Urban Design - Streets

Manual for Streets
Manual for Streets

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Contents
Foreword 6
Preface 7
Section A 1 Introduction 10
Context
and 2 Streets in context 14
process
3 The design process - from policy to implementation 22
Section B 4 Layout and connectivity 40

Design
principles 5 Quality places 50
Section C 6 Street users’ needs 62

Detailed
design 7 Street geometry 78
issues
8 Parking 98
9 Traffic signs and markings 114
10 Street furniture and street lighting 120
11 Materials, adoption and maintenance 126
Index 138
Acknowledgements
Project team Additional consultation and advice

Manual for Streets was produced by a team led by consultants Additional consultation took place with the following:
WSP, with Llewelyn Davies Yeang (LDY), Phil Jones Associates Mark Ainsworth (George Wimpey), John Barrell (Jacobs Consultancy),
(PJA) and TRL Limited on behalf of the Department for Transport, Terry Brown (GMW Architects), Hywel Butts (Welsh Assembly
and Communities and Local Government. Government), David Coatham (Institution of Lighting Engineers),
Mike Darwin (Leeds City Council), Adrian Lord (Arup /
The core team comprised (all lists in alphabetical order): Cycling England), Kevin Pearson (Avon Fire & Rescue Service),
• Annabel Bradbury (TRL) Michael Powis (Nottinghamshire Police), Gary Kemp (Disabled
• Andrew Cameron (WSP) Persons Transport Advisory Committee), Malcolm Lister
• Ben Castell (LDY) (London Borough of Hounslow)
• Phil Jones (PJA)
• Tim Pharoah (LDY), In addition to those already listed, substantial comments
• Stuart Reid (TRL) on drafts of the manual were received from:
• Alan Young – Project Manager, (WSP) Duncan Barratt (West Sussex County Council), Neil Benison
(Warwickshire County Council), Daniel Black (Sustrans),
With additional research and assistance by: Rob Carmen (Medway Council), Greg Devine
Sam Carman (WSP), Tom Ewings (TRL), Una McGaughrin (LDY) (Surrey County Council), John Emslie (MVA Consultancy),
Peter O’Brien (LDY), Ross Paradise (TRL), Christianne Strubbe Heather Evans (Cyclists’ Touring Club), David Groves (Cornwall
(Hampshire County Council), Iain York (TRL) County Council), Steve Mead (Derbyshire County Council),
Christine Robinson (Essex County Council), Mick Sankus
Graphic design by Llewelyn Davies Yeang (Ros Shakibi, (Medway Council), Mike Schneider (North Somerset Borough
Ting LamTang and Thanh Tung Uong, with artwork Council), Graham Paul Smith (Oxford Brookes University),
by Alexandra Steed) and overseen by Fiona Webb (Mid Bedfordshire District Council), Bob White
Ela Ginalska (Department for Transport) (Kent County Council)
Steering group Case studies

The Project Steering Group included: A number of case studies were investigated in the compilation
Bob Bennett (Planning Officers Society), Edward Chorlton if the Manual. These are listed below, along with the
(Devon County Council), Vince Christie (Local Government individuals who provided assistance:
Association), Wayne Duerden (Department for Transport) • Beaulieu Park, Chelmsford:
Louise Duggan (Commission for Architecture and the Built Sarah Hill-Sanders, Chelmsford Borough Council
Environment), Ray Farrow (Home Builders’ Federation) Chris Robinson, Essex County Council
George Hazel (Urban Design Alliance), Ed Hobson (Commission for • Charlton Down, Dorset:
Architecture and the Built Environment), Gereint Killa Stephen Hardy, Dorset County Council
(Department for Transport), Grahame Lawson (Disabled Persons Ian Madgwick, Dorset County Council
Transport Advisory Committee), Spencer Palmer (Department for • Crown Street, Glasgow:
Transport), John Smart (Institution of Highways and Transportation), Elaine Murray, Glasgow City Council
Larry Townsend (Communities and Local Government), Mic Ralph, Glasgow City Council
Polly Turton (Commission for Architecture and the Built Stephen Rigg, CZWG Architects
Environment), David Williams (Department for Transport), • Darwin Park, Lichfield:
Mario Wolf (Communities and Local Government), Steve Clarke, Staffordshire County Council
Philip Wright (Health & Safety Executive) Ian Thompson, Lichfield District Council
• Hulme, Manchester:
Sounding board Kevin Gillham, Manchester City Council
Further advice was received from an invited Sounding Board Brian Kerridge, Manchester City Council
consisting of: • Limehouse Fields, Tower Hamlets:
Tony Aston (Guide Dogs for the Blind Association), David Balcombe Angelina Eke, Tower Hamlets Borough Council
(Essex County Council), Peter Barker (Guide Dogs for the Blind John Hilder, Tower Hamlets Borough Council
Association), Richard Button (Colchester Borough Council) • New Hall, Harlow:
Jo Cleary (Friends of the Lake District), Meredith Evans (Borough of Alex Cochrane, Roger Evans Associates
Telford & Wrekin Council), Tom Franklin (Living Streets), Keith Lawson, Essex County Council
Jenny Frew (English Heritage), Stephen Hardy (Dorset County Mriganka Saxena, Roger Evans Associates
Council), Richard Hebditch (Living Streets), Ian Howes (Colchester • Pirelli site, Eastleigh:
Borough Council), Andrew Linfoot (Halcrow), Peter Lipman Dave Francis, Eastleigh Borough Council
(Sustrans), Ciaran McKeon (Dublin Transport Office), Elizabeth Moon, Eric Reed, Eastleigh Borough Council
(Essex County Council), Nelia Parmaklieva (Colchester Borough • Queen Elizabeth Park, Guildford:
Council), Mark Sackett (RPS), Paul Sheard (Leicestershire David Barton, Guildford Borough Council
County Council), Alex Sully (Cycling England), Carol Thomas David Taylor, Surrey County Council
(Guide Dogs for the Blind Association), Andy Yeomanson • Staithes South Bank, Gateshead:
(Leicestershire County Council), Emily Walsh (Solihull Metropolitan Alastair Andrew, Gateshead Council
Borough Council), Leon Yates (London Borough of Lewisham) Andy Szandrowski, Gateshead Council
Manual for Streets

Status and application
Manual for Streets (MfS) supersedes Design MfS does not apply to the trunk road network.
Bulletin 32 and its companion guide Places, The design requirements for trunk roads are
Streets and Movement, which are now set out in the Design Manual for Roads and
withdrawn in England and Wales. It complements Bridges (DMRB).
Planning Policy Statement 3: Housing and
Planning Policy Wales. MfS comprises technical MfS only applies formally in England and Wales.
guidance and does not set out any new policy or
legal requirements. The policy, legal and technical frameworks
are generally the same in England and Wales,
MfS focuses on lightly-trafficked residential but where differences exist these are made clear.
streets, but many of its key principles may be
applicable to other types of street, for example
high streets and lightly-trafficked lanes in rural
areas. It is the responsibility of users of MfS
to ensure that its application to the design of
streets not specifically covered is appropriate.
Manual for Streets

Foreword
Streets are the arteries of our communities – network, well defined public and private spaces,
a community’s success can depend on how well and streets that can be used in safety by a wide
it is connected to local services and the wider range of people. We also understand the benefits
world. However, it is all too easy to forget that of ensuring that the different functions of streets
streets are not just there to get people from are integral to their design from the outset. But
A to B. In reality, streets have many other we need to do more to recognise the role that
functions. They form vital components of streets play in the life of a community, particularly
residential areas and greatly affect the overall the positive opportunities that they can bring
quality of life for local people. for social interaction. To achieve this we need
strong leadership and clear vision. Importantly, we
Places and streets that have stood the test need to tackle climate change, and helping and
of time are those where traffic and other encouraging people to choose more sustainable
activities have been integrated successfully, ways of getting around will be key.
and where buildings and spaces, and the needs
of people, not just of their vehicles, shape the Manual for Streets explains how to respond to
area. Experience suggests that many of the these issues. Although it does not set out new
street patterns built today will last for hundreds policy or legislation, it shows how the design
of years. We owe it to present and future of residential streets can be enhanced. It also
generations to create well-designed places that advises on how street design can help create
will serve the needs of the local community well. better places – places with local distinctiveness
and identity. In addition, it establishes a common
In 2003, we published detailed research1 which reference point for all those involved in the
demonstrated that the combined effect of the design of residential neighbourhoods.
existing policy, legal and technical framework
was not helping to generate consistently good This publication represents a strong Government
quality streets. Without changes this framework and Welsh Assembly commitment to the creation
was holding back the creation of the sustainable of sustainable and inclusive public spaces. We
residential environments that communities need hope that everyone who plays a part in making
and deserve. and shaping the built environment will embrace
its principles to help deliver places that work for
As a society, we have learned to appreciate communities now, and in the future.
the value of a clear and well-connected street
1 DfT, ODPM (July 2003)

Better Streets, Better
Places – Delivering
Sustainable Residential Gillian Merron MP Baroness Andrews OBE Tamsin Dunwoody AM
Environments: PPG3 Transport Minister Parliamentary Under Deputy Minister for Enterprise,
and Highway Adoption.
London: ODPM.
Secretary of State Innovation and Networks
Communities and Local Deputy Minister for Environment,
Government Planning & Countryside
Manual for Streets

Preface
Manual for Streets (MfS) replaces Design the environment. MfS addresses these points,
Bulletin 32, first published in 1977, and its recommending revised key geometric design
companion guide Places, Streets and Movement. criteria to allow streets to be designed as places
It puts well-designed residential streets at the in their own right while still ensuring that road
heart of sustainable communities. safety is maintained.
For too long the focus has been on the MfS is clear that uncoordinated decision-making
movement function of residential streets. The can result in disconnected, bland places that
result has often been places that are dominated fail to make a contribution to the creation
by motor vehicles to the extent that they fail to of thriving communities. It recommends that
make a positive contribution to the quality of development teams are established to negotiate
life. MfS demonstrates the benefits that flow issues in the round and retain a focus on the
from good design and assigns a higher priority to creation of locally distinct, high-quality places.
pedestrians and cyclists, setting out an approach Where high levels of change are anticipated,
to residential streets that recognises their role in designers and other stakeholders are encouraged
creating places that work for all members of the to work together strategically from an early
community. MfS refocuses on the place function stage. MfS also recommends the use of tools
of residential streets, giving clear guidance on such as masterplans and design codes.
how to achieve well-designed streets and spaces
that serve the community in a range of ways. Neighbourhoods where buildings, streets and
spaces combine to create locally distinct places
MfS updates the link between planning policy and which make a positive contribution to the
and residential street design. It challenges some life of local communities need to become more
established working practices and standards that widespread. MfS provides a clear framework
are failing to produce good-quality outcomes, for the use of local systems and procedures;
and asks professionals to think differently about it also identifies the tools available to ensure
their role in creating successful neighbourhoods. that growth and change are planned for and
It places particular emphasis on the importance managed in an integrated way. The aspirations
of collaborative working and coordinated of MfS – interdisciplinary working, strategic
decision-making, as well as on the value of coordination and balanced decision making –
strong leadership and a clear vision of design will only become a reality if they are developed
quality at the local level. and applied at a local level. This is already
happening in some places, and the results are
Research carried out in the preparation of promising – this document aims to make the
Manual for Streets indicated that many of the adoption of such practice the norm.
criteria routinely applied in street design are
based on questionable or outdated practice. MfS does not set out new policy or introduce
For example, it showed that, when long forward new additional burdens on local authorities,
visibility is provided and generous carriageway highway authorities or developers. Rather
width is specified, driving speeds tend to it presents guidance on how to do things
increase. This demonstrates that driver behaviour differently within the existing policy, technical
is not fixed; rather, it can be influenced by and legal framework.
Manual for Streets

A
Context and process
Countryside Properties

1
Introduction
Chapter aims
• Set out the aims of Manual for Streets.
• Explain the status of Manual for Streets
and its relationship with local design
standards and the Design Manual for
Countryside Properties
Roads and Bridges.
• Promote greater collaboration between
all those involved in the design, approval
and adoption processes.
Figure 1.1 Streets should be attractive places that
• Summarise key changes from previous meet the needs of all users.
guidance.
on meeting the needs of pedestrians, cyclists and

1.1 Aims of the document public transport users, so that growth in these
modes of travel is encouraged (Fig. 1.1).
1.1.1 There is a need to bring about a
transformation in the quality of streets. This
requires a fundamental culture change in the 1.1.5 MfS aims to assist in the creation of
way streets are designed and adopted, including streets that:
a more collaborative approach between the design • help to build and strengthen the
professions and other stakeholders. People need communities they serve;
to think creatively about their various roles in • meet the needs of all users, by embodying
the process of delivering streets, breaking away the principles of inclusive design (see box);
from standardised, prescriptive, risk-averse • form part of a well-connected network;
methods to create high-quality places. • are attractive and have their own
distinctive identity;
1.1.2 Streets make up the greater part of the • are cost-effective to construct and
public realm. Better-designed streets therefore maintain; and
contribute significantly to the quality of the built • are safe.
environment and play a key role in the creation
of sustainable, inclusive, mixed communities
1 Office of the Deputy
consistent with the policy objectives of Planning The principles of inclusive design
Prime Minister (ODPM)
(2005) Planning Policy Policy Statement 1: Delivering Sustainable Inclusive design:4
Statement 1: Delivering
Sustainable Development.
Development (PPS1)1, Planning Policy Statement • places people at the heart of the design process;
London: The Stationery 3: Housing (PPS3)2 and Planning Policy Wales • acknowledges diversity and difference;
Office (TSO).
2 Communities and Local
(PPW).3 • offers choice where a single solution cannot
Government (2006) accommodate all users;
Planning Policy Statement
3: Housing. London: TSO.
1.1.3 Manual for Streets (MfS) is expected • provides for flexibility in use; and
3 Welsh Assembly to be used predominantly for the design, • provides buildings and environments that are
Government (2002). convenient and enjoyable to use for everyone.
Planning Policy Wales.
construction, adoption and maintenance of new
Cardiff: National Assembly residential streets, but it is also applicable to
for Wales (NAfW).
Chapter 2, Planning for
existing residential streets subject to re-design.
Sustainability. For new streets, MfS advocates a return to more 1.1.6 MfS discourages the building of
4 Commission for
traditional patterns which are easier to assimilate streets that are:
Architecture and the Built
Environment (CABE) into existing built-up areas and which have been • primarily designed to meet the needs of
(2006) The Principles of
proven to stand the test of time in many ways. motor traffic;
Inclusive Design (They
Include You). London: • bland and unattractive;
CABE. (Wales: See
1.1.4 Streets should not be designed just to • unsafe and unwelcoming to pedestrians
also Welsh Assembly
Government (2002). accommodate the movement of motor vehicles. and cyclists;
Technical Advice Note 12:
It is important that designers place a high priority • difficult to serve by public transport; and
Design. Cardiff: NAfW.
Chapter 5, Design Issues.) • poorly designed and constructed (Fig. 1.2).
Manual for Streets 11

1.1.7 For the purposes of this document, a
street is defined as a highway that has important
public realm functions beyond the movement of
traffic. Most critically, streets should have a sense
of place, which is mainly realised through local
distinctiveness and sensitivity in design. They also
provide direct access to the buildings and the
spaces that line them. Most highways in built-up
Andrew Cameron, WSP

areas can therefore be considered as streets.
1.2 Who the manual is for

Figure 1.2 Streets should not be bland and
1.2.1 MfS is directed to all those with a unwelcoming.
part to play in the planning, design, approval
or adoption of new residential streets, and
modifications to existing residential streets. This priorities that can arise. A good design will
includes the following (in alphabetical order): represent a balance of views with any conflicts
• Organisations: resolved through compromise and creativity.
– developers;
– disability and other user groups; 1.3 Promoting joint working
– emergency services;
– highway and traffic authorities; 1.3.1 In the past street design has been
– planning authorities; dominated by some stakeholders at the expense
– public transport providers; of others, often resulting in unimaginatively
– utility and drainage companies; and designed streets which tend to favour motorists
– waste collection authorities. over other users.
• Professions:
– access/accessibility officers; 1.3.2 MfS aims to address this by encouraging
– arboriculturists; a more holistic approach to street design, while
– architects; assigning a higher priority to the needs of
– drainage engineers; pedestrians, cyclists and public transport. The
– highway/traffic engineers; intention is to create streets that encourage
– landscape architects; greater social interaction and enjoyment while still
– local authority risk managers; performing successfully as conduits for movement.
– police architectural liaison officers and
crime prevention officers; 1.3.3 It is important for the various parts of
– road safety auditors; local government to work together when giving
– street lighting engineers; input to a development proposal. Developers may
– town planners; be faced with conflicting requirements if different
– transport planners; parts of local government fail to coordinate their
– urban designers. input. This can cause delay and a loss of design
quality. This is particularly problematic when
1.2.2 These lists are not exhaustive and there one section of a local authority – for example
are other groups with a stake in the design of the highway adoption or maintenance engineers
streets. Local communities, elected members – become involved late on in the process and
and civic groups, in particular, are encouraged to require significant changes to the design. A
make use of this document. collaborative process is required from the outset.
1.2.3 MfS covers a broad range of issues 1.4 DMRB and other design standards
and it is recommended that practitioners read
every section regardless of their specific area of 1.4.1 The Department for Transport does not
interest. This will create a better understanding set design standards for highways – these are set
of the many and, in some cases, conflicting by the relevant highway authority.
12 Manual for Streets

1.4.2 The Secretary of State for Transport is • existing good practice guidance; and
the highway authority for trunk roads in England • consultation with stakeholders and practitioners.
and acts through the Highways Agency (HA).
In Wales the Welsh Assembly Government is the 1.5.1 During its preparation, efforts have
highway authority for trunk roads. The standard been made to ensure that MfS represents a
for trunk roads is the Design Manual for Roads broad consensus and that it is widely accepted
and Bridges (DMRB).5 as good practice.
1.4.3 Some trunk roads could be described 1.6 Changes in approach

as ‘streets’ within the definition given in MfS,
but their strategic nature means that traffic 1.6.1 The main changes in the approach to
movement is their primary function. MfS does street design that MfS recommends are
not apply to trunk roads. as follows:
1.4.4 The DMRB is not an appropriate design • applying a user hierarchy to the design
standard for most streets, particularly those in process with pedestrians at the top;
lightly-trafficked residential and mixed-use areas. • emphasising a collaborative approach to
the delivery of streets;
1.4.5 Although MfS provides guidance on • recognising the importance of the
technical matters, local standards and design community function of streets as spaces for
social interaction;
guidance are important tools for designing
• promoting an inclusive environment that
in accordance with the local context. Many
recognises the needs of people of all ages
local highway authorities have developed their and abilities;
own standards and guidance. Some of these • reflecting and supporting pedestrian desire
documents, particularly those published in recent lines in networks and detailed designs;
years, have addressed issues of placemaking • developing masterplans and preparing
and urban design, but most have not. It is design codes that implement them for
therefore strongly recommended that local larger-scale developments, and using
authorities review their standards and guidance to design and access statements for all
embrace the principles of MfS. Local standards scales of development;
and guidance should focus on creating and • creating networks of streets that provide
permeability and connectivity to main
improving local distinctiveness through the
destinations and a choice of routes;
appropriate choice of layouts and materials while
• moving away from hierarchies of standard
adhering to the overall guidance given in MfS. road types based on traffic flows and/or
the number of buildings served;
1.5 Development of Manual • developing street character types on a
for Streets location-specific basis with reference to
both the place and movement functions
1.5.1 The preparation of MfS was for each street;
recommended in Better Streets, Better Places,6 • encouraging innovation with a flexible
approach to street layouts and the use of
which advised on how to overcome barriers to
locally distinctive, durable and maintainable
the creation of better quality streets. materials and street furniture;
• using quality audit systems that
1.5.2 MfS has been produced as a demonstrate how designs will meet key
collaborative effort involving a wide range of key objectives for the local environment;
5 Highways Agency (1992) stakeholders with an interest in street design.
Design Manual for Roads
• designing to keep vehicle speeds at or
and Bridges. London: It has been developed by a multi-disciplinary below 20 mph on residential streets unless
TSO. team of highway engineers, urban designers, there are overriding reasons for accepting
6 ODPM and Department higher speeds; and
for Transport (2003) Better planners and researchers. The recommendations
Streets, Better Places: contained herein are based on a combination of: • using the minimum of highway design
Delivering Sustainable features necessary to make the streets
Residential Environments; • primary research;
PPG3 and Highway
work properly.
• a review of existing research;
Adoption
London: TSO. • case studies;

2
Streets in context
Andrew Cameron, WSP
4
2.1.2 The key recommendation is that
Chapter aims
increased consideration should be given to
• Explain the distinction between ‘streets’ the ‘place’ function of streets. This approach
and ‘roads’. to addressing the classification of streets
needs to be considered across built-up areas,
• Summarise the key functions of streets.
including rural towns and villages, so that a
• Propose a new approach to defining better balance between different functions
street hierarchies, based on their and street users is achieved.
significance in terms of both place
and movement. 2.2 Streets and roads
• Set out the framework of legislation,
standards and guidance that apply to 2.2.1 A clear distinction can be drawn
the design of streets. between streets and roads. Roads are
essentially highways whose main function
• Provide guidance to highway authorities is accommodating the movement of motor
in managing their risk and liability. traffic. Streets are typically lined with
buildings and public spaces, and while
movement is still a key function, there are
several others, of which the place function
2.1 Introduction is the most important (see ‘Streets – an
historical perspective’ box).
2.1.1 This chapter sets out the overall
framework in which streets are designed,
built and maintained.
Streets – an historical perspective When the regulation of roads and streets

began, spread of fire was the main concern.
Most historic places owe their layout to their Subsequently health came to the forefront and the
original function. Towns have grown up around classic 36 ft wide bye-law street was devised as a
a market place (Fig. 2.1), a bridgehead or a means of ensuring the passage of air in densely
harbour; villages were formed according to the built-up areas. Later, the desire to guarantee that
pattern of farming and the ownership of the sunshine would get to every house led to the
land. The layouts catered mostly for movement requirement for a 70 ft separation between house
on foot. The era of motorised transport and fronts, and this shaped many developments from
especially privately-owned motor vehicles has, the 1920s onwards.
superficially at least, removed the constraint that
kept urban settlements compact and walkable. It was not until after the Second World War,
and particularly with the dramatic increase in car
a
ownership from the 1960s onwards, that traffic
considerations came to dominate road design.
Figure 2.1 Newark: (a) the Market Place, 1774;

Andrew Cameron
and (b) in 2006.

