KARANATAKA STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY

Research Methods

MBA III SEM

CENTRE CODE - MBA-13

M.L.I.S

MLIS 05: Research Methods and Techniques

CONTENTS
Chapter No.

Topic

Page No.

Introduction to Research Methodology

II

Types of Research

III

Logic and Scientific Investigation

IV

Research Problem

Research Design

VI

Research Methods

VII

Sampling

VIII

Data Collection

IX

Data Analysis

Report Writing

Paper V (MLIS05) Research Methods and Techniques

Unit I
Research: Concept, Characteristics and Types; Pure, Applied, Action and Inter
Disciplinary Research Logic and Scientific Investigation.
Unit II
Research Problem: Identification, Selection and Formulation of a Research Problem Research design - Literature Search and Review of Literature - Hypothesis Definition Types and Characteristics.
Unit III
Research Methods: Survey Historical Case Study Experimental - Sampling
Definition - Types and Relevance.
Unit IV
Data Collection: Data Sources Primary Sources and Secondary Sources - Data
Collection Methods Questionnaire, Interview, Observation
Unit V
Data Analysis: Analysis and Interpretation Statistical Tools and Techniques
Measure of Central Tendency - Frequency Distribution - Regression and Correlation Scales Statistical Tools Report Writing - Style and Structure of Presentation of Data..
Books Recommended for Further Readings
1) Busha, Charles H. and Harter, Stephen P. Research Methods in Librarianship:
Techniques and Interpretation. New York: Academic Press, 1980.
2) Gopal, M. H. An Introduction to Research Procedure in Social Science.
Bombay: Asia, 1964.
3) Goode, William J. and Hatt, Paul K. Methods in Social Research. New York:
McGraw Hill, 1952.
4) Krishan Kumar. Research Methods in Library and Information Science, New
Delhi Vikas; 1992.
5) Morice, B. L. Library Surveys: An Introduction to the use, Planning Procedure
and Presentation of Surveys. 2nd Ed. London: Bingley, 1982.

6) Ravichandara Rao, I. K. Qualitative Methods for Library and Information

Science. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern, 1985.

7) Simon, J. L. Basic Research Methods in Social Science: The Art of Empirical

Investigation, 1989.
8) Stevens, Rolland E. Research Methods in Librarianship. London:

Bingley, 1971.

9) Ward, P. L Introductory Guide to Research in Library and Information Studies in

the UK London Library Association, 1975.
10) Young, Pauline V. and Schmid, C. F. Scientific Social Surveys and Research. New
Delhi: Prentice Hall, 1984.
11) Devarajan, G. Research in Library & Information Science. New Delhi; Ess Ess,
2002
12) Kothari, C. R. Research Methodology Methods & Techniques. New Delhi;
Vishwa Prakasam., 1996.
13) Foster, J. J. Data Analysis Using SPSS for Windows. Versions 8 &10: A
Beginers Guide. New Delhi; SAGE Pub., 2001.
14) Panda, B. D. Research Methodology for Library Science. New Delhi; Anmol, 1997.
15) Santhosh Gupta. Research Methodology and Statistical Techniques. New Delhi;
Deep and Deep, 2000.
16) Saravanavel. Research Methodology. Allahabad; Kitab Mahal,

1994.

17) Sehgal, R. L. Applied Statistics for Library Science Research. 2 Vols. New Delhi;
Ess Ess, 1998.

UNIT I

CHAPTER I
Introduction to Research Methodology
Research has proved to be an essential and powerful tool in leading man towards
progress. Research is a matter of raising question, and then trying to find answer. In other
words, Research means a sort of investigation describing the fact that some problem being
investigated to shed for generalization. Therefore, Research is the activity of solving problem,
which adds new knowledge and developing a theory as well as gathering of evidence to test
generalization.
All significant research leads to progress in some field of life or the other. Each year
new products, new facts, new concepts and new ways of doing things come into our lives due
to ever increasing significant research in physical, biological, social and psychological fields.
Research activity is no longer confined to the science laboratory. Even as the manufacturers,
the agricultural experts and the archeologists carry on research, in their respective sphere so
also the sociologists, economists and educationists. The aim of all research is progress and
good life.
Decisions based on systematic research would surely save money, energy, and a lot of
failure and frustration and show us the path of progress. Thus, it is not so difficult to show that
research is extremely necessary and very worthwhile. It is a careful search for solutions to the
problems that plague and puzzle the mankind.
Definition of Research
George G. Mouly of University of Miami defines research as The systematic and
scholarly applications of the scientific method, interpreted in its broader sense to the solutions
of educational problems. Conversely, any systematic study designed to promote the
development of education as a science can be educational research.
Rusk writes, Research is a point of view, an attitude of inquiry, or a frame of mind. It
asks questions which have hither to not been asked, and it seeks to answer them following a
fairly definite procedure. It is not a mere theorizing, but rather an attempt to elicit facts, and to
face them once they have been assembled.
Francis G. Cornell feels to be sure, the best research is that which is reliable, verifiable
and exhaustive so that it provides information in which we have confidence. The main point

here is that research is literally speaking, a kind of human behaviour, an activity in which
people engage. By this definition, all intelligent human behaviour involves some research.
Maduri Singh defines Teaching research is essentially a state of mind-friendly,
welcoming attitude towards change.
Clifford Woody of the University of Michigan writes in an article in the Journal of
Educational Research, Research is a careful inquiry or examination in seeking facts or
principles and diligent investigation to ascertain something.
C. C. Craford, University of Southern California, writes that Research is simply a
systematic and redefined technique of thinking, employing specialized tools, instruments and
procedure in order to obtain a more adequate solution of a problem, then would be possible
under ordinary means. It starts with a problem, collects data or facts, analyses them critically,
and reaches decisions based on the actual evidence. It evolves original work instead of mere
exercise of personal opinion. It evolves from a genuine desire to know rather than a desire to
prove something. It is quantitative, seeking to know not only what but how much, and
measurement, is therefore a central feature of it.
According to J. W. Best, Research is considered to be the more formal, systematic,
intensive process of carrying on the scientific method of analysis. It involves a more systematic
structure of investigation usually resulting in some sort of formal record of procedures and a
report of results or conclusions.
According to P. M. Cook Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for
facts and their meanings or implications with reference to a given problem.
W. S. Monroe defines research as a method of studying problems whose solutions are
to be desired partly or wholly from facts. The facts dealt with in research may be statements of
opinions, historical facts, those contained in records and reports, the results of tests, answers to
questionnaires, experimental data of any sort, and so forth. The final purpose of educational
research is to ascertain principles and develop procedures for use in the field of education.
Therefore, it should conclude by formulating principles or procedures. The more collection and
tabulation of facts is not enough, though it may be preliminary to it or even a part thereof.
Research is thus an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge of making
for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison
and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of

finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalization

and formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term research refers to the
systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating the hypothesis,
collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reacting certain conclusions either in the
form of solution(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some
theoretical formulation.
According to R. M. Heetehins, Research in the sense of the development,
collaboration and refinement of principles together with the collection and the use of
empherical materials to aid in these process, in one of the highest activities of a University and
one in which all its professors should be engaged.
In brief, significance of each letter of the word RESEARCH may be seen as below.
R

Rational way of thinking

Expert and Exhaustive treatment

Solutions

Exactness

Analysis of Adequate data

Relationship of facts

1. Careful recording
2. Critical observation
3. Constructive attitude
4. Condensed and Compactly stated generalizations

Honesty and Hard work in all aspects of the treatment of data.

Characteristics of Research
1. Research gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first hand sources
Research endeavors to reach the first hand source (primary source) of data instead of
serving its purpose with the data available from second hand sources (secondary source). It is
not research when one simply restates or reorganizes what is already known or what has been
written.

2. Research in expert, systematic and accurate investigation

The researcher tries to secure an expertise before undertaking any investigation. The
data are gathered, recorded and analyzed as accurately as possible. He/she uses standardized
and valid data gathering tools or instruments. He/she also employs mechanical means to
improve upon the accuracy of human observation, recording and computation of data.
3. Research is logical and objective
The researcher eliminates personal feelings and preferences from his/her research
activity. He/she resists the temptation to seek only that data which support his/her hypothesis.
There is no attempt to persuade or to prove. The emphasis is on testing, rather than on proving
the hypothesis.
4. Research endeavors to organize data in quantitative terms
Research endeavors to organize data in quantitative terms as far as possible. It further
tries to express them as numerical measures.
5. Research is patient and unhurried
The researcher is willing to make pains taking efforts. He/she works patiently towards
sound conclusions. He/she realizes that significant findings do not come as a result of hurried
and careless procedures.
6. Research requires courage
The researcher is not afraid of unpleasant consequences of his/her findings. He/she has
the guts to speak and record the truth. He/she is willing to follow his/her procedures to
conclusions that may be unpopular and bring social disapproval.
7. Research is highly purposive
It deals with a significant problem, which demands a solution.
8. Research places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles
It places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles and scientific
generalizations that can be applied to the solution of a wide range of problems.
9. Research maintains rigorous standards
The researcher is expected to be a scholarly and imaginative person possessing highest
integrity. He/she takes each step according to expected specifications and norms. He/she keeps
his/her work scrupulously free from loopholes. Research is a job of great responsibility.

10. Research is carefully recorded and reported

Every term is carefully defined, the procedures are described in detail, the limiting
factors are recognized, the references are carefully documented and the results are objectively
recorded.
11. Research involves hypothesis
Research usually involves, as a step, a hypothesis or a set of hypotheses concerning the
tentative explanation of a phenomenon or the solution of a problem.
According to John Best, research is a more systematic activity directed towards
discovery and the development of an organized body of knowledge.

Criteria of good research

Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, it is important to note that
they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. The following
are the criteria, which we expect the scientific research to satisfy:
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts should be
used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient details to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of
what has already been done.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that
are as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data
should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and
limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

Qualities of good research

1. Good Research is systematic
It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified
sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the
research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and
intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good Research is logical
This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical
process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the
process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion, which follows from that very
premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decisionmaking.
3. Good Research is empherical
It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and
deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results.
4. Good Research is replicable
This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the study and
thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
Hindering factors for research
1. Lack of time, energy and resources has been a great hindrance for most of the
researchers.
2. Traditional activities may be a powerful retarding factor.
3. Due to unworthy expenditure of time and money, research activities has failed in one or
more instances.
4. Research is out of step with the prevailing educational philosophy.
5. Research procedure may be found difficult even in comprehensive.
6. Research is considered to be the business of a few arm-chaired academicians.
7. Research has threatened by certain supersensitive and influential teachers,
administrators and educators.

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Qualities of a good researcher

Like qualities of good research, a researcher must possess some qualities to carryout the
investigation successfully. The qualities of a good researcher are as follows.
1. Scientific attitude with reflective thinking
2. Devotion
3. Unbiased attitude
4. Physical characteristics
5. Mental Caliber
6. Ethical standards
Carter V Good gives the following hallmarks to the scientists:
1. Problem awareness
2. Appropriate specialization
3. Acquaintance with the related literature
4. Intellectual curiosity and drive
5. Willingness to pay the price
6. Creativity and ingenuity
M. H. Goal summarizes the qualities of a good researcher as follows:
A true scientist possesses the devotion of a mother, the poise of a judge, the objectivity
of a philosopher, the courage of a soldier, the perseverance and patience of bearer, the fervor of
a patriot and the vision of a prophet.
In short, a good researcher should
1. work diligently
2. think clearly
3. study carefully and extensively
4. observe minutely
5. collect the data painstakingly
6. analyze data objectively
7. conclude rationally and scientifically.
Objectives of Research
The objective of research is to find out answers to questions through the application of
systematic and scientific way.

11

Though there is a specific purpose behind each research study, however, the objectives
can be broadly classified as under;
To obtain familiarity of a phenomenon.
To determine the association or independence of an activity.
To determine the characteristics of an individual or a group of activities and the
frequency of its (or their) occurrence.
Nature of Research
The goal of research is to improve the level of living in society. The word
research carries an aura of respect. The prestige of much is great and is equally
emphasized on the researcher to challenge the problem that needs to be solved even
thought the situation is far beyond the scope of research. Some people think the
research is a waste of time, effort and money, and further think that more pure research
is needed for practical value. Personal opinion guided by prejudice or dogmatism may
be conceded in nature of problems but can be solved only on the basis of research
evidence. The researcher has to implement more effectively has value judgment for the
benefit of much to the society. One can perhaps say that a researcher enjoy the
intellectual freedoms, independent thinking and can have rewarding experiences. And
further, it is he (researcher) as adviser has to take the society towards the right path of
development.

Significance of Research
The significance of research may be analyzed as under:
1. Research has an important role to guiding social plan. Knowledge of the society and
the cultural behavior of people require proper planning for their well development
because of both knowledge and the cultural behavior of human being are independent.
A reliable as well as factual knowledge may be needed to take decision for planning.
This is possible only by means of research; Social research is generally worth much
more than of the area since the success of the former depends ultimately on peoples
acceptance and participation. So any plan for success of our economic development
needs to be taken research.

12

2. Knowledge is a kind of power with which one can force the implication of particular
phenomena. It also dispels the Thrust of odd settings, superstitious, etc., and light is
thrown on them for welfare development. Thus social research may have the effect of
promoting better understanding and social cohesion.
3. Research is charge with the responsibility for effective functioning of facts. Thus it
affords a considerably, sound basis of prediction. Otherwise it leads to failure-bound
programme which may have a serious impact on society. For example, Chernobyl
Nuclear plant disaster. Another is Bhopal gas disaster. Thus prediction serves better
control over the phenomena and helps in successful plan. This leads towards cherished
goals.

For example the implementation of family planning with prediction is an

example.
4. It is the role of the researcher to effect constant improvement in techniques of his trade
i.e., Research. He is in spatial temporal contexts; each challenging his attack is faced
with the need to improve upon his techniques. In other words the technique of research
has to become greater perfection.

So big contentment in research and so big

revolutionary in technological change. Examples are Electronics, Industrialization.

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CHAPTER II
Types of Research
Research can be classified differently depending upon the approach, the purpose and
the nature of a research activity. Broadly speaking, research is categorized as (i) Fundamental,
pure or Theoretical Research; and (ii) Applied Research and (iii) Action Research.
Fundamental/pure Research
Research motivated by the desire to know or understand for the sake of knowing is
called fundamental research.

It is mainly concerned with generalization and with the

formulation of a theory. On other words, gathering knowledge for the same of knowledge is
termed pure or basic research.
Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are
examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behaviour
carried on with a view to make generalizations about human behaviour, are also examples of
fundamental research.
The fundamental research always results in the discovery of a new theory.

This

discovery has nothing to do with n existing theory. Galileos or Newtons contributions are
fundamental in character and they form the basis for different theories.
Fundamental research also leads to the development of the existing theory. It brings
out improvement in the existing theory either by relating some of its assumptions or by
reinterpreting it.

Since theory is always based on assumptions, there exists enormous scope

for altering or formulating new set of assumptions and adding new dimension to the existing
theory, Relaxing assumptions, altering them or making new ones altogether depends upon how
a researcher views the existing theory. In a dynamic society a scholar may ascertain that earlier
assumptions have become obsolete or have been inadequately defined. Thus the existing
theory may appear to be outdated and implausible with the prevailing conditions.
For example, Malthusian population theory became almost useless in his own country
owing to new developments invalidating the assumptions of his theory. Naturally, therefore by
dropping out the invalid assumptions, researchers come out with new theories on population
behaviour. There have also been attempts to reinterpret the Malthusian doctrine and thus seek
to retain its validity character even now. Similarly by questioning some of the assumptions of

14

Keynesian theory, Friedman came out with new interpretations of the monetary phenomenon.
Theories developed in capitalist countries often been challenged by researchers of the socialist
block and they have developed new theories or reinterpreted the existing theory.
The researcher engaging in the pure research derives greatest satisfaction from
increasing his knowledge in a field of enquiry where many questions remain unanswered. To
him the challenge of not knowing is paramount. If he can solve the problem, he is satisfied in
the results may or may not have any practical use. The pure scientist would probably argue
that knowledge itself is always of practical use in the end. His governing principal is that
scientific enquiry is noble in itself; it is its own reward. To keep digging away at the layers of
intellectual questions is a challenge enough for a pure scientist. To him knowledge is the
highest good, truth is the supreme value is all the rest is secondary and subordinate.
Applied Research
Applied research is based on the application of known theories and models to the actual
operational field or population. The applied research is conducted to test the empirical content
or the basic assumptions or the very validity of theory under given conditions. For example,
Lewiss growth model for labour surplus economics assumes that real wage rate of labour shall
remain constant till the surplus labour is completely wiped out; it may of interest to a
researcher to investigate if it so happens in every labour surplus economy. In case of a theory
or model not holding good, the researchers interest may further be stimulated to know why a
given model does not apply and what modifications would be required to make the model
operational in that situation. It may also form a basis for developing an alternative strategy.
Applied research has practical utility. The central aim of applied research is to discover
a solution for some pressing practical problem.

The applied scientist always views in

research in a practical context from the onset. He would define a problem as one in which
some action could be taken to improve matters. The applied scientist is thus, much more likely
to be working within a certain set of values and norms preference. Sociologists study a host of
problems, viz., the problem of juvenile delinquency, of old people, of gange etc., and find out
the measures to remedy the situation.
Applied research often takes the form of a field investigation and aims at collecting the
basic data for verifying the applicability of existing theories and models in given situation.
Naturally, therefore, the adequacy and accuracy of data will have considerable impact on the

15

application of the model and reliability of the results. Not only should his data be reliable, he
must also be objective, scientific and sharp in identifying the field of application for a given
theory. Like Pure research, the applied research also contributes to the developments in the
following manners.
i)

If can contribute new facts

ii)

It can put theory to test

iii)

It may aid in conceptual classification

iv)

It may integrate theory of previous study/studies

In brief, Basic research is derived from fundamental intellectual problems; it tends to be

of an original and theoretical nature. On the other hand, applied research is pragmatic; its
purposes are more specific and are generally aimed at solving practical problems or at the
discovery of new knowledge that can be utilized immediately in actual real world situations.
On the whole, completed studies in librarianship have been of an applied nature. Like
any developing discipline, the study of library science is characterized by a weak body of
theory and research findings that are often irreconcilable with previously acquired knowledge.
Most contributions to the study of libraries have been concerned more with the collection of
information that allows library phenomena to be identified and described, rather than for the
purpose of explaining why and how library circumstances occur. An apparent distrust of
theory on the part of many investigators in librarianship has contributed to neglect of basic
research in the field.
Action Research
Action Research involves the application of the steps of scientific method to class room
problems. Action research is similar to applied research in many ways. Applied research
usually involves a larger number of samples as compound with action research. In action
research many research projects are carried out in single class room by a single teacher, while
others may be carried on by all teachers in a school or even a school district.
Action research is not mainly concerned in obtaining generalized, scientific knowledge
about educational problems but in obtaining specific knowledge concerning the subjects
involved in the study.
Action research is the study undertakes with the goal of immediate application. In
other words, it refers to study of On the job problems. In this type of research the researcher

16

appears as a participant rather than observer, and therefore he is actively and even emotionally
involved in the result and their application. It is a special type of research in the sense, testing
of applications in accordance with a set of situation and modified according to the local
prevailing conditions as well. Another feature is that it adopts itself to the changes that have
taken place in the particular community; in case of applied research the evolution of entire
community rather individual will be taken with applications of theory. These action research is
similar to applied research but differ from the action process carry of action research is
depended upon the type of feedback information supplied. Difference phase in action research
are to be used for information gatherings. They are
a)

A base line survey in order to get possible information relevant to the subject
matter should be collected to get an idea of the existing situation.

b)

Launching the action research subject.

c)

The periodical assessment of the action research project.

d)

Making changes and modification in the working of the project.

Depending the availability of information the method must be selected for the action
research which usually consisting of the personal interview method, the survey method, the
attitude measurement and so on. The action research is not much difference to concurrent
evaluation of a project the example for action research are:
As stated earlier. Teach conduct action research to improve his own teaching. The
practitioner attempts to study his problem scientifically for guiding, correcting and evaluating
actions.
The scope of action research is very vast. The approach of action research is dealing
with practical problems seems to be appropriate and promising for all kind of professional
workers in education as long as their desire is to improve their own career. An administrator
who dissatisfies with his efforts top develop a morale in his staff could approach this problem
with action research.
The merits of action research are as follows:
1)

Action research helps in decision making and action.

2)

It broadens and deepens the fund of knowledge.

3)

The helps to acquaint with research sight.

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4)

The problem solving activity of action research helps in implementing ones

own findings in to practice.

5)

The experience of action research strengthens the profession as a whole.

6)

It brings experimental out look among the workers.

S.
No.
1.

Objectives

2.

Training

3.

4.
5

Area

Fundamental Research

Action Research

Its purpose is to develop and test

the educational theories and to
obtain principles that will be
applicable to a broad population.

Knowledge obtained intended to

be applied in local setting and to
provide a sort in service training
to participating fenches and
administrator.

Expert training is needed in Only a limited training is

measurement research methods needed. Even if the research
and statistics.
skills of scholar are low, action
research can be done under the
guidance (or) assistance of a
consultant.
Locating the A wide range of methods is used The
participating
teachers
research
to locate the research problems.
identifying the problems which
problem
hinder class room teachinglearning processes.
Involvement
A wide range of methods is used The teacher is invariably
to locate the research problems.
involved in research problems
Hypothesis
Highly specific hypothesis are
Usually a specific statement of
developed
the
problems
serves
as
hypothesis

Review
literature

of An exhaustive and through

review of the literature is done to
have a thorough understanding
of the accumulated knowledge in
the research processes

Sampling

Experimental
design

There is no need for such a

thorough and intensive review.
A glance at the review will serve
the purpose of developing
general understanding of the
area.
Research worker is to obtain a Pupils studying in the class of
random or otherwise unbiased the teacher are used as subjects
sample of the population beings
studies.
Careful attention is given to Bias usually present because
maintain comparable conditions participating teachers are ego
and reducing error and bias
involved in research situations
processing are planned only in
general terms.

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9
10

11

Analysis
of Complex analysis is often called
Data
for
Statistical
Statistical significance is usually
Treatment
stressed
Application of Lack of coordination between
results
research workers and teachers
generate
serious
practical
problems. The generalization
usually remain continued to
books and research report

Simple analysis procedure are

usually sufficient
Subjective
opinion
of
participating teachers is often
weighed heavily
Findings
are
applied
immediately to the classes of
participating teachers send lead
to for reaching improve in the
teaching learning process

The difference between fundamental research and action research should not be
magnified. The difference is there but in the emphasis only not in method or spirit. Both type
are committed to the high standard of scientific objectively and scholarship.

CHAPTER III

Logic and Scientific Investigation

Meaning of Research
The Websters International Dictionary proposed a very inclusive definition of research
as a Careful critical inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles;
investigation in order to ascertain something.

diligent

D.Slesinger and M.Stephenson in the

encyclopedia of social sciences define research as the manipulation of things, concepts or

symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether the
knowledge aids in construction of theory or in practice of an art. Research is any systematic
quest for knowledge that is characterized by discipline inquiry. In the process of conducting
research, an investigation is concerned with three major activities (1) the definition of terms,
(2) the posing of questions or stating of propositions which incorporate the defined terms in an
explanatory fashion, and (3) the testing of propositions or the search for answers to exploratory
questions within the scope of these activities, the adopt research worker specifies objectives,
explains problems with conceptual clarity, imposes structure on the inquiry by relating the
research problem to relevant theories, and selects appropriate methods for observing conditions
or events and for measuring properties so that interpretations can be made.

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Scientific Methods
The overall approach to research of any variety is what is generally termed as the
scientific method. Scientific method comprises of three steps, viz., observation, hypothesis
and verification. According to Prof. Northrop, Scientific methods are relative to the stage of
enquiry and the type of problem. Different stage of enquiry may have different scientific
methods and the method which is scientific for one stage may not be so for another. As there
are multiplicities in sciences, there are multiplicities in rational methods. Prof. Caldin holds
that there are several types of rational methods.

Prof. Hook draws distinction between

scientific technique and scientific method. The former is the instrument available for any
research; the latter is the special method of any particular science.
Scientific research requires a logical approach comprised of several independent
activities, the essentials of which are the following (1) description of the problem and a critical
review of relevant research reports and literature; (2) mustering of previously produced facts
by collecting pertinent information about the problem or topic: (3) careful study of available
evidence to that research problem can be refined, specific hypotheses or exploratory questions
can be posed, and solution can be anticipated: (4) Structuring and conduct of experiments or
other careful studies to test the most feasible hypothesis in relation to the most crucial
questions: (5) analysis and evaluation of accumulated data and the drawing of relevant
conclusions: (6) utilization of research findings to predict effects so that new hypotheses can
be generated; and (7) recording of methods, findings, and conclusions in a written research
report so that newly acquired insights and knowledge can be communicated to other persons.
The scientific approach has the constituent elements procedural and personal.
Procedural Components:
Observation, Hypothesis, and Verification are the three procedural approach.
Observation is based on the data currently available. Observation depends on knowledge,
material, and personal hunches. Observation helps to build up hypothesis. It also helps as a
technique of collection of data, there by helping verification.

