter of Credit

Paying Bank the bank entitled to make the payment to the Beneficiary

Negotiating Bank the bank entitled to negotiate against strictly complying

documents by the terms and conditions of the Letter of Credit

Confirming bank the bank that can add its own undertaking to that of the issuing
bank, on request In most of the transactions, there are at least two banks involved a
bank in the country of the buyer and another one in the country of the seller. A bank
may play several roles in a single transaction. If the Issuing bank sends the Letter of
Credit to the Beneficiary, payable at its own counters, then the bank is playing the role
of both Advising Bank and Paying Bank.

The formal language used in the Letter of Credit depends on the type of the
document, so it is important to understand them.
Letters of Credit may be issued under the form of "revocable" or "irrevocable" and
either "confirmed" or "unconfirmed". A Revocable Letter of Credit may be amended or
canceled by the issuing Bank at any time or without prior notice to, or agreement of, the
Beneficiary, An Irrevocable Letter of Credit cannot be amended or canceled without the

78

agreement of the Issuing Bank, the Confirming Bank and the Beneficiary. An Irrevocable
Letter of credit is a definite undertaking by the Issuing Bank to pay, provided the
Beneficiary complies strictly with the Letter of Credit. Once the payment is made by the
Paying Bank the authority to pay becomes an irrevocable obligation on the part of the
Issuing Bank to reimburse the Paying Bank. The paying Bank is thus protected and will
receive funds from the issuing Bank in accordance with the Letter of Credit.
Beneficiaries do not always rely on the stability of an Issuing Bank, particularly when
that bank is in another country or is unknown to the Beneficiary. Consequently, a
Beneficiary may request that the Applicant instruct the Issuing bank to have its Irrevocable
Letter of Credit confirmed by a Bank in the Beneficiary's country. A Confirming Bank is the
bank which, at the request or with the consent of the Issuing bank, adds its own
irrevocable undertaking to that of the Issuing Bank. The Confirming Bank must be satisfied
with the Issuing Bank's financial stability and with the political stability of the country in
which the bank resides. This is mandatory, since failure of the Issuing Bank to fulfill its
irrevocable obligation (because of political restraint, war, insolvency or other reasons) will
not relieve the Confirming Bank of its irrevocable obligation to pay the Beneficiary.
If the Letter of Credit is issued in negotiable form, the Beneficiary can present the
draft and documents either directly or through a local bank to the Paying Bank, in order to
obtain funds before actual payment. When negotiations are made with recourse, the
Beneficiary receives funds either for full or partial value of the drafts drawn on the Paying
Bank, i.e. similarly to cashing a check at a bank other than the bank on which it is drawn.
Letters of Credit sometimes provide for negotiation without recourse. Under such
instructions, the Negotiation bank has no recourse to the Beneficiary after it has honored
the Beneficiary's draft.
Many different types of Letters of Credit were developed to meet the needs and
requirements of buyers and sellers throughout the world.
-

Revolving Letter of Credit is more efficient and cost effective when the
Applicant and the Beneficiary agree to ship goods on a continuing basis. A
special Letter of Credit for handling multiple shipments, renewable over an
extended period of time, a Revolving one, may operate automatically

Installment Letter of Credit incorporates a schedule for shipment or

drawings. If the Beneficiary fails to present strictly complying documents
for a scheduled shipment or drawing, the Beneficiary will not be entitled to
draw under the Letter of Credit for that or any future shipment or drawing.

Red Clause Letter of Credit is used when an Applicant wants to advance

cash to the Beneficiary to purchase the goods or effect shipment under the
Letter of Credit. It restricts negotiation or payment to a specific bank. It is
referred to as a "red clause" simply because the clause is sometimes
printed or typed because the clause is sometimes printed in red ink. A "red
clause" is typically used when there is a close business relationship
between the Applicant and the Beneficiary.

Back-to back Letter of Credit is used when the Beneficiary of an

Irrevocable Letter of Credit seeks to use the instrument issued in its favor
as a basis for requesting a bank to issue a companion Irrevocable Letter of
Credit in favor of the manufacturer or supplier of those goods needed for
shipment under the fist Letter of Credit. The Beneficiary of the Irrevocable
Letter of Credit (a broker or a middleman) will become the Applicant of the
second Letter of Credit using the first as collateral for the issuance of the
second Letter of Credit. The two Letters of credit used jointly to facilitate
the purchase of the same goods are called Back to back Letters of credit.

Transferable Letter of Credit is used by the beneficiary to request it to be

available to one or more partners, named transferee, but only once. If
partial shipments are not prohibited, portions of the Transferable Letter of

79

Credit may be transferred separately, but the amount transferred cannot

exceed the amount of the original Letter of Credit (Master).
Exercises:
I. Fill in the blanks the missing word in the following Letter of Credit
1. installment; 2. schedule, 3. law; 4. statement; 5. expiration
World Development Bank
56-70 Wall Street, New York, 1002
March, 3, 2005
Irrevocable Standby Letter of Credit
Refine Realty Corp.
230 May, South Drive
Chicago, Il, 12003
Sirs:
By order of our client Hotel Macedonia Corporation, New York we hereby issue our
Irrevocable le Standby Letter of Credit nr 825 in your favor, for an amount not exceeding in
the aggregate U.S.$2,ooo,ooo effective immediately and expiring at our office on
September 30, 2006.
Funds under this letter of Credit are available to you against draft(s) drawn on us,
mentioning thereon our Letter of Credit no 825, in accordance with the following
a)................ of payments:
1. U.S. $1,000,000 beginning on 1 May 2005 and up to an including May 30, 2006
accompanied by your signed b)................. that "the amount of said draft represents the
first installment for the purchase of the hotel "New California", Los Angeles.
2. U.S. $1,000,000 beginning on June 1, 2005 and up to an including June 25, 2006,
accompanied by your signed statement that "the amount of said draft represents the final
c).................. for the purchase of the hotel "New California", Los Angeles.
We hereby undertake with you to honor each draft drawn under and in compliance with the
terms of this Letter of Credit, if duly presented together with the documents specified at
this office on or before the stated d)................. date.
Except as may be otherwise stated, this Letter of Credit is subject to the International
Chamber of Commerce's Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary credits in effect
on the date this Letter of Credit is issued and is subject to and governed by New York State
and U.S. Federal e).........., without, regard to principles of conflicts of law.

PART III
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
80

UNIT 1
MANAGEMENT OF BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS
Objectives:
-

1.1.

supply information and legal terminology

firm documents, management terminology and concepts
different departments in a firm

Legal personality

In any legal system individuals or companies may be regarded as having rights and
duties enforceable at law. A company can sue a partner for breach of a contract in virtue of
its legal personality. Without it institutions and groups cannot operate, for they need to be
able maintain and enforce claims. Individuals, limited companies and public corporations
are recognized as possessing a distinct legal personality, the terms of which are
circumscribed by the relevant legislation. It is the law which is the foundation of legal
personality for it will determine the scope and nature of personality. Legal personality
involves concepts such as status, capacity, competence as well as the nature and extent of
particular rights and duties. The whole process operates within the confines of relevant
legal system which circumscribes personality, its nature and definition. Legal personality is
crucial. Without it institutions and groups cannot operate, for they need to be able to
maintain and enforce claims. Individuals, limited companies and public corporations are
recognized as each possessing a distinct legal personality, the terms of which are
circumscribed by the relevant legislation. It is the law which is the foundation of legal
personality for it will determine the scope and nature of personality. The status of a
particular entity may well be determinative of certain powers and obligations, while
capacities will link together the status of a person with particular rights and duties. This is
particularly true in international law. In international law, personality needs consideration
of the inter-relationship between rights and duties afforded under the international system
and capacity to enforce claims. One of the distinguishing characteristics of contemporary
international law has been the wide range of participants performing on the international
scene. These include states, international organizations, regional organizations, nongovernmental organizations, public companies, private companies and individuals.
Public companies, which may be known by a variety of names, for example,
multinational public enterprises or international bodies corporate, is characterized in
general by an international agreement for cooperation between governmental and private
enterprises. Such enterprises may vary widely in constitutional nature and in competences.
They can have an intergovernmental structure and operate in a global commercial
activity. The personality question will depend upon the differences between municipal and
international personality. If the entity is given a range of powers and is distanced
sufficiently from the municipal law, an international person may be involved, but it will
require careful consideration of the circumstances.
Transnational or multinational enterprises are also subject of international legal
personality. They constitute private business organizations comprising several legal entities
linked together by parent corporations and are distinguished by size and multinational
spread.
There are different legal forms in which entrepreneurship may be organized
according to the size of the firm and according to the way of raising capital.
For working or short-term capital a firm can find help in a variety of ways, most
usually through the commercial banks, but also by hiring buildings and sometimes
machinery, buying factors, obtaining the customary trade credit terms and taking deposits
in advance from customers.

81

The sole-proprietor or one-man firm is the oldest form of entrepreneurial

organization. Such one-man firms range from the rag and bone man, chimney-sweeper and
window-cleaner working on his own account to the farmer, shopkeeper and small factoryowner who employs other workers and may even own many separate units. Nevertheless,
these businesses all have the same characteristic of being owned and controlled by a single
person. It is the person's task to make all decisions regarding the policy of the firm and it is
he alone who takes the profit and bears any losses made. This makes for energy, efficiency,
a careful attention to detail and close relationship between employer and employee.
The sole proprietor, however, suffers from the main disadvantage. First, the
development of such a firm must proceed slowly because the sources of capital are limited.
The success of the venture, especially in its early stages, depends on the person in charge,
and nobody is likely to provide capital for the business unless he has that confidence in the
proprietor, which comes from personal contact. Hence, the main source of capital is the
personal savings of the owner himself, together with such additional sums, as he may be
able to borrow from the relatives or close friends. Expansion of the business may take
place by ploughing back profits, but this will probably be an extremely slow process and
such firms generally remain comparatively small.
In the event of failure, not only the assets of the business, but also the private
assets of the proprietor can be claimed against creditors, meaning that there is no limited
liability. It is typical for agriculture and retailing where management requirements make
the small technical unit desirable.
A larger amount of capital is available when persons combine in a partnership. Each
partner provides a part of the capital required and shares the profit on an agreed basis.
Yet, the amount of capital that can be raised this way is still inadequate for large-scale
production. The result is that the partnership remains relatively small, particularly suitable
to certain types of business, such as retailing, and certain professions (doctors, dentists,
consulting engineers and lawyers). The risk inherent in unlimited liability is increased
because all partners are liable for the firm's operations, irrespective of the amount of
capital that they have individually invested, and their private fortunes may be called upon
to meet the demands of creditors. Any action taken by one colleague is legally binding on
the others. Hence not only must each partner have complete confidence in the others, but
the risk of unlimited liability increases. Finally, by giving notice to the others, one partner
may terminate the partnership at any time, while it is automatically dissolved upon the
death or bankruptcy of any one partner. This means that surviving partners have to either
buy his share or find a purchaser
acceptable to everyone. In such circumstances, therefore, the continuation of the
business may involve great trouble and expense.
In Great Britain, the joint stock company type first developed in Tudor times when
foreign trade began to expand. The government, wishing to foster such trade, often
granted the promoters a charter, which enabled them to form a company and to carry on
trade in various parts of the world, usually in a free form of competition. Two such
companies were the East India Company and the Hudson's Bay Company, still existing
today.
Nevertheless, until the middle of the nineteenth century, people were reluctant to
take shares in such companies, as they enjoyed no limited liabilities. But the industrial
revolution made it essential that more capital should be available to industry. Hence, in
order to induce more savers to invest, the privilege of limited liability was granted by
statute in 1855.
The advantages that the most important form of a business organization enjoys over
the partnership are chiefly that there is limited liability, a larger amount of capital can be
raised, since investors can spread their risk and sell their shares easily, and, should the
need arise, expansion is much easier.
Against the advantages, however, certain disadvantages have to be considered. The
company's corporation tax could be more than the income tax that would have been paid
had the business remained as a sole partnership. Furthermore, any assets of the company
that have been built up over the years will increase the value of the original shares (usually
owned by a family). When the time comes to wind up the company, e.g. owing to

82

retirement, any increase in the value of the shares will be subject to capital gains tax.

1.1.1. Private Company

This type of a company organization allows the business to be privately owned and
managed. It is thus particularly suitable for a medium-sized either commercial or industrial
organization not requiring finance from the public or for a speculative venture where a
small group of people wishes to try out an idea and is prepared to back it financially to a
definite limit before floating a public company.
While they are considerably more numerous than public companies, they are much
smaller. They encounter difficulties when they want to expand as neither their shares nor
debentures can be offered for sale to the public. Thus, in order to find additional investors,
it is usually necessary to convert the business into a public company with its shares quoted
on a Stock Exchange. But before embarking on such an issue, the company must have a
fairly substantial size and arrange for a life insurance company or an investment trust to
purchase shares or debentures; help may be obtained from the new-issue market, where
both issuing houses and merchant banks may help firms to raise capital. But in order to
obtain a loan, it has to pass first a searching investigation regarding its present financial
position and business prospects.

1.1.2. Public Limited Company

It carries the letters PLC after its name is the largest of all types, and at least two
shareholders own it, but most of them have hundreds or even thousands of shareholders.
Its shares can be issued to the public and can be sold through the Stock Exchange. A
private company can "go public" and apply to the Stock Exchange to be listed or quoted in
order to become a public limited company. The company will have to satisfy the council of
the Stock Exchange that is soundly based and a
reasonable investment for the public.
It is controlled by the Board of Directors, which is elected by the
shareholders. The Board manages the running of the firm that is obliged to hold an Annual
General Meeting to report to shareholders and elect directors.
The company uses its profits (after deduction of dividends) to finance future
investments. Capital may also be obtained by further share issues, borrowing (often from
international banking consortia) and from Government granting loans.

1.1.3. Holding

The optimum technical unit of a business may be much smaller than the optimum
financial unit. The financial economies of scale can be achieved by organizing a group of
firms through a single "holding company", leaving the individual subsidiaries to continue
working in their own name as separate technical units and retaining a great deal of
independence of action. Furthermore, having subsidiaries with diverse interests may secure
a risk-bearing economy.
However, while this theoretical justification for the formation of a holding company
may be valid, in practice such companies have been formed in order to obtain controlling
interests, often for monopoly purposes.

1.1.4. Joint Stock Company

This type of a company is organized on the agreement of two or more parties to
work on a project together. Frequently, it is formed when companies with complementary
technology wish to create a product or service that takes advantage of the strengths of the
participants. It is usually limited to a project, differs from a partnership, which forms the
basis for cooperation on many projects.

1.2. Setting a company

Setting up of a company begins with lodging a Memorandum of Association and the

Charter of the company or Articles of Association with the Registrar of Companies.
The Memorandum generally contains the following clauses stating:

83

- the name of the company and its logo; the company is free to choose its name, within
certain bounds. The Department of Trade will not allow a name which is too similar to that
used by an existing company, especially one in the same type of business.
- the country in which the registered office (where the premises is situated)
- limitation clause: it shows whether the company is limited by shares or by guarantee, as
commercial companies are limited by shares, or non-profit bodies, such as professional
associations, are limited by guarantee.
- the objects for which the company was constituted; this states the type of
business that the company will undertake. This is to protect investors from putting their
money into a company which would then use it in a different manner.
- capital clause: it gives details about the amount of the authorized capital and its division
into shares and the different categories of shares
-association clause: includes the names of the founder members and the number of shares
they each subscribed
Lodged together with the Memorandum, The Articles of Association are a contract
between the company and its members comprising rules and regulations for the internal
activity of the company and specifying such things as :
- the voting power of its members,- the appointment of directors,- the distribution of the profits, etc.
After the Memorandum and the Articles have been registered and the necessary fees
have been paid, the Registrar issues the Certificate of Incorporation and the company can
start doing business.
Here are the Governmental institutions that a company should be registered with:
Notary Office
The Court of Commerce
The Registrar of Commerce
Tax/Fiscal Office
The Gazette

1.2.1. Structure of a business

In a small business, the few employees know their role as there is a direct contact
between the employer and the staff. As the business grows larger, the need for formal
Board
ofThe organizational chart is drawn showing people in
written structure tends to emerge.
Directors
authority and those under their supervision. Here you have an illustration of a company
framework:
Managing
Director