2.2.2 Streets have to fulfil a complex variety 2.2.5 Streets that are good quality places
of functions in order to meet people’s needs as achieve a number of positive outcomes, creating
places for living, working and moving around a virtuous circle:
in. This requires a careful and multi-disciplinary • attractive and well-connected permeable
approach that balances potential conflicts street networks encourage more people
between different objectives. to walk and cycle to local destinations,
improving their health while reducing motor
2.2.3 In the decades following the Second traffic, energy use and pollution;1
World War, there was a desire to achieve a clear • more people on the streets leads to
distinction between two types of highway: improved personal security and road safety
• distributor roads, designed for movement, – research shows that the presence of
where pedestrians were excluded or, at best, pedestrians on streets causes drivers to
marginalised; and travel more slowly;2
• access roads, designed to serve buildings, • people meeting one another on a casual
where pedestrians were accommodated. basis strengthens communities and
This led to layouts where buildings were set in encourages a sense of pride in local
the space between streets rather than on them, environments; and
and where movement on foot and by vehicle was • people who live in good-quality
segregated, sometimes using decks, bridges or environments are more likely to have
subways. Many developments constructed using a sense of ownership and a stake in
such layouts have had significant social problems maintaining the quality of their local streets
and have either been demolished or undergone and public spaces.
major regeneration (Fig. 2.2).
2.2.6 Well-designed streets thus have a
2.2.4 This approach to network planning crucial part to play in the delivery of sustainable
limited multi-functional streets to the most communities, defined as ‘places where people
lightly-trafficked routes. This has led to want to live and work, now and in the future’.3
development patterns where busy distributor
roads link relatively small cells of housing. 2.2.7 Lanes in rural areas can provide other
Such layouts are often not conducive to functions than just movement, including various
anything but the shortest of trips on foot or leisure activities such as walking, cycling and
by bicycle. It is now widely recognised that horse riding.
there are many advantages in extending the
use of multi-functional streets in urban areas
to busier routes.
1 Snellen, D. (1999) The

relationship between
urban form and activity
patterns. In Proceedings
of the European
Transport Conference,
Cambridge, 1999. London:
PTRC. pp. 429–439.
2 ODPM and Home Office
(2004) Safer Places:
The Planning System
and Crime Prevention.
London: TSO.
3 ODPM (2005) Planning
Policy Statement 1:
Delivering Sustainable
Developments. London:
TSO. (Wales: Welsh
Assembly Government
(2002) Planning Policy
Wales. Cardiff: NAfW.) Figure 2.2 A poor-quality space with a layout where pedestrians and vehicles are segregated. It has not been
a success and the area is now undergoing regeneration.

2.3 Principal functions of streets • visual quality; and
• propensity to encourage social activity
2.3.1 Streets have five principal functions; (Fig. 2.3).
• place; These are covered in more detail in Chapters
• movement; 4 and 5.
• access;
• parking; and 2.3.5 The choice of surface materials, planting
• drainage, utilities and street lighting. and street furniture has a large part to play in
These functions are derived from Paving the Way.4 achieving a sense of place. The excessive or
insensitive use of traffic signs and other street
Place furniture has a negative impact on the success of
the street as a place. It is particularly desirable to
2.3.2 The place function is essentially minimise the environmental impact of highway
what distinguishes a street from a road. The infrastructure in rural areas, for example, where
sense of place is fundamental to a richer and excessive lighting and the inappropriate use of
more fulfilling environment. It comes largely kerbing, signs, road markings and street furniture
from creating a strong relationship between can urbanise the environment.
the street and the buildings and spaces that
frame it. The Local Government White Paper5 Movement
makes it clear that, in creating sustainable
communities, local authorities have an 2.3.6 Providing for movement along a
essential and strategic role. street is vital, but it should not be considered
independently of the street’s other functions.
2.3.3 An important principle was established The need to cater for motor vehicles is well
in Places, Streets and Movement6 – when understood by transport planners, but the
planning new developments, achieving a good passage of people on foot and cycle has
place should come before designing street often been neglected. Walking and cycling
alignments, cross-sections and other details. are important modes of travel, offering
Streets should be fitted around significant a more sustainable alternative to the car,
buildings, public spaces, important views, making a positive contribution to the overall
topography, sunlight and microclimate. character of a place, public health and to
tackling climate change through reductions
2.3.4 A sense of place encompasses a number in carbon emissions. Providing for movement
of aspects, most notably the street’s: is covered in more detail in Chapters 6 and 7.
• local distinctiveness;
4 Commission for
Architecture and the Built
Environment (CABE)
and ODPM (2002)
Paving the Way: How
we Achieve Clean, Safe
and Attractive Streets.
London: Thomas Telford
Ltd.
Government (2006)
Strong and Prosperous
Communities: The Local
Government White Paper.
London: TSO.
6 Department for
Environment, Transport
and the Regions (DETR)
(1998) Places, Streets and
Lorraine Farrelly
Movement: A Companion
Guide to Design Bulletin
32 – Residential Roads
and Footpaths. London:
TSO. Figure 2.3 A residential environment showing distinctive character.

2.4 The balance between place
and movement
2.4.1 Of the five functions, place and

movement are the most important in
determining the character of streets.
2.4.2 In the past, road design hierarchies have

been based almost exclusively on the importance
Llewelyn Davies Yeang

attributed to vehicular movement. This has led
to the marginalisation of pedestrians and cyclists
in the upper tiers where vehicular capacity
requirements predominate. The principle that a
Figure 2.4 An example of a sustainable drainage system. road was primarily for motor traffic has tended
to filter down into the design of streets in the
Access bottom tiers of the hierarchy.
2.3.7 Access to buildings and public spaces 2.4.3 This approach has created disjointed
is another important function of streets. patterns of development. High-speed roads
Pedestrian access should be designed for people often have poor provision for pedestrian activity,
of all ages and abilities. cutting residential areas off from each other and
from other parts of a settlement. In addition, the
2.3.8 Providing frontages that are directly hierarchy does not allow for busy arterial streets,
accessible on foot and that are overlooked which feature in most towns and cities.
from the street is highly desirable in most
circumstances as this helps to ensure that streets 2.4.4 Streets should no longer be designed
are lively and active places. The access function by assuming ‘place’ to be automatically
is covered in Chapters 6 and 7. subservient to ‘movement’. Both should be
considered in combination, with their relative
Parking importance depending on the street’s function
within a network. It is only by considering
2.3.9 Parking is a key function of both aspects that the right balance will be
many streets, although it is not always a achieved. It is seldom appropriate to focus
requirement. A well-designed arrangement of solely on one to the exclusion of the other,
on-street parking provides convenient access even in streets carrying heavier volumes of
to frontages and can add to the vitality of a traffic, such as high streets.
street. Conversely, poorly designed parking
can create safety problems and reduce the
2.4.5 Place status denotes the relative
visual quality of a street. Parking is covered
significance of a street, junction or section of a
in more detail in Chapter 8.
street in human terms. The most important places
will usually be near the centre of any settlement
Drainage, utilities and street lighting
or built-up area, but important places will also
exist along arterial routes, in district centres, local
2.3.10 Streets are the main conduits for
centres and within neighbourhoods.
drainage and utilities. Buried services can have
a major impact on the design and maintenance
2.4.6 Movement status can be expressed in
requirements of streets. Sustainable drainage
terms of traffic volume and the importance of
systems can bring environmental benefits,
the street, or section of street, within a network
such as flood control, creating wildlife habitats
– either for general traffic or within a mode-
and efficient wastewater recycling (Fig. 2.4).
specific (e.g. bus or cycle) network. It can vary
Drainage and utilities are covered in Chapter
along the length of a route, such as where a
11, and street lighting is covered in Chapter 10.
street passes through a town centre.

Andrew Cameron, WSP and Bob White, Kent County Council
Motorway
High street
Movement status
Residential street
Place status
Figure 2.5 Typical road and street types in the Place and Movement hierarchy.
2.4.7 Highway authorities assess the relative Place and movement matrix
importance of particular routes within an urban
area as part of their normal responsibilities, such 2.4.9 Defining the relative importance of
as those under the New Roads and Streetworks particular streets/roads in terms of place and
Act 1991.7 One of the network management duties movement functions should inform subsequent
under the Traffic Management Act 20048 is that all design choices. For example:
local traffic authorities should determine specific
policies or objectives for different roads or classes • motorways – high movement function, low
of road in their road network. See also the Network place function;
Management Duties Guidance9 published by • high streets – medium movement function,
the Department for Transport in November 2004 medium to high place function; and
(Wales: guidance published November 200610). This • Residential streets – low to medium
7 New Roads and Street
Works Act 1991. London:
states that it is for the authority to decide the levels movement function, low to medium
TSO. of priority given to different road users on each place function.
8 Traffic Management Act
2004. London: TSO.
road, for example, particular routes may be defined
9 Department for Transport as being important to the response times of the 2.4.10 This way of looking at streets can be
(2004) Network
Management Duties
emergency services. expressed as a two-dimensional hierarchy,11
Guidance. London: TSO. where the axes are defined in terms of place and
10 Welsh Assembly
Government (2006)
2.4.8 Another way of assessing the movement (Fig. 2.5). It recognises that, whilst
Traffic Management movement status of a street is to consider the some streets are more important than others
Act 2004 Network
Management Duty
geographical scale of the destinations it serves. in terms of traffic flow, some are also more
Guidance. Cardiff: NAfW. Here, movement status can range from national important than others in terms of their place
11 The two-dimensional
hierarchy as a way of
networks (including motorways) through to function and deserve to be treated differently.
informing street design city, town, district, neighbourhood and local This approach allows designers to break away
was developed by the EU
project ARTISTS.
networks, where the movement function of from previous approaches to hierarchy, whereby
See www.tft.lth.se/ motor vehicles would be minimal. street designs were only based on traffic
artists/
considerations.

2.4.11 In many situations it will be possible to 2.5.3 Parliament and the courts establish
determine the place status of existing streets the legal framework within which highway
by consulting with the people living there. Such authorities, planning authorities and other
community consultation is encouraged. organisations operate.
2.4.12 In new developments, locations with a 2.5.4 The Government develops policies
relatively high place function would be those aimed at meeting various objectives which
where people are likely to gather and interact local authorities are asked to follow. It also
with each other, such as outside schools, in local issues supporting guidance to help authorities
town and district centres or near parades of implement these policies.
shops. Streets that pass through these areas
need to reflect these aspects of their design, 2.5.5 Within this overall framework highway and
which will have been identified at the planning authorities have considerable leeway
masterplan/scheme design stage. to develop local policies and standards, and to make
technical judgements with regard to how they
2.4.13 Once the relative significance of the are applied. Other bodies also produce advisory
movement and place functions has been and research material that they can draw on.
established, it is possible to set objectives for
particular parts of a network. This will allow the 2.6 Risk and liability
local authority to select appropriate design
criteria for creating new links or for changing 2.6.1 A major concern expressed by some
existing ones. highway authorities when considering more
innovative designs, or designs that are at
2.4.14 Movement and place considerations are variance with established practice, is whether
important in determining the appropriate design they would incur a liability in the event of
speeds, speed limits and road geometry, etc., damage or injury.
along with the level of adjacent development
and traffic composition (see Department for 2.6.2 This can lead to an over-cautious
Transport Circular 01/2006;12 Wales: Welsh Office approach, where designers strictly comply with
Circular 1/199313). guidance regardless of its suitability, and to the
detriment of innovation. This is not conducive to
2.5 Policy, legal and technical context creating distinctive places that help to support
thriving communities.
2.5.1 There is a complex set of legislation,
polices and guidance applying to the design 2.6.3 In fact, imaginative and context-specific
of highways. There is a tendency among some design that does not rely on conventional
designers to treat guidance as hard and fast standards can achieve high levels of safety. The
rules because of the mistaken assumption that design of Poundbury in Dorset, for example, did
12 Department for Transport
(2006) Setting Local to do otherwise would be illegal or counter to a not comply fully with standards and guidance
Speed Limits. Circular stringent policy. This tends to restrict innovation, then extant, yet it has few reported accidents.
01/2006. London: TSO
13 Department for Transport leading to standardised streets with little sense This issue was explored in some detail in the
and Welsh Office (1993) of place or quality. In fact, there is considerable publication Highway Risk and Liability Claims.14
Welsh Office Circular
01/1993. Road Traffic scope for designers and approving authorities to
Regulation Act 1984: adopt a more flexible approach on many issues. 2.6.4 Most claims against highway authorities
Sections 81–85 Local
Speed Limits. Cardiff: relate to alleged deficiencies in maintenance.
Welsh Office. 2.5.2 The following comprise the various tiers The duty of the highway authority to maintain
14 UK Roads Board
(2005) Highway Risk of instruction and advice: the highway is set out in section 41 of the
and Liability Claims • the legal framework of statutes, regulations Highways Act 1980,15 and case law has clarified
– A Practical Guide to
Appendix C of The Roads and case law; the law in this area.
Board Report ‘Well • government policy;
Maintained Highways
– Code of Practice for • government guidance;
Highway Maintenance • local policies;
Management’, 1st edn.
London: UK Roads Board. • local guidance; and
• design standards.

2.6.5 The most recent judgement of note 2.6.10 Suggested procedures (which accord
was Gorringe v. Calderdale MBC (2004), where with those set out in Chapter 3 of MfS) include
a case was brought against a highway authority the following key steps:
for failing to maintain a ‘SLOW’ marking on • set clear and concise scheme objectives;
the approach to a sharp crest. The judgement • work up the design against these
confirmed a number of important points: objectives; and
• the authority’s duty to ‘maintain’ covers • review the design against these objectives
the fabric of a highway, but not signs through a quality audit.
and markings;
• there is no requirement for the highway 2.7 Disability discrimination
authority to ‘give warning of obvious
dangers’; and 2.7.1 Highway and planning authorities
• drivers are ‘first and foremost responsible must comply with the Disability Equality Duty
for their own safety’. under the Disability Discrimination Act 2005.16
This means that in their decisions and actions,
2.6.6 Some claims for negligence and/or authorities are required to have due regard to
failure to carry out a statutory duty have been the six principles of:
made under section 39 of the Road Traffic Act • promote equality of opportunity between
1988,15 which places a general duty on highway disabled persons and other persons;
authorities to promote road safety. In connection • eliminate discrimination that is unlawful
with new roads, section 39 (3)(c) states that under the 2005 Act;
highway authorities ‘in constructing new roads, • eliminate harassment of disbled persons
must take such measures as appear to the that is related to their disabilities;
authority to be appropriate to reduce the • promote positive attitudes towards disabled
possibilities of such accidents when the roads persons;
come into use’. • encourage participation by disabled persons
in public life; and
2.6.7 The Gorringe v. Calderdale judgment • take steps to take account of disabled
made it clear that section 39 of the Road Traffic persons’ disabilities, even where that
Act 1988 cannot be enforced by an individual, involves treating disabled persons more
however, and does not form the basis for a favourably than other persons.
liability claim.
2.7.2 Those who fail to observe these
2.6.8 Most claims against an authority are requirements will be at the risk of a claim. Not
for maintenance defects, claims for design faults only is there an expectation of positive action, but
being relatively rare. the duty is retrospective and local authorities will
be expected to take reasonable action to rectify
2.6.9 Advice to highway authorities on occurrences of non-compliance in existing areas.
managing their risks associated with new
designs is given in Chapter 5 of Highway Risk 2.7.3 The Disability Rights Commission (DRC)
15 Highways Act 1980.
London: HMSO. and Liability Claims. In summary, this advises have published a Statutory Code of Practice
16 Road Traffic Act 1988. that authorities should put procedures in place on the Disability Equality Duty and they have
London: TSO.
16 Disability Discrimination that allow rational decisions to be made with also published specific guidance for those
Act 2005. London: TSO. the minimum of bureaucracy, and that create an dealing with planning, buildings and the street
17 Disability Rights
Commission (DRC) (2006) audit trail that could subsequently be used as environment.17
Planning, Buildings, evidence in court.
Streets and Disability
Equality. A Guide to
the Disability Equality
Duty and Disability
Discrimination Act 2005
for Local Authority
Departments Responsible
for Planning, Design and
Management of the Built
Environment and Streets.
London: DRC.

3
The design process –
from policy to
implementation

Chapter aims 1. Policy review
• Set out the design process in broad

terms and reinforce the importance of 2. Objective setting
collaborative working.
3. Design
• Demonstrate the advantages of local
authorities following a Development Team
approach and emphasise the benefits of 4. Quality auditing
the developer engaging with the team at
an early stage in the design process. 5. Planning approval
• Look at the key principles within the design

process, and the use of design codes. 6. Implementation
• Introduce a user hierarchy where

7. Monitoring
pedestrians are considered first in the
design process. Figure 3.1 The seven key stages in the life of
a scheme.
• Recommend a new approach to street
and safety audits.
3.2 Integrated street design
– a streamlined approach
3.1 Introduction 3.2.1 The developer’s design team needs to
engage with several departments within the
3.1.1 The life of a scheme, from local planning and highway authorities in order
conception to implementation and beyond, to identify all the relevant issues. It is therefore
can be broken down into seven key stages, recommended that planning and highway
as shown in Fig. 3.1. authorities, together with other public agencies,
such as those responsible for waste collection
3.1.2 This seven-stage process is generally and drainage, coordinate their activities to
applicable to all schemes, from large new ensure that they do not give contradictory
developments, through to smaller infill schemes advice or impose conflicting conditions on the
and improvements to existing streets. The key developer and the design team (Fig. 3.2).
aspects are that:
• design decisions reflect current policies;
• policies are interpreted on a case-by-case basis
and are used to define objectives; and
• scheme designs are tested against these
objectives before approval is given to their
implementation.
3.1.3 The process is a general one and

should be applied in a way appropriate to
the size and importance of the proposal.
For example, the design stage refers to the
desirability of preparing a masterplan for
large schemes. This is unlikely to be the case

for smaller developments and improvement
schemes for existing streets which are likely
to be less complex, and, in some cases, a
scheme layout is generally all that is required. Figure 3.2 Multi-disciplinary collaborative planning
helps identify all the relevant issues.

Case study
Walsall: the Development Team approach From a list of available time slots at least 10 days
in advance, applicants book a meeting with the
Development Team, submitting their preliminary
proposals at the same time. This gives ample
opportunity for initial consideration of the
application, including site visits if necessary.
Walsall Council has successfully run a Development
At the meeting, developers present their
Team for some years. Developers submitting
proposal to the Development Team where they
major planning applications benefit from
receive initial comments and advice.
meetings with officials representing a broad range
The Team provides a formal, written, fully
of disciplines. They cover Highways, Pollution
considered response within three weeks.
Control, Housing Services, Building Control,
Development Control, Ecology, Landscape and
Significant advantages of this approach are
Arboriculture (officials for these disciplines are
that the developers can plan their presentation
always present), and Leisure Services, Education
to suit their development programme and the
and the Environment Agency (officials for these
Team can offer advice on key elements of the
disciplines are brought in as required).
proposal at an early stage, thus minimising the
need for costly changes later on.
3.2.2 Local authorities should enable developers 3.3.2 Consultation with the public (including
to engage effectively with individual departments organisations representing particular groups)
by establishing a single point of contact. Some is not shown as a single, discrete stage. Public
local authorities have created development teams consultation should take place at appropriate
so that all council departments with an interest in points in the process. The timing and number of
street design work together during the design and public consultation events will vary depending
approval process (see ‘Walsall case study box’). on the size and complexity of the scheme.
Authorities that have adopted a similar approach
for larger schemes include North Somerset 3.3.3 Where schemes are significant because of
District Council and Oxfordshire County Council their size, the site or other reasons, local planning
in association with the District Councils. This has authorities and developers are encouraged to
clear advantages when dealing with large or small submit them to the Commission for Architecture
development proposals. The same approach can and the Built Environment (CABE) for Design
be adopted by local authorities internally when Review at the earliest opportunity.1 Design Review
considering improvements to existing streets. is a free advice service offering expert, independent
assessments of schemes.
3.2.3 The benefits of an integrated approach
applies to all stages in the process, up to and 3.3.4 Table 3.1 shows how the process can be
including planning how the street will be applied. It should be noted that these steps are
maintained in future. indicative and will vary in detail from scheme
to scheme.
3.3 Steps in the design process
3.4 Stage 1: policy review
3.3.1 The seven-stage process will need to be
tailored to particular situations, depending on the 3.4.1 Street designs should generally be
type and complexity of the scheme. It is therefore consistent with national, regional and local policy.
recommended that, at the outset, a project plan The process begins with a review of relevant
is drawn up by the developer and agreed with planning and transportation policies, and the
1 Communities and stakeholders. The plan should include a flow chart identification of the required key design principles.
Local Government (2006)
Circular 1/06 Guidance diagram and an indication of the level and scope
on Changes to the of information required at each stage. 3.4.2 The starting point for the review of local
Development Control
System. London: TSO. policy is the Local Development Framework. The
paragraph 76. Local Transport Plan will need to be considered
and authorities may also have prepared a Public

Table 3.1 Indicative steps in the design process for new developments and changes to existing streets
Key stages Key activity/outputs Responsibility Large Small Changes

development development to
existing
streets
1. Policy review Review national, regional Design team

3 3 3
and local policy context
Review Local Transport Plan Design team 3 3
Review Public Realm Design team

3 3
Strategy
Review any Street Design Design team

Guidance not included in
3 3 3
the Local Development
Framework
2. Objective Prepare Development Planning and

3
setting Brief highway authorities
Agree objectives All 3 3 3
3. Design Carry out context Design team

3 3 3
appraisal
Develop proposed Design team

3 3
movement framework
Prepare outline Design team,

masterplan or scheme working closely
3 3 3
layout with other
stakeholders
Develop street character Design team

3 3 3
types
Design street network Design team 3 3
Produce detailed Design team

masterplan or scheme 3 3 3
layout
Produce design code Design team 3
4. Quality Carry out particular Prepared by design

auditing audits required to team, considered
3 3 3
assess compliance with by planning and
objectives highway authorities
5. Planning Prepare design and Prepared by

approval access statement design team for
3 3
and other supporting approval by the
documents planning authority
in consultation
Outline planning with the highway 3 3
application authority
Full planning application 3 3
6. Detailed design and Design team

3 3 3
Implementation technical approval
Construction Promoter 3 3 3
Adoption Highway authority 3 3
7. Monitoring Travel plan Promoter 3
Road user monitoring Highway authority 3

Realm Strategy or Open Space Strategy which • ensuring that a development will be served
will be of particular importance in establishing by public transport that is viable in the long
fundamental design principles. The policy term; and
review should also consider the national policy • keeping traffic speeds at 20 mph or less in
framework, particularly where the local policy all streets on a development.
framework is out of date or unclear.
3.5.5 Objectives could be expressed as
3.5 Stage 2: objective setting a design checklist, which provides a simple
summary of the key aspects that need to be met.
3.5.1 It is important that objectives for
each particular scheme are agreed by all 3.5.6 For some sites, a Development Brief or
parties and reviewed later in the process to other form of guidance may have been prepared
ensure that they are being met. Objectives to establish the key principles of development,
need to reflect the local policies and the wider and will need to be taken into account at the
planning framework to ensure a consistency of objective setting stage.
approach across an area.
3.6 Stage 3: design
3.5.2 On complex and lengthy projects,
objectives may need to be reviewed and revised Context appraisal
as the design process proceeds, with any
changes agreed by all parties. 3.6.1 A context appraisal will normally be
undertaken to determine how buildings and streets
3.5.3 Objectives should be expressed as are arranged within the local area. This will be used
outcomes that can be readily measured, and to help determine an appropriate form for the
should not be expressed in vague terms, or development of, or changes to, existing streets.
require or invoke particular solutions. The
objectives will often be related to the various 3.6.2 The context appraisal will identify how
activities expected to take place in particular an area has developed in terms of form, scale,
locations and streets. There may also be the pattern and character of streets and how a
objectives that apply across the whole of a site or existing street relates to existing buildings
new development area. and/or open space. It may also be appropriate to
identify poor-quality streets or areas which need
3.5.4 Typical objectives might be: to be improved. One way of achieving this is by
• enabling local children to walk and cycle undertaking a Landscape Character Appraisal.2
unaccompanied from all parts of a development
to a school, local park or open space; 3.6.3 On smaller schemes it may only be
• promoting and enhancing the vitality and necessary to consider context in a relatively
viability of a local retail centre; local area, but this does not prevent designers
from drawing on good-quality examples of local
distinctiveness from the wider area.
a b
Andrew Cameron, WSP
Andrew Cameron, WSP
2 Countryside Agency and

Scottish Natural Heritage
(2002) Landscape
Character Assessment:
Guidance for England
and Scotland. London:
TSO.
Figure 3.3 New housing with: (a) good (b) poor integration into an existing street.