The second step is the

formulation of one or more hypotheses. A hypothesis is a tentative conclusion. The main

function of hypotheses is to guide the collection and processing of material, and direct
investigation. The third step is the verification of hypothesis and arriving at generalization.
Verification is helped by analytical tools. The tools of collection and analysis are available

20

technique used for checking and counter checking. Tools help in the careful definition of the
concepts and in the collection of the comprehensive data. Even in social science, the statistical
or quantitative tool is coming to greater use.
Personal Components:
The researchers need imagination, analytical ability, resourcefulness, skill, persistence
and independence. The capacity to find the heart of the problem is a part of the enquiry. The
knowledge of the field of investigation is a fact of the personal component. Researchers
ability and attitude are more important than the method of approach. He should have an
objective scientific, and unbiased view. He should have sufficient personal qualifications and
professional training, apart from the practical experience, the personal qualifications must
enable the researcher sufficiently to assess the adequacy, relevance, and the value of the data.
Perusal quality also relates to the integrity, honestly, truthfulness and seniority of purpose. At
every step the researcher requires reasoning. There is a great need for balance or poise
between mental, physical and moral qualities. Poise gives the ability to see things in their true
perspective. Ambition interest and perseverance are very much required to go on successfully
with research. In other words a worthy researcher should possess the objectivity of Socrate,
the wisdom of Solomon, the courage of David, the strength of Samson, the patience of job, the
leadership of Moses, the strategy of Alexander, the tolerance of the carpenter of Nazareth, and
above all in an intimate knowledge of every branch of the natural, biological and social
sciences.
Scientific Method: Meaning and its essentials
Scientific method is a branch of study which is concerned with observed facts
systematically classified, and which includes trustworthy methods for discovery of facts.
Every fact is initially nothing but some proposition or problem. At every stage of enquiry
hypothesis is necessary. Hypothesis is defined as a suggestion of possible condition between
imagined facts and actual facts.
As Wilkinson and Bhandarkar put it, Science is an intellectual construction a
working thought model of the world and its aim is to describe and conceptualize the
impersonal facts of experience in verifiable terms, as exactly as possible, as simply as possible
and as completely and meaningfully as possible.

21

George Lundberg defines scientific method as one consisting of systematic observation,

classification, and interpretation of data.

The main difference between day-to-day

generalization and the scientific method lies in the degree of formality, rigorousness,
verifiability and general validity of the latter.
Scientific method is self corrective in nature. It depends on the methods of developing
and testing hypothesis. The method of enquiry itself may be testified and modified. Since
scientific method is based on the most probable inference at a particular point of time, a
scientific theory is more probable then any other alternative theory. The method of science
depends on evidence which is collected from empherical material on the basis of principle. In
the process of such dealings, the doubtful matters are detected and clarified.
Assumption of scientific method
The following are some assumptions and objectives of scientific method:
(1)

Regularities

(2)

Verification

(3)

Techniques

(4)

Quantification

(5)

Values

(6) Systematization (7) Pure Science and (8) Integration.

(1) Regularities: Scientific method believes that the world is regular and phenomena
occur in patterns. Further there are certain discernible uniformities in political and
social behaviour, which can be expressed as generalizations which are capable of
explaining and predicting political and social phenomena.
(2) Verification:

Scientific method prescyoposes that knowledge should consist of

propositions that have been subjected to empirical tests and that all evidence must be
on observations. Hence science is empirical. Experience has come to represent the
true test of science.

One cannot establish true scientific facts unless one can

experience them.
(3) Techniques:

Scientific method adopts correct techniques for acquiring and

interpreting data. There is need for the use of statistical tools like multi-variate
analysis, samples surveys, mathematical models, stimulations, etc.

to make the

researcher conscious about the methodology. This helps the researcher for planning,
executing and assessing his research work. The techniques must be validated for
analyzing data.

22

(4) Quantification: Mathematical formulas and measurements are involved in science.

Theoretical concepts must be expressed in mathematical language. Unless they are
quantified it would not be possible to obtain precise and accurate knowledge about the
complexities of phenomena. Hence it is necessary to quantify all observations as it has
advantages in terms of precision and manageability.
(5) Values: Values are facts of two separate things. Social sciences should be studied
scientifically through empirical methods and it will have nothing to do with moral and
ethical questions.
(6) Systematization: Scientific study demands that research should be systematic. It
means it must be theory-oriented and theory-directed. The theory and research should
form interrelated parts of a coherent and orderly body of knowledge. It is said that
research untutored by theory may prove trivial and theory, unsupported by data, futile.
Theory does not consist of speculation and introspection by of analysis, explanation
and prediction. It is on the basis of a well organized, logically interrelated structure of
concepts and propositions that hypothesis have to be advanced. The hypothesis, in
their own turn, has to be capable of undergoing rigorous testing and, then alone,
should form the basis of new theories.
(7) Pure science: Scientists insist on pure science approach. They agree that theoretical
understandings may lead to an application are parts of problems of life. The theory and
its applications are two major parts of the scientific enterprise. Therefore, they attach
great importance to pure research and would be content with it even if it cannot be
applied to specific social problems.
(8) Integration: Finally, there is integration of each social science with other social
sciences. The behaviouralists agree that man is a social animal and while one may try
to draw boundary lines between the social, political, economic, cultural and other
activities, none of these activities can be understood without placing them in the wider
context of his entire life. The study of a political phenomenon, therefore, requires
some understanding of how the economic, cultural and other phenomena in society are
unfolding themselves. If an effort is made to detach the political man from the
economic, social or cultural man, it would not be possible to understand his political

23

behaviour in its true character. Therefore, a complete and a total perspective comes
only through interdisciplinary approach.
Steps in scientific method
The following are the steps involved in applying scientific method:
1. Formulation of hypothesis
2. Defining concepts
3. Establishing working definitions
4. Collection and analysis of data and
5. Relating the findings to the existing knowledge and generalization
Lundbergs four levels of research:
Lundberg has described the following four levels of research.
1.

Random Observation:

At this stage, the investigator has no definite aim or

hypothesis. He simply observes or conducts some experiments. Then some day by

chance, he may come across some new discovery of relationship. This is a crude
method. It involves a lost of fruitless labour. But, it has been found to be very useful
in developing a sound basis for intensive research. In physical sciences, some great
discoveries like x-ray, penicillin, had taken through this method.
2.

Systematic exploration:

This is an improvement over the first method.

The

researcher does not leave everything to chance. He proceeds in a systematic manner to

explore the variables and their correlation ships.
3.

Testing a well-Defined hypothesis: Suitable variables are correlated and the nature
and degree of their relationships is expressed in the form of a tentative generalization
and the research efforts are confined to testing its validity.

4.

Experiment Directed by Systematic Theory: This is the most refined and advanced
method of research. Empirical observations are made and necessary data are collected
for interpretation and generalization. Newtons principles and Einesteins Relativity
Theory come under these categories. A valid inference is one in which the conclusion
follows reasonably from the premises. For ascertaining a valid conclusion, a science
should depend on a logical method. Scientific method is therefore the persistent
application of logic as the common feature of all systematic and reasoned knowledge.

24

Formal Logic
Logic is an instrument of reasoning and its character is formal. Logical validity cannot
ensure the correctness of the subject matter of science. Logic is more like grammar of which
details with the correctness of the form or structure of the language. Similarly logic studies the
forms or structure of reasoning and formalities the conditions for the validity of reasoning, but
it does not and cannot study the material or correctness or incorrectness of a promise of
conclusion, legitimate is formal because it studies the formal structure of reasoning.
Logic and Scientific Methods
Logic involves reasoned language; and all sciences are applied logic. The universal
feature of science is in general method which consists in the persistent search for truth. But the
search for truth depends on evidence, the determination of which we call logic.
Nature of Scientific Method
The nature of scientific method depends upon the nature and objective of a particular
science. There are broadly two methods of sciences:
1. Technical (Technological) and
2. Logical
1.

Technical Method:

For proper observation and experiment, a science, for its

investigation, develops certain technological relations or facts against which the

observed facts are considered.

Technical methods may simply use certain

instruments. The more developed the technical method, the more exact a science
becomes in handling data required for experiment. The use of technical methods
makes a science progressive.
2.

Logical methods: Since science is a systematized knowledge, the importance of the

method of reasoning or logic can hardly be over estimated. Logic is the science of
reasoning. It formulates conditions through which the validity of reasoning may be
tested. Reasoning consists of arriving at a conclusions from certain premises is called
informance, which is nothing but divided knowledge. All knowledge consists of
aserti or propositions. Inference is a proposition which is derived from some other
propositions. A valid inference is one in which the conclusion follows reasonably
from the premises. For ascertaining a valid conclusion n, a science should depend on

25

a logical method. Scientific method is therefore the persistent application of logic as

the common feature of all systematic and reasoned knowledge.
Use of Scientific Method and its Value
Possessing of knowledge becomes a universal human urge. Scientific Method is
concerned with the verification of knowledge. It finds out some order in which
things are related together. Scientific method is the only way to increase the
general body of tested knowledge and to eliminate arbitrary and ambiguous
opinion.
Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations.
The ideal of science is to achieve this ideal by experimentation, observation,
logical arguments and combination of these three in varying proportions.
In scientific method, logic helps in formulating propositions, explicitly and
accurately so that their possible alternatives become clear. Further, logic
develops the consequences of such alternatives, and when these are compared
with observable phenomena, it becomes possible for the research or scientist to
state which alternative is most in harmony with the observed data.
It minimizes the dangers associated with Novelty, Adventure and uncertainty.
It relies on empirical evidence.
It utilizes relevant concepts.
It is committed to only objective considerations.
It aims at making only adequate and correct statements about population object.
It results into probabilistic predictions.
Its methodology is made known to all concerned.
It aims at formulating most general axioms.
Difficulties in the Use of Scientific Method in social sciences
Scientific method is more applicable to physical or exact sciences. But it cannot be
applied to social science which deals with human behaviour. The people holding this opinion
point out the following difficulties in the use of scientific method.
1. As human behaviour is complicated and varied, it is very difficult to categorize human
behaviour.

26

2. When human behaviour is studied and analyzed by other human beings, the personal
characteristics of such human beings come into the picture and distort the analytical
facts.
3. Human behaviour do not admit measurement because it is psychological in nature.
4. Human behaviour is not uniform and predictable. Therefore, it is uncertain. Different
people will have different behaviour in similar circumstances. Similarly, one person
may have differently under similar circumstances.
5. The decision making in human behaviour becomes difficult. Thus reliable scientific
data cannot always be collected.
Limitations of Scientific Method
Though scientific method has many uses in research, it has got its own limitations.
1. It involves abstractness.
2. Its explanation is never complete.
3. The conclusions arrived by this method is not final.
4. As each science is concerned with a particular area and is based on certain assumptions,
it has limited scope.
5. Superstition, cherished beliefs etc., are hostile to the growth of scientific method.
6. Definitions and formal distinctions are not often used properly. Also, statistical
information may be irrelevant and inconclusive.
7. Scientific judgment is difficult. Sometimes, it is impossible immediate action is
demanded.
8. Development of this method needs necessary time for reflection and material for
experiment.
9. Scientific research suits only to the optimists.
10. There is no guarantee of achieving the goal and can prevent human life from being an
adventure.

27

UNIT II
CHAPTER IV
Research Problem
Introduction
In research process, the first and foremost step happens to be that of selecting and
properly defining a research problem. A researcher must find the problem and formulate it so
that it becomes susceptible to research. Like a medical doctor, a researcher must examine all
the symptoms (presented to him or observed by him) concerning a problem before he can
diagnose correctly. To define a problem correctly, a researcher must know: what a problem is?
The term problem originates from a Greek word Proballein meaning anything thrown
forward, a question proposed for solution, a matter stated for examination.
Definition of a Problem
R. S. Woodworth defines problem as a situation for which we have no ready and
successful response by instinct or by previously acquired habit. In other words, it means a
situation in which a ready solution is not available. The solution can be found out only after an
investigation.
John Dewey writes the need of clearing up confusion, of straightening out an
ambiguity, of overcoming obstacles, of covering the gap between things as they are and as they
may be when transformed, is, in germ, a problem.
Selection of a Research Problem
The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. The selection of
a research problem is a very important job for a research worker. Before the selection of a
research problem, the researcher has to analyze the problem based on the following questions:
1. Is the problem relevant and important?
2. Does the subject area suite to his interest?
3. Does it contain originality and creativeness?
4. Does the problem require extension of knowledge?
5. Is the problem feasible with respect to time and date required in its solution?
6.

Does the study reveal some new ideas?

7. Does he study practically fulfill the objectives?

8. Is the problem of investigation too narrow, or too broad?
28

The two important factors that influence the choice of a research problem are the
personal value of the researcher and the social condition. The following are the five steps
involved in research.
1. Choice of a topic
2. Data Collection
3. Formation of Hypothesis
4. Verification
5. Writing the thesis
Stages in the selection of a Problem
Broadly, the selection of research problem would involve the following three stages.
Stage 1: Selection of Problem Area
Any problem is not of significance to the nation of profession is definitely not worth
consideration of the investigator. A research problem can be sponsored by an agency and
can also be invented by the investigator himself. It is helpful for the investigator to keep in
mind the following aspects while selecting the area of problem for research.
1. The problem to be chosen should be such so as to be meaningfully related to the
interest of the investigator himself.
2. The problem having alliance with the chain of thinking of research already in existence
can be handled more confidently.
3. The ambitious problems covering a wide range of area of interest should be avoided
and the problems of manageable size and limits should be taken up.
4. An important consideration for selecting the problem area relates to its feasibility in
terms of the application of scientific techniques, availability of resources in terms of
money, personnel and equipments.
Stage 2: Identification of the Problem
The researcher after having carefully understood the pattern of thinking in a particular
area of interest seeks to consider the following aspects for the selection of the problem for
study. These aspects can be classified as
1. External Factors
While considering the external factors, the following should be thoroughly explored:

29

a) Novelty
Novelty is one of the fundamental qualities needed for a research problem. The
problem shall be of a new area so that the duplication of work is avoided. To achieve
this quality, the researcher has to study the early work on this area. The data collected
should be recent. Even a problem that has been investigated previously is amenable to
further studies using newer and better devices, tools and procedures.
b) Significance
The research problem should be flexible enough to add the existing knowledge or to
improve the current practices. It should change the previous findings in any way. The
new findings should have some significant role to play in future investigations. If this is
not possible, the efforts made will be in vain.
c) Availability of other sources
The facilities in respect of money, time and materials are needed for a research. In case of a
good research problem, the following factors should be solved favourably:
1. financial commitment of the problem
2. time required to complete the research work
3. availability of necessary laboratory to carry out the research work
d) Techniques to be employed
e) Sponsorship
f) Working Conditions.

2. Internal Factors
In case of internal factors, the necessary consideration has to be given with respect to the
following:
a) Interest
The problem should be interesting to the investigator. During the course of the
investigation, the investigator has to face certain obstacles. To face these obstacles
boldly, the investigator should have a genuine interest in the problem, otherwise the
tendency to discontinue the research may develop. Hence intellectual interest must be
attributed as one of the criteria for the successful completion of the research work.

30

b) Amenability
The problem chosen for research should be amenable to investigation. The researcher
should possess the required competence, knowledge, and understanding. He should be
skillful enough to develop, administer, and interpret the necessary data gathering devices
and procedures. He should possess a reasonable basic knowledge in the necessary statistical
techniques. The problem should match his special qualifications, training and experience.
c) Availability of data
After selecting a particular problem for research, the collection of data related to the topic
may be sometimes very difficult. In certain cases, the data may be confidential or sensitive.
So, for a successful completion of a research work, easy availability of data is a
prerequisite. Thus, the topic of the research should ensure the easy collection of data.
d) Availability of Co-operation
The co-operation of various agencies like institution, authorities, and individuals is needed
for research work. During the course of investigation, the researcher has to administer
several men and materials and to conduct prolonged experiments. He must make sure that
the necessary permission and co-operation from authorities will be available when
required.
e) Availability of guidance
A researcher has to choose the problem in such a way that necessary guidance is available
for the research. Unless there is a competent qualified faculty member who would be
willing to supervise the research work, research cannot be carried out successfully.
f) Level of research
It is another criterion to help in the selection of a problem. The nature and scope of a study
will be determined on the light of levels like Masters degree, M.Phil., degree and Ph.D. In
the higher levels like Ph.D, the problem chosen for research should be more complex and
need not be so simple.
g) Intellectual Curiosity
h) Training
i) Temperament and Personal Characteristics
j) Cost involved
k) Risks

31

l) Timings
m) Motivation
Stage 3: Interpretation of the Problem (Analysis of the Problem)
The introductory explanation of the problem is usually followed by a detailed definition
and development of back ground concerning sub-problems, scope, the review of the related
literature, sources of data, explanation of terminology used and assumptions etc. To analyze
the problem in its proper perspective he would ask five simple questions to ensure its
feasibility.
They are:
1. What do you want to know?
2. Where and how will you get the information?
3. Who will collect the information?
4. How will the information be analyzed?
5. What does it mean?
Scope and limitation
Whatever be the topic chosen for a research work, the scope of the topic has to be
limited with reference to the availability of time, money, materials and space. The problem has
to be investigated with reference to particular period. The period should be specified.
Researcher shall concentrate his study on this particular period only. If the topic is related to a
geographical area, that area should be clearly defined, ie., usually the coverage will be that of
country, state, district, taluk, village, or in certain cases that of a single institution. Availability
of materials can also be pointed out as one of the limitations of the study. But in science and
technology field, the investigation always concentrates on a narrow area. And the investigation
limits his experiments, on his theoretical pursuit, as the case may be, on a specific problem.
Common Errors
There are some common errors committed in selecting and formulating a research
problem. They are:
1. Naming a broad field or area of study instead of a specific problem.
2. Stating it in such a way that the investigation I impossible.
3. Narrowing or localizing a topic.
4. Including in it terms of an unscientific, emotional or biased nature.

32

5. Lack of precision in the instruments.

Conclusion
A clear statement of the research problem and identification of the limitations of the
study are essential for the successful completion of the research.

CHAPTER V

Research Design
Introduction
Having developed research question, identified a reading list, and planned the outline
for the literature review, we are now going to move on to look at quantitative research design.
What the researcher should keep in my mind is that there are two key, current applications for
developing his knowledge about quantitative research design:
(i) to look at how the research question can be examined through a variety of different designs;
(ii) to understand and describe the research designs used in the empirical literature which he is
reading for the literature review.
Research design provides the glue that holds the research project together. A design is
used to structure the research, to show how all of the major parts of the research project -- the
samples or groups, measures, treatments or programs, and methods of assignment -- work
together to try to address the central research questions.
Research designs fall into two broad classes: quasi-experimental and experimental.
Experimental studies are characterized by the ability to randomize subjects into treatment and
control groups. This randomization goes a long way toward controlling for variables which are
not included explicitly in the study. Because comparison groups are not true, randomized
control groups in quasi-experimental studies, this type of study has to control for confounding
variables explicitly through statistical techniques. For this reason, quasi-experimental studies
are sometimes labeled correlational designs.
Key Concepts and Terms
1. Experimental Designs
A design is experimental if subjects are randomly assigned to treatment groups and to control
(comparison) groups. Cook and Campbell (1979) mention ten types of experimental design.

33

Note that the control group may receive no treatment, or it may be a group receiving a standard
treatment (ex., students receiving computer-supported classes versus those receiving
conventional instruction). That is, the control group is not necessarily one to be labeled "no
treatment."
a) Classic experimental designs: randomization of subjects into control and treatment
groups is a classic experimental method, amenable to a variety of ANOVA designs. The
two broad classes of classic experimental design are:
b) Between subjects designs: In this type of design, the researcher is comparing between
subjects who experience different treatments. There are different subjects for each level
of the independent variable(s) (ex., for each different type of media exposure in a study
of the effect of political advertising). Any given subject is exposed to only one level and
comparisons are made between subjects' reactions or effects. The researcher relies on
randomization of subjects among the treatment groups to control for unmeasured
variables, though sometimes stratification of subjects is employed to guarantee
proportions on certain key variables (ex., race).
c) Factorial designs: This design uses categorical independent variables to establish
groups. For instance in a two factor design, the independent variables might be
information type (fiction, non-fiction) and media type (television, print, Internet),
generating 2 times 3 = 6 categories. An equal number of subjects would be assigned
randomly to each of the six possible groups (ex., to the fiction-television group). One
might then measure subjects on information retention. A null outcome would be indicated
by the average retention score being the same for all six groups of the factorial design.
Unequal mean retention scores would indicate a main effect of information type or media
type, and/or an interaction effect of both.
d) Fully-crossed vs. incomplete factorial designs: A design is fully crossed if there is a
study group for every possible combination of factors (independent variables). An
incomplete factorial design, leaving out some of the groups, may be preferred if some
combinations of values of factors are non-sensical or of no theoretical interest. Also,
when one of the factors is treatment vs. control (no treatment) and another factor is

34

types/levels of treatment, the control subjects by definition will not receive types/levels
of treatment so those cells in the factorial design remain empty.
e) Randomized block designs: These stratify the subjects and for each strata, a factorial
design is run. This is typically done when the researcher is aware of nuisance factors that
need to be controlled (example, there might be an air conditioned room stratum and a no
air conditioning stratum) or if there were other mitigating structural factors known in
advance (ex., strata might be different cities). That is, the blocking variables which
stratify the sample are factors which are considered to be control variables, not
independent variables as they would be in a simple factorial design. Randomized block
designs seek to control for the effects of main factors and their interactions, controlling
for the blocking variable(s).
f) In SPSS: Consider city to be the blocking variable and information type and media type
to be the main factors. In a simple factorial design, city would be an additional factor and
in SPSS one would ask for Analyze, General Linear Model, Univariate; the dependent
variable would be retention score; city, information type, and media type would be fixed
factors; the model would be "full factorial" (the default). In a randomized block design,
one would ask for Analyze, General Linear Model, Univariate; the dependent variable
would be retention score; information type, and media type would be fixed factors; the
blocking variable, city, would be entered as a random factor; click Model and select
Custom, then set "Build Term(s)" to "Main Effects" and move all three factors over to the
"Model:" box; uncheck "Include Intercept in Model."; Continue; OK. Note that this
procedure reflects the fact that in a randomized block design there are no interaction
effects, just main effects. Later, for multiple comparisons, repeat this procedure but click
the Post Hoc button and enter the main factors in the Post Hoc Tests box; also check the
type of test wanted (ex., Tukey's HSD).
g) Within subjects (repeated measures) designs: In this type of design, the researcher is
comparing measures for the same subjects (hence, "within subjects"). The same subjects
are used for each level of the independent variable, as in before-after studies or panel
studies. Since the subjects are the same for all levels of the independent variable(s), they
are their own controls (that is, subject variables are controlled). However, there is greater
danger to validity in the form of carryover effects due to exposure to earlier levels in the

35

treatment sequence (ex., practice, fatigue, attention) and there is danger of attrition in the
sample. Counterbalancing is a common strategy to address carryover effects: ex., half the
subjects get treatment A first, then B, while the other half get B first, then A, so that the
carryover effect washes out in the sense that it is counterbalanced in the overall sample.
Keep in mind that counterbalancing does not remove all effects - for instance, if there is a
practice effect in a test situation, with higher scores for the second-taken test, on the
average both tests will score higher in the overall sample than they would otherwise,
since for both tests half the sample had the benefit of a practice effect. Counterbalancing
in this situation only seeks that both test scores are biased equally upward, not that bias in
absolute scores is eliminated.
h) Matched pairs designs: Compared to between-subjects designs, within-subjects designs
control for subject variables better but at the expense of greater threat to validity in the
form of contamination from influences arising from subjects going from one
experimental level (condition) to another. Another type of repeated measures design is
matched pairs, where the repeated measurement is not of the same subjects but of very
similar subjects matched to have like key attributes. While matched pairs designs avoid
some types of invalidity of within subjects designs, such as the threat of subject fatigue
across repeated tests, matched pairs designs control only for the matched attributes
whereas same-subject within-subjects designs control for both explicit and unmeasured
subject variables.
2.Quasi-Experimental Design
a) Nonequivalent Control Group Designs
A design is quasi-experimental if subjects are not randomly assigned to groups but statistical
controls are used instead. There may still be a control or comparison group. While subjects
are not randomly assigned, they are either randomly selected (sampled) or are all the relevant
cases. For instance, a random sample of cities with councilmanager governments may be
compared with a random sample of cities with mayorcouncil governments. Cook and
Campbell (1979) outline 11 nonequivalent control group research designs. In each case, due
to the non-equivalency of the comparison group, threats to validity are much more possible
than in a randomized design and the researcher should consider checklist-style all the types
of validity threats.

36

1. One-Group Posttest-Only Design: Sometimes called the "one-shot case study," this design
lacks a pretest baseline or a comparison group, making it impossible to come to valid
conclusions about a treatment effect because only posttest information is available. The level
of the dependent variable may be due to treatment, or may be due to any number of causes of
invalidity such as history (other events coexisting with treatment), maturation (changes in
subjects which would have occurred anyway), experimenter expectation (subjects seeking to
provide responses known to be desired or simply reacting to the attention of being tested), or
other biases discussed in the section on validity. If this design is used, information must be
gathered on pretest conditions, if only through respondent recollections, which are often
subjective and unreliable.
2. Posttest-Only Design with Nonequivalent Comparison Groups Design: In this common
social science design, it is also impossible to come to valid conclusions about treatment effect
based solely on posttest information on two nonequivalent groups since effects may be due to
treatment or to nonequivalence between the groups. Strategies for improving validity center on
trying to create equivalency between groups by random assignment of subjects or matched-pair
assignment to groups. When such assignment is impossible, then attempts may be made to
control statistically by measuring and using as covariates all variables thought to affect the
dependent variable. Nonetheless, many of the same threats to validity exist as in one-group
posttest-only designs: history (concurrent events affect the two groups differently), maturation
(the two groups would have evolved differently anyway), testing (the two groups have
different reactions to testing itself), regression to the mean (the two groups tend to revert to
their respective means if starting from extreme levels), etc.
3. Posttest-Only Design with Predicted Higher-Order Interactions: Sometimes the
expectation of the treatment effect interacts with a third variable. Instead of the expectation that
treatment group subjects will be higher on the dependent, one has the expectation that the
subjects will be higher if in the upper half of third variable Y but lower (or not as high) if in the
bottom half of Y. For instance, training may lead to greater productivity for high education
employees but not for low education employees on the same tasks. The interaction creates two
or more expectations compared to the simple one-expectation one-group posttest only design.
Because there are more expectations, there is greater verification of the treatment effect.