Buying and
Marketing
Executive

Registrar

Personnel
Officer

Deputy
Accountant

Deputy
Accountant

Section
Leaders

84
7

Audit

Credit
Control

Credit
Control

Financial decisions are crucial. The secret of success in financial management is to increase
value. The problem is how to do it. The financial
manager has two broad responsibilities: What investment should the firm make? How
should it pay those investments? The first involves spending money; the second involves
raising it.
Companies need an almost endless variety of real assets: tangible (machinery,
factories, offices): intangible, (technical expertise, trade marks, patents). To obtain the
necessary money, the company sells financial assets or securities. Their value consists in
their claim on the firm's real assets and the cash they produce. If the company borrows
money from the bank, the bank has a financial asset that gives it a claim to a stream of
interest payments and to repayment of the loan. The company's real assets need to
produce enough cash to satisfy these claims. Financial assets include not only bank loans,
but also shares of stock, bonds, lease financing obligations, and so on.
The financial manager stands between the firm's operations and the financial
markets, referred at as sources where the investors hold the financial assets issued by
firms. He traces the flow of cash from investors to their firm and back to investors again.
The flow starts when securities are issued to raise cash to purchase real assets to generate
cash inflows later, to repay the initial investment. The cash is then either reinvested or
returned to the investors who purchased the original security issue.
The shareholders are made better off by any financing decision of the financial
management that increases the value of their stake in the firm. A good capital budgeting
decision is one that results in the purchase of a real asset that
makes a net contribution to value.
Financial decisions cannot be separated from financial markets either. The financial
manager must know whether the value of the firm would increase through an issue of
shares to stockholders. He must have considered the interest rate on the loan and
concluded that it was not too high. He must also cope with time and uncertainty. The
investment, if undertaken, may have to be financed by debt that cannot be fully repaid for
many years. The financial manager has to decide whether the opportunity is worth more
than its costs and whether the debt burden can be safely borne.
The financial manager is anyone responsible for a significant corporate investment or
financing decision. But usually responsibility is spread out throughout the firm. The
engineer who designs a new production facility, the marketing manager who commits to a
major advertising campaign, but also the top manager is, of course, continuously involved
in financial decisions.
Nevertheless, there are managers specialized in finance: the treasurer - the most
directly responsible for obtaining financing, managing the firm's cash accounts and its
relationship with banks and often financial institutions in the financial market, and making
sure the firm meets its obligations to the investors holding its securities.
Larger companies usually have a controller who checks that the money is used
efficiently. He manages budgeting, accounting, auditing. There can be a chief financial
officer appointed to oversee both the treasurer' and the controller's work. He is involved in
financial policy making and corporate planning but he also can have managerial
responsibilities beyond strictly financial issues and may also be a member of the Board of
Directors.
But the ultimate decision often rests by law or by custom with the Board of
Directors. Only the Board has the legal power to declare a dividend or to sanction a public

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issue of securities. Boards usually delegate decision-making authority for

small or medium sized investment outlays, but the authority to approve large investment is
almost never delegated.
Firm's
operation
(a bundle
of real
assets)

Financial
Manager

Financial
markets
(investors
holding
financial
assets)

1.2.2. The role of commodity exchange

A commodity exchange is the market where commodities are traded. The main
terminal markets in commodities of the world are in London and New York, but in some
commodities there are markets in the country of origin. Some commodities are dealt with
at auctions (e.g. tea, grains) each lot being sold having been examined by dealers, but
most dealers deal with goods that have been classified according to established quality
standards. In these commodities both actuals and futures contracts are traded on
commodities exchanges, often with daily callovers, in which dealers are represented by
commodity brokers. Many commodity exchanges offer option dealing in futures, and
settlement of differences on futures through a clearing house. As commodity prices
fluctuate widely, commodity exchanges provide users and producers with hedging facilities
with outside speculators and investors helping to make an active market, although
amateurs are advised not to gamble on commodity exchanges.
The fluctuations in commodity prices have caused considerable problems in
developing countries, from which many commodities originate, as they are often important
sources of foreign currency, upon which the economic welfare of the country depends.
Various measures have been used to restrict price fluctuations but none have been
completely successful.

1.2.2. Stocks
Shares are products that enable their holders to participate in the company's
activities and benefit from its success or failure. The conditions for ownership of shares can
differ according to the rights they give the shareholders. The risk involved in buying shares
is linked to how the company is expected to behave and, in particular, what its net profits
are expected to be.
Indicators have been created to relate predictions of the company's behavior - the
market price, by which we can assess the market's appraisal of the company.
Shares are securities representing a public limited company's share capital.
Each share represents a part of the company in the hands of the shareholders. All
shares represent equal parts into which the company's capital is divided. All shares have
the same par value. Shares are not divisible, though they can be issued in blocks of
number of shares (5, 10, 50, 100, etc).
When a company is formed, i.e. when the Articles of Association and the
Memorandum of Association are drawn up, they define the classes of share that can be
issued.
The different classes of shares differ with regard to the rights they confer on their
holder. The main class in the generic type of share is the one of ordinary shares.
Ordinary shares (normally referred to as just "shares") confer the right to call a
shareholders' meeting; to vote at the meetings, to elect and to be elected to the company's
bodies. The company's Articles of Association may, however, establish the number of
preferred shares a shareholder must have to be entitled to vote. He receives new shares in

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the event of capitalization of reserves and they are preferred in subscribing new shares
when they are issued to raise capital or in subscribing convertible bonds. Each shareholder
is entitled to subscribe the same number of shares as he already holds. However, the
shareholders' meeting that decides on the issue may limit or suppress this right to
preference. He is also free to transfer shares or to sell his shares at will. This right is one of
the ways of obtaining a return of the investment, i.e. a gain from the favorable difference
between the selling and buying price.
The dividend is the return on shares. It represents a part of the distributable profit
that is paid on each share. This return is variable as it depends on whether there are profits
in each financial year and on whether the Annual General Meeting agrees to their
distribution (as proposed by the Board of
Directors).
A company's dividend policy is represented by the percentage of the profits
generated by the company in a particular financial year that it decides to
distribute to the shareholders.
The dividend is important because it represents a source of income for the investor
and it is an important indicator to current or potential investors of the company's future
profitability. It gives information on the company's projected growth, thus influencing share
prices.
The validity of ordinary shares is indefinite, i.e. it is not established in advance. The
shares exist as long as the company that issues them exists. The secondary market is the
only way shareholders have of getting back the capital they invested, as they cannot
demand a refund of their investment. This is the main reason why shares are quoted on the
stock exchange.

1.2.3. Bonds

Historically, bonds are institutionalized borrowings by governments or business, with

the date of repayment, and the annual rate of interest to be paid meanwhile, fixed at the
time of issue. There are irredeemable government and corporate bonds, where the interest
rate is fixed but no date for repayment. There are floating rate bonds, where the interest
rate paid is related to the changing rate in the market. There are also zero coupon bonds
which pay no interest at all but which are issued at a price very much lower than the
repayment due on a particular date, so that income effectively takes the form of capital
gains. There are index-linked bonds, which pay a small or no rate of interest but whose
repayment, at some fixed date, includes compensation for the interim rise in the cost of
living. There are convertible bonds, which carry the
right of conversion into corporate equities.
The new economy based on the Internet should be called the "nude economy"
because the Internet makes it more transparent and exposed. The Internet makes it easier
for buyers and sellers to compare prices. It cuts out the middleman between firms and
customers and it reduces transactions costs. That's why more than 25% of American share
market now take place via Internet. Yet the e-bond market hasn't reached such an extent.
The potential for electronic bonds trading seems to be less than in on-line futures and
options. A reason for this might be that individual investors aren't as interested in bonds as
they are on shares, because unlike some share prices, bond prices rarely double in 12
months. Moreover, bonds are much less liquid than shares. Investors, such as insurance
companies that hold them to maturity, often buy them. However, these things can change.
There is a serious talk that the bond market may soon become as automated and real as
that for equities. This change is possible because of the innovation that will soon activate
the 1st "Bond Connect" trading system. This will allow the institutional investors that
dominate the bond equity to trade directly with each other through a sophisticated ordermatching system operated under the auspices of a Stock Exchange. The institution will be
able to put large black trade orders into the system safe in the knowledge that no
information about their intention will leak into the market before the order has been
executed. This should allow them to get a much better price.
Many recent issues of e-bonds allow brokers to trade more efficiently with each other

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but do not provide access to their customers. Electronic trading has the potential greatly to
enhance the efficiency on the bond market.

1.3. Money Matter, Banking and Financial Markets

For thousands of years, gold was the ultimate money. It could buy anything including
hearts. It was wealth and power to be sure, but it was also enchantment, with a special
luster and reassuring weight and feel. The lure of gold drove ships across stormy seas and
explorers across rugged mountains to places as remote as Canada's Klondike region near
the Arctic Circle.
Gold isn't used as money any more. It still glitters, but it's treated more like
soybeans or pork bellies than a ransom fit for a king.
Money didn't exist in ancient times, so people had to trade with each other - or
barter - to obtain the items they wanted. The first trades were probably animal skins for
grain, or cotton for livestock.
But these exchanges were cumbersome, and some common commodities, such as
grains, started to assume the role of money. In early Egypt, for example, barley, an
important source of food, became the accepted means of payment for goods and services.
By 700 B.C., though, the Egyptians had abandoned barley and adopted gold as their
primary instrument of exchange. A rare and beautiful metal, gold had become the universal
symbol of wealth and power. And, being portable and durable, it was an ideal form of
money.
By the 15th century trade and commerce had expanded tremendously. When King
Croesus of ancient Lydia (now Western Turkey) had gained control of Asia's richest gold
mines for the Persian Empire, he wanted others to recognize his newfound power and
ordered the first gold coin to be made. Bearing the image of a lion and a bull, the coin
became the standard of exchange for all trade and commerce.
A need appeared for a new, less cumbersome system of making payments. The
goldsmiths met this need. Their system worked this way: people would deposit their gold
coins at their local goldsmith's. In return, the goldsmiths would give them a receipt.
Eventually, the receipt began to circulate as money because they could always be
redeemed for the gold itself.
Gradually, countries came to adopt a form of the goldsmith's system. Their
governments printed currency and backed it up with gold they held in official reserves. And
so the "gold standard" for currencies was born. One of the first countries to adopt the gold
standard was Great Britain in 1916. It made its currency the pound, equal in value to an
ounce of gold. Then Coinage Act of 1792 first put the young American nation on a
"bimetallic standard", backing the dollar, which was a coin at the time, with both gold and
silver.
With the world at war, for the first time, people were seeking security, and thus
started exchanging their currency for gold. But governments soon saw their reserves run
seriously low, as a result. By 1914 most countries, except the United States, abandoned
the gold standard to protect their reserves.
By the mid 1930's, practically all the major nations had abandoned the gold
exchange standard. Governments would accumulate dollars that they could redeem for
gold at the U.S. Treasury.
Of course, gold will always be the metal of choice for the jet-set, who like to adorn
their homes with gold-leaf sinks, bathrooms and picture frames.
Today, gold can be bought and sold in several different forms: coins, bullion or
perhaps just as paper claim to the metal.
There are two types of gold coins: bullion coins and numismatic. Countries produce
the bullion coins as legal tender, which means they can be spent as money. Prices are
based on the local gold price in London (The "London Fix").
Numismatic gold coins no longer circulate as money. Their value derives more from

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their condition and rarity than their actual gold content.

Many investors hold paper claims to gold in the form of future contracts. These
contracts are nothing more than a commitment to buy or sell gold at a future time at a preagreed price. Typically, the buyer and seller meet at a commodity exchange to work out
future contracts.
Today gold has assumed the role of a commodity such as wheat or cotton. And like
any other commodity, its price is determined in a free market by the forces of supply and
demand.
What will make money what it is? Partly we will determine it by statutes declaring
that certain pieces of paper and metal produced by government will be money. These notes
and coins we call will be "legal tender" and you'll have to accept them as payment in full for
any transaction.
However, part of what we regard as money will be determined by custom. If you
think about how much money (as distinct from wealth) you have, you won't consider only
your holdings or cash and coin - you'll include deposits you have in your bank.
Whether it's cash or bank deposits, money is an asset for you and simultaneously a
debt for either the bank or the government. That's why credit cards will be not considered
money, but tangible proof that you've been granted a line of credit (a loan up to a
predetermined amount which you can decide to activate). Because they represent a debt
for, not an asset they will never be money.
Since January 1st, 1999 the euro has been operating as a recognized currency on
the world markets and has been widely used, especially by commercial banks and other
companies, in non-cash payment transactions. On January 2002 the euro banknotes and
coin will be put into circulation. Their design and production was, from the outset, planned
as a cooperative venture of the European Union. The graphic symbol of the euro was
inspired by the Greek letter epsilon and refers to the first letter of the word Europe. The
parallel lines represent the stability of the euro. The official abbreviation for the euro has
been
registered with the International Organization for Standardization ISO.
The euro banknotes depict the architectural styles of seven periods in European
cultural history Classical, Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque and Rococo, the age
of iron and glass architecture, and the modern 20th century architecture and emphasize
three main architectural elements - windows, gateways, and bridges. The windows and
gateways on the front of each banknote symbolize the spirit of openness and cooperation in
Europe. The 12 stars of the European Union are also featured, representing the dynamism
and harmony of the contemporary Europe. The reverse of each banknote features a bridge
typical of the respective age of European cultural development. These bridges range from
early constructions to the sophisticated suspension bridges on the modern era and are used
as a metaphor for communication among the people of Europe as well as between Europe
and the rest of the world.
The European System of Central Banks became operational and is responsible for
framing and implementing the single monetary and exchange rate policy (setting shortterm interest rates in euro). The participating national currencies will no longer be listed on
the foreign exchange markets.
As far as banks and large firms are concerned, the transition to the single currency
began chiefly via the single monetary and exchange rate policy, the capital and the
associated settlement systems. Banks draw up their customers' account statements in both
euro and national currency. They take advantage of the time available in order to inform
their customers of the consequences of the switch to the single currency for their financial
transactions. They step up their staff training efforts to prepare for the changeover and can
also offer certain products in euro, legal and technical constraints permitting.
Consumers continue to use chiefly their own national currency because euro
banknotes and coins are not yet available. Public demand can, however, swiftly prompt
some banks or firms to offer services in euro.
The gradual introduction of dual pricing of goods and services enables consumers to
get used to the single currency. By developing a "feel" for prices in the single currency and
learning to convert national currencies into euro at a fixed rate, they thus realize that they

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do not stand to lose from the introduction of the single currency.

1. He explains that the balance sheet will be the main document showing the estate of our
business.
2. He says that the new service will enable customers to make payments from their
accounts by credit transfer.
3. He learns that the process of globalization that enables investment in financial markets
will be carried out on an international basis.
4. They are sure that the goodwill of their company will become a saleable asset.
5. He declares that he will calculate again his gross income.
6. The shop assistant assures us that he will bring any items made of gold, silver or
platinum, stamped with hallmark.
7 The general manager promises to keep a house journal for all the employees to inform
them about the policy of the company.
8. He explained that the wages of the employees would reflect partly a return of the human
capital for the future.
9. The wholesaler pretends that he will be allowed goods according to the import license.
10. The politicians pretend that indexation policy will mitigate the effects of inflation.

1.3.1. Functions of money

The use of money as a medium of exchange makes possible a great extension of the
principle of specialization. In an advanced society the use of money allows to exchange
hours of labor for an amazing variety of goods and services: two weeks' labor for a holiday
abroad just as easily as we can exchange it for a piece of furniture or a year's rent on a
flat. Such exchanges are taken for granted yet they would be inconceivable without the use
of money.
The first step in the use of money was probably the adoption of some commodity as
a unit of account or measure of value. Money, most likely, came into use within the barter
system as a means whereby the values of different goods could be compared. The direct
exchange of goods for goods raise all sorts of problems regarding valuation: "How many
bushels of corn are equal in volume to one sheep, if twenty sheep exchange for three cows
and one cow exchanges for ten bushels of corn? This problem of exchange rates is easily
solved when all other commodities are valued in terms of a single commodity which then
acts as a standard of value. Money now serves as such a standard and when all economic
goods are given money values (i.e. prices), we know immediately, the value of one
commodity in terms of any other commodity.
Once a commodity becomes universally acceptable, in exchange for goods and
services, it is possible to store wealth by holding stock of this commodity. It is a great
convenience to hold wealth in the form of money.
Consider the problems of holding wealth in the form of some other commodity, say
wheat. It may deteriorate, it is costly to store, it must be insured, and there will be
significant handling costs in accumulating and distributing it. In addition, its money value
may fall while it is being stored. The form of money has become very apparent in recent
years - during periods of inflation when the exchange value falls.
An important function of money in the modern world, where so much business is
concluded on the basis of credit, is to serve as a means of deferred payment. When goods
are supplied on credit, the buyer has immediate use of the goods, but she does not have to
make an immediate payment. He can pay for them, 3, or perhaps 6 months after delivery.
In the case of hire purchase contracts, the buyer takes immediate delivery but pays by
means of installments spread over 1, 2, or 3 years.
A complex trading organization based on a system of credit can only operate in a
monetary economy. A seller would be most unlikely to accept any promise to pay in the
future that was expressed in terms of a commodity other than money. It will have no idea
how much of that commodity it will need in the future and if it does not want it, it will be
faced with the trouble and risks involved in selling it. It is prepared to accept promises to

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pay in terms of money, because, whatever the patterns of the future be, they can be
satisfied if it has money.

1.3.2. Banking
Commercial banks borrow money from the public, crediting them with deposits of
money. The deposit is a liability of the bank that is money owned to depositors. In turn,
banks lend money to firms, households or governments wishing to borrow.