Development
opportunity sites
View towards the river
New active frontage
onto London Road
Conservation area
Character buildings
Green network
Major riverside green
link/space (pedestrian)
New aspect onto river
Pedestrian links from
station/interchange
New street with possible
bridge over railway
Residential (existing)
Employment &
‘consultation zone’
Existing vegetation
Mixed use, higher density,
centre focus
Railway station /
interchange
Figure 3.4 An illustration of a context appraisal.
3.6.4 When existing streets are being redesigned, Analysis of existing places
it is very important to have a detailed understanding
of how they sit within an urban area. Care needs 3.6.5 As part of the context appraisal, the relative
to be taken to retain and develop the relationship importance of existing places within the locality will
between the streets and the buildings and public need to be identified. Places to be identified include
spaces that surround them, and to capitalise on links important buildings and public open spaces, and
to important local destinations. There is a need to key destinations such as educational institutions and
identify opportunities to repair incomplete or poor- areas of employment or commerce (Fig. 3.4).
quality connections (Fig. 3.3).

3.6.6 The analysis will determine which situations where some upper-tier modes are not
places in the surrounding area need to be made provided for – for example, buses might not
accessible to local people, particularly on foot need to be accommodated in a short, narrow
and by bicycle, and the appropriate design and section of street where access for
layout of that area. cars is required.
3.6.7 This analysis will also help to establish 3.6.10 An analysis of movement within
whether additional centres of activity are an existing settlement will help identify any
required as part of a new development, such changes required for it to mesh with a new
as a new local centre or school. development. It could also influence movement
patterns required within the
Analysis of existing movement patterns new development.
3.6.8 It is recommended that the design 3.6.11 The position of a street within the
of a scheme should follow the user hierarchy existing movement framework will determine
shown in Table 3.2. the demands it needs to meet, and these,
in turn, will inform decisions on its capacity,
Table 3.2: User hierarchy cross-section and connectivity.
Consider first Pedestrians
3.6.12 Establishing the movement requirements
Cyclists
of existing streets is particularly important when
Public transport users changes are planned so that the needs of all road
Specialist service vehicles (e.g. users are fully taken into account.
emergency services, waste, etc.)
Proposed movement framework
Consider last Other motor traffic
3.6.13 For new developments, an understanding

3.6.9 The hierarchy is not meant to be rigidly of how an existing area functions in terms of
applied and does not necessarily mean that it is movement and place enables the proposed points
always more important to provide for pedestrians of connection and linkage to be identified, both
than it is for the other modes. However, they within and from the site, so that important desire
should at least be considered first, followed by lines are achieved. This process will help ensure
consideration for the others in the order given. that a new development enhances the existing
This helps ensure that the street will serve all movement framework of an area rather than
of its users in a balanced way. There may be disrupting or severing it (Fig. 3.5).
Main vehicular
routes
Secondary
vehicular
routes
Homezone or
pedestrian
priority routes
Pedestrian
only routes
Figure 3.5 Proposed movement diagram for the redevelopment of RAF Halton.

Llewelyn Davies Yeang / © Crown copyright. All rights reserved
Department for Transport 100039241 2007
Figure 3.6 A concept masterplan with 3-D visualisation.
3.6.14 Guidance on the design of movement

frameworks is set out in more detail in Chapter a
4. The movement framework is a key input to
the development of the masterplans.
Outline masterplan or scheme layout
3.6.15 Although not always needed, especially

where proposals are small scale, an outline
masterplan helps to establish the scheme’s broad
development principles (Fig. 3.6).
3.6.16 An outline masterplan that has

been produced through collaboration with
key stakeholders is usually more robust and
realistic than it would otherwise be. For larger b
sites, a series of stakeholder events is often
the most productive way of achieving this as
it brings all the parties together to generate
a design vision which reflects community and
stakeholder objections. For smaller sites, the
process need not be so involved and design
proposals may be more appropriately informed
by a simple scheme layout developed though
targeted meetings with key stakeholders
and/or correspondence.
3.6.17 For simpler schemes adequately served

by detailed layouts, outline scheme layouts are
usually not likely to be needed (Fig. 3.7). An Figure 3.7 Small scheme design for an infill
exception might be where, for example, the site development (a) outlined in red. Location of
new houses (b) shown in green together with
is in a conservation area. new access street. Note that the new access street
can be extended to allow for future growth at
the top of the diagram.

3.6.18 The outline masterplan will bring together Street character types
the movement framework with other important
aspects of the design of a new development, such 3.6.20 Once the outline masterplan has been
as the need for new local facilities, important views prepared, the next step will be to establish the
and microclimate considerations. characteristics of the various types of street that
are required for the new development.
3.6.19 When developing outline masterplans
for large-scale proposals, such as an urban 3.6.21 Street character types set out not only
extension, the design team needs to consider the basic parameters of streets, such as
the longer-term vision for the area in question. carriageway and footway widths, but also the
Such a future-proofing exercise involves looking street’s relationship to buildings and the private
beyond the usual planning periods to consider realm, and other important details, such as
where development may be in, say, 20 or 30 parking arrangements, street trees, planting
years. The issues identified may influence the and lighting.
masterplan. An example would be allowing for
the future growth of a settlement by continuing 3.6.22 Further guidance on determining street
streets to the edge of the site so that they can be character types is given in Chapter 7.
extended at a later date (Fig. 3.8). This principle
also applies to smaller-scale schemes which need 3.6.23 Street character types can also be
to take account of future development proposals expressed through design codes, which are
around an application site and, where appropriate discussed later in this chapter.
in discussions with the local planning authority,
to ensure that linkages are established wherever Street network
possible and that the site is swiftly integrated into
its surroundings. 3.6.24 It is recommended that the proposed
street network is based on a combination of
the proposed movement framework and the
proposed street types (Fig. 3.9).
© Crown copyright. All rights reserved Department for Transport 100039241 2007
Figure 3.8 Ballater, Aberdeenshire – the ability for future growth is not compromised in the south-west
of the village (a) with its permeable street pattern, but more recent cul-se-sac type development in the
north-east (b) does not allow for a connected growth of the village.

Detailed masterplan or detailed
scheme layout
3.6.25 Detailed masterplans are likely to

be needed for schemes at the higher end of
the scale in terms of size and complexity.
English Partnerships, EDAW and Alan Baxter & Associates

For relatively simple proposals, a detailed
scheme layout is all that is likely to be needed.
Guidance on the masterplanning process is
given in Creating Successful Masterplans:
A Guide for Clients.3
3.6.26 It is important when preparing a detailed

masterplan, that all of the critical features which
impact on the efficiency and quality of the
development – and which cannot be changed once
it is built – are carefully considered (Fig. 3.10).
Figure 3.9 Street network diagram for Upton,
Northamptonshire, showing the main route through
3.6.27 The full extent of the masterplanning a connected layout and linkages to key spaces and
places within the development, with street character
process is beyond the scope of MfS, but it is types identified.
recommended that the following key features
relating to street design are addressed: • parking provision, design and control;
• connections to the surrounding area; • landscape design and structural planting;
• connections through the site; • materials, management and
• street layout and dimensions; maintenance regime;
• building lines; • servicing and access for emergency vehicles;
• building heights; • speed control; and
• routes for utilities; • SUDS and sewer routes.
Red Tree LLP, The Prince’s Foundation and Paul Murrain
3 CABE (2004) Creating

Successful Masterplans:
Figure 3.10 An example of a large-scale masterplan – Sherford New Community near Plymouth.
A Guide for Clients.
London: CABE

Design codes 3.6.29 Design codes determine the two- and
three-dimensional design elements which are
3.6.28 Design codes are an effective key to the quality of a development. Although
mechanism for implementing the masterplan not appropriate in all circumstances, they can
(Fig. 3.11). They comprise detailed written and be valuable for helping local authorities and
graphically presented rules for building out a developers to deliver high-quality design.
site or an area. They are often promoted by local
authorities but they may be put forward by the 3.6.30 The elements which are coded will differ
private sector. according to circumstances, but they might
include aspects relating to layout, townscape
S.04.1 River’s edge • Plot series
Plot series Riverside

Character area
Attribute Code
Priority relative to street Active frontage must be orientated toward

the street
Sub-series
Series type (regular/mixed) Regular
Plot width at frontage 6 m – 12 m; exceptionally, larger width, in

(dimension range) increments of 5 m, with vertical articulation
of module visible in the façade
Point of access (type and frequency)
Pedestrian Minimum every 12 m
Vehiclar None
Allowable plot types Attached
S.04.2 River’s edge • Plan
Public highway Riverside

Character area
Attribute Code
Carriage width 6.0 m
Footpath width Min 2.0 m, Min 3.0 m along riverfront
Design speed 20 mph
Traffic calming Carriageway narrowing
Junction radii Min. 40 m
Vehicle type to be accommodated Cars, small service vehicles, fire appliances,

cycles
On-street parking Perpendicular – 5.0 m x 2.5 m
Direct access to plots No
Street trees 8.0 – 12.0 m spacing between trees (adjust

to accommodate parking areas)
S.04.3 River’s edge • Section

Step-back
Street section Riverside
Max. height
Character area
Occupied or unoccupied roof Attribute Code
Shoulder/eaves height Shoulder/eaves height 3 – 5 storey
Storey height Floor to ceiling heights on the ground floor

must be a minimum of 2.7m to allow for
flexibility of use and adaptability
Maximum height of roof occupied or 3 m above shoulder/eaves height

Footway min. 3.0 m
Parking 5.0 m
Carriageway 5.0 m
Footway min. 2.0 m

Private
unoccupied
Step-back 2.5 m maximum

Roger Evans & Associates
Balconies 1.5 m maximum
Vertical position of access Level
Vertical mix of uses Residential on ground floor, retail on

ground floor around junctions of Burrell
Street and Water Lane, residential above
ground floor
Figure 3.11 Design code for riverside development in Rotherham.

and landscape considerations, or architecture management team. The inclusion of the authority’s
or building performance. Codes may also legal team will also be helpful, particularly where
usefully establish the relationships of plots, the codes relate to planning conditions, section
sometimes the building form or even materials. 106 and 278 agreements, unilateral undertakings
However, given the primary need to secure a or local development orders. In particular, the
quality townscape and a sense of place, the highways team in an authority plays a key role in
most important role of a design code will be the preparation of a design code and in adopting
in securing the lasting structural elements of the infrastructure that results.
a place, such as the street pattern and street
dimensions. Getting these structural elements 3.6.33 Detailed guidance on the preparation
right will enable the other elements of a design and implementation of design codes, including
to evolve. To do this successfully, however, the advice on how they can be formalised, is set out
design code will need to be underpinned by a in Preparing Design Codes – A Practice Manual.4
specific design vision, such as a masterplan or a This guidance makes it clear that:
design and development framework.
‘Highways policy and standards are decisive
3.6.31 A key benefit of design codes is the influences on design code preparation, and
collaborative nature of their preparation – design codes provide a key opportunity
a process that brings together a broad range to improve highways design that takes
of professionals and organisations with a role account of urban design considerations and
in delivering the development. Typically, this helps create quality places. The preparation
comprises land, design, development and of a design code can provide a ready
public interests. Regardless of whether a code opportunity to work closely with highways
is promoted by the private sector or a local authorities to review any outdated local
authority, it is essential that engineers, designers highways standards.’
and planners work together to develop the code
to help ensure that each aspect of the design 3.6.34 In this context it is essential that,
successfully reinforces the overall sense of place. when design codes are being prepared, the
coding team consider carefully what the design
3.6.32 When a code is prepared by a local objectives are and the required outcomes to
authority, a Development Team approach will deliver those objectives. It is recommended
bring advantages. Representatives from the that careful consideration should be given to
authority’s key departments will need to work the scope for the design code to address those
together. These will include planning (both policy aspects of the street environment that will be
and development control), highways, landscape, crucial to delivering the required outcomes.
parks and recreation, and, where appropriate, Those which are not can be left to the discretion
the housing authority and the authority’s estates of the developer and his or her designer
(see box and Fig. 3.12).
Design codes
Street-related design elements and issues • location and standards for on-and off-street
which a design code may relate to include: parking, including car parks and parking
• the function of the street and its position in courts, and related specifications;
the Place and Movement hierarchy, such as • street lighting and street furniture
boulevards, high streets, courtyards, mews, specifications and locations;
covered streets, arcades or colonnades; • specifications for trees and planting;
• the principal dimensions of streets; • location of public art;
• junctions and types of traffic calming; • drainage and rainwater run-off systems;
• treatments of major junctions, bridges and • routeing and details of public utilities; and
public transport links; • arrangements for maintenance and servicing.
Government (2006)
Preparing Design Codes
– A Practice Manual.
London: RIBA Publishing.

a Criteria Street Specification
Standard Design Variation 1 (One-sided parking) Variation 2 (Variable Kerb)
Design Speeds
Speed Limit 20 mph (at entrance)
Control Speed 20 mph (internally)
Street dimensions and character
Minimum 5.5 m
carriageway width
Footway 2.0-3.0 m on each side
Cycle way No - Parallel routes provided on other streets
Verge No
Private strip 2.0 m
Direct vehicular Yes

access to properties
Plot Boundary Treatment 2.0 m private area to building line with up to 1.0 m encroachment 0.9-1.1 m railing on plot boundary with footway
Maximum number of properties served Not restricted
Public Transport
Bus access No
Street design details
Pull out strip No
Traffic calming Features at 60 m-80 m Non parallel kerbs, variations in planting/

c/c, parking, trees, formal building lines, parking
crossings
Vehicle swept path to be accommodated Removals/refuse vehicles enter and leave using own side of road Refuse vehichle passing car on street
only (assuming 20 mph)
On street parking Yes, both sides, 2.0 m wide Yes, one side, 2.0 m wide Yes, one or both sides, informal
Gradients (footways) 1:15 Maximum, footway to follow carriageway
Maximum foward visibility 33 m, 20 m (measured 1.0m out from kerb)
Junction sightlines (x/y) 2.4 m/33 m
Junction spacing-same side/other side 60 m/30 m
Junction radii 4m
Stats services (excluding storm and capping In footway, each side. Footways, where necessary
layer drainage Drainage below carriageway
Materials
Footway Surfacing • Natural grey, pre-cast concrete paving flags, 63 mm thick staggered joint, variable sizes: 600x450 mm, 450x450 mm-
10%, 300 x 450 mm
Parking Zone • Natural grey tumbled pre-cast concrete paviors 80 mm n/a

thick with 225-300 mm exposed granite aggregate pre-cast
kerb 20 mm high
Kerbing • 225-300 mm wide x 200 mm square edged exposed granite aggregate pre-cast kerb 125 mm high
• 225-300 mm wide x 200 mm square edged exposed granite aggregate pre-cast kerb 20 mm high English Partnerships, EDAW and Alan Baxter Asssoicates
Carriageway • Black-top
• 5 rows of 100 mm x 100-250 mm cropped granite setts
Pedestrian Crossing • Stainless steel tactile Tactile Paving

studs inserted into
paving/tactile paving
Street Lighting LC4, LC5 Maximum to eaves height (see Appendix 4)
Street Furniture SF3, SF6, SF9 (see Appendix 4)
Trees
Street Trees Acer platanoides ‘Obelisk’
Feature Trees Corylus Colurna - specific locations detailed in Development Briefs
Figure 3.12 (a) and (b) Design code for particular street character type in Upton, Northampton
(note (b) is on the next page).

b
Manual for Streets

English Partnerships, EDAW and Alan Baxter & Asssoicates
35
3.7 Stage 4: quality auditing Case study
Devon: quality audit
3.7.1 Properly documented design audit
and sign-off systems are important. They help
ensure that street designs are appropriate and
meet objectives agreed at the outset. Such
audits may include documents required by the
local planning authority to support an outline or
detailed application. In existing streets, quality
audits provide an opportunity for decision
makers to make a balanced assessment of
Devon County Council

different considerations before approving a
particular solution (see ‘Devon case study box’).
3.7.2 Being made up of a series of assessments, Figure 3.13 Road safety officers, police and engineers
a quality audit is likely to be carried out by various working on a road safety audit in Devon.
professionals and each may be undertaken within
particular guidelines. By grouping the assessments Devon County Council has developed a process
together, any compromises in the design will be whereby both an environmental audit and a
5 PERS (Pedestrian apparent, making it easier for decision makers to
Environment Review
road safety audit (Fig. 3.13) are carried out when
System) is software view the scheme in the round. improvement schemes are being prepared.
developed by TRL and
provides one way of
carrying out a walking 3.7.3 Auditing should not be a box ticking The two audits are carried out separately and if
audit. For further details exercise. It is an integral part of the design
see www.trlsoftware.
there is a difference of opinion between the two
co.uk/products/detail. and implementation process. Audits inform over any aspect, the matter is referred to a senior
asp?aid=16&c=4&pid=66. this process and demonstrate that appropriate
6 TRL (unpublished) Cycle
officer for a decision. It is therefore possible to
Environment Review consideration has been given to all of the demonstrate that decisions have been properly
System. relevant aspects. The quality audit may include
7 Institution of Highways
considered in case of future dispute.
and Transportation (IHT) some or all of the following, or variations on
(1998) Cycle Audit and them, depending on the nature of the scheme
Cycle Review. London: IHT.
This process is, in essence, a quality
8 Highways Agency (HA) and the objectives it is seeking to meet: auditing process.
(2005) HD42 Non- • an audit of visual quality;
Motorised User Audits
– Volume 5 Sections 2 • a review of how the streets will be used by
Part 5. Design Manual the community; Road safety audits
for Roads and Bridges.
London: TSO. • a road safety audit, including a risk
9 Living Streets (2003) DIY assessment (see below); 3.7.5 Road safety audits (RSAs) are routinely
Community Street Audit
Pack. London: Living • an access audit; carried out on highway schemes. The Institution of
Streets. • a walking audit;5 Highways and Transportation (IHT) Guidelines on
10 Guidance on Placecheck
is available at www. • a cycle audit;6, 7 RSA13 sit alongside the Highways Agency standard
placecheck.info. • a non-motorised user audit;8 contained in DMRB14 as the recognised industry
(2002) Inclusive • a community street audit (in existing standard documents in the UK. The procedures set
Mobility A Guide to Best streets);9 and out in DMRB are a formal requirement only for
Practice on Access to
Pedestrian and Transport • a Placecheck audit.10 trunk roads.
Infrastructure. London:
Department for Transport.
12 Centre for Accessible 3.7.4 Access auditors should take account 3.7.6 RSAs are not mandatory for local
Environments of the advice given in Inclusive Mobility.11 The highway authorities. Many residential streets,
(2004) Designing for
Accessibility. London: Centre for Accessible Environments has also where the design is carried out by a developer’s
RIBA Publishing. published guidance on access audits in relation to consultant, are assessed independently by the local
13 IHT (1996) The Safety
Audit of Highways. public buildings.12 It contains much useful general highway authority. In some authorities there is no
London: IHT. advice on access auditing in the public realm. requirement for a further check by an RSA team,
14 HA (2003) HD19 Road
Safety Audit – Volume 5
particularly where it is clear that motorised traffic
Section 2 Part 2. Design volumes and speeds, and the degree of potential
Manual for Roads and
Bridges. London: TSO.
conflict between different user-groups, are not
going to be significant.