37

However, this design is still subject to possible challenges to validity due to such factors as
history (subjects high in education had different experiences) -- it is just that the counterargument has to be more complex to account for the interaction, and therefore may be
somewhat less likely to be credible.
4. One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design: This is a common but flawed design in social science.
It is subject to such threats to validity as history (events intervening between pretest and
posttest), maturation (changes in the subjects that would have occurred anyway), regression
toward the mean (the tendency of extremes to revert toward averages), testing (the learning
effect on the posttest of having taken the pretest), and most challenges discussed in the separate
section on validity. Sometimes the pretest data is collected at the same time as the posttest data,
as when the researcher asks for recollection data of the "before" state. This is know as a proxy
pretest-posttest design and has additional validity problems since the pretest data are usually
significantly less reliable.
5. Two-Group Pretest-Posttest Design Using an Untreated Control Group (separate
pretest-posttest samples design): If a comparison group which does not receive treatment is
added to what otherwise would be a one-group pretest-posttest design, threats to validity are
greatly reduced. This is the classic experimental design. Since the groups are not equivalent,
there is still the possibility of selection (observed changes are due to selection of subjects, such
as working with more motivated volunteers in a treatment group -- see two-stage least squares
for a discussion of testing for selection bias). Much depends on the outcome. For instance, if
the treatment group starts below the comparison group and ends up above after treatment, a
stronger inference of a treatment effect exists than if both groups rise in performance, but the
treatment group more so (this might well be due to selection). A strongly recommended
modification to this design is to have more than one pre-test. Multiple pretests (at the same
interval as between the last pretest and the posttest) help establish the performance trends in
both the treatment group and the control group, and treatment should be revealed by a change
in the trend line for the treatment group but not the control group.
6. Double pretest designs. One can strengthen pretest-posttest designs by having two (or
more) pretest measures. This can establish if there is a trend in the data independent of the

38

treatment effect measured by the posttest. By seeing if there is a posttest effect over and above
the trend, one controls for maturation threats to study validity.
7. Four-group Design with Pretest-Posttest and Posttest-Only Groups. Also known as the
"Solomon four-group design," this design has a treatment and control group with both pretests
and post-tests and has treatment and control groups with posttests only. This design strengthens
the two-group pretest-posttest design because, if the same effect difference is found for
treatment vs. control groups in the pretest-posttest set as for the posttest-only set, then the
researcher may rule out threats to validity having to do with repeated measurement (ex.,
learning effects from having taken the test before).
8. Nonequivalent Dependent Variables Pretest-Posttest Design: In this design, the
researcher identifies dependent variables related to the treatment-related variable, but where
treatment is predicted to have no effect. Then, if the variable thought to be affected by
treatment does in fact change in the predicted direction, but there is no change in the other
related dependent variables, again as predicted, then the inference is made that the change in
question is due to treatment, not some confounding cause such as test experience from the
pretest.
9. Removed-Treatment Pretest-Posttest Design: In some situations it is possible not only to
introduce a treatment but also to remove it. If the dependent variable goes up after treatment
and then goes down when treatment is removed, this is some evidence for the effect of
treatment. Of course, if the variable goes up after treatment, it might come down on its own
anyway due to a declining return or attrition effect. Cook and Campbell (1979) therefore
recommend at least two posttests after treatment and before removal of treatment, in order to
establish trend effects after treatment. The researcher also needs to beware of resentment
effects due to treatment removal, as these also might cause a decline in the variable measured,
depending on the situation.
10. Repeated-Treatment Design: This design is similar to the preceding one but follows a
pretest-treatment-posttest-removal of treatment-posttest-restoration of treatment-posttest
pattern. The expected treatment effect is for the dependent variable to increase after treatment,

39

decline after removal of treatment, then increase again with restoration of treatment. Even if
this outcome occurs, inference is not foolproof as the decline phase may be due to resentment
at removal of treatment rather than direct adverse affects of removal of treatment, and the
subsequent rise may be due not to restoration of treatment but removal of the source of
resentment. Also, subjects may more easily become aware of experimenter expectations in this
design, and may seek to meet (or react against) expectations, thereby contaminating the study.
11. Switching Replications Designs. In this research design, there are two comparison groups
and three measures. Both groups are measured under pretest conditions. The treatment is given
to one group but not the control group, and a first post-test measure taken. Then the treatment
is given to the control group but not the first group, and a second post-test measure is taken.
12. Reversed-Treatment Pretest-Posttest Nonequivalent Comparison Groups Design. This
design is one in which the nonequivalent comparison group receives the opposite treatment
(ex., the treatment group receives participative leadership while the comparison group receives
autocratic leadership). The expectation is that the posttest will show increase for the treatment
group and decrease for the comparison group. Cook and Campbell (1979) suggest adding a notreatment group and even a placebo group where appropriate. Multiple pretests will improve
this design by showing preexisting trends in the treatment and nonequivalent comparison
group.
13. Cohort Designs with Cyclical Turnover: This design refers to the study of groups as they
evolve over time, as in the study of a fourth-grade class in year 1, the corresponding fifth grade
class in year two, etc. The expectation is that the class average will increase in the posttest after
treatment. This design is liable to the same challenges to validity as simple prettest-posttest
designs, but it can be strengthened by partitioning the cohort into subgroups according to their
exposure to the treatment. In a study of the effects of television violence, for instance, the
cohort may be divided into groups of high, medium, and low exposure to violent television
shows. The expectation is that the partitions exposed more will show more change on the
dependent variable. Where partitioning is not possible, having multiple prettests and posttests
can establish trends to rebut "it would have happened anyway" arguments about the validity of
conclusions under this design.

40

14. Regression-Discontinuity Design: One might hypothesize that if there is a treatment

effect, then the slope of the regression line relating scores before and after treatment would be
the same, but there would be a discontinuous jump in magnitude on the dependent variable
immediately after treatment. This test requires verification that the relationship between
prettest and posttest scores is linear, as two linear regressions (one before, one after treatment)
on a curvilinear underlying relationship could spuriously appear to meet this test. Also, there
may be a treatment effect taking the form of a steeper regression slope but no discontinuity at
the point of treatment. Such a treatment effect is very difficult to differentiate from a simple
curvilinear relationship.
15. Regression Point Displacement Design. In this design there is a treatment group (ex., a
county) and a large number of comparison groups (ex., other counties in the state). Consider
the case where we wish to estimate the effect of an after-school intervention on juvenile crime.
In the pretest condition we regress juvenile crime rates on, say, median income level and we
note the position of the test county in the regression scattergram. In the posttest condition, after
we have implemented the intervention program, we re-run the regression. If the location of the
test county is displaced on the regression scattergram, we conclude that the intervention had an
effect.
3. Interrupted Time Series
Above, in the discussion of non-equivalent control group designs, it was suggested that
pretest-posttest versions could be improved by having at least two pretests to establish linear
tendencies apart from treatment. Cook and Campbell (1979) list six interrupted time series
designs which extend this suggestion by having multiple pretests and posttests.
a. Simple Interrupted Time Series Design. This is the one-group pretest-posttest design
augmented with multiple pretests and posttests. The trend found in multiple pretests can
be compared to the trend found in multiple posttests to assess whether apparent posttreatment improvement may simply be an extrapolation of a maturation effect which
was leading toward improvement anyway. Since there is no control group, however, the
researcher cannot assess other confounding factors such as history-type challenges to
validity ( the possibility that other factors historically coterminous with the treatment

41

actually led to the observed effect). There may be other problems such as failure to
seasonally adjust data, confounding a seasonal effect with a treatment effect; selection
bias, as due to non-random attrition of subjects in the posttest; instrumentation bias (the
posttest is not equivalent to the pretest); and testing (there may be a learning effect from
the pretest such that the observed effect is one a test artifact rather than a treatment
effect).
b.

Interrupted Time Series with a Nonequivalent No-Treatment Comparison Group :

This is the two-group pretest-posttest design using an untreated control group, but with
multiple pretests and posttests. By having a comparison group, even if nonequivalent
(not randomized), the same threats to validity can occur, but they usually occur in a
more complex and hence more easily disproved way. For instance, if this design shows
an improvement in the treatment but not comparison group, it may still be true that
there is historical bias, but such biasing history factors must be unique to the treatment
group for some reason not experienced by the comparison group. There could be
seasonal bias, but only if the seasonal factors were thought to be uniquely associated
with treatment. The researcher's main validity challenge is to show the two groups were
equivalent on all causally important variables prior to treatmen (ex., in a study of a
rehabilitation program's effect on recidivism, to show the two groups of prisoners were
similar in crime record, age, etc.).. An alternative strategy, which only works for
stronger effects, is to select a treatment group which would be expected to measure
worse on post treatment (ex., prisoners with worse criminal records than the
comparison group, in a study of recidivism), on the theory that if the effect shows in
spite of an adverse starting point for the treatment group, the treatment has an effect.

c.

Interrupted Time Series with Nonequivalent Dependent Variables: This is the

nonequivalent dependent variables pretest-posttest design with multiple pretests and
posttests. The object is to find dependent variables related to the dependent being
studied, but where the related variables are not thought to be correlated with the
treatment variable. Cook and Campbell (1979) give the example of influence on
accident rates (the dependent) of breathalyzer tests (the treatment variable) given by
police when bars are open weekend nights, but not given at other times. The dependent
variable of interest is accident rates on weekend nights. The related dependents are

42

accident rates on weekday nights when bars are open and accident rates at times when
bars are not open. The expectation was that accident rates would be significantly lower
on weekend nights because of the presence of the treatment. Counter-explanations for
lower accident rates (ex., safer cars, and stricter court treatment of offenders) must
explain not only the lower accident rate on weekend nights, but also the lack of effect at
other times. Of course, confounding factors may well exist, but they must be unique to
the dependent variable of interest.
d.

Interrupted Time Series with Removed Treatment: This is the removed-treatment

pretest-posttest design with multiple pretests and posttests, including ones in between
the original treatment and its removal, and hence is a more powerful test. For instance,
the threat of history is reduced because any historical forces coincident with treatment
would also have increase after treatment and decrease after removal, an unlikely
circumstance. Ideally removal of treatment does not occur until enough observations
have been taken to rule out any seasonal or other cyclical effects.

e.

Interrupted Time Series with Multiple Replications. This is simply the interrupted
time series with removed treatment design, except that treatment and removal occur
multiple times on a schedule. Circumstances rarely permit such a design, but it is
stronger yet. By timing the replications randomly, the researcher is able to minimize
contamination from cyclical factors. This design assumes one is dealing with a
treatment effect which dissipates in a timely manner before the next replication, without
carryover effects (otherwise there is "multiple treatment interference," meaning that
receiving earlier treatments adds to or multiplies the effect of receiving later
treatments).

f.

Interrupted Time Series with Switching Replications. This is a further refinement in

which there are two groups, each serving as either the treatment or comparison group
on an alternating basis, through multiple replications of treatment and removal. This
requires an even higher level of control over subjects by the researcher but is a
particularly strong design in ruling out threats to validity. It does not lend itself to
studies where the treatment intervention has been gradual, or where treatment effect
does not decay well.

43

ii.

Non-Experimental Designs
A design is non-experimental if the subjects are neither randomly assigned nor
randomly selected. There may still be comparison groups.
1.

Case study designs are discussed in a separate section.

2.

Content analysis is discussed in a separate section. Under some circumstances,

content analysis may also be part of a quasi-experimental design.

3.

Ethnography is discussed in a separate section.

4.

Focus groups are discussed in a separate section.

5.

Narrative analysis is discussed in a separate section.

6.

Network analysis and sociometry are discussed in a separate section.

7.

Participant observation is discussed in a separate section.

Assumptions
i.

The researcher is assumed to have a research design!

ii.

The researcher is assumed to have considered all threats to validity associated with
the design.

iii.

In the case of experimental designs, it is assumed that randomization of subjects

controls for all unmeasured variables. However, the smaller the sample size, the less
likely this is to be true.

Hypothesis
Introduction
Ordinarily, when one talks about hypothesis, one simply means a mere assumption or
some other supposition to be proved or disproved. But for a researcher, hypothesis is a formal
question that he intends to resolve. Thus, a hypothesis may be defined as a proposition or a set
of proposition set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of some specified group of

44

phenomena either asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide some investigation or

accepted as highly probable in the light of established facts.
In a problem-oriented research, it is necessary to formulate a hypothesis or hypotheses.
In such researches, hypotheses are generally concerned with the causes of a certain
phenomenon or a relationship between two or more variables under investigation.
Definition of Hypothesis
A hypothesis is shrewd guess or inference that is formulated and provisionally adopted to
explain observed facts or conditions and to guide in further investigation.
- Good and Seates.
A statement capable of being tested and theory by verified or rejected.

Rummel.

It has been defined as a tentative solution posed on cursory observation of known and
available data and adopted provisionally to explain certain events and to guide in the
investigation of others. It is in fact, a possible solution to the problems.

M.H.Gopal

Function of Hypothesis
From the above definitions, it is inferred that the following are the three main functions
of hypothesis:
1. To Test Theories
2. To suggest Theories
3. To describe Social Phenomena.
1.

To Test Theories
The relation between theory and hypothesis is very close indeed. Theories are based on
facts, which is if elaborated becomes hypothesis. Theories need to be tested in order to
demonstrate its predictive value and its adequacy as a tool of explanation for some

45

event. The theories lend themselves for empirical test if the facts proposition and
assumptions implied in their or split up into specific hypothesis.
2.

To Suggest Theories
Another function of hypothesis is to suggest theories. Theory is derived out of
hypothesis and is considered as elaborate hypothesis. In other words, hypothesis when
refined becomes theory.
There is no sharp line of demarcation between hypothesis and theory. Since the
basic difference is one of the complexity and the extent of testing against the evidence.
In its early stage of testing a theory usually has been called a hypothesis, but as the
hypothesis is checked against the data and their logical implication towards a successful
conclusion, it may become known as a theory. Goode and Hart says that Every worth
while theory permits the formulation of additional hypothesis. These when tested are
either proved or disproved and in turn constitution further tests of the original theory.
3. To Describe Social Phenomena
When a hypothesis is tested, it explains the phenomenon associated with it. This
phenomenon may be new or not known earlier. Neither a theory nor a hypothesis is
involved in such a test. Any commonsense knowledge or belief is put to empirical test
to determine its validity. Hence new knowledge is gathered. Goode and Hatt observe
that a hypothesis looks forward. It may be proved to be correct or incorrect on any
event, the hypothesis is a question put in such a way that answers some kind can be
forthcoming.
Forms of Hypothesis
1. Hypothesis concerning law: This explains how an agent works to produce a particular
effect or event.

46

2. Hypothesis concerning an agent : The law of operation of an agent is known, but the
agent which is working to an effect may not be known. This hypothesis is framed to
find out agent.
3. Hypothesis

concerning

collocation:

Collocation

means

an

arrangement

of

circumstances. When a hypothesis is made relating to the circumstances necessary to

produce a phenomenon it is known as a hypothesis regarding collocation.
4. Describe hypothesis: It describes the cause and effect relationship of phenomenon.
5. Explanatory hypothesis: It explains the happening of a phenomenon. It reconstructs the
situation by extrapolation and arrangement s of facts.
Null Hypothesis
Null means zero. When a hypothesis is stated negatively, it is called Null Hypothesis.
The objective of this hypothesis is to avoid the personal bias of the investigator in the matter of
collection of data. A null hypothesis is used to collect additional support for the known
hypothesis.
Reasoning for possible rejection of proposition is called Null Hypothesis. It is a very
useful tool in testing the significance of difference. H.E. Garret remarks The Null Hypothesis
is akin to the logical principle that a man is incorrect until he proved guilty. It constitutes a
challenge and the function of a research is to give facts a chance to refuse this challenge. A
null hypothesis in its other forms asserts that the results found to the expected on a probability
basis in terms of certain theory. As against null hypothesis, the alternative hypothesis is
formulated embracing whole range of values rather than single point. For example, an
alternative hypothesis may be stated that:
H 1 = The males visit cinema often than the females.

a null hypothesis may be stated as

H 0 = The males and females do not differ in respect of the frequency of

seeing cinema.

47

The null hypothesis is more useful than other hypothesis because it is exact. It is easier
to disprove the category of the hypothesis than to prove it with certainty.
Importance of Hypothesis
In addition to putting the theory to test, a hypothesis performs certain other functions:
1. guiding point to a research
2. prevents a blind search and indiscriminate gathering of data
3. serves as a forerunner to collect data
4. saves a lot of time and keep the researcher away from the considerable amount of
confusion
5. solutions to problems
6. has practical values to society
7. helps in understanding the social phenomenon in their proper perspective and refuse
certain Common Sense Nations about human behavior.
Characteristics of Hypothesis
1. Hypothesis must be defined clearly
2. Hypotheses should have empherical reference
3. The hypothesis must be specific
4. Hypothesis should be related to available techniques
5. The hypothesis should be related to a body of theory.
Testing of Hypotheses
Knowledge or a fact could be accepted only when it has validity. The validity of such
knowledge could be accepted only when it is tested with regard to its usefulness or truth.
Hence, to accept hypotheses, which are merely hunches or guesses, as facts, they are to be
used. Testing hypotheses means subjecting them to some sort of empherical scrutiny to
determine if they are supported or refuted by what the researcher observes.

48

Robert Baes states that the following questions should be asked about hypotheses
before they are tested:
1. are the terms empherically specific, so that the concepts or variables can be
distinguished in concrete situation?
2. is the relationship between variables such that it could be verified or nullified by
means of empherical operations?
3. is there any prior evidence as to the truth or falseness of the relationship?
4. can an appropriate study design be devised?
5. are the variables context bound or could they be equally well applied to other
interaction situation?
6. are the generalizations culture bound or can they be also applied realistically
to other cultures?
7. if other relevant factors are subject to change in the course of the observations,
are they adequately specified and enumerated, so that the observer can ascertain
whether they have changed during the period of observation?.
8. is the generalization a part of the theoretical system from which it could be
deduced as well as being verified by the proposed empherical induction?
9. is the empherical system that is constructed sufficiently praise and articulates to
permit predictions in concrete situations?
Problems in Formulating Hypotheses
A researcher has to come across several problems in formulating hypothesis. It is as
difficult as finding out a research problem or identifying a suitable theory. The following are
some of the difficulties in formulating hypotheses as pointed out by Good and Hart in their
book Methods of social research.
1. Absence of a theoretical frame work
2. Lack of ability to utilize that theoretical frame work logically
3. Failure to acquaint with available research techniques so as to able to phrase
the hypothesis properly

49

The researcher must bear in mind that he has to formulate a good definite and testable
hypothesis. At the beginning stage when one is not familiar with various processes of research,
the formulation of a sound hypothesis would be some what difficult. He may frame some
formulations and can say that they are hypotheses. But they may not have the testability.
Uses of Hypothesis
a) Hypothesis forms the starting point of investigation
b) Hypothesis makes observation and experiment possible
c) Hypothesis is an aid to explanation
d) Hypothesis makes deduction possible
e) Hypothesis act as a guide. In other words, it is investigators eye-a sort of guiding light
in the world of research
f) It prevents blind research. It spells out the difference between precision and hapazards,
between fruitful and fruitless research.
g) It provides direction to research identifying which is relevant and prevent irrelevant
review of literature and collection of useless or excess data
h) It focuses research, without it is like a random and aimless path.
i) It links up related facts and information in fully understandable.
j) It serves a frame work for drawing meaningful conclusions

UNIT III
CHAPTER VI
Historical Research
Historical research is the critical investigation of events, developments and experiences
of past, the careful weighting of evidence of the validity of sources of information on the past,
and the interpretation of the weighted evidence.

The historical investigator, like others,

collects the data, evaluates it for its validity and finally interprets the data. It is also known as
historiography and differs from other methods by its nature of subject matter which is usually
based on past events. According to Sheik Ali, Historical Research is digging into the past in
order to re-enact the past in its entirely, to reconstruct the past events as fully as they must have

50

happened and to explain the meaning and significance of those events, to correct the wrong
notions so long prevalent if any and to elaborate, analysis, synthesis and philosophise the ideas
in the light of the knowledge we possess. In short, the critical examination of the past event
or happening in order to know truth and later on to generalization is known as Historical
Research.
Aim of Historical Method
The aim of historical method is to discover regularities and events of a given kind at a
certain period of time in the past. History is concerned with an accurate account of particular
happening, stressing the location and the date.
Thus the aim of historical method is to present an accurate record of how, when and
where of the events. The historian explains the events by describing the conditions which led
up to it and how it grew. In addition, a historian may indicate some of the important results
which have followed as a consequence of the event.
Historical method produces uncritically and unreflectively a final reconstructed
historical narrative to learn its bearing upon present phenomena, social institutions, social and
or behavioral problems.
Uses Of Historical Methods
The uses of historical methods are enumerated as follows:
i)

Historical methods are most

frequently used by evaluators of programmes,

surveyors and even by the most advanced social or behavioural research workers,
both for designing the study and making inferences.
ii)

Historical methods provide an interesting material and data in reconstructing the

past in order to learn it its influence on present social problem and behavioural
complex.

iii)

It provides a basis for the formulation, developing awnd

initiating projects,

programmes and policies.

iv)

It extends cludes which might indicate the sources and origin of the problem, the
degree of influence it has been exerting on the behavioural aspects and thus shows
the way in controlling and harmonizing the sources and influences.

v)

It is used as a comparative data to test the hypothesis.

51

It is used as crucial tests of certain theories. It is an attempt to make a systematic

vi)

enquiry or investigation into a subject in order to discover facts and revise the
known facts and put the facts into theories. It is useful both for theoretical and
practical purposes.
vii)

It has made an important contribution to various branches of social sciences. Exhistorical methods include study of life history, history of various organizations and
institutions.

viii)

Historical research enables us to get an accurate knowledge of the past. When we

analyse the past and present it is possible to predict the future. Through historical
study, it is possible to make comparative studies for a historical period of time
factors, situations etc,. In economics, comparative studies may be made in terms of
growth, national products. Savings, investments and trends in operation by
evaluation. In business, historical studies of individual companies would help us to
interpret their contribution to national economy. Thus, historical research enables
us to understand the past of plan for the future.

Advantages
The advantages of historical approach are:
a)

Some problems are such which can be investigated only by this approach may not
offer to other approaches. Therefore, historical approach fills in a big gap of
making the research possible and also meaningful on the problems that would
otherwise have remained unexplored. Many a times, it is considerable interest to
use time series data for assessing the progress or the impact of several policies and
initiatives and this can be done by looking into historical records only for such
problems, therefore, only historical approach would suit better.

b)

Secondly, historical data is not repeatable under any circumstances and, therefore,
historical approach serves as a ready hand method to the researchers whose
problems depend on historical observations. It is fairly easy to repeat observations
in laboratories under controlled conditions but cannot be done in case of historical
data. Historical approach, therefore, has an advantage to offer the past data under
the then prevailing conditions and afford an opportunity to the researcher to view
these observations in the past setting.

52

c)

Thirdly, historical records provide very useful information that goes a long way
towards the solution of a research problem. In cases where time series data is
unavoidable, it is advantageous to follow historical approach.

How to Conduct a Historical Research

The conduct of historical research entails the following steps:
a) the recognition of a historical problem or the identification of a need for certain
historical knowledge.
b) the gathering of as much pertinent information about the problem or topic as possible.
c) if appropriate, the forming of hypotheses that tentatively explain relationships between
historical factors (variables).
d) the rigorous collection and organization of evidence, and the verification of the
authenticity and varacity of information and its sources.
e) the selection, organization, and analysis of the most pertinent collected evidence, and
the drawing of conclusions and
f) the recording of conclusions in a meaningful narrative. Historical research can be
conducted most effectively with these procedures.

Library History
Library history is the systematic recounting of past events pertaining to the
establishment, maintenance, and utilization of systematically arranged collections of
recorded information or knowledge carefully conducted litrary history relates the causes
and results of events, it also often recognizes the social, economic, political, intellectual,
and cultural environment in which these events occurred. Further more, library history is
sometimes considered an exposition of past incidents and developments and their impact
on later times.
The term library history is commonly applied to an account of events that affected any
library or group of libraries as well as to the social and economic impacts of libraries on
their communities.
For example the contents of the Library Trends issue entitled, American Library
History: 1876-1976 illustrate the diversity of historical topics within the profession.
Articles are included about the distribution of libraries over the nation, research collection

53

development, library statistics, library buildings, the library profession, library associations,
publishing in the profession, the organization of library resources, and service aspects of
librarianship-all are treated from a historical point of view.
Pierce Butler wrote in An Introduction to Library science that librarianship can be
fully appreciated only through an understanding of its historic origins. The specific value
of library history, according to Jesse Shera, is that it allows librarians to synthesize and to
make generalizations from reconstructions of the past; this process of synthesis and
generalization will not only recreate the past but can serve as as aid in understanding the
present.

According to Shera, librarians should possess a clear historical conscious

because they cannot function effectively (fullfil their social responsibility). When history
is regarded merely on esoteric aspect of knowledge.
The other examples for historical approach in libraries are the following:
Spensers The Chicago Public Library: origins and Backgrounds.
Sheras Foundations of the Public Library White fields Boston Public Library
etc.
Librarians who have conducted historical studies have sometimes been interested in the
general history of libraries or in library history in specific countries, states or regions.
Other librarian historians have concentrated on broad periods of time or ages ancient,
medieval or modern. A few history scholars have investigated aspects of large categories
of librarianship, such as (a) libraries in the United States during the colonial period: (b) the
period in which social libraries existed between 1731 and 1865 or (c) the nineteenth
century development period of the tax-supported public library in the United States. A
number of historians have conducted enquiries into the histories of particular type of
libraries such as academic public or special.
Some library historians are investigatory events and developments in the recent part
such as (a) the influence of legislators and of legislation such as Public Law 480, the Library
services and construction Act, and the Higher Education Act: (b) the library utilization of a
variety of new communication media and technological innovations such as tele-fasimile
devices, television, microforms, data-processing equipment, computers, reprographic tools, and
audio-visual materials; and (c) the impact of the great Depression and world war II on libraries.