UNIT 2.
PRODUCTS, SERVICES, TRADE MARKS and
BRANDS
Objectives:
- get familiarized with specific terminology and concepts
In economics, market is defined as being the place for all potential customers to
share for a particular need or want. Marketing is the process of developing, pricing,
distributing and promoting the goods or services that meet the needs or wants of the
customers. When the activity of market research, new product development, distribution
advertising, promotion, product improvement and so on, are combined successfully the
product almost sells itself. This happens only when the product or service is better that
those of the competitors.
Marketing opportunities are generally isolated by market segmentation according to
customers needs and requirements, or buying habits. But the producers or service
providers must take into account the existence of competitors when they identify a target
market. The marketers have then to design their marketing strategies and plan their
marketing programmes and then organize, implement and control the marketing effort.
That can be considered classified as the 4 Ps: Product, Price, Promotion, and Place. There
are several elements to be considered in marketing a product: quality, features, style,
trade mark, brand name, size, packaging, services and guarantees; as for price, it includes
price list, discounts, the length of the payment period, possible credit term. Promotion
groups together advertising, publicity, sales promotion and personal selling; while place is
an integrated concept of distribution channels, coverage of the market, location of points of
sale, inventory size; another marketing plan step is to create long term demand on the
market by changing the particular features of the product to meet the customer needs or
market conditions.
Marketing can also influence or even change consumers needs or wants, by
regulating the level, timing and character of demand.
In the end of the Second World War, a new economic era began. The production
systems of the countries that had been at war had been destroyed, and in 1945 they began
an enormous effort to recover.
Today we can see the development of a wave of social change the third wave
which at the end of the war set in motion. Change is happening so fast that all
organizations, and especially companies, have to adapt constantly. The improvement in
peoples standard of living, the development of new technology and the growing pressure
of demand are a challenge which must be met.
Thus, no company can look-in on itself as companies used to do in the past. A
company cannot ignore the world around: it must become an open system in constant
intercourse with the society. In order to survive, then, the company must adopt a strategy

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of openness towards society in which it operates. This strategy will determine the existence
of exchanges (flows) with a variety of entities. Of course, this opening to the outside
requires a type of management which will always be aware of the large variety of
exchanges
generated: adaptive management that opens the company to the outside and uses the socalled instrumental cycle as an important technique.
The instrumental cycle defines three sequential and interactive aspects of decisionmaking:
- Planning, which consists of identifying the means the company has at its disposal,
looking for the best opportunities and the best way to take advantage of them.
- Organization which consists of the means by which the company puts its planning
process into practice.
- Control which makes it possible to assess the results obtained and compare them
with the results required.
Historically speaking, however, this change has taken place gradually. Company
slowly began to realise the need to open up to the market. This evolution is normally
considered to have four stages:
- production
- sales
- marketing
- social marketing
At the beginning of the century there was the first major explosion of demand. This
increase in demand naturally caused companies to expand a great deal. It was the age in
which mass production reached its height. As demand was high, the entrepreneur made
decision on the basis of the companys interests and internal information. No one was
concerned with the market as any product sold as long it was reasonably priced and of
minimum quality. So the main concern was production.
In October 1929, a deep crisis beset the economy of the USA. This crisis had
repercussions all over the world. The thirties began under the shadow of economic
depression. Faced with difficulties from the point of view of demand, companies had to try
a new course of action. It was no longer enough just to produce; production had to be sold
as well; the customer had to be pushed into buying.
What had to be done to increase sales?
Well, companies improved their manufacturing process, tried to reach new
markets and included psychology in the training of salesmen. Competition increased and,
with it, efforts were now begun to analyze the market and set up distribution systems.
Around the fifties, after the end of the Second World War, a new company
consciousness began to develop. While in the preceding period attention was paid mainly to
the companys need to sell, in this stage they began thought to the customers needs. This
is the so called marketing attitude. For the first time, there was market research and
studies, production planning, concern about determining prices, advertising campaign. The
emphasis was now on identifying the markets needs and values and adapting the company
to them to ensure its success.
More recently, the social outlook of the company has to led marketing to
concern itself with the more profound interests of the consumer and society. Concern of an
ethical nature has begun to appear.
Products and services are not an end to themselves but a means to towards
satisfying the customers wants and needs. That leads to the marketing concept that is a
programme to be completed. To achieve this, the concept is accompanied by two of its
basic components: integrated marketing and marketing management.
The first one is merely the transmission of the marketing concept to the whole
company. At a bank, for example, it means that all the departments recognize the effects
of their actions on attracting and keeping customers. Marketing management is the
analysis, planning, activation and control of the programme, designed to find out to satisfy
the wants and needs of the markets in question, while bearing in mind the company; and
marketing management is the development of the work needed to put it into practice.

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XII. Listen to the cassette, fill in the blanks, then translate and learn the
unknown words:
There is nothing particularly unusual about Place Dumon, a ________ square in
suburban Brussels, ringed by _________ shops. Until, that is, you notice how the locals
purchase their ___________. For they are paying for ________ spaces, picking up
newspapers at the Gavilan newsagent, _________ to the Antoine's bakery for a
__________ and even buying babies' _________ at the Minou's boutique, all without
reaching a single note or coin.
The reason is PROTON, Belgium's experiment in __________ cash. Proton is one of
the several "electronic ____________", being tested around the world. The e-purse is a
chip-based, or "____________" card that stores digital money which, its fans hope, may
one day, replace ___________ notes and fiddly coins in small purchases.
A smart card is ____________, thanks to the sealed-in high security chip. It stores
one's personal data as individually and characteristically as if it were one's ___________
Encrypted with one's personal, absolutely singular code, it makes every _____________ as
secure as if it were in a bank vault. Any attempt to crack this safe causes the chip to selfdestruct, automatically __________ the card.
A smart card is ______________. Everything it knows remains strictly confidential.
The chip makes sure of that - with sophisticated identification procedures and
___________ that protects one's confidential data against unauthorized access. A smart
card offers complete security, which makes it predestined for universal __________: it can
be used as an electronic wallet to pay for purchases, taxi _________ or hotel bills.
The chip cards now include a debit-card _________. Eventually a single card may
combine the e-purse with credit, debit and ________ cards. It is also developing special
telephones that would allow customers to _________ their cards at home. If a banknote is
lost, tough ________; if however, a plastic card is misplaced or broken, the ________ on it
can be reimbursed because all debits are logged centrally. Central _________ has
disadvantages too. Many customers may prefer to move _______ cash around without
their every transfer being logged. In addition, centralized schemes may prove more costly
to operate, making small transactions, including the purchase of small bits of information
and __________ over the Internet, uneconomic. Proton also faces complaints about
parochialism, as its chip can hold just one currency, while Mondex and Visa cards can store
value in up to five different _________ and it can present inter-operability. An _________
payment system will allow, say, a Belgium customer to spend his e-cash in Switzerland.
Most pundits think that important banking institutions will have to pair up in big payment
________.The two bank-owned groups - Visa and Master Card - are already around busy
buying up purse around the world, by taking controlling stakes in the domain, or absorbing
e-cash technologies.
But if the history of credit cards is a guide, no more than two or three of the smartcard schemes are ________ to win global acceptance.
stroll; newsagent; unique; signature; encryption; cobble; function; doughnut; discrete;
parking; smart; confidential; luck; digital; employment; software; currency; fare; loyalty;
accounting; virtual; crumple; outfit; quaint; balance; wares; reload; bit; void; network;
provider; integrate; likely.
Forms of money:
Choose the correct word to complete the sentences:
1. The pound, the dollar and the leu are called _________
a) cash; b) monies; c) reserves.
2) The currency that is used in a foreign country is called _______
a) money; b) cash; c) foreign currency.
3) Money that you borrow from a commercial bank is called ________
a) capital; b) loan; c) subsidy.
4. Money in notes and coins is called _________

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a) monies; b) capital; c) cash.

5) The whole amount of money received by a company or a person is called _________
a) income; b) wages; c) salary.
6. The money that you have to receive back when the price is lower than the denomination
of the banknote you give to the shop assistant is called ___________
a) cash; b) compensation; c) change.
7. Money earned by someone for a month's (professional) work is called _________
a) income; b)wages; c) salary.
8) A manual worker receives __________
a) income; b) wages; c) salary.
9). Retired persons receive ____________
a) pension; b) aid; c) subsidy.
10) When setting a new company you need ___________
a) loan; b) fund; c) capital.
11) You pay a loan to a bank regularly in _____________
a) a) fee; b) income; c) installment.
12. You pay a ___________ to doctors, lawyers, private schools
a) revenue; b) fee; c) capital.
13) Producers are sometimes helped to sell cheaper through ________
a) loans; b) reserves; c) subsidy.
14) A person can have a part of a business called _________
a) deposit; b) budget; c) stake.
15) Money kept in a ____________ for paying pensions is called _______
a) fund; b) deposit; c) budget.

EXERCISES
I. Choose the best alternative to complete each sentence:
1. You must keep staff _________ especially when things get difficult.
a) generated;
b) motivated;
c) frustrated;
d) electrified
2. Weigh up the _________of each alternative before deciding.
a) checks and balance
b) assets
c) pros and cons;
d) profits
3. A good manager must be able to handle _________situations.
a) sensible
b) impressive
c) touching
d) touchy
4. De decided to let things_________so he dropped the subject until later.
a) freeze b) ice over
c) cool down
d) flare up
5. She ______creating a better atmosphere amongst the staff.
a) set about
b) set off
c) set out
d) set down
6) We need to have ___________arrangements in case things dont work out.
a) container
b) contingency
c) consolidated
d) consecutive
7) In a meeting you must stop people talking at __________purposes
a) opposite b) angry
c) cross
d) opposing
8. Why doesnt he stick to the point? Hes always going off___________
a) at an angle
b) at a tangent
c) by the way d) on the side
9. Its always difficult when a team is working________a deadline.
a) in
b) at
c) to
d) opposite
10. Try to ensure that each employees _________is not too great.
a) workload
b) working practice
d) work-to-rule d) working party
11. Those who cant manage their time efficiently always have high stress______
a) grades
b) standards
c) performances
d) levels
12. The more responsibilities she _________, the more mistakes she made.
a) took off b) took on c) took down
d) took out
13. I hope the project continues to run as__________ as it has so far.
a) calmly
b) confidently
c) smoothly
d) wisely
14. After _______ many unforeseen obstacles they just managed to meet their deadline
a) overtaking
b) overcoming
c) overwhelming d) overriding
15. What can you do to improve__________in this department?

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a) morale

b) mortality

c) moral

d) temperament

II. Make the family words starting from the following:

competitive; consumer; investment; leadership; production; supplier; beneficiary;
advertising; management; business;
III. Fill in the blanks the following missing words: 1. money; 2. rules, 3.
competition; 4. need; 5. share; 6. abundance; 7. amount; 8. specific; 9.
demanding; 10. effectively; 11. marketing
Marketing begins with the consumer a)_________need. Something is produced in
response to that need. In a marketing society, the consumer b)__________. Marketing
societies have produced a great c)_________ and variety of consumer goods. They have
done this by means of d)_________. Each producer competes with every other producer
for a e)_________ of the market. The market is people who have f)_________ and are
ready to spend. But consumers have a finite g)________ of money to spend. They will buy
only what they want and need. As a nation becomes more developed, consumers become
more h)___________. Their needs become more i)_________specific, and they want
products that satisfy their changing needs. Only those producers who compete
j)___________ will sell their products and survive. Successful producers are guided by the
k)__________ concept: respond to consumers needs and wants.
IV. Match the following words with their definition:1. consumer; 2.
merchandising; 3. store-count-distribution; 4. distribution; 5. product-life-cycle;
6. brand awareness; 7. brand loyalty; 8. motive.
a) consumers well established preference for the brand; they continue to buy it despite
possible advantages of competing brands
b) moving goods from one place to another before their sale to consumers for example,
from producer to wholesaler; from wholesaler to retailer.
c) Sales promotion; paid promotion through minor media
d) One member of the market, the user of a product
e) Consumers knowledge that the brand exists
f) A desire that moves a consumer to act upon a need. The motive for a purchasing
decision may be conscious or unconscious, rational or emotional
g) The number of stores that carry a given brand
The four stages that a product typically goes through: introductory,
V. Fill in the blanks the missing words: 1.floor; 2. bids; 3. globalization; 4. negotiable;
5. events; 6. leader; 7. financial guarantee system; 8. electronically;

9. exchanges; 10. guarantee; 11. open outcry

The rapid opening of economies in the Central and Eastern European countries, as
well as the rapid a).................... of international markets and the subsequent opening of
commodity markets led to the demand for risk management tools. As a result, many
commodity and derivative b)..................... were formed as a starting point of a rapid
consolidation process. The Romanian Commodity Exchange became the c).............. in the
national market and has excellent terms with the world's major exchanges. It is the
founder of the Association of Futures Markets and participates in international professional
d)................. RCE shifted from the traditional open bidding system to the system by which
members trade futures contracts e).................... while at their offices. f) ...............and
offers are captured on a time-priority basis. The margin system means four levels of
g)................ which ensures the total safety of trading.
The electronic system operates only for the derivatives market, while the
transactions for spot, forward and auctions market are performed using the
h)............. ............ system. Trading takes place on the Exchange i).............. and the
brokers make bids and offers in the pit, in an open outcry system. Fees and commissions
are i)................... with the brokerage companies. Investors are protected by a

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j)............... ........... .............., exchange-clearing procedures and the transparency of

floor operations.
VI. Translate Into English:
A. BRM tranzacioneaz contracte spot i forward pentru cereale, produse petroliere,
produse metalurgice, deeuri. De asemenea, BRM organizeaz licitaii interne i
internaionale pentru mrfuri fungibile i non-fungibile. BRM se implic att n procesele de
privatizare, restructurare i lichidare, ct i n operaiunile comerciale de vnzare sau
achiziie de bunuri i servicii. Licitaiile se organizeaz att pentru societi comerciale
private ct i pentru societi la care statul sau o autoritate public este acionar.
Tranzacionarea mrfurilor are loc n ringul bursier prin sistemul strigrii libere.
Reprezentanii vnztorilor i ai cumprtorilor se ntlnesc fa n fa i negociaz liber
preul. Avantajele pieei fizice organizate n ringul BRM sunt: transparena, tranzaciilor,
corectitudinea acestora, comisioane mici, utilizarea informaiilor n timp real.
B. Mecanismul ce ofer posibilitatea transferului de risc la care sunt supui
productorii i angrositii se numete n termeni bursieri hedging. Activitatea de hedging
implic decizii importante care necesit participarea la tranzacii prin intermediul unui
broker. Pentru nceput, se depune o sum care reprezinte o garanie pentru o execuie
corespunztoare i pentru eventualele pierderi pe piaa futures. Dac acionai short
(vnzare) poziia dumneavoastr se mbuntete cnd preurile scad sub preul
dumneavoastr de vnzare i se nrutete atunci cnd preul crete peste preul de
vnzare. Dac acionai long (cumprare) pe piaa futures, poziia dumneavoastr se
mbuntete cnd preurile cresc peste preurile dumneavoastr de cumprare i invers.
Short hedge are loc atunci cnd planifici s cumperi o marf i doreti s te protejezi
mpotriva scderii preurilor. Atunci vinzi contracte futures i cnd vei fi gata s
tranzacionezi marfa, vei cumpra contractele futures i vei vinde simultan, de exemplu,
cereale. Short hedge protejeaz vnztorul mpotriva scderii preurilor. Vnznd contracte
futures putei fixa un pre pentru marfa dumneavoastr i vei completa operaiunea prin
rscumprarea contractelor futures i vnzarea simultan a mrfii pe piaa cash.

UNIT 3
ADVERTISING
Objectives:
-

get familiarised with specific terminology

and concepts

Because oral skills developed before reading and writing did, it is only natural that
the earliest advertising medium was the spoken word. There is evidence that criers and
hawkers were shouting their wares as far back as the days of the early Greeks, Romans
and Phoenicians. This primitive advertising refined over centuries, has carried down to the
present day. Although hawkers do not often roam the streets with their cries, they have
entered the home to make their pleas on radio and television.
Before long, competition and the need for identification necessitated signs. Signs
used identifying shops, with such appropriate illustrations as a goat (for a diary) or a mule
driving a mill (for a baker), were unearthed in the ruins of Pompeii. (At the door of a
schoolmaster there was a sign depicting a boy receiving a whipping!). There is also
evidence of announcements painted on walls during this period. These included notices for
theatrical performances, sports and gladiatorial exhibitions, advertisements of houses for
rent, and appeals to tourists to visit the local taverns. Perhaps the first written

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advertisement, however, was this three-thousand-year-old one inscribed on papyrus and

found by an archeologist in the ruins of Thebes:
The slave, Shem, having run away from his good master, Hapu the Weaver, all
good citizens of Thebes are asked to help return him. He is Hittite, 52 tall, of ruddy
complexion and brown eyes. For news of his whereabouts, half a gold coin is offered. For
his return to the shop of Hapu the Weaver, where the best cloth is woven to your desire, a
whole gold coin is offered.
There is no doubt that advertising flourished in this period, but with the fall of the
Roman Empire and the onset of the Dark Ages, advertising temporarily declined in
importance to Western civilization.
Perhaps the oldest relic of advertising among English-speaking people is family
names referring to the various specialized crafts. The earliest of these designations was
Smith. Names like Miller, Weaver, Wright, Tailor and Carpenter were the earliest means of
product identification- the forerunner of the brand name so essential to modern
advertising.
One of the most significant events in the development of advertising was the
invention of a system of casting movable type by the German, Jonathan Gutenberg, in
1438. Paper had been invented more than a thousand years earlier by the Chinese and was
introduced to Europe by the Turks in the twelfth century. Now all the necessary
components were available for mass printing. At the same time, literacy was increasing.
William Caxton, an early English printer, made advertising history in 1478 when he printed
a handbill now regarded as the first known printed English advertisement. It advertised a
book he had printed, the Salisburi Pye, rules for the clergy at Easter. The advertisement
read:
If it please ony man spirituel or temporel to bye ony pyes of two and thre
comemoracios of Salisburi use enpryntid after the forme of this present letter whiche ben
wel and truly correct, late hym come to Westmonester in the almonstrye at the reed pale
and he shal have them good chepe.
The Latin phrase at the end translates Let this notice stand.
Advertising, 4th edition, Mandell (Prentice Hall)
ADVERTISING IS COMMUNICATION
Advertisement goals are measurable and limited to a certain length of time, usually
one year. Sales are usually the only measurement of advertising effectiveness. But sales
depend on a lot of other factors. When advertising, communication are directed to a target
audience through information about the company and the product. The information creates
the readiness to buy the product.
The final goal of all advertising is to have consumers use the goods or services
advertised. In order to reach the advertising goals, there are stages that precede action of
buying.
The consumer must become aware that the product or service exists, then
understand what the product is and its benefits. The last step is to make him decide to buy
and to use the product or the service.
The buyer behavior model uses the language of computers to summarise the
decision process. The consumer admits the need he wants to meet. The need motivates
action, the search for ways to satisfy it. The search narrows to a specific product. Then the
consumer becomes aware of it, but it lacks information about it. The information and risk of
purchasing come under his consideration. The consumer decides whether to buy the
product. If satisfied, he or she may decide to use it regularly. If not, he begins to search
again.
ADVERTSING MEDIA
Print media deals with the use of space in newspapers, magazines, reviews, etc. It
has four elements: illustration, headline, copy block (body copy or text) and logotype. Its
main function is to provide news and information.
Space in printed ads is 60-70% dominated by illustrations, usually with a single
focus. Effective illustrations vary in form and content but they have several common