3.7.7 The purpose of the RSA is to identify 3.7.12 It would therefore be useful if
road safety problems, with the objective of RSAs included an assessment of the relative
minimising the number and severity of casualties. significance of any potential safety problems.
An RSA is not a check on compliance with A risk assessment to consider the severity of a
design standards. Audits take all road users into safety problem and the likelihood of occurrence
account, including pedestrians and cyclists. The would make it considerably easier for decision
standard procedure is that the auditor makes makers to strike an appropriate balance. An
recommendations for changes to the design to example of a risk assessment framework is given
address perceived safety concerns. The design in Highway Risk and Liability Claims.15
team reviews the RSA report and decides whether
or not to accept particular recommendations. 3.1.13 Careful monitoring (such as through
conflict studies) of the ways in which people use
3.7.8 It is important to note that the design the completed scheme can identify any potential
team retains responsibility for the scheme, and is safety problems. This can be particularly useful
not governed by the findings of the RSA. There is when designers move away from conventional
therefore no sense in which a scheme ‘passes’ or standards. Monitoring is discussed further in
‘fails’ the RSA process. Designers do not have to Section 3.10 below.
comply with the recommendations of a safety audit,
although in such cases they would be expected to 3.8 Stage 5: planning approval
justify their reasoning in a written report.
3.8.1 New development proposals need to be
3.7.9 The process set out in DMRB requires submitted for approval to the planning authority
the audit team to be independent of the design who, in turn, consults with the local highway
team. Road safety issues are therefore often authority on street design issues.
considered in isolation from visual quality and
Placemaking issues, and it can be difficult to 3.8.2 Where outline planning permission is
achieve a balanced design through dialogue and being sought, various supporting information
compromise. However, the requirement for needs to be provided as agreed with the
independence need not prevent contact planning and highway authorities. This may
between the design team and the audit team include some or all of the following, depending
throughout the process. on the type size and complexity of the scheme
(this list is not necessarily exhaustive):
3.7.10 It is beyond the scope of MfS to • preliminary street designs and layouts;
define in detail a wholly new and more balanced • a Design and Access Statement
15 UK Roads Board approach to RSAs, and the IHT guidelines are (see box);16, 17, 18
(2005) Highway Risk due to be revised. However, involving road safety • a Transport Assessment;
and Liability Claims
– A Practical Guide to professionals as an integral part of the design • a Travel Plan;
Appendix C of The Roads team could help to overcome some of the reported • an Environmental Statement or
Board Report ‘Well
Maintained Highways problems. This allows ideas to be tested and Environmental Impact Assessment;
– Code of Practice for considered in more balanced and creative ways. • a Sustainability Appraisal;
Highway Maintenance
Management’, 1st edn. • a Flood Risk Assessment; and
London: UK Roads Board. 3.7.11 One area of concern with the existing • a Drainage Report.
Government (2006) system is that RSAs may seek to identify all
Circular 01/06 Guidance possible risks without distinguishing between Design and Access Statement
on Changes to the
Development Control major and minor ones, or quantifying the
System. London: TSO. probability of them taking place. There can also Since August 2006, Design and Access
17 CABE (2006) Design and
be a tendency for auditors to encourage designs Statements (DASs) have been required for most
Access Statements – How
to Write, Read and Use that achieve safety by segregating vulnerable planning applications for new developments.19
Them. London: CABE.
road users from road traffic. Such designs can DASs are documents that explain the design
18 Disability Rights
thinking behind a planning application and
Commission (DRC) (2005) perform poorly in terms of streetscape quality,
Planning, Buildings, are therefore important documents. They
Streets and Disability pedestrian amenity and security and, in some
normally include a written description and
Equality. Stratford upon circumstances, can actually reduce safety levels.
Avon: DRC. justification of the planning application, often
19 ibid. (16). using photographs, maps and drawings to help
clarify various issues.

3.8.3 It is critical that as many issues as where the detailed design and technical approval
possible are resolved at the outline planning process throws up problems that can only be
application stage so that they can receive resolved by changing the scheme that was
thorough and timely consideration. This will approved at the detailed planning stage.
help to make detailed planning applications
or the consideration of reserved matters as 3.9.2 A more integrated approach is
straightforward as possible. recommended, with highway adoption engineers
being fully involved throughout, so that schemes
3.8.4 The local planning authority needs that are approved at detailed planning stage
to ensure that the key features set out in can move through the technical approval stage
paragraph 3.6.27 above, and any site-specific without requiring any significant changes. Highway
issues of importance, are resolved before outline adoption is dealt with in more detail in Chapter 11.
permission is granted. The design of streets,
spaces and parking is important and should be 3.10 Stage 7: monitoring
considered alongside other planning matters,
such as the design of the built form and use, 3.10.1 Planning Policy Statement 3: Housing
conservation, landscape and housing type. (PPS3)20 makes clear that local planning
authorities and agencies are expected to
3.8.5 Ideally, following outline consent, only report on progress towards the achievement of
matters of detail, such as detailed layout and consistently good design standards through the
material choices, will be left for consideration at Annual Monitoring Report process, assessing
the detailed application stage. achievement against their design quality
objectives (PPS3, paragraphs 75–77). This is
3.8.6 For small developments and schemes likely to include some consideration of the
in sensitive locations, such as conservation design quality of new streets or existing street
areas, it will often be appropriate for detailed modifications as part of the wider public realm.
planning approval to be sought without first
obtaining outline consent. This enables the 3.10.2 Monitoring is an integral element of
approving authorities to consider the effects of the disability equality duty under the Disability
the development in detail before approving the Discrimination Act 2005.21 Within their Disability
development in principle. Equality Schemes, local authorities are expected
to set out their arrangements for monitoring the
3.8.7 In existing streets, the highway authority effectiveness of their policies and practices as
is normally both the designer and the approving they relate to the interests of disabled people.
body. It is recommended that well-documented This includes both planning and highways
approval systems are used that properly assess functions. The information will help authorities
the impact of proposed changes to prevent the to make decisions about what actions and
gradual degradation of the street scene through changes to their policies and practices would
ill-considered small-scale schemes. best improve disability equality.
3.9 Stage 6: implementation 3.10.3 Monitoring for reasons other than

those above has seldom been undertaken to
Detailed design, technical approval, date but can be highly desirable. Monitoring
construction and adoption can be used to see how completed schemes or
existing street environments function in practice,
3.9.1 In the past, developers have sought so that changes can be made to new designs,
to satisfy the detailed planning process before particularly innovative ones, at an early stage.
commencing the detailed design of streets in
order to meet the highway adoption process. 3.10.4 Monitoring can also be an important
20 Communities and Local This has led to problems in some circumstances aspect of residential travel plans, where patterns of
Government (2006)
Planning Policy Statement movement are reviewed against planned targets.
3: Housing. London. TSO.
21 Disability Discrimination
Act 2005. London: TSO.

B
Design principles

Tim Pharoah, Llewelyn Davies Yeang

4
Layout and connectivity
Chapter aims 4.2 The movement framework
• Set out design concepts for the 4.2.1 A key consideration for achieving
structuring of towns and cities. sustainable development is how the design can
• Set out principles for walkable influence how people choose to travel. Designers
neighbourhoods. and engineers need to respond to a wide range
of policies aimed at making car use a matter of
• Illustrate appropriate layouts choice rather than habit or dependence. Local
and street forms. transport plans and movement strategies can
• Consider internal permeability directly inform the design process as part of the
and external connectivity. policy implementation process (Wales: Regional
Transport Plans and Local Development Plans).
• Give advice on crime prevention.
4.2.2 It is recommended that the movement
framework for a new development be based
4.1 Planning for things you cannot on the user hierarchy as introduced in Section
easily change later 3.6. Applying the hierarchy will lead to a design
that increases the attractiveness of walking,
4.1.1 The way streets are laid out and how cycling and the use of public transport. Delays
they relate to the surrounding buildings and to cars resulting from adopting this approach are
spaces has a great impact on the aesthetic and unlikely to be significant in residential areas. The
functional success of a neighbourhood. Certain movement framework should also take account
elements are critical because once laid down, of the form of the buildings, landscape and
they cannot easily be changed. These issues are activities that form the character of the street and
considered in the masterplanning and design the links between new and existing routes and
coding stage, and need to be resolved before places (Fig. 4.1).
detailed design is carried out.
4.2.3 Street networks should, in general, be
4.1.2 This chapter highlights the issues connected. Connected, or ‘permeable’, networks
likely to be encountered in developing detailed encourage walking and cycling, and make places
designs, and ways of dealing with them. easier to navigate through. They also lead to a
There are also tips on avoiding unwanted more even spread of motor traffic throughout the
consequences of particular design decisions. area and so avoid the need for distributor roads
with no frontage development. Research2 shows
that there is no significant difference in collision
risk attributable to more permeable street layouts.
Bus stop Principal routes Internal streets
1 Llewelyn Davies (2000)

The Urban Design
Compendium. London:
English Partnerships and
The Housing Corporation.
2 I York, A Bradbury, S Reid,
T Ewings and R Paradise Consider how best the site can be The typical cul-de-sac response A more pedestrian friendly approach This street pattern then forms the
(2007) The Manual connected with nearby main routes creates an introverted layout which that integrates with the surrounding basis for perimeter blocks which
and public transport facilities. fails to integrate with its surroundings. community. It links existing and ensure that buildings contribute
for Streets: Redefining
proposed streets and provides direct positively to the public realm.
Residential Street Design. routes to bus stops.
TRL Report No. 661.
Crowthorne: TRL. Figure 4.1 Integrating new developments into the existing urban fabric is essential
(source: The Urban Design Compendium1).

4.2.4 Pedestrians and cyclists should
generally be accommodated on streets rather
than routes segregated from motor traffic. Being
seen by drivers, residents and other users affords
a greater sense of security. However, short
pedestrian and cycle-only links are generally
acceptable if designed well. Regardless of
length, all such routes in built-up areas, away
from the carriageway, should be barrier-free and
overlooked by buildings. Narrow routes hemmed
in by tall barriers should be avoided as they can
feel claustrophobic and less secure for users.
Stephen Marshall
Connecting layouts to their surroundings
4.2.5 Internal permeability is important but Figure 4.2 Internally permeable neighbourhoods
the area also needs to be properly connected lacking direct connections with one another
with adjacent street networks. A development (source: Marshall 2005 3).
with poor links to the surrounding area creates an
enclave which encourages movement to and from 4.2.10 These hierarchies are not meant to be
it by car rather than by other modes (Fig. 4.2). rigidly applied and there may be situations where
it is sensible to disregard some of the solutions
4.2.6 External connectivity may often be when deciding on the optimum one. For
lacking, even where layouts generally have good example, there would be no point in considering
internal permeability. Crown Street, Glasgow, is an at-grade crossing to create a pedestrian/
shown in Fig. 4.3, with an indication of where cyclist link between developments on either side
connectivity was not realised as may have been of a motorway. However, designers should not
intended in the masterplan. dismiss out of hand solutions in the upper tier of
the hierarchy.
4.2.7 The number of external connections
that a development provides depends on the 4.2.11 It is recommended that the hierarchies
nature of its surroundings. Residential areas are used not only for a proposed scheme but
adjacent to each other should be well connected. also for connections through existing networks
to local shops, schools, bus stops, etc.
4.2.8 To create a permeable network, it is
generally recommended that streets with one-way 4.3 Building communities to last
operation are avoided. They require additional
signing and result in longer vehicular journeys. 4.3.1 Good design is a key element in
achieving the Government’s aim to create
The hierarchies of provision thriving, vibrant, sustainable communities.
Sustainable communities meet the diverse needs
4.2.9 If road safety problems for pedestrians of existing and future residents, are sensitive to
or cyclists are identified, conditions should be their environment by minimising their effect on
reviewed to see if they can be addressed, rather climate change, and contribute to a high quality
than segregating these users from motorised of life. They are safe and inclusive, well planned
traffic. Table 4.1 suggests an ordered approach and promote social inclusion, offering equality of
for the review. opportunity and good services for all.
3 Marshall, S. (2005)
Streets and Patterns.
London: Spon Press.
Figure 2.10, p.34.

a
A8 City centre
10 mins’ walk
t
T
ee
EE
Str
TR
wn
.S S
Junction with
ights reserved Department for Transport 100039241 2007

C ro
BAL
poor pedestrian
GOR
facilities
Ri
Poor quality ve
Poor quality rC
connection lyd
A730 connection e
Main ‘Axis’
© Crown copyright. All

Development No connection
walled off in (Axis Broken)
b this area
Figure 4.3 Crown Street, Glasgow: (a) the Crown Street development in the background is separated from the
main road to the city centre; and (b) map.
Table 4.1 The hierarchies of provision for pedestrians and cyclists
Pedestrians Cyclists
Consider first Traffic volume reduction Traffic volume reduction
Traffic speed reduction Traffic speed reduction
Reallocation of road space to pedestrians Junction treatment, hazard site treatment,

traffic management
Provision of direct at-grade crossings, Cycle tracks away from roads

improved pedestrian routes on existing
desire lines
New pedestrian alignment or grade Conversion of footways/footpaths to

separation adjacent-* or shared-use routes for
Consider last pedestrians and cyclists
* Adjacent-use routes are those where the cyclists are segregated from pedestrians.

4.3.2 Areas of local amenity should be more a
evenly distributed, with good connectivity, so
that the overall layout encourages access by
walking or cycling, and shortens the distances
travelled by car (Fig 4.4).
4.3.3 When considering a site there needs

to be a broad understanding of its historic
development and its relationship with other
communities, whether at the village, town or city
scale (Fig 4.5).
4.3.4 The provision and viability of

facilities needs to be assessed in relation to
the location and scale of proposals. In many
cases, it may be better for a new development b
to reinforce existing centres and facilities
rather than providing alternative facilities. The
greater the density of development, the more
facilities can be supported.
Figure 4.4 (a) dispersed and car-dependent versus

(b) traditional, compact and walkable layout.
© Crown copy ight. All rights reserved Department for Transport 100039241 2007
2
1
Figure 4.5 The plans of many UK villages, towns and cities illustrate different patterns of development
over time, from (1) historic cores, through to (2) experimental ‘Radburn’ layouts from the 1960s,
to (3) recent cul-de-sac/DB32-type layouts.

Phil Jones, Phil Jones Associates

Figure 4.6 Perimeter blocks enclosing a pleasant Figure 4.7 A highways-dominated layout with buildings
communal open space. that have a poor relationship to the road.
4.4 The walkable neighbourhood critical mass of development is needed to justify

a regular bus service, at frequent intervals, which
4.4.1 Walkable neighbourhoods are is sufficient to provide a real alternative to the
typically characterised by having a range car.
of facilities within 10 minutes’ (up to about
800 m) walking distance of residential areas 4.5 Layout considerations
which residents may access comfortably on
foot. However, this is not an upper limit and 4.5.1 Streets are the focus of movement
PPS134 states that walking offers the greatest in a neighbourhood. Pedestrians and cyclists
potential to replace short car trips, particularly should generally share streets with motor
those under 2 km. MfS encourages a reduction vehicles. There will be situations where it is
in the need to travel by car through the appropriate to include routes for pedestrians
creation of mixed-use neighbourhoods with and cyclists segregated from motor traffic,
interconnected street patterns, where daily needs but they should be short, well overlooked
are within walking distance of most residents. and relatively wide to avoid any sense of
confinement. It is difficult to design an
4.4.2 By creating linkages between new underpass or alleyway which satisfies the
housing and local facilities and community requirement that pedestrians or cyclists will
infrastructure, the public transport network feel safe using them at all times.
and established walking and cycling routes are
fundamental to achieving more sustainable 4.5.2 The principle of integrated access
patterns of movement and to reducing people’s and movement means that the perimeter
reliance on the car. A masterplan (or scheme block is usually an effective structure
layout for smaller-scale developments) can help for residential neighbourhoods. A block
ensure that proposals are well integrated with structure works in terms of providing direct,
existing facilities and places. convenient, populated and overlooked routes.
In addition, it makes efficient use of land,
4.4.3 Density is also an important offers opportunities for enclosed private or
consideration in reducing people’s reliance on communal gardens, and is a tried and tested
the private car. PPS35 encourages a flexible way of creating quality places (Figs 4.6 and 4.7).
approach to density, reflecting the desirability
4 DETR (2001) Policy
Planning Guidance 13: of using land efficiently, linked to the impacts 4.5.3 Several disadvantages have become
Transport. London: TSO. of climate change. It sets a national minimum
5 DTLR and CABE (2001)
apparent with housing developments built
Better Places to Live: By indicative density of 30 dwellings per hectare. in the last 40 years which departed from
Design. A Companion Residential densities should be planned to take
Guide to PPG3. London:
traditional arrangements. Many have layouts
Thomas Telford Ltd. advantage of a proximity to activities, or to good that make orientation difficult, create left-over
6 Communities and Local public transport linking those activities. Better
Government (2006)
or ill-defined spaces, and have too many blank
Planning Policy Statement Places to Live: By Design6 advises that a certain walls or façades. They can also be inconvenient
for pedestrians, cyclists and bus users.

a
Rectilinear grid.
Andrew Cameron, WSP

b
Figure 4.9 A good example of a pedestrian/cycle route

at Poundbury, Dorchester. It is short, direct and with
good surveillance.
Concentric grids designed to promote access
to local centres or public transport routes.
4.5.7 Cul-de-sacs may be required because
c of topography, boundary or other constraints.
Cul-de-sacs can also be useful in keeping motor-
traffic levels low in a particular area, but any
through connections for pedestrians and cyclists
should be well overlooked with active frontages.
Cul-de-sacs can also provide the best solution
Irregular layouts. for developing awkward sites where through
routes are not practical (Fig. 4.9). Caution must,
Figure 4.8 Variations on the block structure. however, be exercised when planning for cul-
de-sacs, as they may concentrate traffic impact
4.5.4 Within a block structure, the designer on a small number of dwellings, require turning
has more freedom to create innovative layouts. heads that are wasteful in land terms and lead
The layouts in Fig. 4.8, and variations on them to additional vehicle travel and emissions,
(such as a ‘broken grid’ with the occasional particularly by service vehicles.
cul-de-sac), are recommended when planning
residential and mixed-use neighbourhoods. 4.6 Crime prevention
Geometric choices and street pattern 4.6.1 The layout of a residential area can have a
significant impact on crime against property (homes
4.5.5 Straight streets are efficient in the use and cars) and pedestrians. Section 17 of the Crime
of land. They maximise connections between and Disorder Act 1998,7 requires local authorities to
places and can better serve the needs of exercise their function with due regard to the likely
pedestrians who prefer direct routes. However, effect on crime and disorder. To ensure that crime
long, straight streets can also lead to higher prevention considerations are taken into account
speeds. Short and curved or irregular streets in the design of layouts, it is important to consult
contribute to variety and a sense of place, police architectural liaison officers and crime
and may also be appropriate where there are prevention officers, as advised in Safer Places.8
topographical or other site constraints, or where
there is a need to introduce some variation 4.6.2 To ensure that crime prevention is
for the sake of interest. However, layouts that properly taken into account, it is important that
use excessive or gratuitous curves should be the way in which permeability is provided is
7 Crime and Disorder Act
avoided, as they are less efficient and make given careful consideration. High permeability is
1998. London: TSO. access for pedestrians and cyclists more difficult. conducive to walking and cycling, but can lead
8 ODPM and Home Office
(2004) Safer Places: to problems of anti-social behaviour if it is only
The Planning System 4.5.6 Geometric choices and street pattern should achieved by providing routes that are poorly
and Crime Prevention.
London: Thomas
be based on a thorough understanding of context. overlooked, such as rear alleyways.
Telford Ltd.

4.6.3 Safer Places highlights the following • routes should lead directly to where
principles for reducing the likelihood of crime in people want to go;
residential areas (Wales: also refer to Technical • all routes should be necessary, serving a
Advice Note (TAN) 12 9): defined function;
• the desire for connectivity should not • cars are less prone to damage or theft if
compromise the ability of householders to parked in-curtilage (but see Chapter 8). If cars
exert ownership over private or communal cannot be parked in-curtilage, they should
‘defensible space’; ideally be parked on the street in view of the
• access to the rear of dwellings from public home. Where parking courts are used, they
spaces, including alleys, should be avoided should be small and have natural surveillance;
– a block layout, with gardens in the • layouts should be designed with regard to
middle, is a good way of ensuring this; existing levels of crime in an area; and
• cars, cyclists and pedestrians should be kept • layouts should provide natural surveillance
together if the route is over any significant by ensuring streets are overlooked and well
9 Welsh Assembly
length – there should be a presumption used (Fig. 4.10).
Government (2002). against routes serving only pedestrians
and/or cyclists away from the road unless
Chapter 5, Design Issues. they are wide, open, short and overlooked;
Figure 4.10 Active frontage to all streets and to neighbouring open space should be an aim in all
developments. Blank walls can be avoided, even on the return at junctions, with specially designed
house types.

4.7 Street character types • shopping street;
• mixed-use street;
4.7.1 Traditionally, road hierarchies (e.g. • avenue;
district distributor, local distributor, access road, • boulevard;
etc.) have been based on traffic capacity. As set • mews;
out in Chapter 2, street character types in new • lane;
residential developments should be determined • courtyard;
by the relative importance of both their place
and movement functions. 4.7.3 The above list is not exhaustive.
Whatever terms are used, it is important that the
4.7.2 Examples of the more descriptive street character type is well defined, whether
terminology that should now be used to define in a design code or in some other way. The
street character types are difference in approach is illustrated by
• high street; Figs 4.11 and 4.12.
• main street;
a b
Figure 4.11 Alternative proposals for a development: (a) is highways-led; while (b) is more attuned to pedestrian
activity and a sense of place.

a
Andrew Cameron, WSP

b
Andrew Cameron, WSP
Figure 4.12 (a) Existing development in Upton turns its back on the street; while (b) a later development
has a strong presence on the street. The latter was delivered using a collaborative workshop design process
and a design code.

5
Quality places
Case study
Chapter aims Staiths South Bank, Gateshead
• Promote the place function of streets
and explain the role that streets can play
in making better places.
• Stress the importance and value of urban
design as a framework within which
Peter O’Brien, Llewelyn Davies Yeang

streets are set out and detailed.
• Set out expectations for the design of
quality places, as well as routes for safe
and convenient movement.
• Discuss local distinctiveness.
Figure 5.1 New development at Staiths South
Bank, Gateshead.
5.1 Introduction
• A significant level of detailed effort was
5.1.1 The previous chapter described how to required to negotiate deviation from
plan sustainable communities, covering issues standards – this was resource intensive. MfS
such as the need to plan for connected layouts, guidance aims to avoid this by promoting
mixed uses and walkable neighbourhoods. This the acceptance of innovation (Fig. 5.1).
chapter develops those themes by demonstrating • The homes are relatively affordable which
the importance of quality and encouraging the shows that high-quality design need not
be expensive.
use of three-dimensional urban design.
• Parking was limited to a ratio of one space
per house, which provided scope for a
5.2 The value of good design higher-quality public realm.
• The scheme was designed as a Home Zone.
5.2.1 Good design plays a vital role in
securing places that are socially, economically and
environmentally sustainable (see ‘Gateshead case However, evidence is also growing of the economic,
study box’). Planning Policy Statement 1: Delivering social and environmental benefits of good urban
Policy Statement 1: Sustainable Development (PPS1)1 emphasises design. Good design should not be considered
Developments. London:
this. It states that ‘good design ensures attractive, as an optional or additional expense – design
TSO. usable, durable and adaptable places and is a key costs are only a small percentage of construction
2 Welsh Assembly
Government (2002)
element in achieving sustainable development. costs, but it is through the design process that
Planning Policy Wales. Good design is indivisible from good planning … the largest impact can be made on the quality,
Cardiff: NAfW.
3 Welsh Assembly
and should contribute positively to making places efficiency and overall sustainability of buildings,
Government (2002) better for people’ (Wales: refer to Planning Policy and on the long-term costs of maintenance and
Wales,2 Section 2.9, and Technical Advice Note management (Fig. 5.2).
4 Communities and Local (TAN) 123).
Government (2006)
Planning Policy Statement 5.2.4 CABE has collated a supporting
3: Housing. London: TSO. 5.2.2 This message is also reinforced by evidence base,6 which includes the following:
5 Welsh Assembly
Government (2002)
Planning Policy Statement 3: Housing (PPS3)4 • compact neighbourhoods that integrate
Ministerial Interim which states that ‘good design is fundamental to parking and transport infrastructure,
Planning Policy Statement
01/2006: Housing.
the development of high-quality new housing, encourage walking and cycling, and so
Cardiff: NAfW. which contributes to the creation of sustainable, reduce fuel consumption;
6 CABE (2002) The
Value of Good Design.
mixed communities’. (Wales: refer to Ministerial • properties adjacent to a good-quality park
London CABE; CABE Interim Planning Policy Statement 01/2006: have a 5–7% price premium compared with
(2006) Buildings and
Spaces: Why Design
Housing5). identical properties in the same area but
Matters. London: CABE; that are away from the park; and
CABE (2006) The Value
Handbook. London:
5.2.3 There is growing evidence of the benefits • the benefits of better-designed commercial
CABE; and CABE (2006) of a public space, development or building that developments include higher rent levels, lower
The Cost of Bad Design.
London: CABE.
improves people’s sense of well being, although maintenance costs, enhanced regeneration and
these benefits can often be difficult to quantify. increased public support for the development.