54

Other subjects of contemporary historical studies have been (a) library services to
disadvantaged and culturally deprived citizens; (b) the roles of library associations and their
impact on library development (c) overseas library technical assistant, (d) the careers of block
librarians; (e) women in positions of leadership in the profession; and (f) political leadership
for library development.
Conditions Necessary for Historical Research
The research worker who plans to conduct a history study first determine whether a
reasonable amount of evidence about the selected topic is readily available, as well as how and
where access to it can be gained.
Good history cannot be written without adequate sources of information.

The

researcher should avoid selecting topics or problems that are too broad a complex. He should
often pose research questions that require very extensive investigations.
The investigator should choose a subject area for investigation in which he or she feels
most comfortable so far as personal ability, background, experience, knowledge, and aptitude
are concerned. Difficulties are likely to arise when historians have not acquired an in depth
knowledge about the targeted subject area.
A thorough and accurate system of bibliographical control and note taking procedures
should be devised before a study is initiated. Moreover, literature searchers are essential at an
early stage of the investigative process.
Good historians realize that not all knowledge is absolute, nor is all knowledge
scientific.

Sound knowledge is obtained by posing hypothesis, reasoning out possible

answers, and testing the answers. The scientific approach in historical inquiries produces
knowledge that is more certain.
The success or failure of historical inquiries will depend greatly upon the ability of the
research worker to adequately conceptualize the purpose and problem of the research, to
vigorously evaluate and categorize the collected evidence, and to analyse data intelligently in
view of research objective.
Operational Research
Operational Research (OR) is the use of scientific methods to study the functions or
operations of an organization so as to develop better type ways of planning and controlling,
changes. It can be viewed as a branch of management, engineering, or science or as a special

55

combination of these three. As part of the field at management, its purpose is to assist decision
makers in choosing preferred future courses to action by systematically identifying and
examining the alternatives which are available to the manager, and by predicting the possible
outcomes from such actions. As a branch of engineering, operational research is concerned
with the analysis and design of systems for automating and augmenting management type
functions, especially those concerned with information processing and control. Operational
research is also viewed as a form of applied science, and is closely related to the fields of
statistics, computer science, and optimization methods.
Operational research began with the efforts of small teams of British scientists who
were mobilized at the beginning of world war II to help solve pressing military problems.
Under the direction of Nobel Laureate P.M.S.Blackett, Blacketts circus quickly
demonstrated the value of interdisciplinary scientific approaches to operational problems.
Their success led to early initation by U.S. and other allied groups, and to the eventual
recognition of operations research as an integral part of modern military management. The use
of Operational Research Techniques in business, industry and government grew rapidly during
the 1950s and 1960s. Today, most large companies have special groups which specialize in the
application of the OR approach to corporate problems. Many consulting firms provide such
services to business, government and military organizations on a contractual basis, usually to
the higher levels of decision making in the organization.
Special courses and academic programmes in operations research were started in the
early 1950s at Massa Chusetts Institute of Technology, the Johns Hopkings University, and
Case Western Reserve University. By the end of the 1960s most Universities were offering so
kind of programme in the subject. Preparation for professional practice as operations research
specialist has been strongest in the engineering schools, business school, and military
academics. Departments of applied mathematics, industrial and systems engineering, and
quantitative methods in business and ecomonic are the kinds of faculties that offer advanced
graduate study in operations research.

Like statistics and computer science, operations

research techniques are now being taught widely as supplementary topics in many other
disciplines. As an academic subject in its own right, however, emphasis is placed on the
mathematical aspects of the subject and on those methods which have proven to be especially
useful in describing and solving many kinds of decision problems. In practice, operations

56

research remains and electric art and is usually undertaken as a team effort combining the skills
from many disciplines. Initially such teams were largely dominated by physical scientists who
were interested in applying their scientific methodology to operational problems.

More

recently, their ranks have tended to give way to engineers, economists, psychologists,
mathematicians, and computer scientists. The common unifying theme to their work is the task
of formulating reals world problems in such a way hat they can be analysed in an systematic
fashion and solutions can be proposed that have credibility through logic and experience.
Frequently, it is found that formulations and solution techniques perfected in one problem area
have considerable transferability to other problem areas. The two major professional societies
in the United States are the Operations Research society of America (ORSA) and The Institute
of Management Sciences (TIMS).
The Operations Research Approach
Operations research begins with the study of the people who make decisions in an
organization and seeks to make more explicit the alternatives they face and their reasons for
making chockes. They are four major steps.
a)

formulation of the decision problem

b)

construction of a model of the decision problem

c)

analysis and design of a system for solving the problem, and

d)

incorporation of the system in the organization

The total process is a cyclic one, that is, the research team begins with an elementary
formulation of the problem and the construction of as simple a model as is possible to capture
the essential features. This leads to a solution system that can be used in an experimental way
in the organization to see how it affects the original problem situation. This usually leads to a
much better clarification of the problem, enrichment of the model, refinement of the system,
and a new round of experimentation in the organization. The process is intended to continue in
this way to evolve into a fully satisfactory control of the operations under study, and also to
lead to higher levels of management decision making in an organization, it is possible to begin
at various problem situations and arrive at the same level of understanding and control.
However, it is usually most effective to begin with isolated on situations and then work toward
their convergence in a more common structure of decision making, rather than to develop a
total management system at the outset.

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Steps in the Operations Research Process

Formulation of Decision Problems
Operations research has been a major force in defining the role of the modern manager
as primarily that of the decision maker. As Miller and Star point out, the manager has to do
many things in an organization. But most organizations make continual attempts to relieve a
manager of his more or less routine operations so that he will have more time for the critical
decision function. He is rewarded and evaluated in terms of this success at making decision.
The following decision making operations will serve as a useful model.
1. Choose the objective: Specify its dimensions and value.
2. Isolate all of the variables that are pertinent to the objective value.
3. Develop the relationships that exist among the variable.
4. Distinguish controllable variables from those which are not controllable, and classify
the latter as to whether they are random or due to competition strategies.
5. Develop forecasts and predictions of random variables: determine how stable and
reliable the forecasts are.
6. Develop the function that relates the variable to the measure of effectiveness in
attaining the objective.
7. Identify the restrictions that limit possible values of controllable variables.
8. Choose those values of the controllable variables that will maximize the degree of
attainment of the objective within the limits set by the restrictions.
OR Models and Systems Analysis
When decision problems can be formulated in the theoretical manner described above,
it is relatively easy to move on to the next steps building analytic models, and designing
systems for applying the results of the models. In practice, ofcourse, it is not very easy to
formulate problems so neatly, and it is always helpful to do this with a view toward how
the formulation will lead to useful models. For this reason, experience with the modeling
process is useful in formulating problems. A considerable amount of interaction between
the modeling and the problem-formulation steps is needed in order to capture all the
essential elements in the problem situation and to formulate them in manner that will make
best use of the analytic tools and experience available.

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The most widely used OR model is that of linear programming, which is a technique
for finding the best allocation of commonly used resources among the various activities
that use those resources. A different kind of modeling that has been especially useful to
information and communication systems and other types of service organizations is
concerned with the analysis of waiting lines or queues. Professor Morse is a noted expert
on queueing theory, and he shows that many aspects of the behaviour of users in a library
can be readily modeled as random processes. A more recent study by W.B.Rouse used this
technique to determine the optimal staffing of service desks in libraries and to predict the
total volume of circulation of a library collection.
An alternative method of studying systems which are subjected to random perturbations
is by computer simulation, whereby the computer is made to generate such occurrences by
mathematical methods and then keep close track of the consequences of such events over a
period of time. This method is often used when the characteristics of the system under
study do not confirm to the assumptions and other limitations in the use of queueing theory.

Changing Organizational Behaviour

The final step in the operations research process is that of implementation, or the actual
use of models and systems in the operation s of an organization. The systems approach is
aimed at a totality of understanding that encompasses all factors including the human ones.
R.L.Ackoff has pointed out that the real benefits of systems planning in an organization are
not derived by following a plan but by the organization engaging directly in the planning
process itself as n on going activity. Therefore, the role of the professional planner is not to
plan, but to provide everyone who can be affected by planning with an opportunity to
participate in it, and to provide those engaged in it with information instructions, questions
and answers that enables them to plan better than professional planners can alone.
Operations Research in Libraries
The practical motivation on the part of library managers for operations research studies
is the pressure to economize and expand activities by means of computers OR is seen as the
best way to conduct exploratory studies before making costly commitments for new
computerized systems. As Morse says, the need is for logical models of the library that can

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be experimented with in order to see what is most useful and what data are needed to make
a new synthesis of libraries and computers work most effectively.
Models of Document Usage in Libraries
Operations research models that have been developed within library settings tend to
focus on the library as a document storage and retrieval centre. As early as 1953, Morese
and his colleagues in the operations Research centre at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology began a series of studies of the institutes library system to develop methods
which could be used in other libraries too. Some of these studies centred on the books and
some on users characteristics. The key model in Morses study is one in which book
usage over time can be predicted to follow a known mathematical form, settling down to a
steady-state pattern after an initial period of popularity. The model is used to detect some
interesting differences in the usage patterns of books in different subject fields, although
the data are admittedly skimpy. The model is then used to make policy recommendations
for such activities as book acquisition, circulation, retirement, and storage, in the light of
the data obtained in the MIT libraries.
Experimental Method
An experiment is a research process used to establish some truth, principle, or effect. It
differs from other investigative methods in that the observed phenomena are controlled to
varying degrees by the investigator.

Most experiments are conducted under known

conditions; attempts are made by experimenters to eliminate as many extraneous factors are
possible.
A number of experimental procedures can be used by investigators no single design
could be characterized as the best for all inquiries. In selecting particular experimental
techniques, competent investigators remain aware that conceptual requirements of the
research hypothesis must be met by controlled experimental conditions.
Basic Concepts
An experiment can be defined as a research situation in which investigators specify
exactly, or control, the conditions that will prevail in the investigation. The values of one
or more independent variables are then manipulated and the effect of the manipulation on
the values of the dependent variables with respect to one or more experimental groups is
observed. The effects of other factors that might possibly be relevant to the research

60

problem (i.e., affect the values of the dependent variable) are minimized through careful
experimental design. In this way, conceptual requirements of the research hypothesis are
met by controlled experimental conditions.
In librarianship experiments can be used to test new techniques for developing,
maintaining, and utilizing library collections, to identify ill-defined or previously
unobserved library or informational phenomena and to explore conditions under which
certain phenomena in library and information science occur.
Subject of an Experimental Research
A subject of an experiment is the basic unit on which an experiment is performed. In
agricultural experimentation, subject might be plants of certain types of perhaps plots of
planted ground. In drug research, subjects might be white rates or guines pigs. In library
science, information, science, and other social science research, subjects are frequently
persons for example, patrons librarians or students.
Treatment In An Experimental Research
A treatment is the condition that is applied to an experimental group of subjects. In
agricultural research, a treatment may be the application of fertilizer to growing plants on
the regulation of the amount of moisture which the plants receive. In medical research, the
administering of drugs to patents (subjects) or the use of a surgical technique are examples
of treatments. In librarianship, a treatment that is being tested might be a system of
indexing, a mode of instruction, a type of catalogue organization, or a method of book
selection, among others.

Control Group In An Experimental Design

Control is central to experimental research and is the feature that distinguishes
experimental research from other research methods, such as those in survey and historical
research. The experimental research uses a control group and one or more experimental
groups. These groups of subjects are deliberately designed to be equivalent in all important
respects in order to control the effects of the many variables that might interfere with the
test of hypothesis. These effects can thus be predicted to be similar for the control and
experimental groups. The effect on the dependent variable of varying the values of one or
more independent variables (the treatment can then be observed in the experimental group).

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Complete equivalence between experimental and control groups can seldom be obtained in
research in the social sciences, however, because with human subjects there are always
numerous environmental and hereditary factors that cannot normally be known.

Thus,

at best, equivalence can only be an approximate concept.

Consider the following hypothesis that high school students who study a unit of
instruction in library skills in conjunction with course work in other subjects such as
history or English Literature (i.e. in an integrated approach) learn library skills more
effectively than high school students who study an equivalent unit independently of other
school subjects.
controlled.

To test this hypothesis, there are certain variables that need to be

The two groups of students should be roughly equivalent in levels of

motivation, intelligence, socio-economic status, age, and perhaps other qualities as well. It
is easy to see why this is so; any one of these variables might have a differential effect on
otherwise equivalent students. For example, if the students of Group A manifest more
collective intelligence than Group B, then the factor itself may cause students in Group A
to learn library skills more effectively than those in Group B. But by designing and
experiment so, the groups are roughly equivalent in intelligence, this variable is controlled,
and thus the effect should be the same for both groups. Because of the careful control that
is exercised in its use, the experimental method is the most appropriate technique to test
hypothesis which involve casual relationships.

Types of Experimental Research Methods

Classical Experiment
In the classical experiment, subjects or objects of a study are randomly assigned to one
of two groups an experiments (test) group and a control group. Each subject is given an
equal chance of being assigned to the two groups. Both groups are treated similarly with
the exception of the application of the key treatment to the experimental group entails the
manipulation of one or more variables by the investigator. Factors that are manipulated by
the experimenter are called independent variables. When independent variables are varied,
the experimenter observes other variables to measure the degree to which the variables are
related to changes in the independent variables. These observed factors, measured after the

62

independent variable has been manipulated are known as dependent variables.

The

classical experiments have been schematically diagramed in Figure 1.

Control Group
Pretest

Experimental Group

Post test

Treatment
Figure 1.

The Classical Experiment

Field Experiment
In a field experiment, the investigator observes a phenomenon in a natural setting, and
at the same time, manipulates one or more variables are taken in field experiments to avoid
unnecessary disruptions of the natural conditions being observed. When an investigator
goes beyond the field experiment and attempts to construct a particular setting or a set of
circumstances that typifies a naturally occurring phenomenon, the research design could be
described as n experimental simulation. The electronic computer has been found to be a
powerful tool for such stimulations.

Laboratory Experiment
A laboratory experiment is a study conducted under highly controlled conditions.
The term laboratory is used as an indication that an experiment is not conducted in a
naturalistic setting but in some other convenient place.

When conducting laboratory

experiments, the investigator usually attempts to create prototypes of events, situations or

processes apart from the naturalistic circumstances in which they occur. Because the settings
for most laboratory experiments are artificial or contrived, the investigator must ensure that the
research design has a high degree of internal validity.
Significance Of Experimental Method
The experimental method is one of the most useful and powerful techniques for
identifying casual relationships between variables.

63

While experiments in library and

information science are conducted to test specific hypotheses, the experimental method is also
used advantageously in exploring other kinds of research problems. Experiments can be
performed to test new techniques for acquiring, classifying, storing, and relieving information,
or to test new library or information services. Further more, experiments allow investigators in
library and information science to explore conditions under which a phenomenon occurs.
Other experiments might be conducted merely to satisfy curiosity about certain library or
information phenomena.
Evaluation Of An Experiment
Once an investigator has conducted an experiment, the results of the experiment the
experimental data must be evaluated Evaluation involves a number of concepts, including
hypothesis testing, experimental error, sensitivity, internal validity, and external validity.
The evaluation of an experiment involves a test of a null hypothesis, a statement that no
significant difference exists between the control and experimental groups. In other word the
null hypothesis asserts that within specified limits of credibility, the control and experimental
groups are essentially equivalent. Two groups of subjects will rarely perform identically; some
variation will probably occur under circumstances. The investigator, however, must determine.
Whether differences between the performances of the control and experimental groups are
statistically significant. A test of a null hypothesis is an attempt to disprove the assertion of
no difference; to show that the experimental groups has in fact been affected by the treatment
in such a way as to significantly change the value of the dependent variable. An appropriate
procedure to test the significance of a treatment using the four-cell experimental design may be
thet-test, which is applied to the differences between pretest and post test scores for the
control and experimental groups. The chi-square test may also be appropriate. Analysis of
variance is required for more complex designs.
Sensitivity of an Experiment
The sensitivity of an experiment is its ability to detect relatively small effects. One way
to increase the sensitivity of an experiment is to increase the number of subjects; this decreases
the chances for random error (or experimental error) to affect the results in a significant way.
This option always adds to the expense of conducting the experiment, however. Another way
to reduce experimental error is to exert additional control over the experiment, to ensure that
the control and experimental groups are exposed of similar subjects. This is sometimes done

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by matching subjects on the basis of as many variables as possible. Another measure of an

experiments adequacy is its internal validity. Are variables sufficiently controlled? Has
randomization been employed throughout?
A final crucial consideration in the evaluation of an experiment lies with its external
validity. Can the results of the experiment be generalized?

If so, what is the population to

which it can be generalized? External validity is association with questions concerning the
extent to which a sample is representative of the target population. Can the results of an
experiment be generalized to the real world? It is normally easier to justify such generalization
for field experiments than for laboratory experiments because of the artificiality of the latters
overall, experimental findings are evaluated in terms of the reliability of the data, the scientific
importance of the results, and the extent to which the data can be generalized.
Expost Facto Study
The Latin expost facto means literally, after the fact or retrospectively. Although an
expost facto study is not really on experimental design, such a study sometimes is confused
with the experimental method, and is frequently discussed with it. What is lacking in the
expost facto study is control. Rather than introducing an independent variable and controlling
other variables, the expost facto study seeks to analyse what has already happened in an effort
to isolate the cause of the events. Mouly asserts that This is experimentation in reverse the
obvious weakness of such as experiment is that we have no control over the situations that
have already occurred and we can never be sure of how many other circumstances might have
been involved.
Expost facto study is a type of quasi-experimental design. Consider the hypothesis that
academic courses in research methods affect graduate library science students in such a way as
to cause them to the better librarians than librarians who did not complete such a course.
An expost facto analysis of graduated librarians with respect to an operational
definition of success in librarianship (such as salary or job title) might well reveal that a strong
relationship does indeed exist between completing a course in research methods and
professional success in librarianship. But is the observed relationship casual in nature? Does
the course cause the success?
The original hypothesis could be tested, albeit with some difficulty and over a period of
years, by the experimental method. Such an approach might involves the random division of a

65

group of equivalent students into two groups, a control group students not permitted to take
research methods and an experimental group students who are required to take research
methods. The effect of the course on graduate students could then be observed over the
students careers.

Relative success or failure in librarianship, however the definition is

operationally defined, could then be said to have been caused by the treatment, in this case
completing or not taking the course in research methods.
Major Steps in Experimental Method
1.

Selecting and determining the problem

2.

Reviewing the literature

3.

Defining the population

4.

Planning the experiment

5.

Conducting the experiment

6.

Measuring the outcomes

7.

Analyzing and interpreting the outcome

8.

Drawing up conclusions

9.

Reporting the results

1. Selecting And Determining The Problems

i)

Investigating the needs in the yield of action and deciding upon a problem.

ii)

Conversion of problem into a hypothesis that can be verified or refuted by the

experimental data.

2. Reviewing The Literature:

This implies the study of the literature related to similar problem.
3. Defining The Population:
It is necessary to define the population precisely so that there can be no question
abut the population to which the conclusions are to apply.
4.

Planning The Experiment:

This includes

i) Determining the method of experimentation

ii) Place of the experiment
iii) Duration of the experiment
iv) Determining the materials of the experiment

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v) Conducting pilot study

vi) Selecting subjects or groups
5. Conducting The Experiments
This includes the following steps.
a) Control of variables and non-experimental factors
b) Keeping a careful record of steps in the procedure
c) Applying the experiment factor or factors
6. Measuring the Outcomes
This implies giving a careful consideration to the selection of the criterion on the basis
of which the results are to be measured
7. Analyzing and Interpreting the Outcomes
This implies the need for competence in statistical data procedures.
8. Drawing Up the Conclusions
Care must be taken to restrict the conclusions to the conditions actually present in the
experiment. The conclusions of the study must be restricted to the population actually
investigated and care must be exercised not to over generalize the results.
9. Reporting the Results:
The study should be reported in such a way that the reader can make a judgment as
to its adequacy.
Case Study
Case Study approach to research is rather a recent development in research. It involves
a deeper investigation of a single unit, may be an individual, a family, an institution, a
district, a community, or any single event selected for intensive examination case study
approach has been developed essentially as a problem solving technique and also as a
suggestive device for improvements in various dimensions of the case under examination.
Suppose, a firm has been selected for a case study, if not only helps in investigating and
finding solutions to some of the problems facing the firm but may also go a long way in
suggesting improvements in the present functioning or operations of that particular firm.
Thus case study method is more intensive in nature. The field of study is comparatively
limited but has more of depth in it. It aims at studying everything about something, rather
than something about everything as in the case of statistical method.

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According to P.V.Young, A comprehensive study of a social unit, be that unit a

person, a group, a social institution, a district, or a community, is called a case study.
According to Good and Hatt, it is an approach which views and social unit as a whole. It
is a way of organizing social data so as to preserve the unitary character of the social object
being studied. The case study is thus a form of qualitative analysis involving the very
careful and complete observation of a person, a situation or an institution.
This approach to research may not be based on a given hypothesis or on any established
conclusions but the study itself may help in developing a well found ed hypothesis for
further investigations. This approach to research, is therefore, an open and objective
examination of a particular unit with a view to developing a hypothesis for further research,
case study approach i.e. also flexible in character as a researcher has complete
independence in approaching the problem from any angle that he considers as desirable
from his point of view. As compared to historical approach therefore, this approach does
not suffer from rigidly of the historical data.
Steps Involved in Case Study
The following are the steps involved in case study:
Step 1: Selection of cases and identification of situation:
The researcher has to decide about the following: (i) Unit has to be taken up for study
(ii) Aspect or period of life of unit can be studied (iii) Situations in which unit exists.
Therefore, the duty of the researcher is to choose representative and typical units. The
selection of such units depends on the ability and skill of the researcher.
Step 2: Collecting and recording of data:
While collecting data, the researcher has to keep in mind that the continuity, breath and
level of data to preserve the completeness and validity of data. The researcher has to use
different aspects of the unit to collect broad array of facts. For collecting data in case
study, study of personal documents, life histories, observations interviews, questionnaires
schedules, a variety of tests like intelligent test, achievement test, aptitude test to be
adopted. The collected data should be recorded properly. Also the recording of data must
be uniform, topic wise accurate and clarity under principal themes of investigation. The
data must also be complete and up to date and of easy reference. The careful collection and

68

recording of data completely depends on the skill and ability of the researcher. He should
also try to seek more information and derive special features from them.
Step 3: Interpretation of data
Interpretation is the search for the broader meaning of the research findings. It is the
deeper sense of investigation. It places particular event in the larger flow of events. It is the
color, the atmosphere, the human element that gives meaning to a fact. It is in short setting,
sequence and about all significance. The task of the interpretation falls on the shoulders of
the research himself. Mere presentation of the facts is not enough; the facts collected must
be clarified, explained and interpreted. The interpretation must be in logical and convenient
form. Qualitative classification and building up a proper background theory are also
essential. Good interpretation depends on the researchers knowledge, imagination and
wisdom.
Step 4: Reporting of data
The study should be reported in such a way that the reader can make a judgment as to
its adequacy.
Advantages
The main advantages of case study approach are
a) It produces new ideas and fresh suggestions
b) It helps in formulating a sound hypothesis; and
c) It may also help in exploring new areas of research.
Since the case study approach makes an in-depth study of a particular unit of
investigation and is always approached with an open mind, it bestows upon the researcher a
high wealth of new ideas and new suggestions for further exploration of research fields.
Investigator of an institution may uncover fresh knowledge about the problems that might
not have occurred to the researcher before he undertook the investigation. He may also get
new suggestions from the field of operation by intensively carrying out the examination of
the case study.
Secondly, case study approach is very useful in helping the researcher to develop and
formulate scientifically sound hypothesis for more research on a broader level. As already
mentioned, a researcher may not start with a given hypothesis, but may desirably undertake
a case study for formulating such hypothesis for further research. Case study approach has

69

also ad advantage in marking a multi-dimensional exploration of the same unit and this
enrich the knowledge pertaining to a particular case for further use in policy formulation.
Thirdly, when a case study is undertaken, some of the areas of research may not have
occurred to the researchers mind and the very case study may open out new avenues of
research where fruitful investigations can be undertaken either by the same researcher or
other researchers.
Thus, this approach allows a concentrated focus on a single phenomenon and the
utilization of a wide array of data gathering methods. The overall purpose a case study is
to obtain comprehensive information about the research object. Data gathering methods
used in case studies are based primarily upon direct observation; both participant and nonparticipant observation can be used when necessary, these methods are supplemented by
structured techniques such as interviews and questionnaires.