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characteristics meant to catch the attention of a target audience. Good illustrations should
convey the basic relevant idea of advertisement more directly and dramatically than words.
Photographs are considered more effective by far as they bring realism, immediacy,
they are less expensive to complete and more adaptable. Colour is usually used to better
motivate. Stimulating and warm colours are red, yellow and orange, while green and blue
are cool and relaxing. Some of them have symbolic meanings according to each nation
culture: dark brown is masculine, pastels are feminine, purple, deep red and gold are royal
and express quality, etc
Illustrations may represent the product itself, the package or the product in use to
demonstrate its benefit. It may also dramatize a situation, or it may have no content but
create a relevant impression.
Headlines are meant to draw the attention of the reader and are usually printed in
larger type letters than the body of the advertisement itself, or Capital letters. Headlines
can also draw the readers attention by the use of small letters, italics or punctuation
marks, such as quotations, question or exclamatory marks. It is advisable they be short,
using only one to six words in a single line so that the reader can easily grasp the idea at
one glance. Its message should apply to a
specific characteristic of the product or service advertised, not to others in the same
category. It is highly recommended that it should be closely related to the text and
photograph, being active in both form and content.
Specialized research recommend that the Body copy uses less than 20% of the total
add space. Its major function is to satisfy curiosity and stress instructions in a clear,
concise and personal way. In the end it suggests action: where to find the product or the
service advertised its price.
Logo represents the name and the symbol of a company, store, and brand. It is
meant to be recognizable in print advertisements. It uses little space.
The arrangement of elements on the page is the concern of the person who makes
the design of the print advertisement. They must work together in content in a logical and
aesthetical form. A good design will focus usually on the illustration or on the headline,
giving the reader a starting point and leading him into the very message of the
advertisement. The elements of the design should follow a natural flow.
Broadcast Media differs substantially from print media because its message is
intangible, it exists in time only. Its major function is to provide entertainment. A radio or
TV stations number of potential listeners or viewers is its coverage.
Radio provides ready-made target markets, for local and spot advertising. A spot is
one unit of air time. Radio time is classified by day parts: two drive times, housewife time,
weekend time, and evening time. On radio advertising interrupts, that is both strength and
weakness at the same time, an attention-getting device but also as a source of irritation.
Sound effects and music are attention-getters too. Radio gave birth to the jingle once, a
rhyme set to music, which is still a common type of radio commercial. The narrative
commercial is usually in the form of a humorous dialogue, under the form of celebrity
testimonials about the value of a specific brand. The celebrity claims personal use of the
product and satisfaction with it.
The interview commercial, either with a legitimate customer, or humorously,
with a pretend one, usually involves listeners imagination and support the product concept.
Effective radio advertising must comply with the listeners expectations. The
commercial has the function of informing the consumers about the product or service and
its benefits but also it entertains him through music, sound effects and humour.
Repetition of the brand name makes the listener remember it, and natural,
conversational language work best in helping him to visualize the product and package.
Television combines sight and sound showing real action, being true to life.
One way to buy time is through spot announcements that appear between programs, not
within them; they can run consecutively forming advertising clutters. Another way to buy
time is through sponsorship or participation. They are extremely expensive but they give
the opportunity of controlling over a certain type of program.

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The TV advertisers use several tools for making their advertisements efficient.
One of them is the time of the day (time for reach men is Saturday and Sunday afternoons,
children Saturday mornings, teenagers the late fringe period on Friday and Saturday
nights, etc). Another tool is the selection of certain programs offering opportunities to
advertisers (sports championship, multiepisode dramas, etc). The TV advertisement
guidelines are similar to the
Radio ones: they focus on an idea that is reinforced audioly and visually. The
advantage of showing action, keeps the viewers attention alive, and they feel that they are
watching a story: how to do something, or how something works. The demonstration is a
solution which is solved by the use of the product advertised, involving the consumer in a
real life attitude.
EXERCISES:
I. Fill in the blanks the missing words: 1. strategy; 2. similar; 3. feature; 4.
persuasive; 5. reason; 6. potential; 7. brand; 8. form; 9. objectives, 10. value; 11.
consumers; 12. motivation.
The advertising plan leads to adopting an advertising a)__________. Its
b)__________ will highlight the steps to be taken and the strategy will show the ways to
reach them. The advertising strategy is the main idea of the message that goes to
c)__________. Products in the same category are likely to be very d)________. It is
important to underline a difference or a benefit, that is to capitalize on a e)_________ that
will sell the product. Research should reveal why people like a particular f)________, or
what they look for in that product category. Then advertising can be built on that idea that
it should be strong and g)_________. Other advertisings use h)___________ as a
strategy. They look for the real i) __________ that consumers buy certain products. Other
stress image. still other believe it is the j)________ of the advertisement itself that
provides the best strategy. Some specialists pretend that advertising doesnt just inform
and persuade, but adds k)_________ to the product or service. It
supports the advertising objective of turning l)__________ consumers into actual
purchasers.
II Make the following statements True or False after reading the text:
Promotion is one of the four components of any marketing strategy, the other three
being product, place and price. Promotion itself is also considered to
comprise four elements: advertising, personal selling, sales promotion and public relations.
Industries and organizations vary greatly with respect to the relative instance they place on
the different elements in the promotion mix. For instance, in the cosmetics world Avon
Products Inc. emphasizes personal selling while Revlon Inc. emphasizes advertising.
In declining whether to buy or make regular use of a product, a prospective buyer
moves through five stages: awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, and adoption. Promotion
seeks to move prospective buyers through this process by informing, reminding, and
persuading customers about an organization and its products.
It is important to keep in mind that elements in the promotion mix must be
coordinated and linked together in such a way that they will complement and reinforce
each others impact on a potential customer. Each of the elements can play a particular role
in achieving the promotion objective. For example, advertising may be the best way to
create awareness of a new product, while sales promotions such as free samples may be
effective and encouraging trial of
the product. Answering prospective buyers queries, however, requires personal selling. The
relative importance of the promotion mix elements can vary over and certain forms of
advertising or sales promotion may come in and out of vogue.
1. Marketing strategy comprises promotion, product, place and price.
T/F
2. Advertising, personal selling, sales promotion, public relations are comprised in
promotion activity...........................T/F
3. Awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, adoption are the four stages of prospective buyer
evaluation when declining whether to buy or not....T/F

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4. Informing, reminding and persuading customers about products they are aware of,
represent an important strategy of advertisement....T/F
5. Promotion mix will complement and reinforce each others impact on personal
selling.............................T/F
6. Sales promotion may be effective and encouraging to create awareness of a
product..............................T/F
7. Personal selling is required for answering prospective buyers queriesT/F
8. Forms of advertising and promotion may come in and out of vogue.T/F
III. Look into the dictionary for the specific terminology: and make sentences of
your own:
A: price-cuts; free gifts; coupons; samples; cash rebates (money-refund offers) premiums;
Consumer contests; consumer sweepstakes, additional product deals; trading stamps;
consumer exhibitions
B. sales meetings; sales contests; point-of-purchase display; trade shows; store
demonstrations; special services; dealer contests and premiums; dealer salespeople
incentives
IV. Choose the best alternative to complete the sentences:
1. The task of the public relations department is to project the right___________for the
company.
a) painting
b) image
c) picture
d) drawing
2. When the product was launched they issued a press _________to all the news
agencies.
a) escape
b) issue
c) release
d) promotion
3.According to the code of practice, a public relations officer should not
knowingly______________false information.
a) disseminate
b) dissociate
c) dispose
d) dissolve
4. Some companies entertain journalists more __________than others.
a) lasciviously
b) largely
c) leniently
d) lvisly
5. The use of such things as logos and colour__________helps to maintain a corporate
identity.
a) schemes
b) systems
c) styles
d) fashions
6. We need to liaise more with politicians and___________ servants if we want the
government to agree to our plans.
a) official
b) polite
c) civil
d) civilian
7. $2000,000 was _____________for the official opening of the new store.
a) set aside
b) brought about
c) set off
d) laid up
8. Sponsorship can be an effective way of promoting____________towards an
organization.
a) will
b) goodwill
c) willingness
d) goodness
9. At a press reception dont _____________guests with irrelevant material.
a) overload
b) override
c) overtake
d) overcompensate
10. The reception must be held at a convenient______________with good transport and
parking facilities.
a) revue
b) venue
c) view
d) venture
11. When making a presentation to a relatively small ____________an overhead projector
can be invaluable.
a) asistance
b) spectator
c) audience
d) congregation
12. Within a large organisation a well-designed___________-journal is an effective method
of communication.
a) in-house
b) home
c) household
d) plant
13. Participating in local events, such as carnivals, is a good way of developing
__________relations.
a) common
b) commonplace
c) communal
d) community
14. We used every __________of communication to get our message across.
) flow
b) stream
c) channel
d) canal
15. We have to highlight our strengths and __________any weaknesses.

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a) play up

b) think through

c) play down

d) talk back

VI. Match the type of advertising with their description: a) informative; b)

persuasive; c) collective /generic
1. - it involves publicising a type of product rather than a brand. This is often undertaken
by trade associations. The use of collective advertising often indicates a product for which
demand has been falling;
2. it is concerned with giving information, e.g. about timetables, changes in prices or new
Government legislation
3. it aims to get people to buy a product in order to increase sales. Advertising of goods
such as petrol is often included in this category because the competing products are
virtually identical. It is often used to establish and maintain brand names. The term
competitive is sometimes used to describe advertising, which aims to increase a particular
firms market share.
VII. Match the specialized terminology with their definitions: 1. full service
advertising agency; 2. communication research; 3. creative department; 4.
copywriter; 5. layout; 6. storyboard; 7. setting; 8. closing date; 9. coverage; 10
spot; 11. avail, 12. commercial; 13. fringe; 14. slogan; 15. brand; 16. trademark;
17. market segmentation.
a) evaluation of advertising effectiveness before and after a campaign
b) the form showing planned placement of elements in a finished advertisement;
c) layout for TV. It sketches the sequences of events in a commercial
d) the number of potential radio listeners or TV viewers
e) a time slot or availability purchased by a radio advertiser.
f) An agency that handles a wide range of advertising and merchandising services,
often all but personal selling
g) Period before (early fringe) and after (late fringe) prime time
h) a unique phrase identified with a company or brand
i) Any word or symbol that identifies the maker of a product. It I protected by law.
j) A name, a sign, symbol, design, term or combination of these that differentiate on
companys products from anothers., one manufacturers product, so distinguished
from others in the category.
k) The advertising agency department that oversees all work on copy and illustrations
l) Where a television commercial takes place
m) A person who writes the words for print advertising and broadcast commercials
n) Dividing the market into homogenous subgroups for the purpose of
o) making marketing more efficient by focusing on appropriate target markets.
p) The deadline for submitting finished advertising to the media
q) A broadcast advertisement
r) one unit of air time
EXERCISES
I. Match the missing words: 1. finance; 2. future; 3. profit; 4. securities; 5.
allocate; 6. commercial; 7. activity; 8. corporation.
A company must allocate its available funds among various uses based on financial
plans. Such plans assume that the funds spent will produce sufficient profit in order to pay
interest on debt capital and to earn a satisfactory income on their equity capital. Another
task of business finance is the management of a companys surplus funds. These are
usually invested in commercial paper or in short-term notes or bills that pay interest.
Proper analysis and planning are necessary to assure that the funds will be available where
they are needed in the business at a future date.
Stock markets or exchanges are associations of brokers and dealers in securities who
conduct business together. They facilitate the financing of business and government activity
by bringing together the buyers and sellers of stocks and bonds. A corporation creates
(issues) shares of stock to represent ownership claims in the corporation. Stockholders
know that the value of their stock will fluctuate with the value of the assets owned by the

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corporation and with the business prospects of its operations.

II. The work of the wholesaler consists of buying goods from the manufacturer
and selling them in small quantities to retailers according to their requirements.
The retailer performs the last stage of the productive process, for it is he who
puts the goods in the hands of the actual consumer. They both perform valuable
functions which justify their existence in the chain of distribution. Separate their
functions:

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f) In the course of his main business,

the seller performs many services for
the convenience of the customers, all
of which help to build up goodwill.
Where the good is not in stock, he will
order it, and in other matters where
contact with the manufacturer is
necessary, the seller will often act for
the customer. Thus goods are
returned to the manufacturer for
repair, or he himslf mai maintain a
repair service.
g) They take the goods to where it is
most convenient for an easy reach of
the customer. They are congregated
together in the centre of most towns,
though, with goods such as groceries
which are in everyday use, small
shops are often dotted around
rsidential districts. Where customers
are very dispersed, as in the country
districts, the seller may have
travelling shop of some form or
another.
h) He often advises the manufacturer,
particularly as regards advertising and
marketing the product. He himself can
advertise, especially if the good is
being imported from abroad.
Moreover, he acts as a channel of
information to and from retailers.
i) What is the right good depends on
the customer, for different people
have different tastes, and what suits
one may be undesirable to another.
Thus having the right good depends
largely on stocking different varieties
of the good so that each customer can
make his or her own choice, pay for it,
and take delivery there and then.
j) He maintains close contact with his
customers. From them he discovers,
either through a chance remark in the
course of converation or by direct
suggestion, how a good could be
improved or what type of good people
would like. This information finds its
way to the manufacturer, who will
probably act upon, and eventually the
modification or the new good will be
produced.

a) Since many shops, especially

those stocking a large variety of
goods, order their suppliers in
small quantities, it is not
economical for each producer to
sell directly to the shop, Such a
practice would mean employing
many salesmen and
representatives, packing many
separate parcels and making
numerous transport journeys.
b) Manufacturers abroad could
rerely be bothered to ship small
parcels to individual retailers or
to undertake the foreign currency
transactions involved. These
tasks are left to a wholealer, the
import merchant who is known
and trusted. Often the import
merchant goes abroad to
establish and develop trade
connections.
c) Customers like the convenience
of being able to obtain a good at
a shop just when they require it.
But such ready service means
holding stocks. Often, however,
the retailer has neither the
facilities nor the financial
reserves to do this. So he leaves
it to the wholesaler, knowing
that, should there be a sudden
run of good, he can quickly
obtain supplies from him.
d) With many products, particularly
vehicles and machinery, the
manufacturers insist that the
wholesaler provides an efficient
maintenance service, such as
minor repairs, periodic overhauls
and carrying a range or spare
parts. In this way both the
manufacturer and the customer
benefit. The former can
guarantee quality of
e) service and thereby preserves
the reputation of his product,
while the latter knows that his
machines can be repaired quickly
and efficiently by a local agent.

III. Match the following types of retail outlets with their description:
1. independents; 2. Multiples; 3. Supermarkets; 4. Hypermarkets; 5. Department
Stores; 6. Co-operatives; 7. Mail-Order.
a) Urban congestion, lack of adequate parcking space and rising rents out-of-town

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shopping centres to cater for the car-borne weekly shopper.

b) Can be defined arbitrarily as organizations of ten or more shops. They can sell a
particular sort of goods. Their chief advantages are that they can obtain the
economies of bulk buying and centralised control, eliminate the wholesaler, invite
instant recognition through their standardised shop fronts and establish a reputation
through brand names.
c) They sell by agency and illustrated catalogues, purchases ususally being arranged
through weekly interests-free payments. Over one-half of all sales are accounted for
by women clothing and household goods.
d) They are mainly small shops with no other branches and they account for two-fifths
of the total sales through shops. Yet, in spite of their advantages of individual
attention to customers, handy locations for quick shopping trips, and the
willingness of owners to accept a lower return of the benefits of being their own
boss, they are steadily losing ground to the larger stores.
e) They may be defined as self-service shops. While organisationally they would count
as multiples, their share of the food trade warrants separate attention. They
accounted for half th grocery trde and a third of total retail food sales. They secure
the benefits of economies of scale, low labour costs, a clear and attractive display of
merchandise and bulk buying to the extent of their own labelling. As a result they
have highly competitive prices, allowing them to gain ground rapidly.
f) Competition from multiples has forced them to alter somewhat the traditional picture
of separate departments under the control of a buyer enjoying some degree of
autonomy (which led to the epithet many stores under one roof). Instead, a more
streamlined approach with an increasing degree of bulk-buying by central office,
more self service and extended credit facilities, have allowed them to retain an
important percentage of the market.
g) A group starting trading by subscribtion. Profits are distributed to members in
proportion to their purchases. They charge the current market price for their goods.
This type of retailing is chiefly important in the marketing of agricultural products,
where production is carried on by many small farmers.
IV. Match the following missing words in the text: 1. communicating; 2.
wholesaling, 3. transactions; 4. managed; 5. distribution; 6. exchange; 7. digital;
8. information; 9. environement; 10. corporate; 11. service.
Electronic commerce is not a new concept. Companies and consumers have been
using electronic media to conduct commercial a)___________ for years. To date, electronic
commerce has been inhibited by high costs and complexity and the lack of standard
applications for viewing and shareing b)_________ once connected. The Internet,
specifically the World Wide Web, has changed this scenario radically. Connectivity over the
Internet is cheap, increasingly secure and built on standards which make c)___________
with anyone a straight forward task. Now, Internet commerce - the d)_______________
of goods and services for value on Internet is evolving into a more cost-effective and
powerful way to do business.
Business-to-business-commerce includes online e)__________, where business sell
goods and services to other businesses on the Web. In Internet-based corporate
f)___________, wholesaling merges into a system where individual employees make
purchases of office materials and supplies using the corporate supply chain trading.
Business work closely together via the Internet to automate and streamline the supply of
goods for production and g)__________.
In business-to-consumer-commerce companies market physical goods to consumers
online in a more personalized, dynamic h)___________. Business-to-consumers-commerce
increasingly includes the delivery of i)_________ goods - software, electronic media, and
information. Consumers also look more frequently to the Internet for the delivery of
j)_________, including ticketing, reservations and financial services. In short, Internet
commerce business-to business and business-to-consumer will dramatically impact the
way goods and
services are k)__________, bought and sold all the way from from manufacturer to
consumer.