Una McGaughrin, Llewelyn Davies Yeang
Figure 5.2 Newhall, Harlow – a masterplan-led approach with bespoke housing design.
5.3 Key aspects of urban design streets that attempts to create quality places
break down.13 In the past, urban designers
‘Urban design is the art of making places sometimes felt that their schemes were
for people. It includes the way places work compromised by the application of geometrical
and matters such as community safety, standards to highways that were current at
as well as how they look. It concerns the the time. Highway engineers, in turn, have
connections between people and places, occasionally raised concerns about layouts that
movement and urban form, nature and the did not comply with the design criteria to which
built fabric, and the processes for ensuring they were working.
successful villages, towns and cities.’
5.3.4 MfS advocates better co-operation
By Design: Urban Design in the Planning between disciplines, and an approach to design
7 DETR and CABE (2000) System: Towards Better Practice7 based on multiple objectives.
By Design: Urban
Design in the Planning
System: Towards Better 5.3.1 It is important to appreciate what this 5.4 Street dimensions
Practice. London: means in practice. It is easy to advocate places of
Thomas Telford Ltd.
8 Llewelyn Davies (2000) beauty and distinct identity, but it takes skill to 5.4.1 Most neighbourhoods include a range
The Urban Design realise them and ensure they are fit for purpose. of street character types, each with differing
Compendium. London:
English Partnerships and A number of key documents and initiatives provide characteristics, including type of use, width and
The Housing Corporation. an introduction, including the Urban Design building heights. These characteristics dictate
Better Places to Live: By Compendium,8 Better Places to Live: By Design9 how pedestrians and traffic use the street.
Design. A Companion and Building for Life10 (see box) (Wales: see
Thomas Telford Ltd. also Creating Sustainable Places11 and A Model Width
10 www.buildingforlife.org.uk. Design Guide for Wales12).
11 Welsh Development
Agency (WDA) (2005) 5.4.2 Width between buildings is a key
Creating Sustainable 5.3.2 These basic aspects of urban design, dimension and needs to be considered in relation
Places. Cardiff: WDA.
12 LDA Design (2005) A however, are not being realised in many new to function and aesthetics. Figure 5.3 shows
Model Design Guide developments. All too often, new development typical widths for different types of street.
for Wales: Residential
Development. Cardiff: lacks identity and a sense of place. In these The distance between frontages in residential
Planning Officers cases, it lets communities and users down, streets typically ranges from 12 m to 18 m,
Society Wales.
13 CABE (2005) Housing and undermines the aims of the sustainable although there are examples of widths less
Audit: Assessing the communities agenda. than this working well. There are no fixed rules
Design Quality of New
Homes in the North East, but account should be taken of the variety of
North West and Yorkshire 5.3.3 Frequently, it is in the interaction activities taking place in the street and of the
& Humber. London:
Ernest Bond Printing Ltd. between the design and layout of homes and scale of the buildings on either side.

The principles of urban design • Layout: urban grain – the pattern of the
arrangement of street blocks,
The fundamental principles of urban design are plots and their buildings in a settlement.
described more fully in By Design: Urban Design • Landscape – the character and appearance
in the Planning System: Towards Better Practice.14 of land, including its shape, form, ecology,
They involve expressing the main objectives of natural features, colours and elements, and
urban design through the various aspects of the the way these components combine.
built form. • Density and mix – the amount of
The objectives of urban design can be development on a given piece of land
summarised as follows: and the range of uses. Density influences
the intensity of development, and, in
• Character – a place with its own identity. combination with the mix of uses,
• Continuity and enclosure – a place where can affect a place’s vitality and viability.
public and private spaces are clearly • Scale: height – scale is the size of a building
distinguished. in relation to its surroundings, or the size of
• Quality of the public realm – a place with parts of a building or its details, particularly
attractive and successful outdoor areas. in relation to the size of a person. Height
• Ease of movement – a place that is easy to determines the impact of development on
get to and move through. views, vistas and skylines.
• Legibility – a place that has a clear image • Scale: massing – the combined effect of
and is easy to understand. the arrangement, volume and shape of a
building or group of buildings in relation to
• Adaptability – a place that can change easily. other buildings and spaces.
• Diversity – a place with variety and choice. • Appearance: details – the craftsmanship,
building techniques, decoration,
The aspects of the built form are described styles and lighting of a building or
as follows: structure.
• Appearance: materials – the texture,
• Layout: urban structure – the framework of
colour, pattern and durability of materials,
routes and spaces that connect locally
and how they are used.
and more widely, and the way developments,
routes and open spaces relate to one another.
18 - 30m
7.5 - 12m
High Street Mews
27 - 36m
12 - 18m
Boulevard Residential Street
18 - 100m
14 DETR/CABE (2000) By Square

Design: Urban Design
in the Planning System:
Towards Better Practice. Figure 5.3 Typical widths for different types of street.
London: Thomas Telford.

Mews 1:1 ratio. 1:3 ratio is generally effective. Spatial definition of street through use of planting.
Large squares and very wide streets. Spatial definition by building height. Spatial definition by recess line.
Figure 5.4 Height-to-width ratios.
Height Length
5.4.3 The public realm is defined by height as 5.4.5 Street length can have a significant
well as width – or, more accurately, the ratio of effect on the quality of a place. Acknowledging
height to width. It is therefore recommended that and framing vistas and landmarks can help bring
the height of buildings (or mature trees where an identity to a neighbourhood and orientate
present in wider streets) is in proportion to the users. However, long straights can encourage
width of the intervening public space to achieve high traffic speeds, which should be mitigated
enclosure. The actual ratio depends on the type of through careful design (see Section 7.4 ‘Achieving
street or open space being designed for. This is a appropriate traffic speeds’).
fundamental urban design principle. The height-
to-width enclosure ratios shown in Table 5.1 and 5.5 Buildings at junctions
illustrated in Fig. 5.4 can serve as a guide.
5.5.1 The arrangement of buildings and
Table 5.1 Height-to-width ratios
footways has a major influence on defining
Maximum Minimum the space at a junction. It is better to design
Minor streets, e.g. mews 1:1.5 1:1 the junction on this basis rather than purely
on vehicle movement (Fig. 5.6). In terms of
Typical streets 1:3 1:1.5
streetscape, a wide carriageway with tight,
Squares 1:6 1:4 enclosed corners makes a better junction than
cutback corners with a sweeping curve. This might
involve bringing buildings forward to the corner.
5.4.4 The benefits of taller buildings, such Double-fronted buildings also have an important
as signifying locations of visual importance, role at corners. Junction treatments are explored in
adding variety, or simply accommodating larger more detail in Chapter 7.
numbers of dwellings, must be weighed against
the possible disadvantages. These include
an overbearing relationship with the street,
overshadowing of surrounding areas, and the
need to provide more parking. Design mitigation
techniques, such as wider footways, building
recesses and street trees, can reduce the impact
of taller buildings on their settings (Fig. 5.5).

a
Ben Castell, Llewelyn Davies Yeang

b

Figure 5.5 Two streets demonstrating different levels of enclosure. Street (a) has a height-to-width ratio
of approximately 1:3, enabling a pleasant living environment to be shared with functionality in the form
of traffic movement and on-street parking, some of it angled. Street (b) has a height-to-width ratio of
about 1:1.5. Again, this works well in urban design terms, but the need to accommodate on-street parking
has meant that traffic is restricted to one-way movement.
Figure 5.6 Wide, curved junctions reduce enclosure. In this example, the relationship between the buildings
and the amenity space at the centre of the circus is diminished.

5.6 Backs and fronts 5.6.2 The desirability of public fronts and private
backs applies equally to streets with higher levels of
5.6.1 In general, it is recommended that streets traffic, such as those linking or providing access
are designed with the backs and fronts of houses to residential areas. If such streets are bounded
and other buildings being treated differently. The by back-garden fences or hedges, security
basic tenet is ‘public fronts and private backs’. problems can increase, drivers may be encouraged
Ideally, and certainly in terms of crime prevention, to speed, land is inefficiently used, and there
back gardens should adjoin other back gardens is a lack of a sense of place (Fig. 5.7). Research
or a secure communal space. Front doors should carried out for MfS15 shows that streets with
open onto front gardens, small areas in front of direct frontage access to dwellings can operate
the property, or streets. safely with significant levels of traffic.
15 I. York, A. Bradbury,
S. Reid, T. Ewings and
R. Paradise (2007) The
Manual for Streets:
Redefining Residential
Street Design. TRL
Report No. 661. Figure 5.7 (a) and (b) Cul-de-sacs surrounded by a perimeter road that is fronted by back fences – no sense of place,
Crowthorne: TRL.
no relationship with its surroundings, no quality, with streets designed purely for vehicles.

5.7 Designing streets as social spaces
5.7.1 The public realm should be designed

to encourage the activities intended to take
place within it. Streets should be designed to
accommodate a range of users, create visual
interest and amenity, and encourage social
interaction. The place function of streets may equal
or outweigh the movement function, as described
in Chapter 2. This can be satisfied by providing
a mix of streets of various dimensions, squares
and courtyards, with associated ‘pocket parks’,
play spaces, resting places and shelter. The key
is to think carefully about the range of desirable

activities for the environment being created, and to
vary designs to suit each place in the network.
5.7.2 High-quality open space is a key

component of successful neighbourhoods. Local
Development Frameworks, often supplemented
by open space strategies and public realm Figure 5.8 A contemporary interpretation of the
strategies, should set out the requirements terraced house, providing active frontage to the street
for provision in particular localities. As with and a small private buffer area.
streets, parks and other open spaces should be
accessible and be well overlooked16 (Wales: Refer 5.8.2 Often satisfying one consideration will
to TAN 1617). Open spaces can aid urban cooling make it difficult to satisfy another, and invariably
to help mitigate the effects of climate change. a balance has to be achieved. This is one of the
reasons for agreeing design objectives at an early
5.8 Other layout considerations stage in the life of the scheme.
5.8.1 The layout of a new housing or mixed-use 5.9 Where streets meet buildings
area will need to take account of factors other than
street design and traffic provision. They include: 5.9.1 The space between the front of the
• the potential impact on climate change, building and the carriageway, footway or other
such as the extent to which layouts promote public space needs to be carefully managed as it
sustainable modes of transport or reduce marks the transition from the public to the private
the need to travel; realm. Continuous building lines are preferred as
• climate and prevailing wind, and the impact they provide definition to, and enclosure of, the
of this on building type and orientation; public realm. They also make navigation by blind
• energy efficiency and the potential for solar and partially-sighted people easier.
gain by orientating buildings appropriately;
• noise pollution, such as from roads or railways; 5.9.2 For occupiers of houses, the amenity
• providing views and vistas, landmarks, value of front gardens tends to be lower when
gateways and focal points to emphasise compared to their back gardens and increased
urban structure, hierarchies and connections, parking pressures on streets has meant that
as well as variety and visual interest; many householders have converted their front
Policy Guidance 17: • crime prevention, including the provision of gardens to hard standing for car parking.
Planning for Open Space,
Sport and Recreation.
defensible private and communal space, and However, this is not necessarily the most
London: TSO. active, overlooked streets (see Chapter 4); and desirable outcome for street users in terms of
17 Welsh Assembly
Government (2006) Draft
• balancing the need to provide facilities for amenity and quality of place, and can lead to
Technical Advice Note young children and teenagers overlooked problems with drainage. Where no front garden
16: Sport, Recreation
and Open Space. Cardiff:
by housing, with the detrimental effects of is provided, the setback of dwellings from the
NAfW. noise and nuisance that may result. street is a key consideration in terms of:

Figure 5.9 Trees, bollards, benches and the litter bin have the potential to clutter this residential square,
but careful design means that they add to the local amenity.
• defining the character of the street; 5.10.2 Examples of reducing the impact include:18
• determining a degree of privacy; • mounting streetlights onto buildings, or
• security space, providing a semi-private traffic signals onto lighting columns;
buffer which intruders would have to pass • locating service inspection boxes within
through, thus reducing opportunities for buildings or boundary walls;
crime (Fig. 5.8); • specifying the location and orientation of
• amenity space for plants or seating, etc.; and inspection covers in the footway;
• functional space for rubbish bins, external • ensuring that household bins and recycling
meters or storage, including secure containers can be stored off the footway; and
parking for bicycles. • designing street furniture to be in keeping
with its surroundings (Fig. 5.9).
5.9.3 Keeping garages and parking areas level
with, or behind, the main building line can be 5.10.3 Where terraced housing or flats are
aesthetically beneficial in townscape terms. proposed, it can be difficult to find space
for storing bins off the footway. In these
5.10 Reducing clutter circumstances, sub-surface or pop-up waste
containers may be a practicable solution
5.10.1 Street furniture, signs, bins, bollards, (Fig. 5.10).
utilities boxes, lighting and other items which
tend to accumulate on a footway can clutter the 5.11 Local distinctiveness
streetscape. Clutter is visually intrusive and has
adverse implications for many disabled people. 5.11.1 Local identity and distinctiveness are
The agencies responsible for such items and important design considerations and can be
18 Joint Committee on those who manage the street should consider strengthened by:
Mobility of Blind and
Partially Sighted People ways of reducing their visual impact and • relating the layout to neighbouring
(JCMBPS) (2002) Policy impediment to users. development (if it satisfies the basics of
Statement on Walking
Strategies. Reading: good urban design);
JCMBPS. • involving the community early on in the
design process;

5.11.2 Village and Town Design Statements,
which are based on enhancing local character
and distinctiveness, can also be a useful tool.
5.12 Planting
Lorraine Farrelly, University of Portsmouth

5.12.1 Space for planting can be integrated
into layout and building designs, and, wherever
possible, located on private land or buildings
(generous balconies, roof gardens, walls) or public
land intended for adoption, including the highway.
Figure 5.10 Sub-surface recycling bins for communal use. 5.12.2 Planting adds value; it helps to soften
the urban street-scene, creates visual and
• using local materials (which may also be
sensory interest, and improves the air quality
better environmentally);
and microclimate. It can also provide habitats
• using grain, patterns and form sympathetic
for wildlife. The aromatic qualities or contrasting
to the predominant vernacular styles
colours and textures of foliage are of value to
(Fig. 5.11), or as established in local
all, and can assist the navigation of those with
supplementary planning documents and/
visual impairment. Flowers and fruit trees add
or Character Assessment documents;19
seasonal variety.
• retaining historical associations; and
19 For region-specific • engaging with utility companies to ensure
guidance, see English
5.12.3 Planting can provide shade, shelter,
that the design, quality and setting of their
Heritage’s Streets for All privacy, spatial containment and separation.
series at www.english- street furniture does not detract from the
heritage.org.uk.
It can also be used to create buffer or security
overall street design, view points and vistas.
zones, visual barriers, or landmarks or gateway
features. Vegetation can be used to limit forward
visibility to help reduce vehicle speeds.
Figure 5.11 The Orchard, Lechlade – new housing sympathetic to the local context.

Figure 5.12 Mature trees help to structure the space, while buildings are placed to create a sense of enclosure.
5.12.4 Existing trees can occupy a substantial • well-informed proposals for new planting
part of a development site and can have a (or the retention and protection of existing
major influence on layout design and use of plants) and longer-term maintenance.
the site, especially if they are protected by Tree These proposals should be agreed with the
Preservation Orders. Layouts poorly designed adopting local or highway authority, trust,
in relation to existing trees, or retaining trees residents’ or community association or
of an inappropriate size, species or condition, management company.
may be resented by future occupants and create
pressure to prune or remove them in the future. 5.13 Standing the test of time
To reduce such problems, specialist advice is
needed in the design process. An arboriculturalist 5.13.1 Places need to look good and work well
will help determine whether tree retention in the long term. Design costs are only a small
can be successfully integrated within the new percentage of the overall costs, but it is the
development, specify protection measures quality of the design that makes the difference
required during construction, and recommend in creating places that will stand the test of
appropriate replacements as necessary (Fig. 5.12). time. Well-designed places last longer and are
easier to maintain, thus the costs of the design
5.12.5 Sustainable planting will require the element are repaid over time. The specification
provision of: for materials and maintenance regimes should
• healthy growing conditions; be written to provide high standards of durability
• space to allow growth to maturity with and environmental performance. Maintenance
minimal intervention or management; should be straightforward and management
• species appropriate to a local sense of regimes should ensure that there are clear lines
place and its intended function, and site of responsibility. These themes are covered
conditions; and further in Chapter 11.

C
Detailed design issues

David Millington Photography

6
Street users’ needs
Chapter aims 6.2 Requirements for pedestrians
and cyclists
• Promote inclusive design.
• Set out the various requirements of 6.2.1 When designing for pedestrians or
street users. cyclists, some requirements are common to both:
• routes should form a coherent network linking
• Summarise the requirements for various
trip origins and key destinations, and they
types of motor vehicle.
should be at a scale appropriate to the users;
• in general, networks should allow people
to go where they want, unimpeded by
6.1 Introduction street furniture, footway parking and other
obstructions or barriers;
6.1.1 Street design should be inclusive. • infrastructure must not only be safe but
Inclusive design means providing for all people also be perceived to be safe – this applies to
regardless of age or ability. There is a general both traffic safety and crime; and
duty for public authorities to promote equality • aesthetics, noise reduction and integration
under the Disability Discrimination Act 2005.1 with surrounding areas are important – the
There is also a specific obligation for those who environment should be attractive, interesting
design, manage and maintain buildings and and free from graffiti and litter, etc.
public spaces to ensure that disabled people play
a full part in benefiting from, and shaping, an 6.3 Pedestrians
inclusive built environment.
6.3.1 The propensity to walk is influenced not
6.1.2 Poor design can exacerbate the problems only by distance, but also by the quality of the
of disabled people – good design can minimise them. walking experience. A 20-minute walk alongside a
Consultation with representatives of various user- busy highway can seem endless, yet in a rich and
groups, in particular disabled people, is important for stimulating street, such as in a town centre, it can
informing the design of streets. Local access officers pass without noticing. Residential areas can offer
can also assist here. a pleasant walking experience if good quality
landscaping, gardens or interesting architecture
6.1.3 Designers should refer to Inclusive are present. Sightlines and visibility towards
Mobility,2 The Principles of Inclusive Design3 destinations or intermediate points are important
and Guidance on the Use of Tactile Paving for pedestrian way-finding and personal security,
Surfaces (1999)4 in order to ensure that their and they can help people with cognitive
designs are inclusive. impairment.
6.1.4 If any aspect of a street unavoidably 6.3.2 Pedestrians may be walking with
prevents its use by particular user groups, it is purpose or engaging in other activities such as
important that a suitable alternative is provided. play, socialising, shopping or just sitting. For the
For example, a safe cycling route to school purposes of this manual, pedestrians include
may be inappropriate for experienced cyclist wheelchair users and people pushing wheeled
commuters, while a cycle route for commuters equipment such as prams.
1 Disability Discrimination in the same transport corridor may be unsafe for
Act 2005. London: TSO. use by children. Providing one as an alternative 6.3.3 As pedestrians include people of all
(2002) Inclusive to the other overcomes these problems and ages, sizes and abilities, the design of streets
Mobility A Guide to Best ensures that the overall design is inclusive. needs to satisfy a wide range of requirements.
Practice on Access to
Pedestrian and Transport A street design which accommodates the needs
Infrastructure. London: 6.1.5 This approach is useful as it allows of children and disabled people is likely to suit
3 CABE (2006) The Principles for the provision of a specialised facility most, if not all, user types.
of Inclusive Design where there is considerable demand for it
(They include you).
London: CABE. without disadvantaging user groups unable 6.3.4 Not all disability relates to difficulties
4 DETR (1999) Guidance on to benefit from it. with mobility. People with sensory or cognitive
the Use of Tactile Paving
Surfaces. London: TSO. impairment are often less obviously disabled,

Figure 6.1 West End of London 1884 – the block dimensions are of a scale that encourages walking.
so it is important to ensure that their needs are distances involved are inconvenient, and they
not overlooked. Legible design, i.e. design which can be difficult for disabled people to use.
makes it easier for people to work out where Subways, in particular, can also raise
they are and where they are going, is especially concerns over personal security – if they are
helpful to disabled people. Not only does it unavoidable, designers should aim to make
minimise the length of journeys by avoiding them as short as possible, wide and well lit.
wrong turns, for some it may make journeys
possible to accomplish in the first place. 6.3.8 The specific conditions in a street
will determine what form of crossing is most
6.3.5 The layout of our towns and cities has relevant. All crossings should be provided with
(1995) The Assessment of historically suited pedestrian movement (Fig. 6.1). tactile paving. Further advice on the assessment
Pedestrian Crossings.
Local Transport Note
and design of pedestrian crossings is contained
1/95. London: TSO. 6.3.6 Walkable neighbourhoods should be on in Local Transport Notes 1/955 and 2/956 and the
(1995) The Design of
an appropriate scale, as advised in Chapter 4. Puffin Good Practice Guide.7
Pedestrian Crossings. Pedestrian routes need to be direct and match
Local Transport Note
2/95. London: TSO.
desire lines as closely as possible. Permeable 6.3.9 Surface level crossings can be of a
7 County Surveyors’ networks help minimise walking distances. number of types, as outlined below:
Society/Department for
Transport (2006) Puffin
• Uncontrolled crossings – these can be
Good Practice Guide 6.3.7 Pedestrian networks need to connect created by dropping kerbs at intervals
available to download
from www.dft.gov.uk or
with one another. Where these networks are along a link. As with other types of
www.cssnet.org.uk. separated by heavily-trafficked roads, crossing, these should be matched to the
(2005) Inclusive Mobility
appropriate surface level crossings should be pedestrian desire lines. If the crossing
A Guide to Best Practice provided where practicable. Footbridges and pattern is fairly random and there is
on Access to Pedestrian
and Transport
subways should be avoided unless local an appreciable amount of pedestrian
Infrastructure. London: topography or other conditions make them activity, a minimum frequency of 100 m
Department for
Transport.
necessary. The level changes and increased is recommended.8 Dropped kerbs should

be marked with appropriate tactile paving have nearside pedestrian signals and a
and aligned with those on the other side variable crossing time, are replacing Pelican
of the carriageway. crossings. They use pedestrian detectors
• Informal crossings – these can be created to match the length of the crossing period
through careful use of paving materials to the time pedestrians take to cross.
and street furniture to indicate a crossing Toucan and equestrian crossings operate in
place which encourages slow-moving traffic a similar manner to Puffin crossings except
to give way to pedestrians (Fig. 6.2). that cyclists can also use Toucan crossings,
• Pedestrian refuges and kerb build-outs while equestrian crossings have a separate
– these can be used separately or in crossing for horse riders. Signalised
combination. They effectively narrow the crossings are preferred by blind or
carriageway and so reduce the crossing partially-sighted people.
distance. However, they can create
pinch-points for cyclists if the remaining 6.3.10 Obstructions on the footway should
gap is still wide enough for motor vehicles be minimised. Street furniture is typically
to squeeze past them. sited on footways and can be a hazard for
• Zebra crossings – of the formal crossing blind or partially-sighted people.
types, these involve the minimum delay for
pedestrians when used in the right situation. 6.3.11 Where it is necessary to break a road
• Signalised crossings – there are four types: link in order to discourage through traffic, it is
Pelican, Puffin, Toucan and equestrian recommended that connectivity for pedestrians
crossings. The Pelican crossing was the first is maintained through the break unless there
to be introduced. Puffin crossings, which are compelling reasons to prevent it.
Andrew Cameron, WSP
Figure 6.2 Informal crossing, Colchester – although the chains and a lack of tactile paving are hazardous to
blind or partially-sighted people.