CHAPTER VII
Sampling
Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a suitable sample, or a representative
part of a population for the purpose of determining parameters or characteristics of the whole
population.
What is a sample?
A sample is a finite part of a statistical population whose properties are studied to gain
information about the whole (Webster, 1985). When dealing with people, it can be defined as a
set of respondents (people) selected from a larger population for the purpose of a survey.
A population is a group of individuals persons, objects, or items from which samples are taken
for measurement, for example, a population of presidents or professors, books or students.
Purpose of sampling
To draw conclusions about populations from samples, we must use inferential statistics which
enables us to determine a populations characteristics by directly observing only a portion (or

70

sample) of the population. We obtain a sample rather than a complete enumeration (a census)
of the population for many reasons. Obviously, it is cheaper to observe a part rather than the
whole, but we should prepare ourselves to cope with the dangers of using samples. In this
tutorial, we will investigate various kinds of sampling procedures. Some are better than others
but all may yield samples that are inaccurate and unreliable. We will learn how to minimize
these dangers, but some potential error is the price we must pay for the convenience and
savings the samples provide.
There would be no need for statistical theory if a census rather than a sample was always used
to obtain information about populations. But a census may not be practical and is almost never
economical. There are six main reasons for sampling instead of doing a census. These are; Economy -Timeliness -The large size of many populations -Inaccessibility of some of the
population -Destructiveness of the observation -accuracy
The sampling process comprises several stages:
Defining the population of concern
Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or events possible to measure
Specifying a sampling method for selecting items or events from the frame
Determining the sample size
Implementing the sampling plan
Sampling and data collecting
Reviewing the sampling process
1. Population definition :
Successful statistical practice is based on focused problem definition. Typically, we seek to
take action on some population, for example when a batch of material from production must be
released to the customer or sentenced for scrap or rework.
Alternatively, we seek knowledge about the cause system of which the population is an
outcome, for example when a researcher performs an experiment on rats with the intention of
gaining insights into biochemistry that can be applied for the benefit of humans. In the latter

71

case, the population of concern can be difficult to specify, as it is in the case of measuring
some physical characteristic such as the electrical conductivity of copper.
However, in all cases, time spent in making the population of concern precise is often well
spent, often because it raises many issues, ambiguities and questions that would otherwise have
been overlooked at this stage.
2 . Sampling frame
The sampling frame must be representative of the population and this is a question outside
the scope of statistical theory demanding the judgment of experts in the particular subject
matter being studied. All the above frames omit some people who will vote at the next election
and contain some people who will not. People not in the frame have no prospect of being
sampled. Statistical theory tells us about the uncertainties in extrapolating from a sample to the
frame. In extrapolating from frame to population, its role is motivational and suggestive.
There is, however, a strong division of views about the acceptability of representative sampling
across different domains of study. To the philosopher, the representative sampling procedure
has no justification whatsoever because it is not how truth is pursued in philosophy. "To the
scientist, however, representative sampling is the only justified procedure for choosing
individual objects for use as the basis of generalization, and is therefore usually the only
acceptable basis for ascertaining truth." (Andrew A. Marino) It is important to understand this
difference to steer clear of confusing prescriptions found in many web pages.
In defining the frame, practical, economic, ethical, and technical issues need to be
addressed. The need to obtain timely results may prevent extending the frame far into the
future.
The difficulties can be extreme when the population and frame are disjoint. This is a
particular problem in forecasting where inferences about the future are made from historical
data. In fact, in 1703, when Jacob Bernoulli proposed to Gottfried Leibniz the possibility of
using historical mortality data to predict the probability of early death of a living man,
Gottfried Leibniz recognized the problem in replying:

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"Nature has established patterns originating in the return of events but only for the most
part. New illnesses flood the human race, so that no matter how many experiments you have
done on corpses, you have not thereby imposed a limit on the nature of events so that in the
future they could not vary."
Having established the frame, there are a number of ways for organizing it to improve
efficiency and effectiveness.
It is at this stage that the researcher should decide whether the sample is in fact to be
the whole population and would therefore be a census.
3. Sampling method
o
o

Quota sampling
Simple random sampling

Stratified sampling

Cluster sampling

Random sampling

Matched random sampling

Systematic sampling

Mechanical sampling

Convenience sampling

Line-intercept sampling

Within any of the types of frame identified above, a variety of sampling methods can be
employed, individually or in combination.
Quota sampling
In quota sampling, the population is first segmented into mutually exclusive subgroups, just as in stratified sampling. Then judgment is used to select the subjects or units from
each segment based on a specified proportion. For example, an interviewer may be told to
sample 200 females and 300 males between the age of 45 and 60.

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It is the second step which makes the technique one of non-probability sampling. In
quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-random. For example interviewers might be
tempted to interview those who look most helpful. The problem is that these samples may be
biased because not everyone gets a chance of selection. This random element is its greatest
weakness and quota versus probability has been a matter of controversy for many years.
Simple random sampling
In a simple random sample of a given size, all such subsets of the frame are given an
equal probability. Each element of the frame thus has an equal probability of selection: the
frame is not subdivided or partitioned. It is possible that the sample will not be completely
random.
Stratified sampling
Where the population embraces a number of distinct categories, the frame can be organized
by these categories into separate "strata." A sample is then selected from each "stratum"
separately, producing a stratified sample. The two main reasons for using a stratified sampling
design are
1. to ensure that particular groups within a population are adequately represented in the
sample, and
2. to improve efficiency by gaining greater control on the composition of the sample. In
the second case, major gains in efficiency (either lower sample sizes or higher
precision) can be achieved by varying the sampling fraction from stratum to stratum.
The sample size is usually proportional to the relative size of the strata. However, if
variances differ significantly across strata, sample sizes should be made proportional to the
stratum standard deviation. Disproportionate stratification can provide better precision than
proportionate stratification. Typically, strata should be chosen to:
have means which differ substantially from one another
minimize variance within strata and maximize variance between strata.

74

Cluster sampling
Sometimes it is cheaper to 'cluster' the sample in some way e.g. by selecting
respondents from certain areas only, or certain time-periods only. (Nearly all samples are in
some sense 'clustered' in time - although this is rarely taken into account in the analysis.)
Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage sampling' or 'multistage sampling': in the
first stage a sample of areas is chosen; in the second stage a sample of respondent within those
areas is selected.
This can reduce travel and other administrative costs. It also means that one does not need a
sampling frame for the entire population, but only for the selected clusters. Cluster sampling
generally increases the variability of sample estimates above that of simple random sampling,
depending on how the clusters differ between themselves, as compared with the within-cluster
variation.
Random sampling
In random sampling, also known as probability sampling, every combination of items
from the frame, or stratum, has a known probability of occurring, but these probabilities are not
necessarily equal. With any form of sampling there is a risk that the sample may not adequately
represent the population but with random sampling there is a large body of statistical theory
which quantifies the risk and thus enables an appropriate sample size to be chosen.
Furthermore, once the sample has been taken the sampling error associated with the measured
results can be computed. With non-random sampling there is no measure of the associated
sampling error. While such methods may be cheaper this is largely meaningless since there is
no measure of quality. There are several forms of random sampling. For example, in simple
random sampling, each element has an equal probability of being selected. Another form of
random sampling is Bernoulli sampling in which each element has an equal probability of
being selected, like in simple random sampling. However, Bernoulli sampling leads to a
variable sample size, while during simple random sampling the sample size remains constant.
Bernoulli sampling is a special case of Poisson sampling in which each element may have a

75

different probability of being selected. Other examples of probability sampling include

stratified sampling and multistage sampling.
Matched random sampling
A method of assigning participants to groups in which pairs of participants are first
matched on some characteristic and then individually assigned randomly to groups. (Brown,
Cozby, Kee, & Worden, 1999, p.371).
The Procedure for Matched random sampling can be briefed with the following
contexts,
a) Two samples in which the members are clearly paired, or are matched explicitly by the
researcher. For example, IQ measurements pairs of identical twins.
b) Those samples in which the same attribute, or variable, are measured twice on each subject,
under different circumstances commonly called repeated measures. Examples include the times
of a group of athletes for 1500m before and after a week of special training; the milk yields of
cows before and after being fed a particular diet.
Systematic sampling
Selecting (say) every 10th name from the telephone directory is called an every 10th
sample, which is an example of systematic sampling. It is a type of probability sampling unless
the directory itself is not randomized. It is easy to implement and the stratification induced can
make it efficient, but it is especially vulnerable to periodicities in the list. If periodicity is
present and the period is a multiple of 10, then bias will result. It is important that the first
name chosen is not simply the first in the list, but is chosen to be (say) the 7th, where 7 is a
random integer in the range 1,...,10-1. Every 10th sampling is especially useful for efficient
sampling from databases.

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Mechanical sampling
Mechanical sampling is typically used in sampling solids, liquids and gases, using
devices such as grabs, scoops, thief probes, the COLIWASA and riffle splitter. Care is needed
in ensuring that the sample is representative of the frame.
Convenience sampling
Sometimes called grab or opportunity sampling, this is the method of choosing items
arbitrarily and in an unstructured manner from the frame. Though almost impossible to treat
rigorously, it is the method most commonly employed in many practical situations. In social
science research, snowball sampling is a similar technique, where existing study subjects are
used to recruit more subjects into the sample.
Line-intercept sampling
Line-intercept sampling is a method of sampling elements in a region whereby an
element is sampled if a chosen line segment, called a transect, intersects the element.
Sampling error
What can make a sample unrepresentative of its population? One of the most frequent
causes is sampling error. Sampling error comprises the differences between the sample and the
population that are due solely to the particular units that happen to have been selected.
For example, suppose that a sample of 100 American women are measured and are all
found to be taller than six feet. It is very clear even without any statistical prove that this would
be a highly unrepresentative sample leading to invalid conclusions. This is a very unlikely
occurrence because naturally such rare cases are widely distributed among the population. But
it can occur. Luckily, this is a very obvious error and can be detected very easily.
The more dangerous error is the less obvious sampling error against which nature offers
very little protection. An example would be like a sample in which the average height is
overstated by only one inch or two rather than one foot which is more obvious. It is the
unobvious error that is of much concern.
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There are two basic causes for sampling error. One is chance: That is the error that
occurs just because of bad luck. This may result in untypical choices. Unusual units in a
population do exist and there is always a possibility that an abnormally large number of them
will be chosen. For example, in a recent study in which I was looking at the number of trees, I
selected a sample of households randomly but strange enough, the two households in the whole
population, which had the highest number of trees (10,018 and 6345) were both selected
making the sample average higher than it should be. The average with these two extremes
removed was 828 trees. The main protection against this kind of error is to use a large enough
sample. The second cause of sampling is sampling bias.
Sampling bias is a tendency to favour the selection of units that have particular
characteristics. Sampling bias is usually the result of a poor sampling plan. The most notable is
the bias of non response when for some reason some units have no chance of appearing in the
sample. For example, take a hypothetical case where a survey was conducted recently by
Cornell Graduate School to find out the level of stress that graduate students were going
through. A mail questionnaire was sent to 100 randomly selected graduate students. Only 52
responded and the results were that students were not under stress at that time when the actual
case was that it was the highest time of stress for all students except those who were writing
their thesis at their own pace. Apparently, this is the group that had the time to respond. The
researcher who was conducting the study went back to the questionnaire to find out what the
problem was and found that all those who had responded were third and fourth PhD students.
Bias can be very costly and has to be guarded against as much as possible. For this case,
$2000.00 had been spent and there were no reliable results in addition, it cost the researcher his
job since his employer thought if he was qualified, he should have known that before hand and
planned on how to avoid it. A means of selecting the units of analysis must be designed to
avoid the more obvious forms of bias. Another example would be where you would like to
know the average income of some community and you decide to use the telephone numbers to
select a sample of the total population in a locality where only the rich and middle class
households have telephone lines. You will end up with high average income which will lead to
the wrong policy decisions.

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Non sampling error (measurement error)

The other main cause of unrepresentative samples is non sampling error. This type of
error can occur whether a census or a sample is being used. Like sampling error, non- sampling
error may either be produced by participants in the statistical study or be an innocent by
product of the sampling plans and procedures.
A non sampling error is an error that results solely from the manner in which the
observations are made. The simplest example of non sampling error is inaccurate
measurements due to malfunctioning instruments or poor procedures. For example, consider
the observation of human weights. If persons are asked to state their own weights themselves,
no two answers will be of equal reliability. The people will have weighed themselves on
different scales in various states of poor calibration. An individuals weight fluctuates diurnally
by several pounds, so that the time of weighing will affect the answer. The scale reading will
also vary with the persons state of undress. Responses therefore will not be of comparable
validity unless all persons are weighed under the same circumstances.
Biased observations due to inaccurate measurement can be innocent but very
devastating. A story is told of a French astronomer who once proposed a new theory based on
spectroscopic measurements of light emitted by a particular star. When his collogues
discovered that the measuring instrument had been contaminated by cigarette smoke, they
rejected his findings.
UNIT IV

CHAPTER VIII
Data Collection
Definition
Data collection is a process of gathering data systematically for a particular purpose
from various sources, including questionnaires, interviews, observation, existing records, and
electronic devices. The process is usually preliminary to statistical analysis of the data.

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Kinds of Information
Different kinds of information are required in social research. This can be classified into
the following two types of information.
1. Primary Data
2. Secondary Data
Primary Data Collection Methods
In primary data collection, the data is collected by the researcher himself using methods
such as interviews and questionnaires. The key point here is that the data collected is unique to
researcher and his research and, until he publishes, no one else can access to it.There are many
methods of collecting primary data and the main methods include:
questionnaires
interviews
focus group interviews
observation
case-studies
diaries
critical incidents
portfolios.
The primary data, which is generated by the above methods, may be qualitative in nature
(usually in the form of words) or quantitative (usually in the form of numbers or where we can
make counts of words used).
Questionnaires
Questionnaires are a popular means of collecting data, but are difficult to design and
often require many rewrites before an acceptable questionnaire is produced.

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Advantages
Can be used as a method in its own right or as a basis for interviewing or a telephone
survey.
Can be posted, e-mailed or faxed.
Can cover a large number of people or organizations.
Wide geographic coverage.
Relatively cheap.
No prior arrangements are needed.
Avoids embarrassment on the part of the respondent.
Respondent can consider responses.
Possible anonymity of respondent.
No interviewer bias.
Disadvantages
Design problems.
Questions have to be relatively simple.
Historically low response rate (although inducements may help).
Time delay whilst waiting for responses to be returned.
Require a return deadline.
Several reminders may be required.
Assumes no literacy problems.
No control over who completes it.
Not possible to give assistance if required.
Problems with incomplete questionnaires.
Replies not spontaneous and independent of each other.

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Respondent can read all questions beforehand and then decide whether to complete or
not. For example, perhaps because it is too long, too complex, uninteresting, or too
personal.

Design of postal questionnaires

Theme and covering letter
The general theme of the questionnaire should be made explicit in a covering letter. The
researcher should state who he is; why the data is required; give, if necessary, an assurance of
confidentiality and/or anonymity; and contact number and address or telephone number. This
ensures that the respondents know what they are committing themselves to, and also that they
understand the context of their replies. If possible, the researcher should offer an estimate of
the completion time. Instructions for return should be included with the return date made
obvious. For example: It would be appreciated if you could return the completed questionnaire
by... if at all possible.
Instructions for completion
The researcher needs to provide clear and unambiguous instructions for completion.
Within most questionnaires these are general instructions and specific instructions for
particular question structures. It is usually best to separate these, supplying the general
instructions as a preamble to the questionnaire, but leaving the specific instructions until the
questions to which they apply. The response method should be indicated (circle, tick, cross,
etc.). Wherever possible, and certainly if a slightly unfamiliar response system is employed, the
researcher should give an example.
Appearance
Appearance is usually the first feature of the questionnaire to which the recipient reacts. A
neat and professional look will encourage further consideration of the researchers request,
increasing his response rate. In addition, careful thought to layout should help his analysis.
There are a number of simple rules to help improve questionnaire appearance:

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Liberal spacing makes the reading easier.

Photo-reduction can produce more space without reducing content.
Consistent positioning of response boxes, usually to the right, speeds up completion
and also avoids inadvertent omission of responses.
Choose the font style to maximize legibility.
Differentiate between instructions and questions. Either lower case or capitals can be
used, or responses can be boxed.
Length
There may be a strong temptation to include any vaguely interesting questions, but the
researcher should resist this at all costs. Excessive size can only reduce response rates. If a long
questionnaire is necessary, then you must give even more thought to appearance. It is better to
leave pages unnumbered; for respondents to flick to the end and see page 27 can be very
disconcerting!
Order
Probably the most crucial stage in questionnaire response is the beginning. Once the
respondents have started to complete the questions they will normally finish the task, unless it
is very long or difficult. Consequently, the researcher needs to select the opening questions
with care. Usually the best approach is to ask for biographical details first, as the respondents
should know all the answers without much thought. Another benefit is that an easy start
provides practice in answering questions.
Once the introduction has been achieved the subsequent order will depend on many
considerations. The researcher should be aware of the varying importance of different
questions. Essential information should appear early, just in case the questionnaire is not
completed. For the same reasons, relatively unimportant questions can be placed towards the
end. If questions are likely to provoke the respondent and remain unanswered, these too are
best left until the end, in the hope of obtaining answers to everything else.

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Coding
If analysis of the results is to be carried out using a statistical package or spreadsheet it
is advisable to code non-numerical responses when designing the questionnaire, rather than
trying to code the responses when they are returned. An example of coding is:
Male [ ]

Female [ ]

The coded responses (1 or 2) are then used for the analysis.

Thank you
Respondents to questionnaires rarely benefit personally from their efforts and the least
the researcher can do is to thank them. Even though the covering letter will express
appreciation for the help given, it is also a nice gesture to finish the questionnaire with a further
thank you.
Questions
Keep the questions short, simple and to the point; avoid all unnecessary words.
Use words and phrases that are unambiguous and familiar to the respondent. For
example, dinner has a number of different interpretations; use an alternative
expression such as evening meal.
Only ask questions that the respondent can answer. Hypothetical questions should be
avoided. Avoid calculations and questions that require a lot of memory work, for
example, How many people stayed in your hotel last year?
Avoid loaded or leading questions that imply a certain answer. For example, by
mentioning one particular item in the question, Do you agree that Colgate toothpaste is
the best toothpaste?
Vacuous words or phrases should be avoided. Generally, usually, or normally are
imprecise terms with various meanings. They should be replaced with quantitative
statements, for example, at least once a week.
Questions should only address a single issue. For example, questions like: Do you take
annual holidays to Spain? should be broken down into two discreet stages, firstly find

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out if the respondent takes an annual holiday, and then secondly find out if they go to
Spain.
Do not ask two questions in one by using and. For example, Did you watch television
last night and read a newspaper?
Avoid double negatives. For example, Is it not true that you did not read a newspaper
yesterday? Respondents may tackle a double negative by switching both negatives and
then assuming that the same answer applies. This is not necessarily valid.
State units required but do not aim for too high a degree of accuracy. For instance, use
an interval rather than an exact figure:
How much did you earn last year?
Less than 10,000 [ ]
10,000 but less than 20,000 [ ]
Avoid emotive or embarrassing words usually connected with race, religion, politics, sex,
money.
Types of questions
Closed questions
A question is asked and then a number of possible answers are provided for the
respondent. The respondent selects the answer which is appropriate. Closed questions are
particularly useful in obtaining factual information:
Sex:

Male [ ] Female [ ]

Did you watch television last night?

Yes [ ] No [ ]

Some Yes/No questions have a third category Do not know. Experience shows that as long
as this alternative is not mentioned people will make a choice. Also the phrase Do not know
is ambiguous:
Do you agree with the introduction of the EMU?

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Yes [ ] No [ ] Do not know [ ]

What was your main way of traveling to the hotel? Tick one box only.
Car

[ ]

Coach

[ ]

Motor bike

[ ]

Train

[ ]

Other means, please specify

With such lists the researcher should always include an other category, because not all
possible responses might have been included in the list of answers. Sometimes the respondent
can select more than one from the list. However, this makes analysis difficult.
Why have you visited the historic house? Tick the relevant answer(s). You may tick as
many as you like.
I enjoy
houses

visiting

historic

[ ]

The weather was bad and I

could not enjoy outdoor
activities

[ ]

I have visited the house

before and wished to return

[ ]

Other reason, please specify

Attitude questions
Frequently questions are asked to find out the respondents opinions or attitudes to a given
situation. A Likert scale provides a battery of attitude statements. The respondent then says
how much they agree or disagree with each one.
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Read the following statements and then indicate by a tick whether you strongly agree, agree,
disagree or strongly disagree with the statement.
Strongly
agree

Agree Disagree Strongly

disagree

My visit has been

good value for money
There are many variations on this type of question. One variation is to have a middle
statement, for example, Neither agree nor disagree. However, many respondents take this as
the easy option. Only having four statements, as above, forces the respondent into making a
positive or negative choice. Another variation is to rank the various attitude statements;
however, this can cause analysis problems:
Which of these characteristics do you like about your job? Indicate the best three in
order, with the best being number 1.
Varied work

[ ]

Good salary

[ ]

Opportunities for promotion

[ ]

Good working conditions

[ ]

High amount of responsibility

[ ]

Friendly colleagues

[ ]

A semantic differential scale attempts to see how strongly an attitude is held by the
respondent. With these scales double-ended terms are given to the respondents who are asked
to indicate where their attitude lies on the scale between the terms. The response can be
indicated by putting a cross in a particular position or circling a number.
Work is: (circle the appropriate number)
Difficult

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Easy

Useless

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Useful

Interesting

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Boring

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For summary and analysis purposes, a score of 1 to 7 may be allocated to the seven
points of the scale, thus quantifying the various degrees of opinion expressed. This procedure
has some disadvantages. It is implicitly assumed that two people with the same strength of
feeling will mark the same point on the scale. This almost certainly will not be the case. When
faced with a semantic differential scale, some people will never, as a matter of principle, use
the two end indicators of 1 and 7. Effectively, therefore, they are using a five-point scale. Also
scoring the scale 1 to 7 assumes that they represent equidistant points on the continuous
spectrum of opinion. This again is probably not true. Nevertheless, within its limitations, the
semantic differential can provide a useful way of measuring and summarizing subjective
opinions.
Other types of questions to determine peoples opinions or attitudes are:
Which one/two words best describes...?
Which of the following statements best describes...?
How much do you agree with the following statement...?
Open questions
An open question such as What are the essential skills a manager should possess?
should be used as an adjunct to the main theme of the questionnaire and could allow the
respondent to elaborate upon an earlier more specific question. Open questions inserted at the
end of major sections, or at the end of the questionnaire, can act as safety valves, and possibly
offer additional information. However, they should not be used to introduce a section since
there is a high risk of influencing later responses. The main problem of open questions is that
many different answers have to be summarized and possibly coded.
Testing pilot survey
Questionnaire design is fraught with difficulties and problems. A number of rewrites
will be necessary, together with refinement and rethinks on a regular basis. Do not assume that
you will write the questionnaire accurately and perfectly at the first attempt. If poorly designed,
88

the researcher will collect inappropriate or inaccurate data and good analysis cannot then
rectify the situation.
To refine the questionnaire, the researcher needs to conduct a pilot survey. This is a
small-scale trial prior to the main survey that tests all his question planning. Amendments to
questions can be made. After making some amendments, the new version would be re-tested. If
this re-test produces more changes, another pilot would be undertaken and so on. For example,
perhaps responses to open-ended questions become closed; questions which are all answered
the same way can be omitted; difficult words replaced, etc.
It is usual to pilot the questionnaires personally so that the respondent can be observed
and questioned if necessary. By timing each question, the researcher can identify any questions
that appear too difficult, and he can also obtain a reliable estimate of the anticipated
completion time for inclusion in the covering letter. The result can also be used to test the
coding and analytical procedures to be performed later.
Distribution and return
The questionnaire should be checked for completeness to ensure that all pages are
present and that none is blank or illegible. It is usual to supply a prepaid addressed envelope
for the return of the questionnaire. The researcher needs to explain this in the covering letter
and reinforce it at the end of the questionnaire, after the Thank you.
Finally, many organizations are approached continually for information. Many, as a
matter of course, will not respond in a positive way.

Interviews
Interviewing is a technique that is primarily used to gain an understanding of the
underlying reasons and motivations for peoples attitudes, preferences or behaviour. Interviews

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can be undertaken on a personal one-to-one basis or in a group. They can be conducted at

work, at home, in the street or in a shopping centre, or some other agreed location.
Personal interview
Advantages
Serious approach by respondent resulting in accurate information.
Good response rate.
Completed and immediate.
Possible in-depth questions.
Interviewer in control and can give help if there is a problem.
Can investigate motives and feelings.
Can use recording equipment.
Characteristics of respondent assessed tone of voice, facial expression, hesitation, etc.
Can use props.
If one interviewer used, uniformity of approach.
Used to pilot other methods.
Disadvantages
Need to set up interviews.
Time consuming.
Geographic limitations.
Can be expensive.
Normally need a set of questions.
Respondent bias tendency to please or impress, create false personal image, or end
interview quickly.
Embarrassment possible if personal questions.
Transcription and analysis can present problems subjectivity.

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If many interviewers, training required.

Types of interview
Structured
Based on a carefully worded interview schedule.
Frequently require short answers with the answers being ticked off.
Useful when there are a lot of questions which are not particularly contentious or
thought provoking.
Respondent may become irritated by having to give over-simplified answers.
Semi-structured
The interview is focused by asking certain questions but with scope for the respondent
to express him or herself at length.
Unstructured
This also called an in-depth interview. The interviewer begins by asking a general
question. The interviewer then encourages the respondent to talk freely. The interviewer uses
an unstructured format, the subsequent direction of the interview being determined by the
respondents initial reply. The interviewer then probes for elaboration Why do you say
that? or, Thats interesting, tell me more or, Would you like to add anything else? being
typical probes.
The following section is a step-by-step guide to conducting an interview. You should
remember that all situations are different and therefore you may need refinements to the
approach.

Planning an interview:
List the areas in which you require information.

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Decide on type of interview.