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V. Match the following specialised words with their definitions:

a) auction; b) access; c) capital; d) annual report; e) charge; f) bar code; g)
agency; h) allowance; i) barter j) cost;
1. to obtain data from or to place data into a computer memory
2. the business carried on by a commercial agent.
3. a tax free amount that may be deducted before a particular tax is calculated
4. the annual accounts and directors report of a company issued to shareholders
5. method of sale in which goods are sold in public to the highest bidder
6. a bar consisting of an array of parallel rectangular bars and spaces printed on a
package for sale in a retail shop.When a laser scanner is pased over the bar code at
the retailers check-out till the price and description of the goods are displayed on
the till screen and the computer-controlled stock record is simultanously reduced.
7. a method of trading in which goods or services are exchanged without the use of
money
8. the total value of the assets of a person less liabilities
9. a legal or equitable interest in land, securing the payment of money.
10.
an expenditure, usually of money, for the purchase of goods or services
Translate into English:
A.
a) "Hrtii de valoare" este un termen generic pentru nscrisuri - de regul
transmisibile - care atest c posesorul lor este titularul unui drept reprezentnd o valoare
determinat. In sens restrns, prin hrtii de valoare" se neleg aciunile i obligaiunile.
Obligaiunile sunt titluri de credit reprezentnd o crean dintr-un mprumut pe
termen lung consimit unei persoane juridice emitente a acestor nscrisuri. Deintorul
posed o crean de o anumita suma pe o durat stabilit i remunerat printr-o dobnd
determinat, fr a fi legat de rezultatele financiare ale debitorului. Exist i categorii
speciale de astel de titluri, ca de exemplu obligaiuni participative - legate de beneficiile
emitentului - sau obligaiuni convertibile n aciuni ale acestuia.
Este cunoscut c guverne, organisme internaionale (ca Banca Internaional pentru
Reconstrucie i Dezvoltare i bnci regionale), societi industriale i comerciale, instituii
financiare apeleaz n prezent pe o scar larg la acest mijloc de finanare. Hrtiile de
valoare pot fi:
-titluri la puttor (titles on bearer) a cror simpl posesiune valoreaz titlul. Aceasta
este forma cea mai larg rspndit, oferind avantajul transmiterii (conveyance) directe,
necondiionate.
-titluri nominale, care confer drepturi numai persoanei pe numele creia sunt
nscrise n evidene speciale, putnd fi transmise doar dac sunt ntrunite anumite condiii
i se ndeplinesc o serie de formaliti.
Hrtiile de valore pot fi manipulate direct de deintor sau se pot constitui n depozit
la firme specializate, care le administreaz conform dispoziiei titularului. Negocierea
acestor nscrisuri se face n general n cadrul burselor de valori.
B.
Sistemul de conducere a activitaii economice a cunoscut mai multe etape. La
nceput, proprietarul, detintorul de capital conducea ntreprinderea, organiza producia,
asigura aprovizionarea tehnico-material. Managementul acestei etape se baza n principal
pe intuiie, bun simt, tradiie i experien, avea prin urmare un caracter predominant
empiric.
Creterea complexitii produciei, a concentrrii acesteia conduc la un proces de
dedublare: conducerea laturii tehnico-organizatorice este lsat tot mai mult pe seama
"functionarilor specializai n managementul financiar".
O etap caracteristic economiei contemporane este concentrarea ntr-un grad
extrem de nalt al capitalului, dezvoltarea informaticii, caracterul tehnologiei. Treptat, se
dezvolt instituia manageriala a cunosctorilor profesioniti ai produciei.
(Ion Petrescu; Erno Domokos-Management General- 1993, Editura Hyperion)
XI. Translate into English:

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A. Compania de Bere Romnia a desemnat o nou agenie de publicitate pentru

marca Ursus Focus Publicis. Decizia este rezultatul unei analize profunde a pieei de
publicitate, pe durata a dou luni i a licitaiei la care au participat 8 companii de
advertising. Decizia face parte, de asemenea din politica CBR ca ageniile cu care
colaboreaz s fie rennoite dup o anumit perioad pentru a surprinde mereu
consumatorul prin noutate i originalitate.
B. Dou noi branduri de cafea vor fi promovate printr-o campanie de comunicare
integrat care creaz atmosfera unic a rii de origine a cafelei: o Brazilie
autentic, tradiional. Campania de lansare a lui Amigo Especial i Amigo
Tradicional a fost conceput i dezvoltat de agenia Tempo Advertizing. Aceast
decizie a fost luat ca urmare a studiilor de pe piaa cafelei. Cafeaua mcinat i
ambalat are o pondere de 49% din aceast pia i de aceea s-a hotrt
extinderea investiiei pe acest segment.

PART IV
INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS
ISSUES
UNIT 1
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY
and
INTERNATIONAL BODIES and PROGRAMMES
The two World Wars convinced statesmen that some form of political unity was
desirable, and in 1949 the Council of Europe was created - the basis, it was hoped, of a
European Parliament. But organizations with definite functions - the Organization for
European Economic Co-operation, The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (1949) and the
Western European Union (1954) proved more fruitful than did the Council of Europe with its
broad aim.
Although these organizations involved co-operation, they were merely voluntary
associations, not federal bodies exercising supra-national powers in the interest of
members as a whole. While federation was the ultimate aim of European statesmen they
realized that it could only proceed piecemeal and on a functional basis. The first supranational organization, the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was formed in 1951
to control the whole of the iron, steel and coal resources of the six member countries France, West Germany, Italy, Holland, Belgium and Luxembourg. The old divisions created
by inward-looking national interests were thus broken down.
The success of the ECSC led to the setting up in 1957 of the Atomic Energy
Community (EURATOM), a similar organization for the peaceful use of atomic energy, and
the European Economic Community (EU), an organization to develop a "common market"
between the six member countries.
The 1957 Treaty of Rome set up a "community" whose government and institutions
were developed from those of the old ECSC.
Maastricht Treaty on European Union came into force on 1 November 1993 stating
the aim of creating a European Union founded on the previous Communities. The Treaty of
Amsterdam in 1997 had improved policies and forms of cooperation among the Member

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states.
The Union is served by a single institutional framework to "ensure the consistency
and the continuity of the activities carried out in order to attain certain objectives while
respecting and building upon the acquis communautaire" The union autonomous
institutions was created by the Community Treaties in order to make them able issue
legislation binding as law throughout every Member State. A Court was also created to
exercise judicial control over relationship between the community institutions and the
Member States ready to be invoked not only by the states and Community institutions but
also by private individuals against their own governments and national legislation.
The Member States and the candidates to accede to the European Union have to be
European and their system of government be founded on principles of democracy, liberty,
respect of human rights and fundamental freedom and the rule of law. The founder
members are France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. In 1973
they were joined by the United Kingdom,
Ireland and Denmark (though Greenland are of Denmark left the Community in 1985), in
1981 by Greece and in 1986 by Spain and Portugal. In 1995, Austria,
Sweden and Finland acceded to the European Union. As a result of 1994 referendum,
Norway decided not to join the Union, but it remained a member, together with Iceland and
Liechtenstein, of the European Economic Area. (EEA).
These countries participates effectively in the single market of the European Community
concerning the free movement of goods, persons, services and capital and apply the bulk of
EC's economic and social legislation, but they do not participate directly in the EC's
institutional structure as the Maastricht Treaty introduced the concept of a "two-speed" or
"variable geometry" Community.
The Commission is the most important body of the EU as it is now called. Its thirteen
members act as an independent body in the interests of the Community as a whole, and
not as representatives of the individual governments that have nominated them.
The Commission is responsible for formulating policy proposals, promoting the
Community interest, trying to reconcile national viewpoints and implementing Community
decisions.
Each member country sends a cabinet minister (usually the Foreign Secretary) to the
Council of Ministers. This is the supreme decision-making body. Its task is to harmonize the
policy of the Commission and the wishes of the member governments. Thus while the
Commission drafts community policies; they have to be approved by the Council before
they can be implemented. On matters of major importance, which affect vital national
interests, the rule in practice is usually that decisions shall be unanimous. If the Council
becomes deadlocked, the Commission reconsiders the proposal in order to meet some or
all of the demands of the opposing countries.
It consists of ten judges appointed for a six-year term by agreement among member
governments. Its task is to interpret the Rome Treaty and adjudicate on complaints,
whether from the member states, private enterprises or the institutions themselves. Its
rulings are binding on member countries, community institutions and individuals.
This is a body of 410 elected members that sit according to party affiliation, not
nationality. The Assembly debates Union policies and also examines its budget.
The over-riding aim of the EU is to integrate the policies of its member countries. Its
economic policy is based on two main principles:
1. Customs union
2. a common market
There is a crucial difference between a free-trade area and a customs union. The
former simply removes tariff barriers between member countries but allows individual
members to impose their own rates of duty against outsiders. A customs union goes
further. While it too has internal free trade, it also imposes common external tariffs. The EU
has a customs union since this is essential for an integrated common market. Otherwise
goods would enter the market through low-duty countries and be resold in those imposing
high rates.
The common market of the EU envisages moving goods and factors of production
completely freely within the Union through the operation of the price system. Member

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countries had already developed their own individual taxes, welfare benefits, monopoly
policies, methods of removing balance of payments, full employment policies and so on. If
such differences were allowed to persist they would tend to disrupt the working of the
pricing system because they would give some members of the Union an advantage over
others. Furthermore, it is
the Commission which is entrusted with the negotiation of international agreements on
behalf of the Union, even if they are ultimately concluded by the
Council.
But one of the major duties of the Commission is to ensure that the provisions of the
European Community Treaty and the measures taken are applied. In its unique position of
proposer and enforcer of the Community legislation, the Commission has the opportunity to
fulfill this duty in the legislative process and subsequently in ensuring the observance of
the legislation itself.
The members of the Commission must neither seek nor take any instructions from
any government or from any other body. The bulk of the legislation of the European
Community is not enacted under the provisions of the Treaties themselves, but under
powers delegated to the Commission or to the Council itself. If the Commission considers
that a Member State has failed to fulfill an obligation under the Treaty, it shall deliver a
reasoned opinion on the matter after giving the State concerned the opportunity to submit
its observations, and the state concerned does not comply with the opinion within the
period laid down by the Commission, it may bring the matter before the Court of Justice.
Under the E. C. Treaty, it is the Court which determines whether it is a breach.
The interests of the Member States at the Community level are represented also in
the Council of European Union. It consists of a team of the responsible regional ministries
of each Member State. The participants may be also accompanied by other officials on
events. Each delegation may have up to 9 members. There are relatively few provisions
allowing the Council to act by a qualified majority, so the co-decision procedure was added.
Qualified majorities involve a system of weighted voting, approximately related to the size
of the Member State.
The European Parliament is the only directly elected international institution in the
world. The Community legislation does not emanate from the Parliament, but the co
decision procedure, introduced by the Maastricht Treaty means that legislation is adopted
jointly by the Council and the Parliament. The role of the Parliament appears to have been
quite effective: some 6o per cent of the European Parliament's amendments to proposed
legislation are accepted in the final version. Since 1979 the European Parliament has been
elected directly by the citizens of the Community. The seats are nevertheless allocated to
each Member State. Lately, after the Germany reunification, the relative representation of
the Big Member States has increased as compared to the smaller ones.
The members of the Parliament group themselves according to political ideology
rather than national origin. The current groups are;
- Party of European Socialists
- European People's Party (Christian Democrats and Conservatives)
- Group Union for Europe
- European Liberal Democratic and Reformist Party
- Confederal Group of the European United Left
- Green Group
- Group of the European Radical Alliance
- Europe of Nations Group
- Non-attached

1.1. Enlargement of the European Union

When considering the background of the enlargement of the European Union to the
countries of Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) it is important to remember the historical
ties which bind Europe together. In a period when Western Europe enjoyed peace and
growing prosperity, Central and Eastern Europe was locked up behind the "iron curtain".

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The integration of Europe East and West before the WWII was not only political and
administrative; Europe was also integrated economically, that can be demonstrated through
economic statistics as well as through the records of individual companies. But the history
of Europe since the Second World War was marked by a forced division of the continent
decided by the Allied leaders meeting in Yalta in 1944, certainly against the will of their
peoples who suffered the consequences of this division for the next 45 years.
In the 1980's as reforms in the communist centrally-planned systems became more
general (without reforming the basis political one-party system or giving democratic rights
to citizens), it became commonplace in intellectual circles to argue that the reforming
communist system was an acceptable alternative to the capitalist market economy system.
This was the opposite feeling of that developing to the east where citizens are becoming
more and more aware that the criminal, corrupt and inefficient system of one-party rule
and central-planning, held together by the power of the Soviet army, must be swept away.
Until 1989, questions of geopolitics had gone completely out of fashion in Europe.
The European architecture was clear and constant: Western Europe, defended by NATO
alliance and gradually integrating economically in the European Community stood opposite
and stretching from the Elbe to the Barents Sea and from Murmansk to the Black Sea. The
scope for the expansion of either bloc was extremely limited in the shadow as of the
nuclear deterrent.
The changes which have taken place since 1989 have led, in the first stage at least,
to the break-up of the Soviet empire and the freeing of the states of Central and Eastern
Europe from the Soviet occupation. The result has been, of course, that that the former
satellite countries of Central Europe, having regained their freedom, had looked for their
places in the European Union. "The ten associated countries which have Agreements with
the European Union and all of which have applied for membership do not however, form the
Eastern limits of Europe. Russia, the Ukraine, Belarus and Moldavia are also clearly
European and must be considered in any new geographical map of Europe."
(Emerson, 1996)
The countries of Central Europe freed themselves from Communism through their
own efforts and with only the moral support of the Member States of the European
Community.
As it became clearer and clearer that integration into the structures of the European
Union became the objective of these countries, more and more problems raised: the course
of the reform and its costs, security and migration, etc. Overall, however, the policy of the
EU has been supportive to the challenges of the economic and social reform. The
Unpreparedness of the Western countries in the year of the revolution can be evaluated by
considering officials and unofficial documents at the time. At the European Council in
Rhodes in December
1988, the heads of the Member States and governments produced a declaration of the role
of the division of our Continent by some general steps: develop the
Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), promote disarmament in
Europe and promote the respect of human rights. At the Madrid Summit six months later,
the Central and Eastern Europe does not figure amongst the main points of the agenda.
There is only a summarily treated chapter entitled "Political Cooperation" The Summit came
after the Polish elections and after Gyula Horn, the Hungarian Foreign Minister, had ordered
the removal of the border controls between Hungary and Austria.
The first coordinated western response came in the G7 Summit meeting in Paris in
July 1989, which was convened in the follow-up to both the developments in Poland and
Hungary and the human rights violation in China. The G7 leaders stated that "we offer the
countries of the east the opportunity to develop balanced economic cooperation on a sound
commercial basis consistent with the security interests of each of our countries and with
the general principles of international trade" (G7 Declaration, Summit of the Arch, Paris
July 1989)
The opening of the inner-German border and the fall of the Berlin Wall were clearly
indicating a major look of further measures to support reforms, including the creation of
the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) designed to play a

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significant role in the transition in Central and Eastern Europe, and the opening up of
Community programmes in education, training and technology.
At the Summit in Strasbourg in December the European Council enforced
commitment to the coordination of assistance for the newly come nations in Europe. It
followed the creation of PHARE programmes which was meant to implement economic and
aid measures to support the process of reform in Poland and Hungary, in particular by
"financing or participating in the financing of projects aimed at economic restructuring"
(Council Regulation 3906/89). Assistance was extended to the more eastern countries that
were added. Romania had to wait another year before being admitted, owing to the unclear
situation following the 1990 elections and miners movement.
The decision to offer Association Agreements to Romania and Bulgaria underlined
clearly the policy of the Community towards the countries of Central Europe which set out
on the course of the reform.
The question of future enlargement of the Community was extensively dealt with at
the Lisbon European Council in June 1992 and a joining calendar was proposed.
The Association Agreements became the basic legal instruments of the relationship
between the European Union and the associated countries of Eastern Europe. They state
the responsibilities of the Community and of the Member States that were ratified by the
European Parliament and by the European Council.
All the Association Agreements with CEE states have the same structure. The
Preamble states the reasons why the parties are making the agreement, lists past
agreements which are taken into consideration and makes references of general nature. It
underlines the common values of the two parties and the common commitment to
strengthening political and economic freedoms. In the Preamble and the "General
principles" are also brought some conditionality of the full association that is linked with
progress of free trade and complying with the rules of GATT, some references to the world
Trade Organization, to the Partnership for Peace agreement.
The objectives of the agreements cover the most important elements of any strategy
towards the full integration of the countries into the European Union and provide certain
markers against which to measure performance.
The Preamble
Objectives of the agreement
Title I general principles of the agreement
Title II: political dialogue
Title III free movement of goods
- Chapter 1: industrial products
- Chapter 2: agriculture
- Chapter 3: fisheries
- Chapter 4: common provisions (trade protection instruments)
Title IV: movement of workers, establishment, supply of services
- Chapter 1. movement of workers
- Chapter 2: establishment
- Chapter 3: supply of services
- Chapter 4: general provisions
Title V: payments, capital, competition and other economic provisions, approximation of
laws
- Chapter 1: current payments and movement of capital
- Chapter 2:competition and other economic provisions
- Chapter 3: approximation of laws
Title VI: economic cooperation
Title VII: cooperation in the prevention of illegal activities
Title VIII: cultural cooperation
Title IX: financial cooperation
Title X: institutional, general and final provisions

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(Alan Mathew, Recreating Europe The European Union's Policy

Central and Eastern Europe; Cambridge University Press, 1998)

towards

They establish that respect for democratic principles and human rights and of the
market economy, lay down economic reform. The transition has the purpose of legal
adaptation in areas where immediate change is not possible or not desired. Historic
arguments are worth considering when about the enlargement. Most of the countries of
Central Europe have suffered throughout history by being sandwiched between
expansionist powers and Russia and Prussia or Germany. Today, the situation has changed.
All governments in the region feel the need to be bound in to NATO and the European
Union for security reasons as well as the more obvious economic and political reasons.