Small radius (eg. 1 metre) Large radius (eg. 7 metres)
• Pedestrian desire line (---) is maintained. • Pedestrian desire line deflected.

• Vehicles turn slowly (10 mph – 15 mph). • Detour required to minimise crossing distance.
• Vehicles turn faster (20 mph – 30 mph).

• Pedestrian does not have to look further • Pedestrian must look further behind to check
behind to check for turning vehicles. for fast turning vehicles.
• Pedestrian can easily establish priority because • Pedestrian cannot normally establish priority
vehicles turn slowly. against fast turning vehicles.
Figure 6.3 The effects of corner radii on pedestrians.
6.3.12 Pedestrian desire lines should be kept encourage drivers to make the turn more quickly,
as straight as possible at side-road junctions speeds will need to be controlled in some way,
unless site-specific reasons preclude it. Small such as through using a speed table at the
corner radii minimise the need for pedestrians junction.
to deviate from their desire line (Fig. 6.3).
Dropped kerbs with the appropriate tactile 6.3.15 The kerbed separation of footway and
paving should be provided at all side-road carriageway can offer protection to pedestrians,
junctions where the carriageway and footway channel surface water, and assist blind or
are at different levels. They should not be partially-sighted people in finding their way
placed on curved sections of kerbing because around, but kerbs can also present barriers to
this makes it difficult for blind or partially- some pedestrians. Kerbs also tend to confer an
sighted people to orientate themselves implicit priority to vehicles on the carriageway.
before crossing. At junctions and other locations, such as school
or community building entrances, there are
6.3.13 With small corner radii, large vehicles benefits in considering bringing the carriageway
may need to use the full carriageway width up flush with the footway to allow people
to turn. Swept-path analysis can be used to to cross on one level (Fig. 6.4). This can be
determine the minimum dimensions required. achieved by:
The footway may need to be strengthened • raising the carriageway to footway level
locally in order to allow for larger vehicles across the mouths of side roads; and
occasionally overrunning the corner. • providing a full raised speed-table at ‘T’
junctions and crossroads.
6.3.14 Larger radii can be used without
interrupting the pedestrian desire line if the
footway is built out at the corners. If larger radii

Andrew Cameron, WSP
Stuart Reid, TRL

Figure 6.4 Raised crossover, but located away Figure 6.6 Uninviting pedestrian link – narrow, not
from the desire line for pedestrians and therefore well overlooked, unlit and deserted.
ignored – the crossover should be nearer the
junction with, in this case, a steeper ramp for
vehicles entering the side street.
Andrew Cameron, WSP

Figure 6.5 Inviting pedestrian link. Figure 6.7 Overlooked shared route for pedestrians
and vehicles, Poundbury, Dorset.
6.3.16 The carriageway is usually raised using 6.3.18 Pedestrians generally feel safe from
short ramps which can have a speed-reducing crime where:
effect, but if the street is on a bus route, for • their routes are overlooked by buildings
example, a more gradual change in height may with habitable rooms (Fig. 6.7);
be more appropriate (Fig. 6.4). It is important • other people are using the street;
that any such shared surface arrangements are • there is no evidence of anti-social activity
designed for blind or partially-sighted people (e.g. litter, graffiti, vandalised street furniture);
because conventional kerbs are commonly • they cannot be surprised (e.g. at blind corners);
used to aid their navigation. Tactile paving • they cannot be trapped (e.g. people can
is required at crossing points regardless of feel nervous in places with few entry and
whether kerbs are dropped or the carriageway exit points, such as subway networks); and
is raised to footway level. Other tactile • there is good lighting.
information may be required to compensate
for kerb removal elsewhere. 6.3.19 Streets with high traffic speeds can
make pedestrians feel unsafe. Designers should
6.3.17 Pedestrians can be intimidated by seek to control vehicle speeds to below 20 mph
traffic and can be particularly vulnerable to the in residential areas so that pedestrians activity is
fear of crime or anti-social behaviour. In order not displaced. Methods of vehicle speed control
to encourage and facilitate walking, pedestrians are discussed in Chapter 7.
need to feel safe (Figs 6.5 and 6.6).

2.1m
0.75 m 0.9 m 1.5 m 1.2 m
Footway
2m (min)
Stay/chat
2.5m or more
Play 4.0m or more

Figure 6.8 The footway and pedestrian areas provide for a range of functions which can include browsing,
pausing, socialising and play.
6.3.20 Inclusive Mobility gives guidance on 6.3.23 Footway widths can be varied
design measures for use where there are steep between different streets to take account of
slopes or drops at the rear of footways. pedestrian volumes and composition. Streets
where people walk in groups or near schools
6.3.21 Places for pedestrians may need to serve a or shops, for example, need wider footways.
variety of purposes, including movement in groups, In areas of high pedestrian flow, the quality of
children’s play and other activities (Fig. 6.8). the walking experience can deteriorate unless
sufficient width is provided. The quality of
6.3.22 There is no maximum width for service goes down as pedestrian flow density
footways. In lightly used streets (such as those increases. Pedestrian congestion through
with a purely residential function), the minimum insufficient capacity should be avoided. It is
unobstructed width for pedestrians should inconvenient and may encourage people to
generally be 2 m. Additional width should step into the carriageway (Fig. 6.9).
be considered between the footway and a
heavily used carriageway, or adjacent to 6.3.24 Porch roofs, awnings, garage doors,
gathering places, such as schools and shops. bay windows, balconies or other building
Further guidance on minimum footway widths elements should not oversail footways at a
is given in Inclusive Mobility. height of less than 2.6 m.

0.05 P/m2 0.20 P/m2 0.50 P/m2 0.90 P/m2
Figure 6.9 Diagram showing different densities of

use in terms of pedestrians per square metre.
Derived from Vorrang für Fussgänger 9. Figure 6.10 Poorly maintained tree obstructing
the footway.
6.3.25 Trees to be sited within or close to down (common under footbridge ramps), or the
footways should be carefully selected so that pedestrian surface ramps up, should be avoided
their spread does not reduce pedestrian space or fenced off.
below minimum dimensions for width and
headroom (Fig. 6.10). 6.3.27 Designers should attempt to keep
pedestrian (and cycle) routes as near to level
6.3.26 Low overhanging trees, overgrown as possible along their length and width,
shrubs and advertising boards can be particularly within the constraints of the site. Longitudinal
hazardous for blind or partially-sighted people. gradients should ideally be no more than 5%,
Tapering obstructions, where the clearance under although topography or other circumstances
a structure reduces because the structure slopes may make this difficult to achieve (Fig. 6.11).
Andrew Cameron, WSP
9 Wissenschaft & Verkehr

(1993) Vorrang für
Fussgänger. Verkehrsclub Figure 6.11 In some instances it may be possible to keep footways level when the carriageway is on a gradient,
Österreich. although this example deflects pedestrians wanting to cross the side road significantly from their desire lines.

back of footway
900 mm minimum at normal

original footway profile footway crossfall (2.5% max.)
25 mm minimum upstand
Figure 6.12 Typical vehicle crossover.
6.3.28 Off-street parking often requires cross. Vehicle crossovers should therefore have a
motorists to cross footways. Crossovers to private minimum upstand of 25 mm at the carriageway
driveways are commonly constructed by ramping edge. Where there is a need for a pedestrian
up from the carriageway over the whole width crossing point, it should be constructed
of the footway, simply because this is easier to separately, with tactile paving and kerbs dropped
construct. This is poor practice and creates flush with the carriageway.
inconvenient cross-falls for pedestrians.
Excessive cross-fall causes problems for people 6.3.31 Surfaces used by pedestrians need to
pushing prams and can be particularly difficult to be smooth and free from trip hazards. Irregular
negotiate for people with a mobility impairment, surfaces, such as cobbles, are a barrier to some
including wheelchair users. pedestrians and are unlikely to be appropriate
for residential areas.
6.3.29 Where it is necessary to provide vehicle
crossovers, the normal footway cross-fall should 6.3.32 Designs need to ensure that pedestrian
be maintained as far as practicable from the back areas are properly drained and are neither washed
of the footway (900 mm minimum) (Fig. 6.12). by runoff nor subject to standing water (Fig 6.13).
6.3.30 Vehicle crossovers are not suitable as 6.3.33 Seating on key pedestrian routes should be
pedestrian crossing points. Blind or partially- considered every 100 m to provide rest points and to
sighted people need to be able to distinguish encourage street activity. Seating should ideally be
between them and places where it is safe to located where there is good natural surveillance.
Andrew Cameron, WSP

Stuart Reid, TRL
Figure 6.13 Poor drainage at a pedestrian crossing Figure 6.14 On-street cycling in Ipswich.
place causes discomfort and inconvenience.

Small radius (eg. 1 metre) Large radius (eg. 7 metres)

• Cycle and car speeds compatible. • Danger from fast turning vehicles cutting
across cyclists.
Figure 6.15 The effect of corner radii on cyclists near turning vehicles.
6.4 Cyclists 6.4.6 The design of junctions affects the way

motorists interact with cyclists. It is recommended
6.4.1 Cyclists should generally be that junctions are designed to promote slow
accommodated on the carriageway. In areas with motor-vehicle speeds. This may include short
low traffic volumes and speeds, there should not corner radii as well as vertical deflections (Fig. 6.15).
be any need for dedicated cycle lanes on the
street (Fig. 6.14). 6.4.7 Where cycle-specific facilities, such
as cycle tracks, are provided, their geometry
6.4.2 Cycle access should always be considered and visibility should be in accordance with the
on links between street networks which are not appropriate design speed. The design speed for
available to motor traffic. If an existing street is a cycle track would normally be 30 km/h (20
closed off, it should generally remain open to mph), but reduced as necessary to as low as 10
pedestrians and cyclists. km/h (6 mph) for short distances where cyclists
would expect to slow down, such as on the
6.4.3 Cyclists prefer direct, barrier-free routes approach to a subway. Blind corners are a
with smooth surfaces. Routes should avoid the hazard and should be avoided.
need for cyclists to dismount.
6.4.8 Cyclists should be catered for on the
6.2.4 Cyclists are more likely to choose routes road if at all practicable. If cycle lanes are
that enable them to keep moving. Routes that take installed, measures should be taken to prevent
cyclists away from their desire lines and require them from being blocked by parked vehicles.
them to concede priority to side-road traffic are If cycle tracks are provided, they should be
less likely to be used. Anecdotal evidence suggests physically segregated from footways/footpaths
that cyclists using cycle tracks running adjacent if there is sufficient width available. However,
and parallel to a main road are particularly there is generally little point in segregating a
vulnerable when they cross the mouths of side combined width of about 3.3 m or less. The
roads and that, overall, these routes can be fear of being struck by cyclists is a significant
more hazardous to cyclists than the equivalent concern for many disabled people. Access
on-road route. officers and consultation groups should be
involved in the decision-making process.
6.4.5 Cyclists are particularly sensitive to
traffic conditions. High speeds or high volumes 6.4.9 Cycle tracks are more suited to leisure
of traffic tend to discourage cycling. If traffic routes over relatively open spaces. In a built-up
conditions are inappropriate for on-street area, they should be well overlooked. The decision
cycling, the factors contributing to them need to to light them depends on the circumstances of
be addressed, if practicable, to make on-street the site – lighting may not always be appropriate.
cycling satisfactory. This is described in more
detail in Chapter 7.

6.4.10 Like pedestrians, cyclists can be 6.5.5 In order to design for long-term viability,
vulnerable to personal security concerns. Streets the following should be considered:
which meet the criteria described for pedestrians • streets serving bus routes should be reasonably
are likely to be acceptable to cyclists. straight. Straight routes also help passenger
demand through reduced journey times and
6.4.11 The headroom over routes used by better visibility. Straight streets may, however,
cyclists should normally be 2.7 m (minimum lead to excessive speeds. Where it is necessary
2.4 m). The maximum gradients should generally to introduce traffic-calming features, designers
be no more than 3%, or 5% maximum over a should consider their potential effects on buses
distance of 100 m or less, and 7% maximum over and bus passengers; and
a distance of 30 m or less. However, topography • layouts designed with strong connections
may dictate the gradients, particularly if the to the local highway network, and which
route is in the carriageway. avoid long one-way loops or long distances
without passenger catchments, are likely to
6.4.12 As a general rule, the geometry, be more viable.
including longitudinal profile, and surfaces
employed on carriageways create an acceptable 6.5.6 Bus priority measures may be appropriate
running surface for cyclists. The exception to within developments to give more direct
this rule is the use of granite setts, or similar. routeing or to assist buses in avoiding streets
These provide an unpleasant cycling experience where delays could occur.
due to the unevenness of the surface. They can
prove to be particularly hazardous in the wet and 6.5.7 Using a residential street as a bus route
when cyclists are turning, especially when giving need not require restrictions on direct vehicular
hand signals at the same time. The conditions access to housing. Detailed requirements
for cyclists on such surfaces can be improved if for streets designated as bus routes can be
the line they usually follow is locally paved using determined in consultation with local public
larger slabs to provide a smoother ride. transport operators. Streets on bus routes
should not generally be less than 6.0 m wide
6.5 Public transport (although this could be reduced on short
sections with good inter-visibility between
6.5.1 This section concentrates on bus-based opposing flows). The presence and arrangement of
public transport as this is the most likely mode on-street parking, and the manner of its provision,
to be used for serving residential areas. Inclusive will affect width requirements.
Mobility gives detailed guidance on accessible
bus stop layout and design, signing, lighting,
and design of accessible bus (and rail) stations
and interchanges.
Public transport vehicles
6.5.2 Purpose-built buses, from ‘hoppers’ to

4.57 m
double-deckers, vary in length and height, but

width is relatively fixed (Fig. 6.16).
6.5.3 Streets currently or likely to be used

3.2 m
by public transport should be identified in the

design process, working in partnership with
public transport operators.
6.5.4 Bus routes and stops should form

key elements of the walkable neighbourhood.
0.25 m 2.5 m (max) 0.25 m
Designers and local authorities should try to
ensure that development densities will be high 3.0 m
enough to support a good level of service Figure 6.16 Typical bus dimensions
without long-term subsidy.

Andrew Cameron, WSP
Figure 6.17 The bus lay-by facilitates the free movement of other vehicles, but it is inconvenient for pedestrians.
6.5.8 Swept-path analysis can be used to pedestrians walking along the street from their
determine the ability of streets to accommodate desire line and the insufficient footway width
large vehicles. Bus routes in residential areas at the bus stop hinders free movement.
are likely to require a more generous swept
path to allow efficient operation. While it 6.5.11 Bus stops should be placed near
would be acceptable for the occasional lorry junctions so that they can be accessed by
to have to negotiate a particular junction more than one route on foot, or near specific
with care, buses need to be able to do so with passenger destinations (schools, shops, etc.)
relative ease. The level of provision required but not so close as to cause problems at the
for the movement of buses should consider junction. On streets with low movement function
the frequency and the likelihood of two buses (see Chapter 2), setting back bus stops from
travelling in opposite directions meeting each junctions to maximise traffic capacity should
other on a route. be avoided.
Bus stops 6.5.12 Bus stops should be high-quality

places that are safe and comfortable to use.
6.5.9 It is essential to consider the siting of Consideration should be given to providing cycle
public transport stops and related pedestrian parking at bus stops with significant catchment
desire lines at an early stage of design. Close areas. Cycle parking should be designed and
co-operation is required between public transport located so as not to create a hazard, or impede
operators, the local authorities and the developer. access for, disabled people.
6.5.10 First and foremost, the siting of bus 6.5.13 Footways at bus stops should be
stops should be based on trying to ensure they wide enough for waiting passengers while
can be easily accessed on foot. Their precise still allowing for pedestrian movement along
location will depend on other issues, such as the footway. This may require local widening
the need to avoid noise nuisance, visibility at the stop.
requirements, and the convenience of
pedestrians and cyclists. Routes to bus stops 6.5.14 Buses can help to control the speed of
must be accessible by disabled people. For traffic at peak times by preventing cars from
example, the bus lay-by in Fig. 6.17 deflects overtaking. This is also helpful for the safety of
passengers crossing after leaving the bus.

Lorry
Van/mini bus
4.2 m
Family saloon
2.4 m
1.6 m
0.25 m 2.5 m 0.25 m 0.2 m 2.0 m 0.2 m 0.1 m 1.8 m 0.1 m
3.0 m 2.4 m 2.0 m
Figure 6.18 Private and commercial motor-vehicles – typical dimensions.
6.6 Private and commercial 6.6.2 In a residential environment, flow is unlikely

motor vehicles to be high enough to determine street widths, and
the extent of parking provision (see Chapter 8) will
6.6.1 Streets need to be designed to depend on what is appropriate for the site.
accommodate a range of vehicles from private
cars, with frequent access requirements, to larger 6.6.3 In some locations, a development may
vehicles such as delivery vans and lorries, needing be based on car-free principles. For example,
less frequent access (Fig. 6.18). Geometric design there are options for creating developments
which satisfies the access needs of emergency relatively free of cars by providing remotely
service and waste collection vehicles will also sited parking (e.g. Greenwich Millennium
cover the needs of private cars. However, Village, see Fig. 6.19) or by creating a wholly
meeting the needs of drivers in residential streets car-free development. Such approaches can
should not be to the detriment of pedestrians, have a significant effect on the design of
cyclists and public transport users. The aim should residential streets and the way in which they
be to achieve a harmonious mix of user types. are subsequently used.
Andrew Cameron, WSP
Figure 6.19 Greenwich Millennium Village. Cars can be parked on the street for a short time,
after which they must be moved to a multi-storey car park.

setting out response time targets (Wales:
6.7 Emergency vehicles Risk Reduction Plans12). These targets
depend on the time required to get fire
6.7.1 The requirements for emergency appliances to a particular area, together with
vehicles are generally dictated by the fire service the ease of movement within it. It is therefore
requirements. Providing access for large fire possible that a layout acceptable to the Fire
appliances (including the need to be able to and Rescue Service (FRS) in one area, might
work around them where appropriate) will cater be objected to in a more remote location;
for police vehicles and ambulances. • parked cars can have a significant influence
on response times. Developments should
6.7.2 The Building Regulation requirement have adequate provision for parking to
B5 (2000)10 concerns ‘Access and Facilities for the reduce its impact on response times; and
Fire Service’. Section 17, ‘Vehicle Access’, includes • residential sprinkler systems are highly
the following advice on access from the highway: regarded by the FRS and their presence
• there should be a minimum carriageway allows a longer response time to be used.
width of 3.7 m between kerbs; A site layout which has been rejected on the
• there should be vehicle access for a pump grounds of accessibility for fire appliances
appliance within 45 m of single family houses; may become acceptable if its buildings are
• there should be vehicle access for a pump equipped with these systems.
appliance within 45 m of every dwelling
entrance for flats/maisonettes; 6.8 Service vehicles
• a vehicle access route may be a road or
other route; and 6.8.1 The design of local roads should
• fire service vehicles should not have to accommodate service vehicles without
reverse more than 20 m. allowing their requirements to dominate the
layout. On streets with low traffic flows and
6.7.3 The Association of Chief Fire Officers speeds, it may be assumed that they will be
has expanded upon and clarified these able to use the full width of the carriageway
requirements as follows: to manoeuvre. Larger vehicles which are
• a 3.7 m carriageway (kerb to kerb) is only expected to use a street infrequently,
required for operating space at the scene such as pantechnicons, need not be fully
of a fire. Simply to reach a fire, the access accommodated – designers could assume that
route could be reduced to 2.75 m over short they will have to reverse or undertake multi-
distances, provided the pump appliance can point turns to turn around for the relatively
get to within 45 m of dwelling entrances; small number of times they will require access.
• if an authority or developer wishes to
reduce the running carriageway width to 6.8.2 Well-connected street networks have
below 3.7 m, they should consult the local significant advantages for service vehicles.
Fire Safety Officer; A shorter route can be used to cover a given
• the length of cul-de-sacs or the number area, and reversing may be avoided altogether.
of dwellings have been used by local They also minimise land-take by avoiding the
authorities as criteria for limiting the size need for wasteful turning areas at the ends of
of a development served by a single access cul-de-sacs.
10 Statutory Instrument 2000 route. Authorities have often argued that
No. 2531, The Building
Regulations 2000. London: the larger the site, the more likely it is 6.8.3 However, some sites cannot facilitate
TSO. Part II, paragraph B5: that a single access could be blocked for such ease of movement (e.g. linear sites and
Access and facilities for
the fire service. whatever reason. The fire services adopt a less those with difficult topography), and use
11 Fire and Rescue Services numbers-driven approach and consider each cul-de-sacs to make the best use of the land
Act 2004. London: TSO.
12 Risk Reduction Plans application based on a risk assessment for the available. For cul-de-sacs longer than 20 m,
required by the Welsh site, and response time requirements. Since a turning area should be provided to cater for
Assembly. See Welsh
Assembly Government the introduction of the Fire and Rescue vehicles that will regularly need to enter the
(2005) Fire and Rescue Services Act 2004,11 all regions have had to street. Advice on the design of turning areas is
National Framework for
Wales. Cardiff: NAfW. produce an Integrated Management Plan given in Chapter 7.