Transform areas into actual questions.
Try them out on a friend or relative.
Make an appointment with respondent(s) discussing details of why and how long.
Try and fix a venue and time when you will not be disturbed.
Conducting an interview:
arrive on time be smart smile employ good
manners find a balance between
friendliness and objectivity.
introduce yourself re-confirm the purpose
assure confidentiality if relevant specify
what will happen to the data.
speak slowly in a soft, yet audible tone of
voice control your body language know
the questions and topic ask all the
questions.
recorded as you go on questionnaire
written verbatim, but slow and timeconsuming summarized by you taped
agree beforehand have alternative
method if not acceptable consider effect on
respondents answers proper equipment in
good working order sufficient tapes and
batteries minimum of background noise.
ask if the respondent would like to give
further details about anything or any
questions about the research thank them.
Telephone interview
This is an alternative form of interview to the personal, face-to-face interview.

Advantages
Relatively cheap.

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Quick.
Can cover reasonably large numbers of people or organisations.
Wide geographic coverage.
High response rate keep going till the required number.
No waiting.
Spontaneous response.
Help can be given to the respondent.
Can tape answers.
Disadvantages
Often connected with selling.
Questionnaire required.
Not everyone has a telephone.
Repeat calls are inevitable average 2.5 calls to get someone.
Time is wasted.
Straightforward questions are required.
Respondent has little time to think.
Cannot use visual aids.
Can cause irritation.
Good telephone manner is required.
Question of authority.
Getting started
Locate the respondent
o

Repeat calls may be necessary especially if the researcher is trying to contact

people in organizations where he may have to go through secretaries.

The researcher may not know an individuals name or title so there is the
possibility of interviewing the wrong person.

93

The researcher can send an advance letter informing the respondent that you
will be telephoning. This can explain the purpose of the research.

Getting them to agree to take part

o

The researcher needs to state concisely the purpose of the call scripted and
similar to the introductory letter of a postal questionnaire.

Respondents will normally listen to this introduction before they decide to cooperate or refuse.

When contact is made respondents may have questions or raise objections about
why they could not participate. You should be prepared for these.

Ensuring quality
Quality of questionnaire follows the principles of questionnaire design. However, it
must be easy to move through as the researcher cannot have long silences on the
telephone.
Ability of interviewer follows the principles of face-to-face interviewing.
Smooth implementation
Interview schedule each interview schedule should have a cover page with number,
name and address. The cover sheet should make provision to record which call it is, the
date and time, the interviewer, the outcome of the call and space to note down specific
times at which a call-back has been arranged. Space should be provided to record the
final outcome of the call was an interview refused, contact never made, number
disconnected, etc.
Procedure for call-backs a system for call-backs needs to be implemented. Interview
schedules should be sorted according to their status: weekday call-back, evening callback, weekend call-back, and specific time call-back.

Comparison of postal, telephone and personal interview surveys

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The table below compares the three common methods of postal, telephone and
interview surveys it might help you to decide which one to use.
Postal survey Telephone survey
Cost (assuming a good Often lowest
response rate)

Usually in-between

Personal interview
Usually highest

Ability to probe

No personal Some
chance
for
contact
or gathering additional data
observation
through elaboration on
questions, but no personal
observation

Greatest opportunity
for
observation,
building rapport, and
additional probing

Respondent ability to
complete at own
convenience

Yes

Perhaps, but usually no

Perhaps, if interview
time is prearranged
with respondent

Interview bias

No chance

Some, perhaps due to Greatest chance

voice inflection

Ability to decide who

actually responds to
the questions

Least

Some

Impersonality

Greatest

Some due to lack of face- Least

to-face contact

Complex questions

Least suitable Somewhat suitable

More suitable

Visual aids

Little
opportunity

No opportunity

Greatest opportunity

Potential negative
respondent reaction

Junk mail

Junk calls

Invasion of privacy

Interviewer control
over interview
environment

Least

Some in selection of time Greatest

to call

Time lag between

soliciting and
receiving response

Greatest

Least

Suitable types of
questions

Simple,
mostly
dichotomous
(yes/no) and
multiple
choice

Some opportunity for Greatest opportunity

open-ended
questions for
open-ended
especially if interview is questions
recorded

Requirement for

Least

Medium
95

Greatest

May be considerable
if a large area
involved

Greatest

technical skills in
conducting interview
Response rate

Low

Usually high

High

Table: Comparison of the three common methods of surveys

Focus group interviews
A focus group is an interview conducted by a trained moderator in a non-structured and
natural manner with a small group of respondents. The moderator leads the discussion. The
main purpose of focus groups is to gain insights by listening to a group of people from the
appropriate target market talk about specific issues of interest.
Observation
Observation involves recording the behavioural patterns of people, objects and events in a
systematic manner. Observational methods may be:
structured or unstructured
disguised or undisguised
natural or contrived
personal
mechanical
non-participant
participant, with the participant taking a number of different roles.
Structured or unstructured
In structured observation, the researcher specifies in detail what is to be observed and
how the measurements are to be recorded. It is appropriate when the problem is clearly defined
and the information needed is specified.
In unstructured observation, the researcher monitors all aspects of the phenomenon that
seem relevant. It is appropriate when the problem has yet to be formulated precisely and

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flexibility is needed in observation to identify key components of the problem and to develop
hypotheses. The potential for bias is high. Observation findings should be treated as hypotheses
to be tested rather than as conclusive findings.
Disguised or undisguised
In disguised observation, respondents are unaware they are being observed and thus
behave naturally. Disguise is achieved, for example, by hiding, or using hidden equipment or
people disguised as shoppers.
In undisguised observation, respondents are aware they are being observed. There is a
danger of the Hawthorne effect people behave differently when being observed.
Natural or contrived
Natural observation involves observing behaviour as it takes place in the environment,
for example, eating hamburgers in a fast food outlet.
In contrived observation, the respondents behaviour is observed in an artificial
environment, for example, a food tasting session.
Personal
In personal observation, a researcher observes actual behaviour as it occurs. The
observer may or may not normally attempt to control or manipulate the phenomenon being
observed. The observer merely records what takes place.
Mechanical
Mechanical devices (video, closed circuit television) record what is being observed.
These devices may or may not require the respondents direct participation. They are used for
continuously recording on-going behaviour.
Non-participant

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The observer does not normally question or communicate with the people being
observed. He or she does not participate.
Participant
In participant observation, the researcher becomes, or is, part of the group that is being
investigated. Participant observation has its roots in ethnographic studies (study of man and
races) where researchers would live in tribal villages, attempting to understand the customs and
practices of that culture. It has a very extensive literature, particularly in sociology
(development, nature and laws of human society) and anthropology (physiological and
psychological study of man). Organisations can be viewed as tribes with their own customs
and practices.
The role of the participant observer is not simple. There are different ways of classifying
the role:
Researcher as employee.
Researcher as an explicit role.
Interrupted involvement.
Observation alone.
Researcher as employee
The researcher works within the organization alongside other employees, effectively as
one of them. The role of the researcher may or may not be explicit and this will have
implications for the extent to which he or she will be able to move around and gather
information and perspectives from other sources. This role is appropriate when the researcher
needs to become totally immersed and experience the work or situation at first hand.
There are a number of dilemmas. Do you tell management and the unions? Friendships
may compromise the research. What are the ethics of the process? Can anonymity be
maintained? Skill and competence to undertake the work may be required. The research may
be over a long period of time.

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Researcher as an explicit role

The researcher is present every day over a period of time, but entry is negotiated in
advance with management and preferably with employees as well. The individual is quite
clearly in the role of a researcher who can move around, observe, interview and participate in
the work as appropriate. This type of role is the most favoured, as it provides many of the
insights that the complete observer would gain, whilst offering much greater flexibility without
the ethical problems that deception entails.
Interrupted involvement
The researcher is present sporadically over a period of time, for example, moving in
and out of the organization to deal with other work or to conduct interviews with, or
observations of, different people across a number of different organizations. It rarely involves
much participation in the work.
Observation alone
The observer role is often disliked by employees since it appears to be eavesdropping.
The inevitable detachment prevents the degree of trust and friendship forming between the
researcher and respondent, which is an important component in other methods.
Choice of roles
The role adopted depends on the following:
Purpose of the research: Does the research require continued longitudinal involvement
(long period of time), or will in-depth interviews, for example, conducted over time
give the type of insights required?
Cost of the research: To what extent can the researcher afford to be committed for
extended periods of time? Are there additional costs such as training?
The extent to which access can be gained: Gaining access where the role of the
researcher is either explicit or covert can be difficult, and may take time.
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The extent to which the researcher would be comfortable in the role: If the researcher
intends to keep his identity concealed, will he or she also feel able to develop the type
of trusting relationships that are important? What are the ethical issues?
The amount of time the researcher has at his disposal: Some methods involve a
considerable amount of time. If time is a problem alternate approaches will have to be
sought.
Case-studies
The term case-study usually refers to a fairly intensive examination of a single unit
such as a person, a small group of people, or a single company. Case-studies involve
measuring what is there and how it got there. In this sense, it is historical. It can enable the
researcher to explore, unravel and understand problems, issues and relationships. It cannot,
however, allow the researcher to generalize, that is, to argue that from one case-study the
results, findings or theory developed apply to other similar case-studies. The case looked at
may be unique and, therefore not representative of other instances. It is, of course, possible to
look at several case-studies to represent certain features of management that we are interested
in studying. The case-study approach is often done to make practical improvements.
Contributions to general knowledge are incidental.
The case-study method has four steps:
1. Determine the present situation.
2. Gather background information about the past and key variables.
3. Test hypotheses. The background information collected will have been analysed for
possible hypotheses. In this step, specific evidence about each hypothesis can be
gathered. This step aims to eliminate possibilities which conflict with the evidence
collected and to gain confidence for the important hypotheses. The culmination of this
step might be the development of an experimental design to test out more rigorously the
hypotheses developed, or it might be to take action to remedy the problem.

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4. Take remedial action. The aim is to check that the hypotheses tested actually work out
in practice. Some action, correction or improvement is made and a re-check carried out
on the situation to see what effect the change has brought about.
The case-study enables rich information to be gathered from which potentially useful
hypotheses can be generated. It can be a time-consuming process. It is also inefficient in
researching situations which are already well structured and where the important variables
have been identified. They lack utility when attempting to reach rigorous conclusions or
determining precise relationships between variables.
Diaries
A diary is a way of gathering information about the way individuals spend their time on
professional activities. They are not about records of engagements or personal journals of
thought! Diaries can record either quantitative or qualitative data, and in management research
can provide information about work patterns and activities.
Advantages
Useful for collecting information from employees.
Different writers compared and contrasted simultaneously.
Allows the researcher freedom to move from one organization to another.
Researcher not personally involved.
Diaries can be used as a preliminary or basis for intensive interviewing.
Used as an alternative to direct observation or where resources are limited.

Disadvantages
Subjects need to be clear about what they are being asked to do, why and what you plan
to do with the data.
Diarists need to be of a certain educational level.

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Some structure is necessary to give the diarist focus, for example, a list of headings.
Encouragement and reassurance are needed as completing a diary is time-consuming
and can be irritating after a while.
Progress needs checking from time-to-time.
Confidentiality is required as content may be critical.
Analyses problems, so you need to consider how responses will be coded before the
subjects start filling in diaries.
Critical incidents
The critical incident technique is an attempt to identify the more noteworthy aspects
of job behaviour and is based on the assumption that jobs are composed of critical and noncritical tasks. For example, a critical task might be defined as one that makes the difference
between success and failure in carrying out important parts of the job. The idea is to collect
reports about what people do that is particularly effective in contributing to good performance.
The incidents are scaled in order of difficulty, frequency and importance to the job as a whole.
The technique scores over the use of diaries as it is centred on specific happenings and
on what is judged as effective behaviour. However, it is laborious and does not lend itself to
objective quantification.
Portfolios
A measure of a managers ability may be expressed in terms of the number and
duration of issues or problems being tackled at any one time. The compilation of problem
portfolios is recording information about how each problem arose, methods used to solve it,
difficulties encountered, etc. This analysis also raises questions about the persons use of time.
What proportion of time is occupied in checking; in handling problems given by others; on
self-generated problems; on top-priority problems; on minor issues, etc? The main problem
with this method and the use of diaries is getting people to agree to record everything in
sufficient detail for you to analyse. It is very time-consuming!
Sampling

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Collecting data is time consuming and expensive, even for relatively small amounts of
data. Hence, it is highly unlikely that a complete population will be investigated. Because of
the time and cost elements the amount of data you collect will be limited and the number of
people or organizations you contact will be small in number. You will, therefore, have to take a
sample and usually a small sample.
Sampling theory says a correctly taken sample of an appropriate size will yield results
that can be applied to the population as a whole. There is a lot in this statement but the two
fundamental questions to ensure generalization are:
1. How is a sample taken correctly?
2. How big should the sample be?
The answer to the second question is as large as possible given the circumstances. It is like
answering the question How long is a piece of string? It all depends on the circumstances.
Whilst we do not expect you to normally generalize your results and take a large
sample, we do expect that you follow a recognized sampling procedure, such that, if the sample
was increased generalization would be possible. You therefore need to know some of the
basics of sampling. This will be done by reference to the following example.
The theory of sampling is based on random samples where all items in the population
have the same chance of being selected as sample units. Random samples can be drawn in a
number of ways but are usually based on having some information about population members.
This information is usually in the form of an alphabetical list called the sampling frame.
Three types of random sample can be drawn a simple random sample (SRS), a
stratified sample and a systematic sample.
Simple random sampling
Simple random sampling can be carried out in two ways the lottery method and using
random numbers.

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The lottery method involves:

transferring each persons name from the list and putting it on a piece of paper
the pieces of paper are placed in a container and thoroughly mixed
the required number are selected by someone without looking
the names selected are the simple random sample.
This is basically similar to a game of bingo or the national lottery. This procedure is easy to
carry out especially if both population and sample are small, but can be tedious and time
consuming for large populations or large samples.
Alternatively random numbers can be used. Random numbers are strings of digits that have
been generated by the lottery method and can be found in books of statistical tables. An
example of these is:
03 47 43 73 86

36 96 47 36 61

97 74 24 67 62

42 81 14 57 20

16 76 62 27 66

56 50 26 71 07

12 56 85 99 26

96 96 68 27 31

55 59 56 35 64

38 04 80 46 22

Random numbers tend to be written in pairs and blocks of 5 by 5 to make reading easy.
However, care is needed when reading these tables. The numbers can be read in any direction
but they should be read as a singe string of digits i.e. left to right as 0, 3, 4, 7 etc, or top to
bottom as 0, 9, 1, 1, 5, 3, 7, etc. It is usual to read left to right.
The random number method involves:
Allocating a number to each person on the list (each number must consist of the same
number of digits so that the tables can be read consistently).
Find a starting point at random in the tables (close your eyes and point).

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Read off the digits.

The names matching the numbers are the sample units.
For the example of selecting nine people at random from 90:

a) The sampling frame is the list of 90 people. Number

this list 00, 01, 02, , 89. Note that each number has
two digits and the numbering starts from 00.
b) Suppose a starting point is found at random from the
random number tables and let this number be 16.
Then the person that has been numbered 16 is the first
sample unit.
c) Let the next two digits be 76, then the person
numbered 76 is the second sample unit.
This procedure is repeated until the nine people have
been identified.
d) Any number occurring for second time is ignored as is
any two-digit number over 89.
Simple random number sampling is used as the basis for many other sampling methods,
but has two disadvantages:
1.

A sampling frame is required. This may not be available, exist or be incomplete.

2.

The procedure is unbiased but the sample may be biased. For instance, if the 90 people
are a mixture of men and women and all men were selected this would be a biased
sample.
To overcome this problem a stratified sample can be taken. In this the population

structure is reflected in the sample structure, with respect to some criterion.

For example, suppose the 90 people consist of 30 men and 60 women. If gender is the
criterion for stratification then:
30
of the sample should be men
90

105

30
ie.

x 9 = 3 men
90

60
of the sample should be women
90

60
ie.

x 9 = 6 women
90

Thus the sample reflects the population structure in terms of gender.

The three men and six women would then be selected by simple random sampling e.g.,
random numbers. The problem with this approach is the criterion for stratification, (e.g., age,
sex, job description), is chosen by you it is subjective and may not be the best or more
appropriate criterion. Also a more detailed sampling frame is required.
Systematic sampling
Whilst not truly random this is a method that is used extensively because it is easy to
operate and quick, even when the population and the sample are large.
For example, for the population 90 and sample of nine:
Split the sampling frame in to nine equal groups.
i.e.

1 to 9
10 to 19
etc
80 to 89

Select a number between 1 and 9 using random number tables.

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Suppose this number is 6.

Person numbered 6 is chosen.
Then the 16th, 26th, 36th, 46th, 56th, 66th, 76th, and 86th people are the remaining sample
units.
If no sampling frame is available access to the population is necessary, such as customers of a
business such as a leisure centre, restaurant or museum.
Systematic sampling can be used by selecting a random number say 25.
Then the 25th person to enter is the first sample unit.
The 50th person to enter is the second sample unit.
This process is carried on until the required sample size is met.
This approach usually generates a good cross section of the population. However, you may
need a team of people when no sampling frame exists to help with counting, interviewing, etc.
Data recording and analysis
When the researcher is at the planning stage of his research design, it is worth thinking
about how he is going to record his data and, even more importantly, how he is going to
analyse it. It is pointless collecting data in a form that the researcher cannot understand or
analyse!
Secondary Data Collection Methods
All methods of data collection can supply quantitative data (numbers, statistics or financial)
or qualitative data (usually words or text). Quantitative data may often be presented in tabular
or graphical form. Secondary data is data that has already been collected by someone else for a
different purpose to yours. For example, this could mean using:
data collected by a hotel on its customers through its guest history system
data supplied by a marketing organisation

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annual company reports

government statistics.
Secondary data can be used in different ways:
The researcher can simply report the data in its original format. If so, then it is most
likely that the place for this data will be in his main introduction or literature review as
support or evidence for his argument.
The researcher can do something with the data. If he uses it (analyse it or re-interpret it)
for a different purpose to the original then the most likely place would be in the
Analysis of findings section of his dissertation. A good example of this usage was the
work on suicide carried out by Durkheim. He took the official suicide statistics of
different countries (recorded by coroners or their equivalent) and analysed them to see
if he could identify variables that would mean that some people are more likely to
commit suicide than others. He found, for example, that Catholics were less likely to
commit suicide than Protestants. In this way, he took data that had been collected for
quite a different purpose and used it in his own study but he had to do a lot of
comparisons and statistical correlations himself in order to analyse the data. (See
Haralambos, 1995, for details of Durkheims work).
Most research requires the collection of primary data (data that you collect at first hand),
and this is what students concentrate on. Unfortunately, many dissertations do not include
secondary data in their findings section although it is perfectly acceptable to do so, providing
you have analyzed it. It is always a good idea to use data collected by someone else if it exists
it may be on a much larger scale than you could hope to collect and could contribute to your
findings considerably.
As secondary data has been collected for a different purpose to yours, you should treat it
with care. The basic questions you should ask are:
Where has the data come from?
Does it cover the correct geographical location?

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Is it current (not too out of date)?

If you are going to combine with other data are the data the same (for example, units,
time, etc.)?
If you are going to compare with other data are you comparing like with like?
Thus the researcher should make a detailed examination of the following:
Title (for example, the time period that the data refers to and the geographical
coverage).
Units of the data.
Source (some secondary data is already secondary data).
Column and row headings, if presented in tabular form.
Definitions and abbreviations, for example, what does SIC stand for? For example, how
is small defined in the phrase small hotel? Is small based on the number of rooms,
value of sales, number of employees, profit, turnover, square metres of space, etc., and
do different sources use the word small in different ways? Even if the same unit of
measurement is used, there still could be problems. For example, in Norway, firms with
200-499 employees are defined as medium, whereas in the USA firms with less than
500 employees are defined as small.
There are many sources of data and most people tend to underestimate the number of
sources and the amount of data within each of these sources.
Sources can be classified as:
paper-based sources books, journals, periodicals, abstracts, indexes, directories,
research reports, conference papers, market reports, annual reports, internal records of
organisations, newspapers and magazines
electronic sources CD-ROMs, on-line databases, Internet, videos and broadcasts.
The main sources of qualitative and quantitative secondary data include the follwing:

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Official or government sources.

Unofficial or general business sources.
The output of all publishers of non-official sources is included in the most comprehensive
directory available:
Mort D. (1997) Sources of Unofficial UK Statistics 3rd Edition Aldershot: Gower
The guide lists 1,059 statistical titles and series published by 635 different organisations. It
excludes one-off surveys or market reports.
The arrangement is alphabetical by organisation with details of titles produced and contacts for
further information. It lists references to the following types of sources:
trade associations
trade and other journals
private research publishers
stockbroking firms
large company market reports
local authorities
professional bodies
academic institutions.
European Union (Community) sources.
International sources.
o

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)

United Nations and related organisations.

Sources for the last two categories are many and varied. If your dissertation requires
these sources you need to conduct a more thorough search of your library and perhaps seek the
assistance of the librarian.

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Conclusion
In this unit, we have covered the various methods used to collect data and the various
methods of sampling and assessing the data collection process. There is a lot to absorb and the
researcher needs to make decisions about the best methods to use to collect the data that the
researcher needs to answer his research questions. Each piece of research is very individual and
when he comes to writing up his methodology section he needs to be able to justify and
evaluate the methods he has used. So it is a good idea to have planned this aspect very
carefully!
References
http://brent.tvu.ac.uk/dissguide/hm1u2/hm1u2fra.htm
UNIT V

Data analysis
Introduction
Data analysis is the process of looking at and summarizing data with the intent to
extract useful information and develop conclusions. Developments in the field of statistical
data analysis often parallel or follow advancements in other fields to which statistical methods
are fruitfully applied. Because practitioners of the statistical analysis often address particular
applied decision problems, methods developments is consequently motivated by the search to a
better decision making under uncertainties.
Statistical Data Analysis
Data are not Information!
To determine what statistical data analysis is, one must first define statistics. Statistics
is a set of methods that are used to collect, analyze, present, and interpret data. Statistical
methods are used in a wide variety of occupations and help people identify, study, and solve

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many complex problems. In the business and economic world, these methods enable decision
makers and managers to make informed and better decisions about uncertain situations.
Vast amounts of statistical information are available in today's global and economic
environment because of continual improvements in computer technology. To compete
successfully globally, researchers and decision makers must be able to understand the
information and use it effectively. Statistical data analysis provides hands on experience to
promote the use of statistical thinking and techniques to apply in order to make educated
decisions in the research.
Computers play a very important role in statistical data analysis. The statistical software
package, SPSS, which is used in this course, offers extensive data-handling capabilities and
numerous statistical analysis routines that can analyze small to very large data statistics. The
computer will assist in the summarization of data, but statistical data analysis focuses on the
interpretation of the output to make inferences and predictions.
Studying a problem through the use of statistical data analysis usually involves four basic
steps.
1. Defining the problem
2. Collecting the data
3. Analyzing the data
4. Reporting the results
Defining the Problem
An exact definition of the problem is imperative in order to obtain accurate data about
it. It is extremely difficult to gather data without a clear definition of the problem.

Collecting the Data

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We live and work at a time when data collection and statistical computations have
become easy almost to the point of triviality. Paradoxically, the design of data collection, never
sufficiently emphasized in the statistical data analysis textbook, have been weakened by an
apparent belief that extensive computation can make up for any deficiencies in the design of
data collection. One must start with an emphasis on the importance of defining the population
about which we are seeking to make inferences; all the requirements of sampling and
experimental design must be met.
Designing ways to collect data is an important job in statistical data analysis. Two
important aspects of a statistical study are: Population - a set of all the elements of interest in a
study Sample - a subset of the population Statistical inference is refer to extending your
knowledge obtain from a random sample from a population to the whole population. This is
known in mathematics as an Inductive Reasoning. That is, knowledge of whole from a
particular. Its main application is in hypotheses testing about a given population.
The purpose of statistical inference is to obtain information about population form information
contained in a sample. It is just not feasible to test the entire population, so a sample is the only
realistic way to obtain data because of the time and cost constraints. Data can be either
quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative data are labels or names used to identify an attribute of
each element. Quantitative data are always numeric and indicate either how much or how
many.
For the purpose of statistical data analysis, distinguishing between cross-sectional and
time series data is important. Cross-sectional data re data collected at the same or
approximately the same point in time. Time series data are data collected over several time
periods.
Data can be collected from existing sources or obtained through observation and
experimental studies designed to obtain new data. In an experimental study, the variable of
interest is identified. Then one or more factors in the study are controlled so that data can be
obtained about how the factors influence the variables. In observational studies, no attempt is
made to control or influence the variables of interest. A survey is perhaps the most common
type of observational study.

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Analyzing the Data

Statistical data analysis divides the methods for analyzing data into two categories:
exploratory methods and confirmatory methods. Exploratory methods are used to discover
what the data seems to be saying by using simple arithmetic and easy-to-draw pictures to
summarize data. Confirmatory methods use ideas from probability theory in the attempt to
answer specific questions. Probability is important in decision making because it provides a
mechanism for measuring, expressing, and analyzing the uncertainties associated with future
events. The majority of the topics addressed in this course fall under this heading.
Reporting the Results
Through inferences, an estimate or test claims about the characteristics of a population
can be obtained from a sample. The results may be reported in the form of a table, a graph or a
set of percentages. The reported results must reflect the uncertainty through the use of
probability statements and intervals of values, because only a small collection (sample) has
been examined and not an entire population.