1.1.1 Accession Problems

The most important objective of accession strategy is the transforming the

economies from centrally-planned dictatorship to market economy democracies. The
achievements in the area of the democratic process proved to be somewhat less difficult
and less controversial than economic and social reforms. In all the associated countries free
and fair elections led to normal changes of the
governments. The one-party system is evolving as different parties gain and lose their
support, leading to shift in alliances and government crises.
In economic area, the progress has been also remarkable. Much of the dynamism
that the economies have shown has been due to the expansion of an entrepreneurial
private sector. The associated countries have all introduced measures to ensure that
legislation is progressively adopted, but legal problems are considerable, partly because of
the shortage of legal experts in the associated countries and partly because of the
relatively restricted assistance which the Member States of the Community and the
Community institutions can make available.

1.2.2. Accession Strategies

The objectives of the associated countries to accede to the Union under certain
conditions became clear with the European Council at Copenhagen. Although these
conditions could be realistically fulfilled, they rather limited the enthusiasm of the
associated countries.
The Union aimed at helping the associated countries meet their requirements
namely the existence of a functional market economy, the ability to understand the
competitive pressures inside the Union and the stability to take on obligations of
membership (the acquis communautaire).
The Council at Luxembourg in 1997 decided the countries to start negotiations for
joining the EU and the "Agenda 2000" a complete and rapid time table. But while the
timetable for the opening negotiations is more or less confirmed, there was no real
indication of a date of accession. Clear political changes in policy in the associated
countries could mean delay, if they prove to be incapable with membership of the Union.
Specific strategies to prepare for accession were set by the applying countries. Systems
have been developed to make sure that new legislation conforms to EU law, and timetables
were drawn up for the adoption of the key pieces of legislation. But the adoption of the
acquis communautaire is likely to be a complex process, as it is not simply a legal
approximation of legislation. It is changing both the legal framework in which society and
economy operates and revolutionizes the institutions of the state. Each piece of legislation
involves a transition until citizens or economic operations adapt completely to it. Associated
countries need to review their strategies periodically, decoding more resources to them and
tightening up timetables. They are also supposed to discuss their negotiating position
between themselves to make sure that there is some common position on the macro
politics of transition period, even though different countries need to be considerable
lobbying of the Member States in order to get this positions accepted by the Union. The
associated countries are to develop plans to inform the public of the needs and implications

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of accessing to the Union. Certain social groups need particular attention. The business
community in each country needs to be helped to understand and plan for the changes
which will come before and at accession. Much of this work falls to the government, due to
the weakness of chambers of commerce and other business organizations.
The first sort of criteria is set in the world of macroeconomic policy. They concern for
objectives of inflation, government deficit, reduction on the stock of government debts and
in certain circumstance, the balance on current account. Further criteria, of a more
macroeconomic type are set relating to privatization, the degree of state or private
monopoly, and the level of state subsidies. Interim targets are set jointly by the
Commission and the country concerned and the programmes are checked annually. If
targets are missed, joint discussion seek to
analyze the causes and the interim targets for the following year are adjusted
correspondingly.
The second sort of criteria is even more complicated to set and to monitor. Each year
agreed areas of approximation is tackled and the associated countries themselves are in
the control of the agenda, as they decide the sequencing of priorities, specific for their own.
Every piece of legislation the associated countries take over from the Union is a farreaching impact on the reform process, and on economic growth. Giving priority to
economic growth and reform is not only important for the associated countries. It will be
easier for the Union to integrate countries which are developing quickly and which are
rapidly becoming more like the older Member States in terms of market economy than if
the countries are very poor and reform is beginning to buckle under the weight of poverty
and deprivation.
However, the needs of the transformation process in the associated countries in
specific sectors will mean that the transition periods should be as limited as possible, but
most include those policy areas where rapid alignment would curb investment and
economic growth.

1.1.3. Conclusions

Enlargement is a win-win process, as it is a process necessary in order to complete

the reintegration of the European Continent and to ensure peace and stability on the
continent. But it will also bring economic benefit for the new Member States. Integration is
a process which is transforming CEE countries into normal middle-income European
countries after more than 45 years of central planning and separation. The
internationalization of the associated countries must go well beyond their integration into
the European structures. The associated countries have to decide their own political and
economic policies and achievement is done only by accession.
Enlargement to include the CEE countries is meant to lead to the stronger European
Union, with stronger political influence in the world and a stronger economy. The flexibility
beyond the core policies of the Union is also meant to determine the development of new
policies. The centralization of power to Brussels will be effectively controlled by the growing
influence of the regions and an increase in their own power. The future of the Continent
depends on the success of enlargement and for this reason it must be the central objective
of European policy in the coming decade.

1.2. PHARE Programme

Originally, PHARE Programme was set in 1989 to assist Poland and Hungary, but
extended for the applicant countries of Central and Eastern Europe as a pre-accession
instrument financed by the European Union. Now it covers currently the needs ten
countries of the recently joining 8 countries the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia,
Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia and the two countries that are to join the
European Union in 2007: Romania and Bulgaria.
The programme is meant to assist the massive restructuring their former centrally
planned economies and political change. Phare support was reoriented to the aim of

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Eastern European countries' membership of European Union, for their market economy
expansion and infrastructure investment.
The pre-accession priorities lighted by the accession Partnership Agreements
represent the National Programmes for the adoption of the Acquis in
the candidate's country time table. The timing and the costs are evaluated and the steps
implications and financial resources needed are planned. The Phare objectives set originally
in 1989 were further refined in the coming years:
1. strengthening public administration and institutions function effectively inside the
Union
2. adoption of Acquis Communautaire and shorten transition period
3. promotion of economic and social cohesion
New programmes were created: SAPARD and ISPA undertook rural and agricultural
development and transportation. This way it became possible that PHARE programme focus
on its key priorities only. 2003 was the final programming year for the new 8 Member
States although projects have covered 2005 too, although they have undertaken full
responsibility for the management of PHARE projects through a process of extended
decentralization.
The key requirements for enlargement for the applying countries are to
implement and comply with the Community legislation so far reaching improvements that
are needed for their administration and judiciary based on professionalism and mentality.
Democratic institution building activities focus on the weaknesses identified at
central, regional and local level, and on the transfer of the know-how and investment.
The process of transferring "know-how" to develop structures, strategies, human
resources and management skills is needed to strengthen the applicant countries'
economic, social, regulatory and administrative capacities. 30% of PHARE financing sources
are allocated for this purpose and are mainly deployed and implemented with member
states through Twinning projects.
The instrument of Twinning is based on the priority areas identified by monitoring
and regular reports prepared for enlargement. Twinning projects provide technical and
administrative assistance to newly joining countries and candidate countries and also help
in building wider contacts with practices inside addresses to improvement cover long and
medium term assignments. The projects provide civil servant expertise from member
states for assignment of up to eight months, with possible but limited extensions.
Around 35% PHARE resources are also allocated for institution building involving
physical investment. Support money is invested in key regulatory institutions whose
equipment or infrastructure needs to be upgraded in order to monitor and enforce the
acquis communautaire. But this sort of investment is only made on the basis of a clear-cut
government strategy and commitment on public administration reform, modernization and
governance supported as necessary by Institution Building involving transfer of know-how.
Nation al programmes of the applying countries account for the most of the PHARE
budget as it indicates the priorities and the time table needed to adopt the acquis or fulfill
the accession criteria. This process continues with Bulgaria and Romania until their
accession.
Cross-border assistance of PHARE in the applicant countries is meant to overcome
specific economic and social developments in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe
and within their own national economies. The programme has been extended to cover
Bulgaria with Turkey and the Bulgarian and
Romanian borders with their adjacent countries Ukraine, Moldova, Serbia, Montenegro
and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.
PHARE Multi-country Programmes have increasingly been integrated into national
programmes too. The largest of these have been developed in co-operation with
International Financial Institutions and deal with the promotion of
small and medium-sized enterprises and intermediary banks are encouraged to provide
finance for the partner countries in the field of Monitoring and Evaluation, Statistics,
Environment and Institution Building in fraud fighting.
Phare Programmes are planned centrally, but implemented in a decentralized way,
i.e. by candidate countries. Decentralization involves responsibility transfer from the

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Commission to the Contracting Authority in the recipient country, which becomes

responsible for tendering the contracting as well as the financial and administrative
management of the projects.
Erasmus Programme is a studentship, exchanger and trainings programme based
on a wide student organization. Its goal is to support and develop student exchange
knowledge and experience for its member states. Its local sections and over 2500 members
in 27 countries work in Higher Education Institutes (Universities, Polytechnics, and
University Colleges). Erasmus Student Network (ESN) members mainly act and support
social and practical integration of Exchange students, and provides relevant information
about academic exchange programmes and ESN resources. It also makes its contribution to
the celebration of different exchange programmes.

2. INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

The evolution of modern-nation societies and international order inevitably gave rise
to questions of international cooperation. Diplomatic representation became more
widespread as the system expanded and political and economic relationships multiplied.
But it became evident that only diplomatic contacts in themselves were unable to cope
completely with the complexity of the international system, so the concept of international
conference appeared and developed as a form of extended diplomacy. Conferences dealt
with problems that at least two or three countries were interested in and an international
treaty or formal peace resulted. The Peace of West Westphalia was the first major instance
of this in 1648 that ended the thirty-year-old. The wars of Louis XIV and the Napoleonic
wars, a century later were terminated similarly by international agreements of interested
powers. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 is considered as a significant turning point as it
marked the first systematic attempt to regulate international affairs by means of regular
international conferences (El Eriam, Legal Organizations, p 58)
The Congress system lasted and institutionalized not only the balance of
power approach to politics, but also a semi-formal international order. Then, world affairs
were influenced to a large extent by periodic conferences held in Europe until the outbreak
of the II WW. The conferences of this period (The Paris conference of 1856, and the Berlin
gathering of 1871 dealt with Balkan problems) led to the establishment of international
institutions.
The 19th century witnessed a considerable growth in international nongovernmental associations such as the International Committee of the Red Cross founded
in 1863 and the International Law Association (1873). They represented a wide-range
committee of interests on specific topics and an awareness that international corporation
must be effective, as they created the machinery for regular meetings and established
permanent bodies. These organizations work to influencing governmental activities and
stimulating action, and they fulfilled an increasingly felt need for more complex methods of
international co-operation and regulation in an inter-dependent world.
In 1865 the International Telegraphic Union was set up and nine years later
the Universal Postal Union was also created. They combined the activity of permanent
bureaus with periodic conferences with decisions being taken by majority vote that marked
a step forward since unanimity process was
needed. The nineteenth century was marked by the proliferation of such public
international unions covering transportation, communication, health and economic cooperation which laid the basis for contemporary international institutions. But the
innovation of the past century has been, of course, the creation of the global,
comprehensive organizations of the League of Nations, and the United Nations which was
the culmination of the pioneering work of the private and public international unions that
required some form of central co-ordination. The development of the United Nations into a
real world authority has been beneficial in the long run by the gradual increase in its
influence and responsibility in all fields of international peace and security.
The League of Nations created in 1919 sought to promote international cooperation, peace and security upon the basis of disarmament, the peaceful resolution of
disputes, a guarantee of the sovereignty and independence of member states and
sanctions. But although an international organization, it never became universal. It stayed

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to all intends and purposes a European-centered institution and it was formally dissolved in
1946.

2.1. The United Nations

It arose as an attempt to remedy the defects of the League organization. The series
of war-time declarations and conferences culminated in the San Francisco conference in
1945 which finally adopted the United Nations Charter. The newly established international
organization has proved to be one of the major innovations of the 29 th century in
international relations, not only in the use of force, but also with regard to wide-ranging
economic and social co-operation among states.
The General Agreement for Tariffs and Trade (GATT) arose out of an international
conference held at Havana in 1947-8 at which was established the International Trade
organization. The arrangements operated on the basis of bilateral approach to trade
negotiations coupled with unconditional acceptance of the most favored nation principle
(the most favorable benefit obtained by one state are passed on to other states). A series
of tariffs and trade negotiations rounds were held under its auspices that offered a package
approach to trade negotiation, and a wide variety of tariff reductions was achieved. The
eight rounds, termed the Uruguay round in 1986, concluded with the signature at
Marrakech on 15 April 1994 of a long and complex agreement covering a range of
economic issues, such as agriculture, textiles and clothing, rules of origin, import licensing
procedures, subsidies, intellectual property rights, and procedures on dispute settlement.
The GATT continued until the end of 1995, when it was effectively subsumed with changes
as GATT within the World Trade Organization.

2.2. Regional Institutions

The proliferation of regional institutions, linking together geographically and

ideologically related states since the end of the Second World War, has been impressive.
The outset of the Cold War stimulated the growth of regional defense alliances and block
politics. NATO and its various linking organizations covering the Middle and Far East,
confronted the Warsaw Pact. Regional organizations developed to reflect common interests
in a superpower Organization of American States and the Organization of African Unity. But
it was in Europe that regionalism became most constructive and political. The
establishment of the European Economic Community, in particular, was intended to lay the
basis for a resurgent Western Europe with meaningful economic and political integration.
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization was created in 1949 to counter possible
threats from the East. It associated the United States and Canada with 14 European
powers for the protection, in essence, of Western Europe (although Greece and Turkey are
involved). By the Treaty the parties agreed to consult where the territorial integrity, political
independence or security of any of them has been threatened and accepted that an armed
attack against one or more of them in Europe or North America should be considered an
attack against all.
The alliance consists of a Council which is the supreme organ and on which all
members are represented and a series of civil and military committees covering all aspects
of security work.
The ending of the Cold War brought about a variety of changes in the organization. A
North Atlantic Co-operation Council (NACC) was established in 1991 with the membership
consisting of NATO states and former members of the Warsaw Pact countries, including the
successor states to the USSR. In 1994 a partnership for Peace Programme was inaugurated
within the framework of NACC. Countries participating in the Partnership for Peace signed
Framework Document, affirming their commitment to the preservation of democratic
societies and the maintenance of the principles of international law, to fulfill in good faith
the obligations of the UN Charter and the principles contained in the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights and to respect the existing borders. NATO has, in in-cooperation with the
Western European Union, helped in implementing UN sanctions in the former Yugoslavia
and currently leads the multinational implementation force (IFOR) in Bosnia in enforcement
of the Dayton Peace Agreement of 1995.