Waste collection vehicles a turning circle of 20.3 m. It recommends a
minimum street width of 5 m, but smaller widths
6.8.4 The need to provide suitable are acceptable where on-street parking is
opportunities for the storage and collection of discouraged. Swept-path analysis can be used to
waste is a major consideration in the design of assess layouts for accessibility. Where achieving
buildings, site layouts and individual streets. these standards would undermine quality of
Storage may be complicated by the need to place, alternative vehicle sizes and/or collection
provide separate facilities for refuse and the methods should be considered.
various categories of recyclable waste. Quality
of place will be significantly affected by the type 6.8.8 Reversing causes a disproportionately
of waste collection and management systems large number of moving vehicle accidents in the
used, because they in turn determine the sort of waste/recycling industry. Injuries to collection
vehicles that will need to gain access. workers or members of the public by moving
collection vehicles are invariably severe or
6.8.5 Policy for local and regional waste fatal. BS 5906: 2005 recommends a maximum
planning bodies is set out in Planning Policy reversing distance of 12 m. Longer distances can
Statement 10: Planning for Sustainable Waste be considered, but any reversing routes should
Management (PPS10)13 and its companion be straight and free from obstacles or visual
guide. PPS10 refers to design and layout obstructions.
in new development being able to help
secure opportunities for sustainable waste 6.8.9 Schedule 1, Part H of the Building
management. Planning authorities should ensure Regulations (2000)17 define locations for the
that new developments make sufficient provision storage and collection of waste. The collection
for waste management and promote designs point can be on-street (but see Section 6.8.11), or
and layouts that secure the integration of waste may be at another location defined by the waste
management facilities without adverse impact on authority. Key points in the Approved Document
the street scene (Wales: Refer to Chapter 12 of to Part H are:
PPW14 and TAN 21: Waste15). • residents should not be required to carry
waste more than 30 m (excluding any
6.8.6 The operation of waste collection vertical distance) to the storage point;
services should be an integral part of street • waste collection vehicles should be able
design and achieved in ways that do not to get to within 25 m of the storage point
compromise quality of place. Waste disposal (note, BS 5906: 200518 recommends shorter
and collection authorities and their contractors distances) and the gradient between the
Policy Statement 10: should take into account the geometry of two should not exceed 1:12. There should
Planning for Sustainable streets across their area and the importance be a maximum of three steps for waste
Waste Management.
London: TSO. of securing quality of place when designing
14 Welsh Assembly collection systems and deciding which vehicles
Government (2002).
Planning Policy Wales. are applicable. While it is always possible to
Cardiff: NAfW. Chapter design new streets to take the largest vehicle
12, Infrastructure and
Services. that could be manufactured, this would conflict
15 Welsh Assembly with the desire to create quality places. It is
Government (2001)
Technical Advice Note 21: neither necessary nor desirable to design new
Waste. Cardiff: NAfW. streets to accommodate larger waste collection
16 British Standards
Institute (BSI) (2005) vehicles than can be used within existing streets
BS 5906: 2005 Waste in the area.
Management in
Buildings – Code of
Practice. London: BSI. 6.8.7 Waste collection vehicles fitted with
17 Statutory Instrument
2000 No. 2531, The rear-mounted compaction units (Fig .6.20) are
Building Regulations about the largest vehicles that might require
Tim Pharoah
2000. London: TSO.

18 BSI (2005) BS 5906: regular access to residential areas. BS 5906:
2005 Waste Management 200516 notes that the largest waste vehicles
in Buildings – Code of
Practice. London: BSI. currently in use are around 11.6 m long, with Figure 6.20 Large waste collection truck in a
residential street.

on the way waste is to be managed and in particular:
• methods for storing, segregating and
collecting waste;
• the amount of waste storage required,
based on collection frequency, and the
volume and nature of the waste generated
by the development; and
• the size of anticipated collection vehicles.
6.8.13 The design of new developments should

not require waste bins to be left on the footway
as they reduce its effective width. Waste bins on
the footway pose a hazard for blind or partially-
sighted people and may prevent wheelchair and
pushchair users from getting past.
Andrew Cameron, WSP

Recycling
6.8.14 The most common types of provision

for recycling (often used in combination) are:
Figure 6.21 Refuse disposal point discharging into • ‘bring’ facilities, such as bottle and paper
underground collection facility.
banks, where residents leave material for
recycling; and
containers up to 250 litres, and none when • kerbside collection, where householders
larger containers are used (the Health and separate recyclable material for collection
Safety Executive recommends that, ideally, at the kerbside.
there should be no steps to negotiate); and
• the collection point should be reasonably 6.8.15 ‘Bring’ facilities need to be in accessible
accessible for vehicles typically used by the locations, such as close to community buildings, but
waste collection authority. not where noise from bottle banks, etc., can disturb
residents. There needs to be enough room for the
6.8.10 Based on these parameters, it may movement and operation of collection vehicles.
not be necessary for a waste vehicle to enter
a cul-de-sac less than around 55 m in length, 6.8.16 Underground waste containers may
although this will involve residents and waste be worth considering. All that is visible to the
collection operatives moving waste the maximum user is a ‘litter bin’ or other type of disposal
recommended distances, which is not desirable. point (Fig. 6.21). This collects in underground
containers which are emptied by specially
6.8.11 BS 5906: 2005 provides guidance equipped vehicles. There were some 175 such
and recommendations on good practice. The systems in use in the UK in 2006.
standard advises on dealing with typical weekly
waste and recommends that the distance over 6.8.17 Kerbside collection systems generally
which containers are transported by collectors require householders to store more than one
should not normally exceed 15 m for two-wheeled type of waste container. This needs to
containers, and 10 m for four-wheeled containers. be considered in the design of buildings
or external storage facilities.
6.8.12 It is essential that liaison between the
designers, the waste, highways, planning and 6.8.18 Designers should ensure that containers
building control authorities, and access officers, can be left out for collection without blocking
takes place at an early stage. Agreement is required the footway or presenting hazards to users.

7
Street geometry
Andrew Cameron, WSP

Chapter aims 7.2 Street dimensions

• Advise how the requirements of 7.2.1 The design of new streets or the
different users can be accommodated improvement of existing ones should take into
in street design. account the functions of the street, and the
• Summarise research which shows that type, density and character of the development.
increased visibility encourages higher
vehicle speeds. 7.2.2 Carriageway widths should be
appropriate for the particular context and
• Describe how street space can be allocated uses of the street. Key factors to take into
based on pedestrian need, using swept account include:
path analysis to ensure that minimum • the volume of vehicular traffic and
access requirements for vehicles are met. pedestrian activity;
• Describe the rationale behind using • the traffic composition;
shorter vehicle stopping distances to • the demarcation, if any, between
determine visibility requirements on links carriageway and footway (e.g. kerb, street
and at junctions. furniture or trees and planting);
• whether parking is to take place in the
• Recommend that the design of streets carriageway and, if so, its distribution,
should determine vehicle speed. arrangement, the frequency of occupation,
• Recommend a maximum design speed of and the likely level of parking enforcement
20 mph for residential streets. (if any);
• the design speed (recommended to be
20 mph or less in residential areas);
7.1 Introduction • the curvature of the street (bends require
greater width to accommodate the swept
7.1.1 Several issues need to be considered path of larger vehicles); and
in order to satisfy the various user requirements • any intention to include one-way streets,
detailed in Chapter 6, namely: or short stretches of single lane working in
• street widths and components; two-way streets.
• junctions;
• features for controlling vehicle speeds; 7.2.3 In lightly-trafficked streets,
• forward visibility on links; and carriageways may be narrowed over short
• visibility splays at junctions. lengths to a single lane as a traffic-calming
feature. In such single lane working sections of
2750
4100
4800
5500
Figure 7.1 Illustrates what various carriageway widths can accommodate. They are not necessarily
recommendations.

street, to prevent parking, the width between 7.2.4 Each street in the network is allocated a
constraining vertical features such as bollards particular street character type, depending on
should be no more than 3.5 m. In particular where it sits within the place/movement
circumstances this may be reduced to a hierarchy (see Chapter 2) and the requirements
minimum value of 2.75 m, which will still allow of its users (see Chapter 6). Individual streets
for occasional large vehicles (Fig. 7.1). However, can then be designed in detail using the relevant
widths between 2.75 m and 3.25 m should be typical arrangement as a starting point. For
avoided in most cases, since they could result in example, one street might have a fairly high
drivers trying to squeeze past cyclists. The local movement status combined with a medium place
Fire Safety Officer should be consulted where a status, whilst another might have very little
carriageway width of less than 3.7 m is proposed movement status but a high place status. The
(see paragraph 6.6.3) typical arrangement for each street character
type can then be drawn up. This may be best
a Case study
Local centre
Newhall, Harlow
School
Una McGaughri, Llewelyn Davies Yeang

Figure 7.3 On-street parking and shallow gradient
junction table suitable for accommodating buses.
c
Newhall demonstrates that adherence to
masterplan principles can be achieved through
the use of design codes (Fig. 7.3) that are
attached to land sales and achieved by
covenants.
A list of key dimensions was applied:

• Frontage to frontage – min 10.5 m;
• Carriageway width – min 4.8 m, max 8.8 m;
• Footway width – min 1.5 m;
• Front gardens – min 1.5 m, max 3 m;
• Reservation for services – 1 m; and
• Design speed – 20 mph.
0.3 m 2 m 2m 4.8 – 5.5 m 2 m 0.3 m The design is based on pedestrian priority and
11.4 – 12.1 m vehicle speeds of less than 20 mph controlled
Figure 7.2 Typical representation of a street character through the street design.
type. This example shows the detail for minor side
street junctions. Key plan (a) shows the locations,
(b) is a cross-section and (c) the plan.

a b c
Figure 7.4 Left to right: (a) the buildings and urban edge of a street help to form the place; (b) the kerb line
can be used to reinforce this; and (c) the remaining carriageway space is tracked for movement and for the
provision of places where people may park their vehicles.
represented using a plan and cross-section as Shared surface streets and squares
illustrated in Figure 7.2.
7.2.8 In traditional street layouts, footways
7.2.5 These street types can be defined in and carriageways are separated by a kerb. In a
a design code, as demonstrated at Newhall, street with a shared surface, this demarcation is
Harlow (see Newhall, Harlow box). absent and pedestrians and vehicles share the
same surface. Shared surface schemes work best
in relatively calm traffic environments. The key
Swept path analysis
aims are to:
• encourage low vehicle speeds;
7.2.6 Swept path analysis, or tracking, • create an environment in which pedestrians
is used to determine the space required for can walk, or stop and chat, without feeling
various vehicles and is a key tool for designing intimidated by motor traffic;
carriageways for vehicular movement within • make it easier for people to move around;
the overall layout of the street. The potential and
layouts of buildings and spaces do not have to • promote social interaction.
be dictated by carriageway alignment – they
should generally be considered first, with the 7.2.9 In the absence of a formal carriageway,
carriageway alignment being designed to fit the intention is that motorists entering the area
within the remaining space (Fig. 7.4). will tend to drive more cautiously and negotiate
the right of way with pedestrians on a more
conciliatory level (Fig. 7.5).
7.2.7 The use of computer-aided design
(CAD) tracking models and similar techniques
7.2.10 However, shared surfaces can cause
often proves to be beneficial in determining
problems for some disabled people. People with
how the street will operate and how vehicles
cognitive difficulties may find the environment
will move within it. Layouts designed using this
difficult to interpret. In addition, the absence of
approach enable buildings to be laid out to suit
a conventional kerb poses problems for blind or
the character of the street, with footways and
partially-sighted people, who often rely on this
kerbs helping to define and emphasise spaces.
feature to find their way around. It is therefore
Designers have the freedom to vary the space
important that shared surface schemes include
between kerbs or buildings. The kerb line does
an alternative means for visually-impaired people
not need to follow the line of vehicle tracking if
to navigate by.
careful attention is given to the combination of
sightlines, parking and pedestrian movements.

7.2.12 Consultation with the community and
users, particularly with disability groups and
access officers, is essential when any shared
surface scheme is developed. Early indications
are that, in many instances, a protected space,
with appropriate physical demarcation, will
need to be provided, so that those pedestrians
who may be unable or unwilling to negotiate
priority with vehicles can use the street safely and
comfortably.
7.2.13 When designing shared surface

schemes, careful attention to detail is required to
avoid other problems, such as:
• undifferentiated surfaces leading to poor
parking behaviour;
• vulnerable road users feeling threatened by
having no space protected from vehicles;
Bob White, Kent County Council

and
• the positioning and quantity of planting,
street furniture and other features creating
visual clutter.
7.2.14 Subject to making suitable provision for

Figure 7.5 A shared surface in a residential area
disabled people, shared surface streets are likely
to work well:
7.2.11 Research published by the Guide Dogs
• in short lengths, or where they form
for the Blind Association in September 2006
cul-de-sacs (Fig. 7.6);
illustrated the problems that shared surfaces
• where the volume of motor traffic is below
cause for blind or partially-sighted and other
100 vehicles per hour (vph) (peak) (see
disabled people. Further research to be carried
box); and
out by the Guide Dogs for the Blind Association
• where parking is controlled or it takes place
will consider how the requirements of disabled
in designated areas.
people can be met, with a view to producing
design guidance in due course.
a b
Duchy of Cornwall and Leon K ier
1 The Guide Dogs for the

Andrew Cameron, WSP
Blind Association (2006)

Shared Surface Street
Design Research Project.
The Issues: Report of
Focus Groups. Reading:
The Guide Dogs for the
Blind Association Figure 7.6 (a) and (b) A shared-surface square in Poundbury, Dorset.

Franz Otto Novotny, Northmoor Urban Art Project
Figure 7.7 A shared surface scheme. Beaulieu Park, Figure 7.8 Children playing in a Home Zone,
Chelmsford. Northmoor, Manchester. However, this type of
bollard would cause problems for disabled people.
7.2.15 Shared surface streets are often
constructed from paviours rather than asphalt, 7.2.17 Home Zones often include shared
which helps emphasise their difference from surfaces as part of the scheme design and in
conventional streets. Research for MfS has doing so they too can create difficulties for
shown that block paving reduces traffic speeds disabled people. Research commissioned by the
by between 2.5 and 4.5 mph, compared with Disabled Persons Transport Advisory Committee
speeds on asphalt surfaces (Fig. 7.7). (DPTAC) on the implications of Home Zones
for disabled people, due to be published in
Home Zones 2007, will demonstrate those concerns. Design
guidance relating to this research is expected to
7.2.16 Home Zones are residential areas be published in due course.
designed with streets to be places for people,
instead of just for motor traffic. By creating a 7.2.18 Home Zones are encouraged in both
high-quality street environment, Home Zones the planning and transport policies for new
strike a better balance between the needs of the developments and existing streets. They are
local community and drivers (Fig. 7.8). Involving distinguished from other streets by having
the local community is the key to a successful signed entry and exit points, which indicate the
scheme. Good and effective consultation with all special nature of the street.
sectors of the community, including young
people, can help ensure that the design of 7.2.19 Local traffic authorities in England and
individual Home Zones meets the needs of the Wales were given the powers to designate roads
local residents. as Home Zones in section 268 of the Transport
Act 2000.2 The legal procedure for creating a
Research on shared space streets of vehicles also had a strong influence on how
pedestrians used the shared area. Although
A study of public transport in London Borough this research project concentrated on PPAs, it
Pedestrian Priority Areas (PPAs) undertaken is reasonable to assume that these factors are
by TRL for the Bus Priority Team at Transport relevant to other shared space schemes.
2 I York, A Bradbury, S Reid,
T Ewings and R Paradise for London concluded that there is a self-
(2007) The Manual limiting factor on pedestrians sharing space The relationship between visibility, highway width
for Streets: redefining
residential street design. with motorists, of around 100 vph. Above and driver speed identified on links was also
TRL Report No. 661. this, pedestrians treat the general path taken found to apply at junctions. A full description of
Crowthorne: TRL.
3 Transport Act 2000.
by motor vehicles as a ‘road’ to be crossed the research findings is available in Manual for
London: TSO. rather than as a space to occupy. The speed Streets: redefining residential street design.3

Cross / Multi
Nodal form T Y staggered Square Circus Crescent
armed
Regular
Irregular
Fig. 7.9 Illustrative junction layouts.
Home Zone in England is set out in the Quiet 7.3 Junctions

Lanes and Home Zones (England) Regulations
20064 and guidance is provided in Department for 7.3.1 Junctions that are commonly used in
Transport Circular 02/2006.5 Procedure regulations residential areas include:
are yet to be made in Wales, but traffic authorities • crossroads and staggered junctions;
may still designate roads as Home Zones. • T and Y junctions; and
• roundabouts.
7.2.20 Developers sometimes implement
‘Home Zone style’ schemes without formal Figure 7.9 illustrates a broader range of junction
designation. However, it is preferable for the geometries to show how these basic types can
proper steps to be followed to involve the be developed to create distinctive places.
community in deciding how the street Mini-roundabouts and shared surface squares
will be used. can be incorporated within some of the depicted
arrangements.
7.2.21 In existing streets, it is essential that
the design of the Home Zone involves significant 7.3.2 Junctions are generally places of high
participation by local residents and local access accessibility and good natural surveillance. They
groups. In new-build situations, a partnership are therefore ideal places for locating public
between the developer and the relevant buildings, shops and public transport stops,
authorities will enable prospective residents to etc. Junctions are places of interaction among
be made aware of the proposed designation of street users. Their design is therefore critical to
the street as a Home Zone. This will pave the achieving a proper balance between their place
2006 No. 2082, the Quiet way for the formal consultation procedure once and movement functions.
Lanes and home Zones the s treet becomes public highway.
(England) Regulations
2006. London: TSO. 7.3.3 The basic junction forms should be
5 Department for Transport 7.2.22 Further guidance on the design
(2006) Circular 02/2006
determined at the masterplanning stage. At the
– The Quiet Lanes and of Home Zones is given in Home Zones: street design stage, they will have to be considered
Home Zones (England) Challenging the Future of Our Streets,6 the
Regulations. London:
in more detail in order to determine how they are
TSO. Institute of Highway Incorporated Engineers’ going to work in practice. Masterplanning and
6 Department for Transport (IHIE) Home Zone Design Guidelines7 and on the
(2005) Home Zones:
detailed design will cover issues such as traffic
Challenging the future website www.homezones.org.uk. priority arrangements, the need, or otherwise, for
of our streets.London:
Department for Transport
signs, markings and kerbs, and how property and
7 IHIE (2002) Home Zones building lines are related.
Design Guidelines.
London: IHIE

7.3.4 The resulting spaces and townscape
should ideally be represented in three
dimensions – see box.
7.3.5 Often, the key to a well-designed

junction is the way in which buildings are placed
around it and how they enclose the space in

which the junction sits. Building placement
should therefore be decided upon first, with
the junction then designed to suit the available
space.
7.3.6 Junction design should facilitate direct

pedestrian desire lines, and this will often
mean using small corner radii. The use of swept Figure 7.11 Quadrant kerbstones used instead of
path analysis will ensure that the junctions are large radii at junctions reduce the dominance of the
carriageway. This is reinforced by the placement and
negotiable by vehicles (Fig. 7.11). form of the adjacent buildings and the absence of
road markings. However, note the lack of dropped
kerbs and tactile paving.
Drawing in three dimensions
Presenting design layouts in three dimensions

is an important way of looking at aspects of
engineering and urban design together
(Fig. 7.10). It enables street furniture, lighting,
utility equipment and landscaping to be clearly
shown. Three-dimensional layouts are also
useful in consultation with the public.
Street cross-sections and plans should be

developed initially. Perspective or axonometric
drawings can then be produced to add clarity
and to assist designers in visualising and
refining their ideas. Such three-dimensional
representation is fairly easy to achieve both by
hand and using CAD software. For more complex
schemes, a computer-generated ‘walk-through’
presentation can be used to demonstrate how
the proposal will work in practice. It is also a
powerful tool for resolving design issues.
d
c e
b
a
d
a b c
e
Colin J Davis
30 30
Figure 7.10 Example of three-dimensional presentations.

7.3.7 Junctions can be marked to indicate
which arms have priority, but on quieter streets it
may be acceptable to leave them unmarked.
A lack of marked priority may encourage
motorists to slow down to negotiate their way
through, making the junction more comfortable
for use by pedestrians. However, this approach
requires careful consideration (see Chapter 9).
7.3.8 Crossroads are convenient for

pedestrians, as they minimise diversion from
desire lines when crossing the street. They also
make it easier to create permeable and legible
street networks.
7.3.9 Permeable layouts can also be achieved

using T and Y junctions. Y junctions can increase
flexibility in layout design.
7.3.10 Staggered junctions can reduce vehicle

conflict compared with crossroads, but may
reduce directness for pedestrians. If it is
necessary to maintain a view point or vista,
and if there is sufficient room between
buildings, staggered junctions can be provided
within continuous building lines. (Fig. 7.12).
Case study
Figure 7.12 – Using staggered junctions to maintain
Hulme, Manchester: speed tables a view point or vista.
7.3.11 Where designers are concerned about

potential user conflict, they may consider placing
the junction on a speed table (see Hulme,
Manchester box). Another option might be to
close one of the arms to motor traffic (while
leaving it open for pedestrians and cyclists).
7.3.12 Conventional roundabouts are

not generally appropriate for residential
developments. Their capacity advantages are not
usually relevant, they can have a negative impact
on vulnerable road users, and they often do little
for the street scene.
Figure 7.13 Raised tables at junction in Hulme.
The table has been raised almost to kerb height.
7.3.13 Larger roundabouts are inconvenient
A distinctive feature of the Hulme development for pedestrians because they are deflected from
is the adherence to a linear grid form. Raised their desire lines, and people waiting to cross
tables at junctions reduce speeds and facilitate one of the arms may not be able to anticipate
pedestrian movement (Fig. 7.13). easily the movement of motor vehicles on the
roundabout, or entering or leaving it.