Measures of Central Tendency

Condensation of data is necessary in statistical analysis. This is because a large number of big
figures are not only confusing but also difficult to analyze. Therefore, in order to reduce the
complexity of data and to make them comparable it is necessary that various phenomena,
which are being compared, are reduced to a single figure. The first of such measure is averages
or measures of central tendency.
Measures of central tendency are measures of the location of the middle or the center of a
distribution. The definition of "middle" or "center" is purposely left somewhat vague so that
the term "central tendency" can refer to a wide variety of measures.
Definition
Some of the important definitions are given below:

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1. Statistics is a value which is typical or representative of a set of data

2. Average is an attempt to find one single value to describe the whole of figures
3. The average is sometimes described as number which is typical of the whole group
4. An average is only a short way of expressing an arithmetic result
5. An average is a single number describing some features of a set of data.
Characteristics of a typical average
A measure of central tendency is a typical value around which other figures congregate.
According to Yule and Kendall, average must possess the following characteristics:
It should be
1. rigidly defined so that there is no confusion with regard to its meaning connotation.
2. easy to understand.
3. simple to compute.
4. based on all the items in the data.
5. capable of further algebraic treatment.
6. capable of being used in further statistical computation.
7. Its definition should be in the form of a mathematical formula.
8. It should not be unduly influenced by any single item or group of items.
9. It should have sampling stability.
Uses of an Average
1. To get one single value that describes the salient features of a mass of complex data.
2. To help comparison.
3. To trace the mathematical relationship.
4. To help in decision making.
5. To know about the Universe.

Types of Averages
The three most significant types of averages are

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1. Arithmetic Mean
2. Median
3. Mode
1. Arithmetic Mean
Arithmetic average is also called as Mean. It is the most common type and widely used
measure of central tendency. Arithmetic average of a series is the figure obtained by dividing
the total value of the various items by the number of numbers.
a)

Individual Observation

The simple arithmetic mean (AM) of an individual series is equal to the sum of the values
divided by the number of observations. Let the values of the variable X be X 1 , X 2 , , X n and
let X denote the AM of X.
Step1: Add up all the values of the variable X and find out
Step2: Divide

That is. X

X .

X by the number of observations (N).

X1

Xn

X2
N

X
N

Example
Calculate mean from the following data:
Roll
No.
Marks

10

40

50

55

78

58

60

73

35

43

48

Solution:
Here, Marks is the variable X. The calculation is tabulated as follows:
Roll No.
1

Marks
40

116

50

55

78

58

60

73

35

43

10
N = 10

48
X = 540
X
N

540
10

= 54 marks.

Interpretation:
The arithmetic mean mark of the given 10 students is 54 marks.
b)

Discrete Series

Step1: Multiply each size of item (x) by its frequency (f) - fx

Step2: Add all the fx Step3: Divide

fx

fx by the total frequency (N =

Arithmetic Mean of a discrete series is given by X

f )
fx
N

Example
Calculate mean from the following data:
Value
Frequency

1
21

2
30

3
28

4
40

5
26

117

6
34

7
40

8
9

9
15

10
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Solution:

x
1

f
21

fx
21

30

60

28

84

40

160

26

130

34

204

40

280

72

15

135

10

57
N=
f =300

570
fx =1716

fx
N

1716
5.72
300

Continuous Series
In continuous frequency distribution, the value of each individual frequency
distribution is unknown. Therefore, an assumption is made to make them precise or on the
assumption that the frequency of the class intervals is concentrated at the centre that the mid
point of each class interval has to be found out.
The following procedure is to be adopted for calculating arithmetic mean in a
continuous series.

118

Step1: Find out the mid value of each group or class. The mid value, denoted by m, is
obtained by adding the lower limit and upper limit of the class and dividing the total by two.
For example, in a class interval 10 20, the mid value is 15 (

10 20
2

30
15 )
2

Step 2: Multiply the mid value of each class by the frequency of the class. That is, find fm.
Step 3: Add up all the products Step 4:

fm

fm is divided by N.
fm

Apply the formula:

Example
Find out the mean profit from the following data.
Profits
per shop
(Rs.)
Number
of shops

100-200

200-300

300-400

400-500

500-600

600-700

700-800

10

18

20

26

30

28

18

Solution
Profits (Rs.)
100-200

Mid point (m)

150

No.of shops (f)

10

fm
1500

200-300

250

18

4500

300-400

350

20

7000

400-500

450

26

11700

500-600

550

30

16500

600-700

650

28

18200

700-800

750

18
f = 150

119

13500
fm = 72900

fm
N

72900
486 .
150

Interpretation
The average profit is Rs. 486.
Merits of Mean
Arithmetic mean is the simplest measurement of central tendency of a series. It is
widely used because
1. It is easy to understand.
2. It is easy to calculate.
3. It is used in further calculation.
4. It is rigidly defined.
5. It is based on the value of every item in the series.
6. It provides a good basis for comparison.
7. Arithmetic mean can be calculated if we know the number of items and aggregate. If
the mean and the number of items are known we can find the aggregate.
8. Its formula is rigidly defined. The mean is the same for the series who ever calculates
it.
9. It can be used for further analysis and algebraic treatment.
10. The mean is more stable measure of central tendency (Ideal average)
Demerits of arithmetic mean
1. The mean is unduly affected by the extreme items.
2. It is unrealistic
3. It may lead to false conclusion.
4. It cannot be accurately determined even if one of the values is not known.
5. It is not useful for the study of qualities like intelligence, honesty and character.
6. It cannot be located by observation or the graphic method.
7. It gives greater importance to bigger items of a series and lesser importance to smaller
items.

120

Even though arithmetic mean is subject to various demerits, it is considered to be the best
of all averages.

Median
Median is the value of item that goes to divide the series into equal parts. Median may
be defined as the value of that item which divides the series into two equal parts, one half
containing values greater than it and the other half containing values less that it. Therefore, the
series has to be arranged in ascending or descending order, before finding the median. In other
words, arranging is necessary to compute median.
As distinct from the arithmetic mean, which is calculated from the value of every item
in the series, the median is what is called a positional average. The term position refers to the
place of a value in a series.
The definitions of median given by different authors are: The median is that value of
the variable which divides the group into two equal parts, one part comprising all values
greater, and the other, all values less than median.

L.R.Connor.

Median of a series is the value of the item actual or estimated when a series is arranged
in order of magnitude which divides the distribution into two parts. - Secrist
The median is that value which divides a series so that one half or more of the items are equal
to or less than it and one half or more of the items are equal to or great that it.
-

Croxton and Cowden

The median, as its name indicates, is the value of the middle item in a series, when items are
arranged according to magnitude.

- Yau Leun Chou

Individual series
Step 1. Arrange the data in ascending or descending order.
Step 2. Apply the formula
N 1 th
Median = Size of (
) item.
2
Odd number of observations
Example
The following are the marks scored by 7 students, find out the median marks.
Roll
1
2
3
4
5
6
numbers
Marks
45
32
18
57
65
28

121

7
46

Solution
Arrange the marks in ascending order.
Roll
numbers
Marks

18

28

32

45

57

58

65

Median = Size of (

N 1 th
7 1
) item =
= 4th item
2
2

= Size of 4th item = 45

Even number of observations
To find the median from even number of items, the median is estimated by the mean of
the two middle values. It means add the two values of middle item and divide by two.
Example
Find out the median from the following data:
57

58

61

42

38

65

72

66

Solution
Arrange the marks in ascending order.
38
Median = Size of (

42

57

58

61

65

N 1 th
8 1
) item =
= 4.5th item
2
2

= Size of 4.5th item

4 th item 5 th item
58 61
=
=
= 59.5
2
2

Discrete series
Step 1. Arrange the data is ascending or descending order.
Step 2. Find the cumulative frequencies.
Step 3. Apply the formula

122

66

72

Median = Size of (

N 1 th
) item
2

Example
Locate the median from the following:
Size of
the shoes
frequency

5.5

6.5

7.5

10

16

28

15

30

40

34

Solution
Arrange the data in ascending order.
Size of the
shoes (x)

5
5.5
6
6.5
7
7.5
8

10
16
28
15
30
40
34

Cumulative
frequency
(cf)
10
26
54
69
99
139
173

Median = Size of (

N 1 th
173 1
) item =
= 87h item
2
2

= Size of 87th item = 7

Interpretation
Therefore, median size of the shoe = 7.
Continuous series

N
.
2
Step 2: Find out the class in which median lies.
Step 3: Apply the formula:
Step 1: Find out the median by using

Median = L

N
2

cf
f

i , where

L = Lower limit of the median class (middle class)

f = Frequency of median class

123

cf = Cumulative frequency of the class preceding median class

(Total frequency of all lower class)
i = Class interval of median class.
Example
Calculate the median from the following table:
Marks
10-25
25-40
40-55
Frequency
6
20
44

55-70
26

70-85
3

85-100
1

Solution
Marks
(x)
10-25
25-40
40-55
55-70
70-85
85-100
Median item =

Cumulative
frequency (cf)
6
26
70
96
99
100

6
20
44
26
3
1

N 100
=
=50.
2
2

Median item lies in 40-55 mark group. Therefore, median is calculated as follows.
N
2

Median = L
Here, L = 40;

N
= 50;
2

cf = 26;

cf
f

f = 44;

Median = 40

i = 15.

50 26
15
44

= 40 + 8.18
= 48.18 marks.
Merits of median
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

It is easy to understand and easy to compute.

It is quite rigidly defined.
It eliminates the effect of extreme items.
It is amenable to further algebraic process.
Since it is positional average, median can be computed even if the items at the extremes are
unknown.

124

6. Median can be calculated even from qualitative phenomena i.e. honesty, character etc.
7. Median can sometimes be known by simple inspection.
8. Its value generally lies in the distribution.
Demerits of median
1. Typical representative of the observations cannot be computed if the distribution of item is
irregular. For example, 1, 2, 3, 100 and 500, the median is 3.
2. When the number of items is large, the prerequisite process (Arraying the items) is a difficult
process.
3. It ignores the extreme items.
4. In case of continuous series, the median is estimated, but not calculated.
5. It is more affected by fluctuations of sampling than in mean.
6. Median is not amenable to further algebraic manipulation.

Mode
Mode is the most common item of a series. Mode is the value which occurs the
greatest number of frequency in a series. According to Croxton and Cowdon, The mode of
a distribution is the value at the point around which the item tend to be most heavily
concentrated.
The chief feature of mode is that it is the size of the item which has the maximum
frequency and is also affected by the frequencies of the neighbouring items.
Individual observation
Mode can often be found out by mere inspection in case of individual observations.
The data have to be arranged in the form of an array so that the value which has the highest
frequency can be known. For example, 10 persons have the following income:
Rs. 850, 750, 600, 825, 850, 900, 630, 850, 640, 530, 850
850 repeats four times, therefore the mode salary is Rs.850.
Discrete series
We cannot depend on the method of inspection to find out the mode. In such situations,
it is suggested to prepare a grouping table and an analysis table to find out the mode. First
we prepare grouping table and then an analysis table.
Step 1: Prepare a grouping table with 6 columns.
Step 2: Write the size of the item in the margin.
Step 3: In column 1, write the frequencies against the respective items.

125

Step 4: In column 2, the frequencies are grouped in twos. (1 and 2, 3 and 4, 5 and 6 and so
on).
Step 5; In column 3, the frequencies are grouped in twos, leaving the first frequency. (2 and
3, 4 and 5, 6 and 7 and so on).
Step 6: In column 4, the frequencies are grouped in threes. (1, 2 and 3; 4, 5 and 6; 7,8, and 9;
and so on)
Step 7: In column 5, the frequencies are grouped in threes, leaving the first frequency.(2, 3
and 4; 5, 6 and 7; 8, 9 and 10 and so on).
Step 8: In column6, the frequencies are grouped in threes, leaving the first two frequencies.
(3, 4 and 5; 6, 7 and 8 so on). In all the processes mark down the maximum
frequencies by bold letters or by a circle.
Step 9: After grouping the frequencies table, an analysis table is prepared to show the exact
size, which has the highest frequency.
Example
Calculate mode from the following:
Size
10
11
12
frequency
10
12
15

13
19

14
20

15
8

16
4

17
3

18
2

Solution
size
10

1
10

Grouping Table
3
4

22
11

12

37
27

12

15

46
34

13

19

54
39

14

20

15

16

17

18

47
28
32
12
15
7
9
5

126

Analysis Table
Column
number
1
2
3
4
5
6
Total

10

Size of item containing maximum frequency

11
12
13
14
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
4
5

15

The mode is 13, as the size of the item repeats 5 times. But through inspection, it is
seen that mode is 14, because the size 14 occurs 20 times. But this wrong decision is revealed
by analysis table.
Continuous series
In a continuous series, to find out the mode, we need one step more than those used for
discrete series. As explained in the discrete series, modal class is determined by preparing
grouping table and analysis tables. Then we apply the following formula:
Z

f1
2 f1

f0
f0

f2

i , where

Z = Mode
L = Lower limit of the modal class
f 1 = Frequency of the modal class
f 0 = Frequency of the class preceding the modal class
f 2 = Frequency of the class succeeding the modal class
i = Class interval
Example
Compute the mode from the following data:
Size of
0-5
5-10 10-15 15-20
item
Frequency
20
24
32
28

20-25

25-30

30-35

35-40

40-45

20

16

34

10

127

Solution
Size of
item
0-5

1
20

5-10

24

10-15

32

Grouping Table
3
4

44
76
56
84
60
15-20

28

80
48

20-25

20

64
36

25-30

16

70
50

30-35

34

60
44

35-40

10

52
18

40-45

8
Analysis Table

Column
number
1
2
3
4
5
6
Total

Size of item containing maximum frequency

5-10
10-15
15-20
20-25

0-5

1
1
1
1
1
5

1
1
1

25-30
1

1
1
3

1
1

From the above analysis table, it is found that the mode is 10-15 as its frequencies
occur the maximum times. Mode is estimated by the formula

Here, L = 10;

f 1 = 32;

Therefore, Mode = Z 10

f1
2 f1

f0
f0

f 0 = 24;

32 24
5
2(32) 24 28

128

f2

f 2 = 28;

i = 5.

8
5
64 24 28
40
10
12
= 10 + 3.33
= 13.33
10

Merits
1. It is easy to understand as well as easy to calculate. In certain cases, it can be found out
by inspection.
2. It is usually an actual value as it occurs most frequently in the series.
3. It is not affected by extreme values as in the average.
4. It is simple and precise.
5. It is the most representative average.
6. The value of mode can be determined by the graphic method.
7. Its value can be determined in an open end class-interval without ascertaining the class
limits.
Demerits
1. It is not suitable for further mathematical treatment.
2. It may not give weight to extreme items.
3. In a bimodal distribution there are two modal classes and it is difficult to determine the
value of the mode.
4. It is difficult to compute; when there are both positive and negative items in a series and
when there one or more items are zero.
5. It is stable only when the sample is large.
6. Mode is influenced by magnitude of the class-intervals.
7. It will not give the aggregate value as in average.
Relationship between Mean, Median and Mode
In a symmetrical distribution, the three averages are equal.
Mean = Median = Mode
In a asymmetrical distribution,
Mean Mode = 3 (Mean - Median).

129

Measures of Dispersion
While the measures of central tendency gives us one single figure that represents the
entire data, the measures of dispersion, also known as measures of central distendency,
attempts to measure the degree of spread, or dispersion around the central position.
According to Connor, Dispersion is a measure of the extent to which the individual
items vary. Brooks and Dick define it as the degree of scatter or variation of the variables
about a central value. Spiegel writes that the degree to which numerical data tend to spread
about an average value is called the variation or dispersion of the data.
Objectives of the measures of dispersion
1. It is used to compare two or more series with regard to their variability.
2. It is used to control the variability itself.
3. It is used to judge the reliability of the measures of the central tendency.
4. It is used to facilitate the use of other statistical measures.
5.

It is used in quality control and time series

Characteristics of good measures of dispersion

The measures of dispersion should have all the characteristics prescribed for good
measures of central tendency.
1. It should be rigidly defined.
2. It should be easy to comprehend.
3. It should be easy to compute.
4. It should be based on all the observations of a series.
5. It should be capable of further algebraic calculation.
Types of measures of dispersion
Two categories of measures of dispersion are identified. The first type (The Range) is
based on the difference between the two extreme scores in a distribution. This is known as
the Distance Measures. The second types are those based on average deviation from the
measures of central tendency.
The emphasis in this course is given to the following four measures of
dispersion.
1. Range
2. Quartile Deviation
130

3. Mean Deviation
4. Standard Deviation
Range
The Range is an easy way to indicate Dispersion. It is the difference between the largest
and the smallest value included in a distribution.
For example the Range of the series 51, 57, 31, 35, 95 is equal to
Largest value Smallest value = 95 51 = 44.
Range is very simple to understand, and easy to compute. It is quite useful as a rough
measure of dispersion for a set of limited items.
Limitations
1. It is not rigidly defined.
2. It has no further algebraic properties.
3. It is not stable.
4. It does not take into account the entire distribution.
5. It cannot be computed from frequency distribution with open classes.

In spite of these limitations, it is used in studying quality control, fluctuations in share

prices, weather forecasting etc.,

Quartile Deviation
Quartile Deviation, also known as Semi-Inter Quartile Range, is a measure of
dispersion based on the difference between the values of the first quartile and third quartile
divided by two. This is represented by the following formula.
Q.D. =

Q3

Q1

2
The First Quartile or the Lower Quartile, denoted by Q1 in the above formula, is the

value which leaves one-fourth of the value below it, and the Third Quartile or the Upper
Quartile, denoted by Q3 in the above formula, is the value which leaves three-fourths of the
value below it.

131

Example
The following are the marks obtained by 11 students in a test. The marks are arranged in the
ascending order.
25

28

33

Q1 = Size of (

37

42

45

48

51

54

57

60

N 1 th
11 1
) item =
= 3rd item
4
4

= Size of 3rd item

= 33 marks.
Q3 = Size of 3 (

N 1 th
11 1
) item =3 (
) = 3 3 = 9th item
4
4

= Size of 9th item

= 54 marks.
Q.D. =

Q3

Q1
2

54 33
2
= 10.5

=
Merits

1. It is simple to understand and easy to compute.

2. It is not influenced by the extreme values.
3. It can be found out with open end distribution.
4. It is not affected by presence of extreme values.
Demerits
1. It ignores the first 25% of the items and the last 25% of the items.
2. It is a positional average; hence not amenable to further mathematical treatment.
3. Its value is affected by sampling fluctuations.
4. It gives only a rough measure.
Mean Deviation
The Mean Deviation (M. D.) of a series is the arithmetic average of the deviations of various
items from a measure of central tendency, may be mean, median or mode. It is also called as
Average Deviation as it is the average amount of scatter of the items in a distribution from

132

either the mean or the median or the mode, ignoring the sign of the deviation. This is
represented by the following formula.
M. D. =

D
N

, where

D = sum of the deviations

D = deviations of the items from mean or median or mode, ignoring plus or minus signs.
N = the number of the observations.
Example
Calculate M.D. for the following data. (From the mean)
100

150

200

250

360

490

500

600

671

Solution
x

Mean x =

100
150
200
250
360
490
500
600
671
x=
3321
x

D = x- x
= x- 369
269
219
169
119
9
121
131
231
302
D = 1570

N
3321
=
= 369
9
D
1570
Mean Deviation from Mean =
=
= 174.44
N
9
Merits
1. It is simple to understand and easy to compute.

2. M.D. is a calculated value.

3. It is not much affected by the fluctuations of sampling.
4. It is based on all the items of the series and gives weight according to their size.

133

5. It is less affected by extreme items.

6. It is rigidly defined.
7. It is flexible, because it can be calculated from any measure of central tendency.
8. It is a better measure for comparison.
Demerits
1. It is a non-algebraic treatment.
2. Algebraic positive and negative signs are ignored. In mean deviation, +5 and -5 have
the same meaning. It is mathematically unsound and illogical.
3. It is not a very accurate measure of dispersion.
4. It is not suitable for further mathematical calculation.
5. It is rarely used. It is not as popular as standard deviation.
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation (S.D) is the most important and widely used measure of dispersion. It
is defined as the square root of the arithmetic mean of the squares of deviations from the
arithmetic mean. This measure is calculated from the arithmetic mean alone and not from
median or mode like the mean deviation. It is to be noted that in the case of S.D. the algebraic
signs are not ignored, and therefore it is mathematically sound. The S.D. is denoted by the
Greek letter

(Sigma).

Individual Observation
Steps for calculating S.D.
Step 1: Find out the actual mean of the series. ( X )
Step 2: Find out the deviation of each value from the mean. ( x

Step 3: Square the deviations and take the total of squared deviations.(
Step 4: Divide the total

X)

x2 )

x 2 by the number of observations (N). The square root of the

quotient is standard deviation. Thus apply the following formula:

x2
N

134

Example
Calculate the standard deviation from the following data.
14

22

15

20

17

12

11

Solution
Values (X)

x2

(X-15)
14

-1

22

49

-6

36

15

20

25

17

12

-3

11

-4

16

x 2 =140

X =120

Mean:

X=

Standard Deviation:

X
N

x2
N

120
=15
8

140
8

17 .5

4.18

Discrete series
Step 1: Calculate the mean of the series.
Step 2: Find deviations for various items from the mean. That is, X

Step 3: Square the deviations ( d 2 ) and multiply by the respective frequencies (f). We get
fd 2 .

Step 4: Total the product

fd 2 . Then apply the formula:

fd 2
f

135

Example
Calculate standard deviation from the following:
Marks

10

20

30

40

50

60

No. of
students

12

20

10

Solution
Marks (X)

10
20
30
40
50
60
X =210

fX

8
12
20
10
7
3
N =60

Mean:

80
240
600
400
350
180
fX =1850
X=

Standard Deviation:

fX
N

fd 2
N

d2

X X d
X 30.8
- 20.8
- 10.8
- 0.8
9.2
19.2
29.2

432.64
116.64
0.64
84.64
368.64
852.64

fd 2

3461.12
1399.68
12.80
846.40
2580.48
2557.92
2
fd =10858.40

1850
=30.8 marks
60

10858 .40
60

13.45 marks

Continuous Series
In the continuous series, the method of calculating standard deviation is almost the
same as in a discrete series. But in a continuous series, mid values of the class intervals are
to be found out. The formula is
fd '

where d '

A
C

fd '

, C = interval length (common factor).

Step 1: Find out the mid value of each class (m).

Step 2: Assume one of the mid values as an average and denote it by A.
Step 3: Find out deviation of each mid value from the assumed average A and denote these
deviations by d.

136

Step 4: If the class intervals are equal, then take a common factor. Divide each deviation by
the common factor and denote this column by d ' .
Step 5: Multiply these deviations d ' by the respective frequencies and get

fd' .

Step 6: Square the deviations and get d 2

Step 7: Multiply the squared deviation d 2 by the respective frequencies (f). Then obtain the
total

fd 2 .

Step 8: Substitute the values in the following formula to get the standard deviation.
fd '

fd '

Example
Compute the standard deviation from the following data.
Class (x)
Frequency (f)

0-10
8

10-20
12

20-30
17

30-40
14

40-50
9

50-60
7

60-70
4

Solution
Class
(x)
0-10

Midvalue
(m)
5

10-20

15

-2

12

-24

48

20-30

25

-1

17

-17

17

30-40

35

14

40-50

45

50-60

55

14

28

60-70

65

12

36

d'

A
C

5 35
10

m 35
10
-3

fd '

fd

-24

72

N = 71

137

fd

30

fd 2
=210

fd '

Standard Deviation:

fd '

210
71

30
71

10

= 2.957 ( 0.4225) 2 10
=

2.957

2.7785 10

= 1.667

0.1785 10

10 = 16.67

Correlation Analysis
Correlation refers to the relationship of two or more variables. We can find some
relationship between two variables; for example, there exists some relationship between the
height of a father and the height of the son, price and demand, wage and price index, yield
and rainfall, height and weight and so on. Correlation is the statistical analysis which
measures and analyses the degree or extent to which two variable fluctuate with reference to
each other.

The word relationship is of important and indicates that there is some

connection between the variables under observation. The correlation measures the closeness
of the relationship between the variable.

For instance, the height and the weight are

correlated because both will be increasing or decreasing.

Definition
According to Ya Lun Chou, Correlation analysis attempts to determine the degree of
relationship between variables.
According to W.I.King, Correlation means that between two series or group of data,
there exists some casual connection.
According to L.R.Connon, If two or more quantities vary in sympathy, so that
movements in one tend to be accompanied by corresponding movements in the other(s), they
are said to be correlated.

138

The degree of correlation is measured by the Coefficient of Correlation.

The

coefficient of correlation is a ratio which expresses the extent to which the changes in one
variable are accompanied by the changes in concerned variable.
Characteristics of Correlation
a)

Changes in one series of data is accompanied by or followed by corresponding change

in other series
b)

The change may be in same direction, that is, positive change, or may be in the opposite

direction, that is, the negative direction.

c)

The change is based on cause and Effect relationship.

Types of Correlation
a)

Positive and negative correlation;

b)

Simple and multiple correlation;

c)

Linear and Non-linear correlation;

d)

Partial and Total correlation;

Positive Correlation
When the change in one phenomena results in change in another phenomena in the
same direction then the relationship is known as positive correlation.
Negative Correlation
On the otherhand if the change in one phenomena results in the change in some other
phenomena in the opposite direction or the reverse direction, then, the relationship is said to be
negative correlation.
Simple Correlation
Simple correlation shows the correlation between more than two variables. It may be
positive or negative.
Multiple Correlation
Multiple Correlation shows the correlation between more than two variables. It may be
positive or negative.
Linear Correlation
Linear correlation is said to exist when the amount of change in one variable, followed
by the amount of change in other variable tends to bear a constant ratio.