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The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) was originally
created in 1975 following the Helsinki Conference of European Powers (plus US and
Canada) that established some basic principles of behaviour among the participating
states: sovereign equality, prohibition of threat or use of force, inviolability of frontiers,
territorial integrity of states, peaceful settlement of disputes, non intervention in internal
affairs and respect for human rights. The Final Act is not a binding treaty but a political
document, concerned with three area of "baskets" being security questions in Europe; cooperation in the fields of economics, science and technology, and co-operation in
humanitarian fields. The diplomatic conference in Helsinki had regular follow-up meetings,
but it was only in the late 1980s that it began to assume a coherent structure.
The Charter of Paris for a New Europe signed in 1990 provided for the first standing
institutions: the Conflict Prevention Centre in Vienna, the Office for Free Elections in
Warsaw (now renamed the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights) and the
Secretariat based in Prague. Further institutional steps were taken at the Budapest Summit
in 1994 when the organization was renamed the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe as from January 1995. The organization has established Missions to
assist in dispute settlements. In March 1995 the Conference on the Pact on Stability in
Europe adopted a Final Declaration, which, together with some 100 bilateral and regional
cooperation agreements, represents an attempt to mitigate tensions. The Declaration
contains a commitment to act against intolerance and discrimination which the agreements
include dealings with cross-border co-operation, economic, environmental and minority
protection issues. The pact is supplemented by measures to be taken by the European
Union and is integrated within OSCE system. In the event of difficulties over observance of
the agreements, the states participating in the Pact would rely on existing OSCE
institutions and procedures
for settling disputes peacefully, including the Court of Conciliation and Arbitration.
The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was established by Russia, Belarus
and Ukraine in 1991 to which eight other former Republics of USSR adhered so the
organization now comprises all the former Soviet Republics apart from the three Baltic
States. The organization is set on respect of the territorial integrity of member states and
upon co-operation particularly in safeguarding international peace and security and
implementing effective measures for the reduction of armaments. A large number of
agreements have been signed by the member states on a variety of subjects, including
prevention of drug smuggling and terrorism, but many of these agreements have not been
ratified.
After the II WW the Organization of American States emerged and built on the 1947
Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance signed at Rio de Janeiro, and the 1948 Pact
of Bogot which is the original Charter of OAS which was amended in 1967 by Buenos Aires
Protocol in 1985 by the Cartagena de Indias Protocol and by the 1992 Washington Protocol
and the 1993 Managua Protocol. The organization comprises currently 35 member states
and it is the most developed of the regional organizations outside Europe, but without any
of the supranational powers possessed by the European Union.
The Arab League was created in 1944. It encourages regional co-operation in
economic, cultural and social issues. Its headquarters is based in Tunisia.
The Organization of African Unity was established in 1963 in Ethiopia dealing with
economic, health, defense, educational and scientific matters amongst others. Its liberation
committee is based in Dar es Salaam to assist the various liberation organizations. The
OUA has faced considerable problems in reconciliation member states' policies that led to
Morocco's withdrawal or to the noticeable unsuccessful mediation attempts in the Chad civil
war.
The Eastern European former communist countries had their own organization such
as Warsaw Pact, which mirrored the NATO organization and Comecon (the Council for
Mutual Economic Aid). Both of them have disintegrated with the collapse of the Soviet
system.
The Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) was created in 1967 on both
political and economic aims. Its members: Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, the

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Philippines, Brunei and later Vietnam affirmed their commitment to peace and peaceful
settlement of disputes.

2.3. Norms and Legal practice of international

organizations

The different types of international organizations have brought their contribution to

the norms and practice of international law. This is particularly true as for the United
Nations with the universality of membership and extensive field of activity and interest. It
is worth noting the importance of international legal norms with the operations of these
organizations. The constituent instruments in dealing with international affairs are the
treaties that are particularly relevant.
An important aspect of the role of international organization in the world order is the
possession of international legal personality. Once established, the organization becomes
subject of international law and thus capable of enforcing laws, rights and duties as distinct
from operating merely within the confines of separate jurisdiction. Legal personality of the
organization may be inferred from the powers or purposes of the organization and its
practice. The attribution of international legal personality to an international organization is
important in establishing that organization as an entity operating directly upon the
international stage rather than obliging the organization to function internationally through
its member states. Many constituent instruments of international organizations provide that
the organization in question shall have personality in domestic law so as to enable it, for
example, to contract or acquire or dispose of property or to institute legal proceedings in
the local courts or to have the legal capacity necessary to exercise its functions. This issue
also arises as to whether states that are not parties to the treaty in question and thus not
member states of the particular international organization are obliged to recognize the
personality of such organization. This can be achieved either directly by entering into an
agreement with the organization and a headquarters agreement permitting the
establishment of the organization within the jurisdiction, or indirectly, by virtue of the rules
of private international law. By virtue of this approach, adopted in most legal systems, a
domestic court will determine the legal status and capacity of a legal person by reference
to the applicable or proper laws, which will be in the case of international organizations,
international law. Thus, if the organization had personality under international law, this
would suffice to establish personality under domestic law.
The very nature status and autonomy of international organizations will depend
primarily upon the terms of their constituent instruments or constitution under which they
are established. These are the multilateral treaties, since they are binding agreements
entered into by member states. They have a special character since they are also methods
of creation of new subjects of international law. However, far-reaching powers are not
ascribed to the international organizations so as not to lead to conflicts with member states
and third parties, as well as not to undermine the internationally recognized nature and
scope of the organization.
The international Institutions are governed by the principle of speciality and they are
invested by the states which created them with powers the limits of which are a function of
the common interests whose promotion those states entrust to them. Such powers may be
expressly laid down in the constituent instruments or may arise subsidiary as implied
powers, being those deemed necessary for fulfillment of the functions of the particular
organization.
An important question is the capacity of international organizations to conclude
treaties which is usually governed by the rules of each international organization.
Responsibility is also a necessary consequence of international legal personality of the
organization, and the resulting possession of international rights and duties. Such rights
and duties may flow from treaties or from principles of customary international laws. The
precise nature of responsibility will depend upon the circumstances of the case but also
analogies drawn from the laws of state responsibility with regard to the conditions under
which responsibility will be imposed.

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International organizations relate to their own legal requirements. They can be held
responsible, inquiry arising out of a breach by the organization of an international
obligation deriving from a treaty provision or principle of customary international law.
Analogies can be also drawn from the general rules relating to state responsibility with
regard to the condition under which responsibility is imposed.

3. The Nature and Development of the

International Law

Societies have created for themselves a framework of principles within which to

develop. The rights and obligations have all been spelt out within the consciousness of the
communities. Law is that element which binds the members of the societies together in
their adherence to recognized values and standards.
It attempts to create a framework which can act as a shock-absorber clarifying and
moderating claims and endeavoring to balance interests. Just as any domestic community
must have a background of ideas and hopes to aim, so the international community must
bear in mind its ultimate values. It is both permissive, in allowing individuals to establish
their own legal relation with rights and duties, and coercitive as it punishes those who
infringe its regulations. Law consists of a series of rules regulating behaviour, and reflecting
the ideas and preoccupations of the society within which it operates. The subject of
International laws is nation-states, not individual citizens. There are many contrasts
between the law between states, international organizations and, in certain cases,
individuals. International law is divided into private international law and public
international law. The former deals with the cases within particular legal systems in which
foreign elements raise questions as to the application of foreign law or the role of foreign
courts. If an Italian business man concludes a contract in France, to sell goods, any Italian
court would apply French law as regards the terms of the contract. By contrast, public
international law is but a separate system altogether. The mistake is to confuse courtesy
laws, specific for different nations, or morality which is a branch of ethics.
International law is generally considered an emanation of a recognized body to
legislate or create laws and implemented by a hierarchy of courts with compulsory
jurisdiction to settle disputes over such laws and an accepted system of enforcing those
laws.
International law has no legislature. The resolutions of United Nations are not legally
binding on anybody save for certain of the organs of the United Nations for certain
purposes. There is no system of international courts, except the International Court of
justice at the Hague, but it can only decide cases when both sides agree and it cannot
ensure that its decisions are complied with. It is important, but only peripheral to the
international community. Above all, there is no executive or governing entity. The Security
Council of the United Nations, which was intended to have such a role, has at times been
effectively constrained by the veto power of the five permanent members: USA, now the
Russian Federation, China, France, and the United Kingdom.
International law does not state a unified system of sanctions, but there are
circumstances in which the use of force is regarded as justified and legal. Within the United
Nations system, sanctions may be imposed by the Security Council upon the determination
of a threat to the peace, breach of the peace or act of aggression. Such sanctions may be
economic or even military and the states themselves decide whether to take action on the
extent of their measures as there is no supreme body to rule on their legality, although
international law does lay down relevant rules. Neither must it be forgotten that the current
trend in international law is to restrict the use of force as far as possible, thus holding to
the absurd result that the more force is controlled in international society, the less legal
international law becomes.
While the legal structure within all but the most primitive societies is hierarchical and
authority is vertical rather like a pyramid with the sovereign person or unit in a position of
supremacy on top, the international law system is horizontal consisting of over 180
independent states, all equal in legal theory, and reorganizing no one in authority over
them. International law is primarily formulated by international agreements, which issue

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rules binding upon the signatories, and customary rules which are basically state practices
recognized
by the community at large as laying down patterns of conduct that have to be complied
with.
International law can only constitute a neutrally understandable specific vocabulary
and suggest possible solutions which follow to a study of its principles. The principle of
auto-limitation, on self-limitation, states that states could only be obliged to comply with
international rules of they first agreed to be so obliged. In abroad sense, states accept
laws, as without that, no such a system could possibly operate.
But the inextricable bonds linking law and politics must be reorganized. The
formulation of policy and the method of enforcement are distinctive within developed
societies in order to prevent a concentration of too much power within the same branch
which makes laws and creates the legal systems. A number of factors also operate to
conceal and lessen the impact of politics upon the legal process. Foremost amongst these is
the psychological element of tradition and the development of the so called law-habit. The
arbiters of the world order are, in the last resort, the states and they make the rules,
interpret and enforce them.

3.1. International Law Today

In the second half of the 2oth century the complexity of life has multiplied so
international law has developed in many directions. International law is a result of its
environment, as human community has developed certain specific sets of values, social,
economic and political.
There are many instances of how modern developments demand a constant
reappraisal of the structure of international law and its rules. The regulation of space
expeditions, the divisions of ocean floor, protection of human rights, management of
international financial system, preservation of peace embrace all interests and aims of
contemporary international life and international law. Its determining factor is the
characteristic of the international political system that needs the acknowledgement of the
rights of other: which leads inevitably to a system of their regulation.
International law faced with radical changes in the world structure of power and had
to come to terms with new ideas that could no longer be ignored.
The Eurocentric character of international law has been weakened in the late 50
years and the needs of other cultures and civilizations have begun to play an increasing
role in the evolution of world juridical thought. The basic state-oriented character of the
world politics and international law is reflected by the principles of non intervention in
internal affairs, territorial integrity, non-use of force and equality of voting in the United
Nations General Assembly. But there are also many cut-cross state borders factors that
generate tensions such as economic relationships, human rights, new technological forces.
The growth of positivism in the 19th century focussed concern of the international
law upon sovereign states. But the new approaches of the 20 th century regarding
international relations extended the role played by non-state entities, such as individuals,
multinational firms and international institutions. The developing concern with human
rights is recognition of individual responsibility under international law without the
interposition of the state. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the United
Nations in 1948 lists a series of political and social rights, although it is only a guide line
and not legally binding as such, prior to perestroika that denied that individuals may have
rights as distinct from duties against the state they belong to. Thus, while states remain
the primary subject of international law, they are now joining by other non-state entities,
whose importance is likely to grow in the future, such as regional organization. They
develop a regional international law sub-system within the original universal framework.
The range of topics covered by international law has expanded with the upsurge in
difficulties faced and the proliferation in the member participants within the system. The
specialized problems of contemporary society have begun to represent concerns of the
International law: economic development covering financial matters, environmental

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despoliation, space exploration, exploitation of ocean resources and deep sea-bed,

bureaucracy of international institutions, international labor standards, health regulations,
communications controls, etc

EXERCISES
I. Find the key words in the following text and then draft the main ideas it
conveys:
Despite its increased visibility, the International Monetary Fund remains a mysterious
presence on the international scene. Considerable confusion reigns about why it exists and
what it does. Some observers, confusing it with the World Bank, are under the impression
that IMF exists to subsidize economic development in the poor nations. Others imagine it
as an international central bank controlling the creation of money on a world scale. Still
others regard the IMF as a powerful and disapproving political institution, imbued with
missionary zeal for fiscal rectitude, which somehow compels its members to tread a path of
economic austerity.
The IMF is in fact none of these. It is neither a development bank, nor a world
central bank, not an agency that can or wishes to coerce its members to certain things. It
is rather a cooperative institution that 182 countries have voluntarily joined because they
see the advantage of consulting with one another in this forum to maintain a more stable
system of buying and selling their currencies so that payments in foreign money can take
place between countries smoothly and without delay.
The IMF is the enemy of surprise. Members of the IMF believe that keeping other
countries informed of their intentions regarding policies that influence payments by the
governments and residents of one country to those of another, rather than making a secret
of such policies, is to everyone's advantage. They also believe that occasionally modifying
those policies (by reducing export taxes, for instance), when fellow members agree that
this is in the common interest, will help international trade to grow and will create more
and higher-paying jobs in an expanding world economy. The IMF lends money to members
having trouble meeting financial obligations to other members, but only on condition that
they undertake economic reforms to eliminate these difficulties for their own good and that
of the entire membership.
Contrary to the widespread perception, the IMF has no effective authority over
domestic economic policies of its members. It can, and often does urge members to make
the best use of scarce resources by refraining from unproductive military expenditures or
by spending more money on health and education. There is no question of forcing a
member to adopt any policy. Whatever authority the IMF may possess is confined to
requiring the member to disclose information on its monetary and fiscal policy and to
avoid, as far as possible, putting restrictions on exchanging domestic for foreign currency
and on making payments to other members.
Its members have given the IMF some authority over their payments policies
because these policies are of paramount importance to the flow of money between nations
and because experience has confirmed that without a global monitoring agency, the
modern system of payment in foreign currency simply does not work. Changing money is
the central point of financial contracts between nations and the indispensable vehicle of the
world trade. Each currency, be it the dollar, franc or the Gambian dalasi or Haitian gourde,
has a value in terms of other currencies. The relative exchanging values of the world's
major currencies now fluctuate continuously and are reported daily in the financial columns
of the newspapers. Although the operations of the exchange market, where money (much
the same as such commodities as wheat or apples) is bought or sold, may seem remote
from daily life, these operations deeply affect
us all. Most commonly, we experience the reality of exchange values abruptly when we
travel abroad as tourists and find we must first buy local money before we can buy

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anything else. Purchasing foreign currency is a fact of life not only for tourists, but also for
importers, bankers, governments and other institutions that must acquire foreign currency,
often on a very large scale, before they can do business abroad. No country restricts the
exchange of its national currency into another nations money, and this greatly facilitates
international trade.
The current confident expectations that one currency will be converted into another
on demand makes it difficult to imagine circumstances in which this was not the case. And
yet it was largely in reaction to circumstances of widespread inconvertibility and related
exchange problems that the international community decided over 50 years ago to work
out these problems in a common form that was to become the International Monetary
Fund.
(External Relations Department, Publications Services International Monetary Fund,
Washington DC, USA).
II. Match the words with the gaps in the text:
1. assistance; 2. promote; 3. projects; 4. finance; 5. instrument; 6. funds; 7.
granted; 8. support; 9.debt; 10. backing.
One of the most important banks in the world is the World Bank, its official name
being the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. The bank was projected
to a) ____ economic development and reconstruction. It was formed in order to b)
__________ the European countries whose economies were affected by the World War II.
The bank was created on July 1944 and began operations in 1946 and first granted credits
to post World War II economic c) __________. It has as its main goal to lend assistance to
governments or private enterprises with government d) _________. Many of the loans e)
__________ were given so as to assure the fulfillment of specific projects as: introduction
of electric power, water supply and transportation. But by the late 20th century agricultural
development became its focus of lending and as a result, Poland's agriculture got credits so
as the state to f) ___________________ agriculture in order to help to the country's
economic expansion.
It lent g) ___________ also to Romania whose government received financial
support for the growth of the economy. Many of the loans received helped Romania build
modern roads and ensure the development of some specific h) _________.
A series of institutions were created to make loans easier to obtain by nations
heavily in i) __________. The World Bank is an j) _________ designed to help the world to
have a united economy and to create the spirit of community between all countries.
III. Match the words with the definitions:
a) indicator; b) budget; c) investment; d) liability; e) assets; f) equity capital.
1. claim on the assets of a company or individual excluding ownership Equity. It
represents a transfer of assets or services at a specified or determinable date.
2. technical measurement securities market analysis use to forecast the markets direction
such as investment advisory sentiment, volume of stock trading direction of interest rate,
and buying or selling by corporate insiders.
3. The part of the share capital of a company owned by ordinary shareholders.
4. The purchase of capital goods, such as plant and machinery in a factory in order to
produce goods for future consumption
5. financial plan setting targets for the revenues, expenditures of an organization for a
specified period.
6. any tangible or intangible object, that is of value to its owner. It is either cash or it can
be turned into cash.
I. Translate into English:
Nevoia pentru o organizaie ca Fondul Monetar Internaional a devenit evident n
timpul Marii Crize care a distrus economia mondial n anii 1930 i care a avut un impact
foarte puternic asupra tuturor formelor vieii economice. Bncile au dat faliment cu miile,

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preurile din agricultur au czut sub preurile de productie, fermele abandonate s-au
transformat n locuri slbatice, fabricile i-au nchis porile, flotele ateptau n porturi
ncrctura care nu avea s vin, i zeci de milioane de muncitori umblau pe strzi n
cutarea unei slujbe.
Criza a fost la fel de distrugtoare pentru lumea nevzut a finanelor i a schimbului
monetar. Lipsa de ncredere generalizat n banii scripturali (fiduciary money) a dus la o
cerere pentru aur ce nu a putut fi acoperit de trezoreriile naionale. Un numr de naiuni
au renunat la etalonul aur, acest lucru conducnd la complicarea schimburilor comerciale,
cundu-se chiar modalitai de plata gen barter (o locomotiv pentru 100 tone cafea), ceea
ce elimina folosirea banilor n totalitate.
Cooperarea internaional se impunea, prin stabilirea unui sistem monetar inovativ i
a unei instituii internaionale care s-l monitorizeze.
Harry Dexter White din SUA si John Maynard Keynes din Regatul Unit, propun un
asemenea sistem la inceputul anilor '40, sistemul urmnd s ncurajeze convertirea
nerestricionat (unrestricted conversion) a unei valute n alta, s stabileasc o valoare
clar i fr echivoc pentru fiecare valut i s elimine restriciile i practicile gen
devalorizare competitiv (competitive devaluation).
Dup o perioad lung de negocieri n condiii dificile impuse de rzboi, comunitatea
internaional a acceptat sistemul i organizatia care s-l urmreasc: 44 de ri i-au
trimis delegaii reunii la Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, SUA, n iulie 1944. FMI i-a
nceput activitatea la Washington DC n mai 1946, avnd 39 de membri.

PART V
INFORMATICS TECHNOLOGY
1. INFORMATICS TECHNOLOGY
From ancient times, people have always needed to count, measure things of their
life. They also have needed tools and techniques to help them keep records accurately:
tapes, slides, rules, sextants, weighting scales, clocks, etc.
The computer is the latest calculating and recording device in the mankind history.
The amount of work they do is quick and reliable, as the speed of its work is measured in
millions of operations per second. Computer is becoming smaller faster, cheaper, more
reliable and easier to use. Nowadays it covers the human needs in business, education,
health care, art, design, government and entertainment, being a general purpose machine,
as it can operate over a few hours as a typewriter, desktop publishing studio, sound and
video editor, accounts tracker, e-mail sender, internet browser. Computer responds to
programs that are conceived to make it meet the needs of human by means of processing
the input to obtain the output. Any information going into a computer is converted into
numbers that are added together in various ways and combinations under the set of rules
that is called software, one of the main components of the computer system; the other one
is the hardware that includes all the physical units that make the computer work.
Computers fall into a number of different categories. One of the ends of the
spectrum is the mainframe that matches the needs of big corporations as they run with no
interruption, performing extremely complex calculations. The most well known are the
personal computers (PC) that come into various shapes and sizes. The desktop is the most
commonly used. It includes a system unit, a screen and a keyboard, as separate
components. Business people can use now a laptop or a notebook computer. They have
been provided lately with liquid crystal displays (LDC) or touch screen. Medium size

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enterprises can use nowadays minicomputers that offer greater processing power, storage
capacity and reliability. Network computers or (servers) are the big computers meant to
administer, support and protect the security the computer network.
The system unit is the essential component of the computer. It houses the processor,
various memories, a fan which is designed to keep the whole unit cool. Nowadays the
system unit is designed to stand vertically, on the floor tower, or it is built underneath the
keyboard in a laptop.
The two main types of memory are the Random Access Memory (RAM) used to carry
out given tasks, often called working storage. The main memory holds the list of
instructions currently working on, the input information on which it is working and the
interim output. The measure units for its capacity are the byte. One byte consists of eight
bits. Additional memory can improve the performance of the computer. The other type of
the memory is the Read-Only-Memory (ROM) where the PC stores its low level programs,
particularly the instructions necessary to start the computer. The main device for storing
information is the hard disc that records it magnetically and keeps it until it is changed or
deleted. It uses a read/write head that detects the polarization of particles on the disc
revolving at a constant high speed, getting or retrieving information onto it.
Documents can be transferred from one computer to another by using a diskette, the
so-called floppy-disk. But nowadays, software is most often supplied on CD-ROM (Compact
Disk Read-Only Memory) that provide more storage capacity, as programs have added
functionality because they may include graphic and other multimedia elements. A newer
type of CD-ROM is the CD-Rewritable disk, or CD-RW that can be used for writing data to
them more than once. But CD-ROMs are now being overtaken by DVDs (Digital Versatile
Disk) which look similar, but have a great more storage capacity. The information is
encoded on the CDs by using a CD Writer and detected by a laser beam. The zip-drive is
another kind of high capacity removable disk that uses either magnetic technology or laser
technology. All of them are often referred to as "backing storage" or "secondary storage".
Most of the computer systems use three essential peripherals: the key board and the
mouse (used for input) and the screen (used for output). The keyboard makes the
information and instruction enter the computer. The programs give continuous feed-back
on their progress and display their output on the screen or the monitor that is the visual
display unit (VDU). The programs are also represented on the screen as Graphical User
Interface (GUI) gooey that includes files, functions as pictures and also a pointer
indicating the intention of the user and making the program responding accordingly. The
mouse represents it as an external device, converting its moves into the moves of the
pointer. The one click or double click moves make the operation of the computer easy. But
besides the mouse, there are also other, like:
-

trackball that is an upside-down mouse used for limited desk space

joystick and games controller are also similar to the external mouse, but
used only for games and simulations

touch pads built in device to the keyboard of laptops for moving the pointer
either as a miniature joystick or a pressure-sensitive touch pad that
transmits the finger movement

graphic tablets are used for design applications and feel the movement of a
plastic pen across them

Other essential peripheral devices are also normal parts of the computer system:
printers, modems, loud speakers, scanners, digital cameras, microphones are increasingly
used by the new technology.
Laser printers, inkjet printers, impact printers use slightly different techniques for
printing or making marks on the paper. They are characterized by the speed of output,
colour and cost of consumables.

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The modem is a device used to connect computers to the telephone network for
using the internet or for sending faxes.
Any kind of data that can be converted into numbers can be processed by computer:
music, pictures, animated drawings, video, speech. The multimedia applications have
grown up due to this ability, often called multimedia computer. These applications need
also specialized peripherals:
-

scanner used to copy photos, drawings, texts into a computer through a

specialized program

digital camera records images digitally in a memory, not a photographic

film. The images are transferred to a computer and printed out using
graphic software to edit, archive or e-mail them.

Loud speakers are standard peripheral equipment used to play music and
any sounds

Sound cards are used to control audio output and to upgrade its quality

Microphones used for the control of application by speech commands

Software is the generic sets of instructions gathered in system software and

application software. The former refers to the control and management of the devices, files
and storage; the latter is concerned with various professional areas, entertainment, and
education.
The programs depend on the operating system (OS) that controls the hardware, the
timing of sequences and manages the access data to ensure security and integrity. When
adding a new piece of hardware to the system, a driver has also to be loaded to make the
OS control the hardware, i.e. recognize input from the keyboard and mouse, send output to
the screen, communicate with printers and other peripherals, and keep track of files. The
operating system is usually presented through a graphical user interface (GUI) that
represents the hardware of the computer: disks, printers, application programs, data files
represented by symbols of icons that can be made operational by moving the pointer
through a mouse click
The application programs enable different programs work: word processing,
spreadsheets, data base management system, electronic mail or even pre-loaded
applications: Netscape Navigator, Microsoft Explorer. There are also highly specialized and
sophisticated applications used according to particular needs.
Licensed software gives the holder the right to run it and make copies of the
software only for backup purposes. The illegal piracy deprives the individual developers,
companies of their rightful income. Only freeware can be distributed without charge on
disks given away with magazines or downloaded from internet. Shareware is also widely
distributed in much the same way as freeware, but if you decide to use it, you are
supposed to send a licence fee to the developer, otherwise it will not function but only a
typical period of time of 30 days.
When the software produces incorrect or unexpected results, it has a bug that can
range from minor to major ones. When the computer "freezes" it ceases to function, i.e.
refuses any input and won't produce any output, it "hangs". A bug can make a whole
system crash, so the computer should be turned off the power for a minute, or to press the
Reset button on the system unit, as a last resort, in order not to lose any work done since
the last saved application.
Data are hold in files that can be organized into directories or folders. They are given
names in order to be recognized and operated when needed. Data can be lost, corrupted,
damaged or abused accidentally or deliberately. The users can protect them by using a
system of password or keeping backup copies of data files, on diskettes or other removable
mediums. The operated data should also be saved at regular intervals on the volatile
working storage RAM.

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Viruses are poisonous programs that vary from minor irritation (messages
displayed on the screen), inconveniences (files can be damaged), or to total disaster
(damage of the hardware rendered unusable). Virus spreading can be avoided by not
opening the e-mail attachments, checking diskettes, hard drives or CDs and by using virusscanning software that should be the very latest.
Network
Computers can operate on their own (stand-alone computers) or they can be
connected in networks:
-

sharing hardware: two or more computers are connected through hardware

resources: printers, modems, scanners, platters

file sharing: information needed by several users is stored on a single,

powerful, permanently switched-on computer called a file server, and then
shared on specific computers.

E-mail: Computer networks make possible e-communication, i.e. electronic

mail; messages can be exchanged between users of the computers that are
connected to a common network.

Data-exchange network: makes possible co-operative work in a work group

- LAN (Local Area Network) connects computers located in a small area, such as an
office, a building, or a group of adjoining buildings
-

WAN (Wide Area Network connects computers over a large area, usually
across international boundaries. They can be restricted to a private access,
operated by a transnational company or government agency or it can have
public access such as the internet. The wide area network uses all
technologies of the telephone network: satellites, microwaves, optic fibers
converting the "analogue" voice signal into the "digital" computer signal
through a "modem". The modem is a device which is usually built-in the
computer communication. . An alternative to using modems is ISDN
(Integrated Service Digital Network) that is cable which is designed to
carry digital signals. It is used more and more for frequent high-volume

Computer users connected to the Internet can exchange messages by e-mail. They
need e-mail software, a unique address and a password to prove entitlement to collect the
message. E-mail has largely taken over from the telephone technology used to send and
receive written messages. The fax machine scans printed information and encodes it so
that it could be sent down the telephone line and decoded by the fax machine of the
recipient that provides a print out.
Internet is a wide-world network of interconnected networks. It is used to e-mailing
and to provide access to the information stored on computers all around the world. The
users governments, officials, universities, companies, voluntary organizations, and
private individuals can use this huge resource-opportunity for research, news,
entertainment, education, information, current affairs, shopping, arts, etc
The term world wide web is used to describe documents made available over the
Internet which are in a particular graphic format. The documents can be linked together,
irrespective of where they are physically located in the world. Their links, named
hyperlinks, enable users to pursue a research topic from the general to the specific, from
detail to "big picture", from graphic to text, from text to sound. The documents built using
the hyperlinks are called "hypertext" or "hypermedia" if sound, graphic or video are
involved.
The documents published on the internet can be contacted through a browser, i.e. a
program that displays the web pages following links from one web page to another. The
search engine is also a program that trawls the internet looking for documents that
contain information of interest to the users.

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E-Commerce
International business markets have been developing lately using largely the
advantages of Internet. Advertisement, placing orders, delivery of products ordered,
rendering services, ticketing have become cheaper and cheaper due to the Internet
service. Comparing prices from different suppliers, buying directly from the manufacturer
or the supplier anywhere in the world, pricing different offers and opportunities, searching
maps, checking event listings, hiring cars, booking meals in a favourite restaurant, are the
advantages of using the Internets shopping nowadays.

GLOSSARY
Acceptance the act of placing the word "accepted" across the face of a draft, followed by
the date and signature of the acceptor
Acceptance draft - A timer draft which has been accepted, thereby bearing the
unconditional obligation of the party upon which it is drawn to pay the draft at maturity
Accepting bank - the bank upon which the draft is drawn and which "accepts" the draft
(see acceptance)
Advising bank a bank, usually in the Beneficiary's country which informs the beneficiary
that another bank has issued a Letter of Credit in its favour
Air Waybill a non negotiable contract of carriage for air transportation between an air
carrier and a shipper, or an air carrier and an air freight forwarder
Amendment any change to the terms and conditions of a Letter of Credit
Applicant the party that arranges for a Letter of Credit to be issued, typically the buyer
in a commercial transaction or the borrower in a financial transaction
- an individual applying for a job
"at sight" it indicates thet an instrument is to be paid upon the bank's determination
that the documents comply with the terms and conditions of a payment document
beneficiary the person in whose favour a Letter of Credit is issued , typically the seller
in a commercial transaction, or the creditor in a financial transaction
Bill of Exchange see draft
Bill of Lading _ a document, generally issued by a carrier to a shipper that serves a
threefold purpose: 1 receipt for the goods delivered to the carrier for shipment; 2. a
contract of carriage of the goods from the place of receipt to the place of delivery listed in
the bill of lading; and 3. evidence of title to the goods
Charter party the person chartering a vessel or part of its freight space for a particular
trip or period of time
Collection a method of payment for goods. The act of handling documents on
instructions received, by banks, in order to obtain acceptance or, as the case may be,
payment from drawee
Commercial invoice A bill provided by the seller, addressed to the buyer, giving a
description of the goods or services, price, charges, etc
Commercial Letter of Credit _ a letter of credit by which payment is made available to
the beneficiary against presentation of a draft and stipulated shipping documents
Consignment - a method of payment for goods where the title to goods remain with the
supplier/manufacturer until they are sold by an agent or third party
Demurrage a charge for exceeding the free time allowed for loading or unloading at a
pier or freight terminal

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Dishonor refusal on the part of the drawee to accept a draft or to pay it when due
Documents against Acceptance (D/A) instructions given by a seller to its bank that
the documents attached to a draft for collection are deliverable to the drawee only against
the drawee's payment of the draft
Documents Against Payment (D/P) instructions given by a seller ti its bank that the
documents attached to a draft for collection are deliverable to the drawee only against the
drawee's payment of the draft
draft a signed order or Bill of Exchange by one party, the drawer addressed to another,
the drawee, directing the drawee to pay a specified sum of money to the order of a third
person, the payee
drawee The party on whom a draft is drawn, and from which payment is expected
drawer one who signs or "draws" a draft (usually the seller, or Beneficiary of a Letter of
credit)
endorsement a signature on the back of a negotiable instrument made primarily for the
purpose of transferring the rights of the holder to another person
evergreen clause a provision of a letter of Credit which allows the expiration date to
automatically extend for an additional period of time without requiring an amendment (also
known as an Automated Extension Clause)
Foreign exchange risk the risk resulting from purchasing or selling goods at a price
denominated in a currency other than that of the purchaser or seller
Incoterms 1990 set of definitions published by the ICC from time to time for the
interpretation of commonly used trade terms which define the obligations of the parties and
when the risk of loss passes from one party to another
Insurance certificate written evidence that insurance coverage is in force
Insurance policy a contract of indemnity by which an insurance company, in return for
payment of a premium, guarantees compensation of the amount of any loss arising from
an insured casualty
International Chamber of Commerce the body which published the Uniform Customs
and Practice for Documentary Credits, the Uniform Rules for Collections, the Uniform Rules
for Reimbursements, Incoterms 1990 and other works commonly used in international
trade
Irrevocable a term placed on an instrument to indicate that it cannot be cancelled or
amended or terminated prior to its expiration date without the consent of each party
Letter of Credit an instrument issued by a bank in favor of a Beneficiary by which the
bank substitutes its own creditworthiness for that of the Applicant by promising to honor
(pay if the documents specified in the Letter of Credit are timely presented
Maturity Date the date upon which a draft or acceptance becomes due for payment
Multimodal transport transportation of gods by more than one mode, for instance,
truck, steamship and rail
Open account a method of payment for goods and services; a seller ships merchandise
along with the related documents to a buyer with no guarantee of payment. The buyer then
makes on its account in the manner specified in the invoice.
Negotiable a term placed on an instrument (draft or other document) which allows title
to be transferred from owner to owner by endorsement, usually evidenced by the use of
the words "order of" or "to order"
Negotiation the act of purchasing complying documents under a Letter of Credit usually
with recourse to the Beneficiary
Payee the party to whom a draft or other negotiable instrument is made payable

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Port of discharge the port at which merchandise is offloaded from the vessel
Port of entry the port at which goods are admitted into the receiving country
Port of loading the port at which merchandise is loaded aboard a vessel
Presentation the delivery of one or more documents to the issuing Bank or Nominated
bank for payment, acceptance or negotiation under a Letter of credit
Promissory note a written promise committing the signer to pay a sum to another art a
future date, usually with interest
Recourse a term used on a negotiable instrument to indicate that the drawer or
endorser is liable to subsequent holders for payment at maturity
Red Clause a provision in a Letter of Credit that provides for the advance of funds to the
Beneficiary prior to the presentation of the shipping documents
Revocable- a term permitting modification or cancellation of a letter of Credit without the
Beneficiary's prior agreement
Tenor the length of time a draft (bill of exchange) is drawn to run before presentation for
payment
Terms, payment the terms under which a seller and a buyer agree that the exchange of
goods for payment shall take place. Open account cash in advance, Letter of Credit,
consignment and documentary collection are examples of common payment terms
Terms, shipping stating in abbreviation form where the seller's responsibility for the
merchandise ends and where the buyer's begins. Some examples of common shipping
terms are F.O.B., F.A.S., C.I.F. C&F., and Ex-ship.
with recourse a term used on an instrument or endorsement to indicate that the drawer
or endorser is liable to subsequent holders form payment at maturity
Without recourse a term use on an instrument or endorsement to indicate that the
drawer or endorser is not liable to subsequent holders for payment at maturity
"x Days date" a term used on a draft, bill of exchange, or note. If an exporter draws a
draft and stipulates payment '60days date", the draft is due 60 days after the date on
which it was drawn.There fore, the maturitz is fixed and is not dependent on the date of
acceptance by the drawee
"x Days Sight" a term used on a draft, bill of exchange, or note to indicate that payment
is due on a stipulated number of days after the draft has been sighted (accepted) by the
drawee
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Mayhew, Alan: Recreating Europe. The European Union's Policy towards Central and
Eastern Europe Cambridge University Press, 1998
2. Shaw, Malcolm: International Law, Cambridge University Press, 2001
3. Turcu, Fulvia: Engleza pentru afaceri, Pecomex, 1997

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