139

Non-Linear Correlation
In non-linear correlation the ratio of the amount of change in one variable to the amount
of change in another variable is not constant.
Partial and Total Correlation
In partial correlation the relationship of two or more variable is examined, while other
variables included for calculation of total correlation are excluded. The total correlation is based
on all the relevant variables.
Measurement of Coefficient of Correlation
The degree of coefficient of correlation can be measured by the following mathematical
methods:
a) Karl Pearsons Co-efficient of correlation
b) Spearmans Ranking Method
c) Concurrent Deviation Method
d) Product Moment Method
As the Pearson Correlation Coefficient and the Spearmans Correlation are commonly
used measures we will study only these two methods.
Karl Pearsons Coefficient of Correlation
According to this method, the Correlation Coefficient between any two series of data is
computed by dividing the product of deviations from the Arithmetic Mean by the product of
the two Standard Deviations to the number of pairs in it.
The following is the formula for the Karl Pearsons Coefficient of Correlation
applicable to two sets of variables (say X and Y) normally distributed.

XY N

r
X2

X
2

Y
Y2

r Correlation coefficient

where

X and Y Two sets of variables

N Number of observations.
Example
Calculate the coefficient of correlation from the following data:
X

12

10

11

13

14

11

12

140

Solution
X

X2

Y2

XY

12

14

144

196

168

81

64

72

64

36

48

10

100

81

90

11

11

121

121

121

13

12

169

144

156

49

21

X =70

X2

Y =63

Therefore,

XY N

r
X2

728 7
=
=
=

676 7

4732
5096

4900

70

Y 2 =651

728

X
2

XY =676

Y
Y2

70 63
651 7

63

4410
4557

3969

322
196 588

322
= + 0.95
339.48

Spearmans Rank Correlation Coefficient

In 1904, Charles Edward Spearman, a British psychologist found out the method of
ascertaining the coefficient of correlation by ranks. This method is based on rank. This
measure is useful in dealing with qualitative characteristics, such as intelligence, beauty,
morality, character, etc. It cannot be measured quantitatively, as in the case of pearsons
coefficient of correlation; but it is based on the ranks given to the observations. It can be used
when the data are irregular or extreme items are erratic or inaccurate, because rank correlation
coefficient is not based on the assumption of formality of data.

141

Rank correlation is applicable only to individual observations. The result we get from
this method is only an approximate one, because under ranking method original value are not
taken into account. The formula for spearmans rank correlation which is denoted by P is;

P 1

D2

N ( N 2 1)

or P 1

D2

N3

where
P = Rank coefficient of correlation

D 2 = Sum of the squares of the differences of two ranks

N = Number of paired observations.
Like the Karl Pearsons coefficient of correlation, the value of P lies between +1 and 1. If P = +1, then there is complete agreement in the order of ranks and the direction of the
rank is also the same. When P = -1, then there is complete disagreement in the order of ranks
and they are in opposite directions.
There are two types of problems:
Where ranks are given
Where ranks are not given
(1)

Where ranks are given

When the actual ranks are given, the following are the steps to be followed in
calculating rank correlation coefficient.
Step 1: Compute the difference of the two ranks ( R1 and R2 ) and denote by D.

D2 .

Step 2: Square the D and get

Step 3: Substitute the figures in the formula.

Example
Following are the rank obtained by 10 students in two subjects, Statistics and
Mathematics. To what extent the knowledge of the students in the two subjects is related?

Statistics

10

Mathematics

10

142

Solution
Rank of Statistics
(x)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Rank of
Mathematics (y)
2
4
1
5
3
9
7
10
6
8

Therefore, rank correlation P 1

D=x-y
-1
-2
2
-1
2
-3
0
-2
3
2

1
4
4
1
4
9
0
4
9
4
D 2 = 40

D2

N ( N 2 1)

=1

6 40
10 (10 2 1)

=1

240
10( 100 1)

=1

D2

240
990

= 1 0.24 = + 0.76
(2)

Where ranks are not given

When no rank is given, but actual data are given, then the ranks must be given.
Ranks are given by taking the highest as 1 or lowest value as 1, next to the highest
(lowest) as 2 and follow the same procedure for both variables.

Example
A random sample of 5 college students is selected and their grades in Mathematics and
Statistics are found to be:
1

Mathematics

85

60

73

40

99

Statistics

93

75

65

50

80

Calculate Spearmans rank correlation coefficient.

143

Solution
Marks in
Mathematics
(X)
85
60
73
40
90

Ranks (x)

2
4
3
5
1

Therefore, rank correlation

Marks in
Statistics
(Y)
93
75
65
50
80

Ranks (y)

Difference
D=x-y

1
3
4
5
2

1
1
-1
0
-1

1
1
1
0
1
D2 = 4

D2

P 1

D2

N ( N 2 1)

=1

6 4
5(5 2 1)

=1

24
5 24

=1

4
5

= 1 0.2
= + 0.8
Equal or repeated ranks
When two or more items have equal value, it is difficult to rank them. In that case, the
items are given the average of the ranks they would have received, if they are not tied. For
example, if two individuals are placed in seventh place they are each given the rank
7 8
2

7.5 which is the common rank to be assigned and the next will be 9 and if three are

ranked equal at the seventh place, they are given the rank

7 8 9
3

8 which is the common

rank to be assigned to each and the next rank will be 10, in this case. The formula is

D2
P 1 6

1 3
1 3
m m
m
12
12
N ( N 2 1)

144

Example
From the following data, calculate the rank correlation coefficient after making
adjustment for tied ranks.
X

48

33

40

16

16

65

24

16

57

13

13

24

15

20

19

Solution

5.5

Difference
D=x-y
2.5

6.25

13

5.5

0.5

0.25

24

10

-3

9.00

2.5

-1.5

2.25

16

15

16.00

16

4.00

65

10

20

1.00

24

1.00

16

2.5

0.5

0.25

57

19

1.00

Rank (x)

Rank (y)

48

13

33

40

D2

D 2 = 41

D2
Therefore, P 1 6

41
1 6

1 6

1 3
m
12

1 3
3
12

1 3
m m
12
N ( N 2 1)

1 3
2 2
12
10(102 1)

41 2 0.5 0.5
990

145

1 3
2
12

1 3
m
12

264
990

= 1 0.267
= + 0.733
Merits
1. It is simple to understand and easy to calculate.
2. It is very useful in the case of data which are of qualitative nature, like intelligence,
honesty, beauty, efficiency, etc.
3. No other method can be used when the ranks are given, except this.
4. When the actual data are given, this method can also be applied.
Demerits
1. It cannot be used in the case of bi-variate distribution.
2. If the number of items is greater than, say 30, the calculation becomes tedious and
requires a lot of time. If we are given the ranks, then we can apply this method even
though N exceeds 30.

Regression Analysis
In Correlation, two variables are related and are studied in terms of existing casual
relationship between the two variables. However, we may be also interested in estimating or
predicting the value of one variable given the value of another. For example, if we know that
advertising and sales are correlated, we may find out the expected amount of sales for a given
advertising expenditure or the required amount of expenditure for attaining a given amount of
sales. Similarly, if we know that the yield of rice and rainfall are closely related, we may find
out the amount of rain required to achieve a certain production figure. Statistical tool with the
help of which we are in a position to estimate the unknown values of one variable is called
regression. Thus regression reveals the average relationship between two variables and this
makes possible estimation or prediction.
Definition
According to Blair, Regression is the measure of the average relationship between two
or more variable in terms of the original units of the data.

146

According to Taro Yamane, One of the most frequently used techniques in economics
and business research, to find a relation between two or more variable that are related casually,
is regression analysis.
According to Wallis and Robert, It is often more important to find out what the
relation actually is, in order to estimate or predict one variable (the dependent variable), and
statistical technique appropriate in such a case is called Regression Analysis.
According to Y-Lun-Chow, Regression analysis is a statistical device. With the help
of the regression analysis, we can estimate or predict the unknown values of one variable from
the known values of another variable. In the regression analysis, the independent variable is
also known as the regressor or predictor or explanatory and the dependent variable is
known as regressed or explained variable.
Uses of Regression Analysis
1. Regression analysis is used in statistics in all those fields where two or more
relative variables are having the tendency to go back to the average. It is used more
than the correlation analysis in many scientific studies. It is widely used in social
sciences like economics, natural and physical sciences. It is used to estimate the
relation between two economic variables like income and expenditure. Thus it is
highly valuable tool in economics and business. Most of the economics are based
on cause and effect relationship. It is very useful for prediction purposes.
In business also, it is very helpful to study business predictions. Cost of production
is affected by the sale of production. Economists have discovered many predictions
and theories on the basis of the regression.
2. Regression analysis predicts the value of dependent variables from the values of
independent variables.
3. The regression analysis is highly useful and the regression line equation helps to
estimates the value of dependent variable, when the values of independent variables
are used in the equation.
4. We can calculate coefficient of correlation (r) and coefficient of determination
( r 2 ) with the help of regression coefficient.
5. Regression analysis in statistical estimation of demand curves, supply curves,
production function, cost function, consumption functions etc., can be predicted.

147

Correlation and Regression

The difference between correlation and regression are:
Sl.No.
Correlation
1.
Correlation is the relationship
between two or more variable,
which vary in sympathy with the
other in the same or the opposite
direction.
2.
Both the variables x and y are
random variables.
3.

4.

5.

6.
7.

8.
9.

10.

Regression
Regression means going back and it is a
mathematical measure showing the average
relationship between two variables.

Here x is the random variable and y is a

fixed variable.
Sometimes both the
variables may be random variables.
It finds out the degree of It indicates the cause and effect relationship
relationship
between
two between the variables and establishes a
variables and not the cause and function relationship.
the effect of the variable.
It is used for testing and verifying Besides verification, it is used for the
the relation between two variables prediction of one value, in relationship to
and gives limited information.
the other given value.
The coefficient of correlation is a Regression coefficient is an absolute figure.
relative measure. The range of If we know the value of the independent
relationship lies between 1.
variable, we can find the value of the
dependent variable.
There
may
be
nonsense In regression there is no such nonsense
correlation between two variables. regression.
It has limited application, because It has wider application, as it studies linear
it is confined only to linear and non-linear relationship between the
relationship
between
the variables.
variables.
It is not very useful for further It is widely used for further mathematical
mathematical treatment.
treatment.
If the coefficient of correlation is The regression coefficient explains that the
positive, then the two variables decrease in one variable is associated with
are positives correlated and vice the increase in the other variable.
versa.
It is immaterial whether X There is a functional relationship between
depends upon Y or Y depends the two variables so that we may identify
upon X.
between the independent and dependent
variables.

Regression Line
In the graphical jargon, a regression line is a straight line fitted to the data by the
method of least squares. It indicates the best possible mean value of one variable
corresponding to the mean value of the other. Since a regression line is the line of best fit, it

148

cannot be used conversely: therefore, there are always two regression lines constructed for
the relationship between two variables, say, X and Y. Thus, one regression line shows
regression of X upon Y, and the other shows the regression of Y upon X.
Regression Equations
Regression equation is an algebraic method. It is an algebraic expression of the
regression line. It can be classified into regression equation, regression coefficient, individual
observation and group distribution.
Regression Equation of X on Y
Regression equation of X on Y is given by
X = a + b Y.
To find out the values of a and b, the following equations, called normal equations, can be
used.

Y
XY

Na b
a

X
2

X .

Regression Equation of Y on X
Regression equation of Y on X is given by
Y = a + b X.
To find out the values of a and b, the following equations, called normal equations, can
be used.

X
XY

Na b
a

Y
b

Y .

Example
A librarian wants to find out a suitable criteria a convenient measure to fix the
monthly wages of, let us say semi-professionals working in the library. He collects the data
about seven such semi-professionals as to their present monthly income and their years of
service.
Years of
service(X)
Income
(Y)
(in 100s)

11

10

10

11

149

Solution
Regression Equation of Income (Y) on Years of service (X) :
Regression equation of Y on X is given by
..(A)

Y= a + b X.
X

X2

Y2

XY

11

10

121

100

110

49

64

56

81

36

54

25

25

25

64

81

72

36

49

42

10

11

100

121

110

X = 56

Y =56

Y 2 = 476

X 2 = 476

XY = 469

To find a and b:
The normal equations are

Na b

XY

X
X

X .

Here, the number of observations N = 7.

Substituting the values from the table, we have
56 = 7a + 56b

(1)

469 = 56a + 476b

(2)

Multiplying both sides of the equation (1) by 8, we get

448 = 56a + 448b

(3)

Subtracting the equation (3) from the equation (2), we get

21 = 28b

21
= 0.75
28

b = 0.75

Substituting the value of b, in equation (1), we get

56 = 7a + 56
= 7a + 42

150

0.75

This implies,

56 42 = 7a
14 = 7a
a

14
=2
7

a=2

Substituting the values of a and b in the regression equation (A), we get

Y=a+bX
Y = 2 + 0.75 X

(4)

Suppose the Librarian wants to find out the wage for a semi-professional whose service is 13
years, then X = 13 .
Therefore, substituting X = 13 in equation (4), we have
Y = 2 + 0.75 13
Y = 2 + 9.75
Y = 11.75
Hence, the wage to be fixed = 11.75 Rs.100
= Rs.1175.00
Similarly, the Librarian can use this method to predict the years of service, when he
knows the income a particular semi-professional using the regression equation of X on Y.
Further, it can be used to prepare the budget, estimate the number of users in future.

CHAPTER X

Research Report Writing

Preparation and presentation of the research report is the most important part of the
research process. The purpose of a research is to find out the truth or some thing new, and
make it known to others who are interested. Reporting of the research is the final step in the
process of research. A research report is a detailed description of what has been done and
how it has been done with respect to a research.
The purpose of the report is to convey to the interested persons the whole result of the
study in detail and so arranged as to enable each reader to comprehend the data and to
determine for himself the validity of the conclusion.

151

Need for Research Report

Research is not restricted to an institution, community, group or society. Hence, it
should be exhibited in such a way that any reader will be interested in it to foster his
knowledge.

Research reports are added to their concerned subject literature and stored

properly for future timely retrieval. Scientists need to communicate with other so that the
research experience is to reach its target users. Its aim is the dissemination of knowledge and
helping further research. The new findings, new methods or new data are made known through
reports. The report may help a researcher by some new light, leading to new hypothesis and
new theories.
Target Users
While writing research report, it is essential to keep in mind the level of knowledge of
the readers. Those who are find more useful of the results of the particular research named as
target users. Target users for any research report may be any of the following:
1. Academic community
2. Sponsors of research
3. General public
While writing the report it is essential to keep in mind the level of the readers,
experience and the interest of the target audience.
Types of Research Reports
Depending upon the users, the research report may be divided into two categories.
These are as follows.
1. Technical Report
2. Popular Report
Technical Report:
It is generally intended for other researchers or for research managers. The report
should enable another researcher to critique methodology, check calculations and accuracy and
to follow everything which is done on a step-by-step basis.
Popular Report:
The popular report is intended for more general audience. Compared to the technical
report, the presentation will be more attention to headlines, flow diagrams, charts, tables and
summaries for the purpose of stressing major points.

152

Guidelines for Writing a Report

While writing a report, the following guidelines may be considered for good report.
Consider the Audience:
Make the report clear; use only words familiar to the readers and define all technical
terms. To make the comparison of figures easier, use percentages, rounded off figures, ranks or
ratios; put the exact data in a table within the text or in the appendix. Use graphic aids
wherever they help clarify the presentation of data.
Address of the Information Needs:
Remember the research report is designed to communicate information to decision
makers. Make sure that it clearly relates the research findings to the objectives of the research
Be Concise, Yet complete:
Most of the supervisors are not to read about the details of a research report. It is
difficult task what to include and what to leave out.

So, the researcher should provide

necessary items while writing the reports.

Be Objective:
The findings may be conflict with the practical experience. In these circumstances, the
researcher may present the findings in an objective manner without bias.

Contents and form of reporting

The contents and the form of reporting may not be the same for all the target audience.
According to Wilkinson and Bhandarkar, a research report for an academic community, should
have the following contents.
1. the statement of the problem with which the study is concerned
2. the research procedures:
a. the study design
b. the method of manipulating the independent variables
c. the universe and nature of the sample
d. data collection techniques
e. method of statistical analysis
3. the results of major findings
4. the implications of research results for theory and practice

153

The above format gives the minimum requirements of a research report and does not give
comprehensive coverage to all aspects in research reporting.
Shah gives the comprehensive list of Contents for a research report as shown below:
a. Title page
b. Foreword
c. Table of Contents
d. Introduction
e. Identification, selection and formulation of the problem
f. Research design and data collection
g. Data processing and analysis
h. Findings
i. Summary
j. Appendices
k. Bibliographical references
Out of the many more prescriptions available for research reporting, the prescriptions of
Shah is more comprehensive list of contents, though he himself states that, this is only a brief
indication of the organization of various items to be included.
The united Nations Statistical Office has suggested the following major topics should
contain in the research report:
A. Introduction
1. Clear-cut statement as to the nature of the study
2. Aims
3. Sources of information
4. Scope of the study
B. Brief statement of the working hypothesis
C. Definitions of units of study
D. Brief statement of the techniques followed in the study
1. types of observation used and conditions under which observations were made
2. types of schedules formulated and conditions under which information was secured
3. types of case history secured; their sources, manner of presentation and preliminary
analysis made

154

4. sampling procedures and conditions of selection and testing for appropriateness,

representative ness and errors
5. statistical procedures, sources of statistical data, conditions under which they were
obtained
6. types of scaling techniques used
E. Brief description of experimental treatment of data and techniques used in experiments
F. Major findings of the study
G. Major conclusions reached
H. Special remarks. These are as follows:
1. problems encountered in gathering data, classifying them and analyzing them
2. possible discrepancies in the data collected
3.

suggestions for further research

I. Bibliographical references with annotation

J. Appendices:
1. Sample questionnaires
2. Transcription sheets
3. Sample interview etc
The above three outlines give you a fairly good idea of the components of a good research
report. In addition to that, there are some techniques such as the way of presentation, style of
writing and the spirit with which it is presented.
Components of reporting
Introduction:
Usually, introduction contains a brief narration about the organization of the materials in
the report. The readers are briefly introduced to the research problem, its scope, its theoretical
and practical importance etc
Materials and methods:
Any investigation is necessary employed a suitable method. Choice of a suitable method
is one of the responsible in the research design. This is the primary importance in reporting the
research. Full details regarding materials and methods should be given. The main purpose of
materials and methods may provide enough details to another competent worker. Sources
should be listed and special characteristics such as age, sex, genetic and physiological status

155

should be described. The methodology adopted for social investigations should be given
elaborately.
Style of Writing:
The basic qualities of good scientific writing are accuracy and clarity. The following
points should be remembered while writing the report
1. Write clearly. Sentences must be simple. Avoid complicated sentences. Writing long
paragraph should be avoided. Appropriate subheadings should be provided wherever
necessary
2. Defined scientific terms and use them consistently. The target audience and their
knowledge of technical terms should be considered
3. Adequate attention should be paid to use the correct spelling and grammar
4. As far as possible, present tense should be used
5. Direct and positive sentences should be used. Long, technical or unusual words or
phrases should be avoided
6. All chapters and sections, subsections, tables, diagrams and charts should be labeled
adequately.
7. Use footnotes and labeled serially.
Construction of Tables
In a research report, it is necessary to arrange and present the data in a certain logical
manner. The collected data must be edited, coded and checked so as to develop arrays of
values particularly for variables. Tabulation is an art of arranging the data in columns and rows
in such a way as to facilitate comparison of data and show the relationships between them
graphically. It is a great help in analysis and interpretation of data. There are two types of
tables.
1. General purpose table
2. Special purpose table
A general purpose table is a large amount of data presented in an easily accessible
convenient form. The repository tables, original tables, primary tables and reference tables are
come under this category. A census report is a good example of a general purpose table.
A special purpose table is a secondary table derived from the general purpose table. The
data of a special purpose table may be grouped, averaged, rounded, and derived for the purpose

156

of classification and emphasis. These tables are known as presentation tables, analytical
summary tables, interpretive, derivative or secondary tables are come under this category.
Format of a Table
A good statistical table is an art. The following parts must be present in all tables.
1. Table number
2. Title
3. Head note
4. Caption
5. Stubs
6. Body of the table
7. Foot-note
8. Source-note
Table number: A table should always be numbered for identification and reference in
the future. Each column should also be numbered as shown in the illustration.
Title of the table: Each table should be given a suitable title. It must be written on the
top of table. It must describe the contents of the table. It must explain
1. what the data are
2. where the data are
3. time or period of data
4. how the data are classified etc
Head note: It is a statement, given below the title and enclosed in brackets. For example,
the unit of measurement is written as a head-note, such as in millions or in crores.
Captions: These are headings for the vertical columns. They must be brief and selfexplanatory. They have main heading and sub-headings are wider than columns.
Stubs: These are the headings or designation for the horizontal rows. Stubs are wider
than columns.
Body of the title: It contains the numerical information. It is the most important part of
the table. The arrangement in the body is generally from left to right in rows and from top to
bottom in columns.
Foot-note: If any explanation or elaboration regarding any item is necessary, foot notes
should be given.

157

Source-note: It refers to the source from where information has been taken. It is useful to
the reader to check the figures and gather additional information.
STRUCTURE OF A TABLE
Number
Title
(Head-note if any)
Caption
Stub Heading

Col. Heading Col. Heading Col. Heading

Total

Stub entries

Body
Total

Foot-note: Source
General Rules for Tabulation
1. The table should be simple and compact. It should not be overloaded with details.
2. The captions and stubs in the tables should be arranged in a systematic manner. It
must be easy to read the important items. There are many types. They are
alphabetical, chronological, geographical, conventional etc.
3.

It should suit the purpose of investigation.

4. The unit of measurement should be clearly defined and given in the tables; for
example, height in metres, weight in kilograms, etc.
5. figures may be rounded off to avoid unnecessary details in the table. But a foot-note
must be given to this effect.
6. Suitable approximation may be adopted.
7. A miscellaneous column should be added to include unimportant items.
8. A table should be complete and self-explanatory.
9. A table should be attractive to draw the attention of readers.
10. As it forms a basis for statistical analysis, it should be accurate and free from all sorts
of errors.

158

11. Abbreviations should be avoided.

12. Do not use ditto marks that may be mistaken.
13. Proper lettering will help to adjust the size of the tables.
14. If it is a big table, it will lose its simplicity and understandability; and in such a case
break it into two or three tables.
Pictorial representation
Most commonly used pictorial devices are as follows.
1. Bar Charts
2. Line Charts (Histogram), Frequency Polygons, and Curves.
3. Segmental representation such as pie charts and component bar charts.
4. Pictographs.
Check list for Tables
1. Is the warranted?
2. Have the data been checked?
3. Does the table follow its mention in the text?
4. Should the table be included in the text or appendix?
5. Are tables numbered consecutively?
6. Are sufficient details given to interpret the table?
7. Is the table caption sufficiently detailed?
8. Does the wording of the caption correspond to that given in the list of Tables?
9. Has a consistent format been used for all tables?
10. Is the wording for the Stub box head contained in the table caption?
11. Are units of measurement stated?
12. Are abbreviations explained in the table?
13. Could able be presented more simply?
14. Are column entries correctly aligned?
15. Is footnote usage consistent?
16. Is the top of sidewise presented tables at the binding edge?
17. Is the table correctly positioned on the page?
Discussion, Interpretation and Generalization

159

The final stage of discussing, interpreting, and generalizing the findings follows that of
analyzing data and reporting in the appropriate and tabular and/or pictorial forms. It is not
usual and perhaps even not desirable to strictly compartmentalize these closely related 3
operations.
Interpretation and generalization of findings otherwise called conclusions and
recommendations summarize the data so as to yield answers to the research questions. The
conclusions should be logical and clear. Readers should not be left to infer their own
conclusions.
Implications and Suggestions for further Research
Research stimulated by theoretical considerations may lead to new theoretical issues.
This is in turn may lead to further research. Keeping this in mind, attempt should be made to
spell out the implications of the findings and research necessary for further test.
Proof Reading
Your manuscript may be neat and perfect but it is the typed or printed version that counts.
If the final printed report contains serious (Syntax and Semantics) your reputation may suffer a
heavy damage. Sometimes a wrong punctuation or a missing letter may change the meaning of
the concept. The word burrow means a hole in the ground. If you dont add w at the end,
burro means an ass. Hence proof reading is considered more important in the process of
research reporting.
Marking Corrections
Corrections should be twice, once at the point where it occurs and the other in the margin
opposite where it occurs. It is the margin marks that a typist/printer works to identify the
errors.
#

Leave space

trs.

Transpose (Change the prder of letters, words and sentences)

delt

delete (omit) letter, word, line etc.,

To bring letters or words together (join together)

N.P/F.P/P.

Next para/New para/paragraph

Stet (-)

Let is stand

L.C.

Change to small letter/Lower case

U.C.

Change to capital letter/Upper case

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Rom.fig.

Roman figure

Cap./Caps.

Capital/Capitals CHENNAI

Insert letter, word, figure etc.,

Sp.

Spelling

Insert fullstop

Insert double quotes

(-)/

Insert hyphen

The

Conclusion
The ultimate aim of any research may find out solutions to problems or to find out the
truth. But, of course, communication is the goal of research reporting. A poorly reported
research result may be misinterpreted and may go unnoticed. Hence, reporting should follow as
well as establish a definite standard. The grammar of research reporting discussed above
should able to give proper guidance. The papers on various aspects of research in the previous
should be supplementary to and complement this chapter.

Questions for Revision

1. Explain the Logic of Scientific Method.
2. Write an essay on case study.
3. What are the sources and factors influencing selection of a research problem?
4. Define hypothesis. Describe the formulation of hypothesis.
5. Emphasize the relevance of observation method in library science research.
6. Explain the techniques of report writing.
7. Discuss briefly various sampling techniques.
8. Define Correlation and explain the various types of correlation.
9. Explain the Measures of Central Tendency.
10. Define the Research Design and their importance.
11. Write Short notes:
a. Interview method
b. Regression Scatter
c. Mean, Median, Mode
d. Case Study

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e. Statistical Survey
f. Questionnaire method
g. Experimental design.

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