Figure 7.14 This street avoids the use of vertical traffic-calming features, but the irregular alignment is unsightly
and unlikely to have much speed-reducing effect, because of the width of the carriageway. It also results in
irregular grassed areas that create a maintenance burden while contributing little to street quality.
7.3.14 Roundabouts can be hazardous for Spacing of junctions

cyclists. Drivers entering at relatively high speed
may not notice cyclists on the circulatory 7.3.17 The spacing of junctions should be
carriageway, and cyclists travelling past an arm determined by the type and size of urban blocks
are vulnerable to being hit by vehicles entering appropriate for the development. Block size
or leaving the junction. should be based on the need for permeability,
and generally tends to become smaller as density
7.3.15 Mini-roundabouts may be more suitable and pedestrian activity increases.
in residential areas, as they cause less deviation
for pedestrians and are easier for cyclists to use. 7.3.18 Smaller blocks create the need for more
In addition, they do not occupy as much land. frequent junctions. This improves permeability
Practitioners should refer to Mini-roundabouts: for pedestrians and cyclists, and the impact
Good Practice Guidelines.8 of motor traffic is dispersed over a wider
area. Research in the preparation of MfS11
7.3.16 Continental-style roundabouts are also demonstrated that more frequent (and hence
suitable for consideration. They sit between less busy) junctions need not lead to higher
conventional roundabouts and mini-roundabouts numbers of accidents.
in terms of land take. They retain a conventional
central island, but differ in other respects – there 7.3.19 Junctions do not always need to cater
and County Surveyors’ is minimal flare at entry and exit, and they have for all types of traffic. Some of the arms of a
Society (CSS) (2006)
Mini-roundabouts:
a single-lane circulatory carriageway. In addition, junction may be limited to pedestrian and cycle
Good Practice Guidance. the circulatory carriageway has negative camber, movement only.
London: CSS.
9 Davies D,G. Taylor, MC,
so water drains away from the centre, which
Ryley, TJ, Halliday, simplifies drainage arrangements. Their geometry 7.4 Achieving appropriate traffic
M. (1997) Cyclists at
Roundabouts – the Effects
is effective in reducing entry, circulatory and speeds
of ‘Continental’ Design exit speeds.9 They are safer for cyclists because
on Predicted Safety and of the reduced speeds, together with the fact
Capacity. TRL Report No. 7.4.1 Conflict among various user groups can
285. Crowthorne: TRL. that drivers cannot overtake on the circulatory be minimised or avoided by reducing the speed
10 DETR (1997) Traffic
Advisory Leaflet 9/97
carriageway. Their use is described in Traffic and flow of motor vehicles. Ideally, designers
– Cyclists at Roundabouts: Advisory Leaflet 9/97.10 should aim to create streets that control vehicle
Continental Design
Geometry. London: DETR. speeds naturally rather than having to rely on
11 I York, A Bradbury, S Reid, unsympathetic traffic-calming measures
T Ewings and R Paradise
(2007) The Manual (Fig. 7.14). In general, providing a separate
for Streets: redefining pedestrian and/or cycle route away from motor
residential street design.
TRL Report no. 661. traffic should only be considered as a last resort
Crowthorne: TRL. (see the hierarchy of provision in Chapter 4).

Andrew Cameron, WSP
Figure 7.15 Trees planted in the highway at Newhall, Harlow, help to reduce vehicle speeds.
7.4.2 For residential streets, a maximum • Street dimensions – can have a significant
design speed of 20 mph should normally be influence on speeds. Keeping lengths of
an objective. The severity of injuries and the street between junctions short is particularly
likelihood of death resulting from a collision effective. Street width also has an effect on
at 20 mph are considerably less than can be speed (see box).
expected at 30 mph. In addition, vehicle noise • Reduced visibility – research carried out in
and the intimidation of pedestrians and cyclists preparation of MfS found that reductions
are likely to be significantly lower. in forward visibility are associated with
reduced driving speeds (see box).
7.4.3 Evidence from traffic-calming schemes • Psychology and perception – street features
suggests that speed-controlling features are and human activity can have an influence
required at intervals of no more than 70 m in on the speed at which people choose to
order to achieve speeds of 20 mph or less.12 drive. Research14 suggests that features
Straight and uninterrupted links should therefore likely to be effective include the following:
be limited to around 70 m to help ensure that the – edge markings that visually narrow the
arrangement has a natural traffic-calming effect. road – speed reduction is likely to be
greatest where the edging is textured to
7.4.4 A continuous link can be broken up by appear unsuitable for driving on;
introducing features along it to slow traffic. The – the close proximity of buildings to
range of traffic-calming measures available act the road;
in different ways, with varying degrees of – reduced carriageway width;
effectiveness: – obstructions in the carriageway
• Physical features – involving vertical (Fig. 7.15);
or horizontal deflection – can be very – features associated with potential
12 DETR (1999) Traffic
effective in reducing speed. It is preferable activity in, or close to, the carriageway,
Advisory Leaflet 9/99 to use other means of controlling speeds, such as pedestrian refuges;
- 20mph speed limits and
zones. London: DETR.
if practicable, but there will be situations – on-street parking, particularly when the
13 Department for Transport where physical features represent the vehicles are parked in echelon
(2005) Traffic Advisory
Leaflet 2/05 - Traffic
optimum solution. Additional sources of formation or perpendicular to the
calming Bibliography. advice on traffic calming can be found in carriageway;
London: Department for
Transport.
Traffic Advisory Leaflet – the types of land use associated with
14 J Kennedy, R Gorell, 2/05.13 greater numbers of people, for example
L Crinson, A Wheeler,
M Elliott (2005)
• Changes in priority – at roundabouts and shops; and
‘Psychological’ traffic other junctions. This can be used to – pedestrian activity.
calming TRL Report No.
641. Crowthorne: TRL.
disrupt flow and therefore bring overall
speeds down.

Influence of geometry on speed Improved visibility and/or increased
carriageway width were found to correlate with
Research carried out in the preparation of increased vehicle speeds. Increased width for
MfS considered the influence of geometry on a given visibility, or vice versa, were found to
vehicle speed and casualties in 20 residential increase speed. These data are summarised in
and mixed-use areas in the UK. Two highway Fig. 7.16.
geometric factors stand out as influencing
driving speed, all other things being equal. The relationship between visibility, highway
They are: width and driver speed identified on links
• forward visibility; and was also found to apply at junctions. A full
• carriageway width. description of the research findings is available
in TRL Report 661.15
45 60
40
85th percentile speed (mph)

50
Average speed (mph)
35
30 40
25
30
20
15 20
10
10
5
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Forward visibility (m) Forward visibility (m)

Road width = 10 m
Road width = 9m
Road width = 8m
Road width = 7m
Road width = 6m
Road width = 5m
Figure 7.16 Correlation between visibility and carriageway width and vehicle speeds (a) average speeds
and (b) 85th percentile speeds. These graphs can be used to give an indication of the speed at which
traffic will travel for a given carriageway width/forward visibility combination.
7.4.5 Speed limits for residential areas are

normally 30 mph, but 20 mph limits are
15 I York, A Bradbury,
S Reid, T Ewings and
becoming more common. If the road is lit, a
R Paradise (2007) 30 mph limit is signed only where it begins –
The Manual for Streets:
Redefining Residential
repeater signs are not used here. All other speed
Street Design. TRL Report limits have to be signed where they start and be
No. 661. Crowthorne:
TRL.
accompanied by repeater signs.

7.4.6 A street with a 20 mph limit is not the 7.5.3 The basic formula for calculating SSD
same as a 20 mph zone. To create a 20 mph (in metres) is:
zone, it is a legal requirement that traffic- SSD = vt + v2/2d
calming measures are installed to ensure that where:
low speeds are maintained throughout. In such v = speed (m/s)
cases, the limit is signed only on entering the t = driver perception–reaction time
zone, and no repeater signs are necessary. (seconds)
d = deceleration (m/s2)
7.4.7 Any speed limits below 30 mph, other
than 20 mph limits or 20 mph zones, require 7.5.4 The desirable minimum SSDs used in
individual consent from the Secretary of State the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges are
for Transport. Designers should note that such based on a driver perception–reaction time of
approval is unlikely to be given. 2 seconds and a deceleration rate of 2.45 m/s2
(equivalent to 0.25g where g is acceleration due
7.4.8 A speed limit is not an indication of to gravity (9.81 m/s2 )). Design Bulletin 3217
the appropriate speed to drive at. It is the adopted these values.
responsibility of drivers to travel within the
speed limit at a speed suited to the conditions. 7.5.5 Drivers are normally able to stop
However, for new streets, or where existing much more quickly than this in response to an
streets are being modified, and the design speed emergency. The stopping distances given in the
is below the speed limit, it will be necessary Highway Code assume a driver reaction time
to include measures that reduce traffic of 0.67 seconds, and a deceleration rate
speeds accordingly. of 6.57 m/s2.
7.4.9 Difficulties may be encountered where 7.5.6 While it is not appropriate to design
a new development connects to an existing street geometry based on braking in an
road. If the junction geometry cannot be made emergency, there is scope for using lower SSDs
to conform to the requirements for prevailing than those used in Design Bulletin 32. This is
traffic speeds, the installation of traffic-calming based upon the following:
measures on the approach will allow the use of
a lower design speed to be used for the new • a review of practice in other countries has
junction. shown that Design Bulletin 32 values are
16 Highways Agency (1992)
Design Manual for Roads much more conservative than those used
and Bridges London: TSO. 7.5 Stopping sight distance elsewhere;18
17 Department of the
Environment/Department • research which shows that the 90th
of Transport (1977; 2nd 7.5.1 This section provides guidance on percentile reaction time for drivers
edn 1992) Design Bulletin
32, Residential Roads stopping sight distances (SSDs) for streets where confronted with a side-road hazard in a
and Footpaths - Layout 85th percentile speeds are up to 60 km/h. At driving simulator is 0.9 seconds (see TRL
Considerations. London:
HMSO. speeds above this, the recommended SSDs in Report 33219);
18 D.W. Harwood, D.B. the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges16 may • carriageway surfaces are normally able
Fambro, B. Fishburn,
H. Joubert, R. Lamm be more appropriate. to develop a skidding resistance of at
and B. Psarianos. least 0.45g in wet weather conditions.
(1995) International
Sight Distance Design 7.5.2 The stopping sight distance (SSD) Deceleration rates of 0.25g (the previously
Practices, International is the distance within which drivers need to assumed value) are more typically
Symposium on
Highway Geometric be able to see ahead and stop from a given associated with snow-covered roads; and
Design Practices, speed. It is calculated from the speed of
Boston, Massachusetts
Conference Proceedings. the vehicle, the time required for a driver to • of the sites studied in the preparation of
Washington USA: identify a hazard and then begin to brake (the this manual, no relationship was found
Transportation Research
Board. perception–reaction time), and the vehicle’s between SSDs and casualties, regardless
19 Maycock G, Brocklebank rate of deceleration. For new streets, the design of whether the sites complied with Design
P. and Hall, R. (1998)
Road Layout Design speed is set by the designer. For existing streets, Bulletin 32 or not.
Standards and Driver the 85th percentile wet-weather speed is used.
Behaviour. TRL Report
No. 332. Crowthorne: TRL

Table 7.1 Derived SSDs for streets (figures rounded).
Speed Kilometres per 16 20 24 25 30 32 40 45 48 50 60

hour
Miles per hour 10 12 15 16 19 20 25 28 30 31 37
SSD (metres) 9 12 15 16 20 22 31 36 40 43 56
SSD adjusted for bonnet 11 14 17 18 23 25 33 39 43 45 59

length. See 7.6.4
Additional features will

be needed to achieve
low speeds
7.5.7 The SSD values used in MfS are based 7.6.2 Using plan views of proposed layouts,
on a perception–reaction time of 1.5 seconds and checks for visibility in the horizontal plane
a deceleration rate of 0.45g (4.41 m/s2). Table 7.1 ensure that views are not obscured by vertical
uses these values to show the effect of speed obstructions.
on SSD.
7.6.3 Checking visibility in the vertical
7.5.8 Below around 20 m, shorter SSDs plane is then carried out to ensure that views
themselves will not achieve low vehicle speeds: in the horizontal plane are not compromised
speed-reducing features will be needed. For by obstructions such as the crest of a hill, or a
higher speed roads, i.e. with an 85th percentile bridge at a dip in the road ahead. It also takes
speed over 60 km/h, it may be appropriate into account the variation in driver eye height
to use longer SSDs, as set out in the Design and the height range of obstructions. Eye height
Manual for Roads and Bridges. is assumed to range from 1.05 m (for car drivers)
to 2 m (for lorry drivers). Drivers need to be
7.5.9 Gradients affect stopping distances. able to see obstructions 2 m high down to a
The deceleration rate of 0.45g used to calculate point 600 mm above the carriageway. The latter
the figures in Table 7.1 is for a level road. A 10% dimension is used to ensure small children can
gradient will increase (or decrease) the rate by be seen (Fig. 7.17).
around 0.1g.
7.6.4 The SSD figure relates to the position
7.6 Visibility requirements of the driver. However, the distance between
the driver and the front of the vehicle is typically
7.6.1 Visibility should be checked at junctions up to 2.4 m, which is a significant proportion
and along the street. Visibility is measured of shorter stopping distances. It is therefore
horizontally and vertically. recommended that an allowance is made by
adding 2.4 m to the SSD.
2000 max.
2000 max.
1050 min.
600 min.
Typically 2400
Figure 7.17 Vertical visibility envelope.

7.7 Visibility splays at junctions segregated at that point, for example. If so, the
visibility splay to the left can be measured to the
7.7.1 The visibility splay at a junction ensures centreline of the main arm.
there is adequate inter-visibility between
vehicles on the major and minor arms (Fig. 7.18). X distance
7.7.2 The distance back along the minor arm 7.7.6 An X distance of 2.4 m should normally
from which visibility is measured is known as be used in most built-up situations, as this
the X distance. It is generally measured back represents a reasonable maximum distance
from the ‘give way’ line (or an imaginary ‘give between the front of the car and the driver’s eye.
way’ line if no such markings are provided).
This distance is normally measured along the 7.7.7 A minimum figure of 2 m may be
centreline of the minor arm for simplicity, but in considered in some very lightly-trafficked and
some circumstances (for example where there is slow-speed situations, but using this value
a wide splitter island on the minor arm) it will be will mean that the front of some vehicles will
more appropriate to measure it from the actual protrude slightly into the running carriageway of
position of the driver. the major arm. The ability of drivers and cyclists
to see this overhang from a reasonable distance,
7.7.3 The Y distance represents the distance and to manoeuvre around it without undue
that a driver who is about to exit from the minor difficulty, should be considered.
arm can see to his left and right along the main
alignment. For simplicity it is measured along 7.7.8 Using an X distance in excess of 2.4 m is
the nearside kerb line of the main arm, although not generally required in built-up areas.
vehicles will normally be travelling a distance
from the kerb line. The measurement is taken 7.7.9 Longer X distances enable drivers to
from the point where this line intersects the look for gaps as they approach the junction. This
centreline of the minor arm (unless, as above, increases junction capacity for the minor arm,
there is a splitter island in the minor arm). and so may be justified in some circumstances,
but it also increases the possibility that drivers
7.7.4 When the main alignment is curved and on the minor approach will fail to take account
the minor arm joins on the outside of a bend, of other road users, particularly pedestrians
another check is necessary to make sure that an and cyclists. Longer X distances may also result
approaching vehicle on the main arm is visible in more shunt accidents on the minor arm.
over the whole of the Y distance. This is done by TRL Report No. 18420 found that accident risk
drawing an additional sight line which meets the increased with greater minor-road sight distance.
kerb line at a tangent.
Y distance
7.7.5 Some circumstances make it unlikely
that vehicles approaching from the left on 7.7.10 The Y distance should be based on
the main arm will cross the centreline of the values for SSD (Table 7.1).
main arm – opposing flows may be physically
20 Summersgill I., Kennedy,

J. and Baynes, D. (1996)
Accidents at Three-arm
Priority Junctions on
Urban Single-carriageway
Roads TRL Report no.
184. Crowthorne: TRL.

a Possible features
preventing vehicles from Alternative left-hand visibilty splay if vehicles approaching
crossing centre line from the left are unable to cross the centre line
Y distance Y distance
X distance
Left-hand Right-hand
visibility splay visibility splay
b Possible feature preventing

vehicles from crossing
centre line
Alternative left-hand visibility
splay if vehicles approaching
from the left are unable to
cross the centre line
Visibility splays
Tangent to kerb Tangent to kerb
line (additional Y distance Y distance line (additional
check) check)
X distance
c Alternative left-hand visibility

splay if vehicles approaching
Possible feature preventing from the left are unable to
vehicles from crossing cross the centre line
centre line
Y distance X distance
Y distance
Visibility splays
Figure 7.18 Measurement of junction visibility splays (a) on a straight road, (b) and (c) on bends.

7.8 Forward visibility
7.8.1 Forward visibility is the distance a

driver needs to see ahead to stop safely for
obstructions in the road. The minimum forward
visibility required is equal to the minimum SSD.
It is checked by measuring between points on
a curve along the centreline of the inner traffic
lane (see Fig. 7.19).
7.8.2 There will be situations where it is

desirable to reduce forward visibility to control
traffic speed – the Influence of geometry on
Andrew Cameron, WSP

speed box describes how forward visibility
influences speed. An example is shown in
Fig 7.20.
Visibility along the street edge Figure 7.20 Limiting forward visibility helps keep
speeds down in Poundbury, Dorset.
7.8.3 Vehicle exits at the back edge of the
footway mean that emerging drivers will have 7..8.4 When it is judged that footway visibility
to take account of people on the footway. splays are to be provided , consideration should
The absence of wide visibility splays at private be given to the best means of achieving this in a
driveways will encourage drivers to emerge more manner sympathetic to the visual appearance of
cautiously. Consideration should be given to the street (Fig. 7.21). This may include:
whether this will be appropriate, taking into • the use of boundary railings rather than
account the following: walls (Fig. 7.22); and
• the frequency of vehicle movements; • the omission of boundary walls or fences at
• the amount of pedestrian activity; and the exit location.
• the width of the footway.
Obstacles to visibility
Forward visibility
measured along centre 7.8.5 Parking in visibility splays in built-up
of inner lane
areas is quite common, yet it does not appear to
create significant problems in practice. Ideally,
defined parking bays should be provided outside
Visibility splays the visibility splay. However, in some
circumstances, where speeds are low, some
encroachment may be acceptable.
7.8.6 The impact of other obstacles, such as

street trees and street lighting columns, should
be assessed in terms of their impact on the
Visibility splay overall envelope of visibility. In general,
envelope occasional obstacles to visibility that are not
large enough to fully obscure a whole vehicle or
a pedestrian, including a child or wheelchair user,
will not have a significant impact on road safety.
Figure 7.19 Measurement of forward visibility.


Figure 7.21 Beaulieu Park, Chelmsford – low Figure 7.22 Beaulieu Park, Chelmsford: the visibility
vegetation provides subtle provision of visibility splays are provided by railings rather than boundary
at private driveway. walls, although the railings could have followed the
property boundary.
7.9 Frontage access • the distance between the property

boundary and the carriageway – to provide
7.9.1 One of the key differences between adequate visibility for the emerging driver.
streets and roads is that streets normally provide
7.9.3 In the past, a relatively low limit on
direct access to buildings and public spaces.
traffic flow (300 vehicles per peak hour or some
This helps to generate activity and a positive
3,000 vehicles per day) has generally been used
relationship between the street and its
when deciding whether direct access was
surroundings. Providing direct access to
appropriate. This is equivalent to the traffic
buildings is also efficient in land-use terms. generated by around 400 houses. Above this
level, many local-authority residential road
7.9.2 The provision of frontage vehicle access guidelines required the provision of a ‘local
onto a street should be considered from the distributor road’.
viewpoint of the people passing along the street,
as well as those requiring access (Fig. 7.23).
Factors to consider include:
• the speed and volume of traffic on the
street;
• the possibility of the vehicles turning
around within the property – where this is
possible, then vehicles can exit travelling
forward;
• the presence of gathered accesses – a
single access point can serve a number of
properties or a communal parking area,
Andrew Cameron, WSP
for example. This may be acceptable where

a series of individual accesses would not be;
and
Figure 7.23 Frontage access for individual dwellings

onto a main street into Dorchester.

7.9.4 Such roads are often very unsuccessful 7.10 Turning areas
in terms of placemaking and providing for
pedestrians and cyclists. In many cases, buildings 7.10.1 Connected street networks will
turn their backs onto local distributors, creating generally eliminate the need for drivers to make
dead frontages and sterile environments. three-point turns.
Separate service roads are another possible
design response, but these are wasteful of land 7.10.2 Where it is necessary to provide for
and reduce visual enclosure and quality. three-point turns (e.g. in a cul-de-sac), a
tracking assessment should be made to indicate
7.9.5 It is recommended that the limit for the types of vehicles that may be making this
providing direct access on roads with a 30 mph manoeuvre and how they can be accommodated.
speed restriction is raised to at least 10,000 The turning space provided should relate to its
vehicles per day (see box). environment, not specifically to vehicle
movement (see Fig. 7.24), as this can result
in a space with no use other than for turning
vehicles. To be effective and usable, the turning
Traffic flow and road safety for streets
head must be kept clear of parked vehicles.
with direct frontage access
Therefore it is essential that adequate parking is
The relationship between traffic flow and road provided for residents in suitable locations.
safety for streets with direct frontage access
was researched for MfS. Data on recorded 7.10.3 Routeing for waste vehicles should be
accidents and traffic flow for a total of 20 sites determined at the concept masterplan or scheme
were obtained. All of the sites were similar in design stage (see paragraph 6.8.4). Wherever
terms of land use (continuous houses with possible, routing should be configured so that
driveways), speed limit (30 mph) and geometry the refuse collection can be made without the
(single-carriageway roads with limited side- need for the vehicle having to reverse, as turning
road junctions). Traffic flows at the sites varied heads may be obstructed by parked vehicles and
from some 600 vehicles per day to some reversing refuse vehicles create a risk to other
23,000 vehicles per day, with an average traffic street users.
flow of some 4,000 vehicles per day.
It was found that very few accidents occurred

involving vehicles turning into and out of
driveways, even on heavily-trafficked roads.
7
Links with direct frontage access can be
designed for significantly higher traffic flows
than have been used in the past, and there is
good evidence to raise this figure to 10,000
vehicles per day. It could be increased further,
and it is suggested that local authorities review
3
their standards with reference to their own
Figure 7.24 Different turning spaces and usable
traffic flows and personal injury accident turning heads.
records. The research indicated that a
link carrying this volume of traffic, with
characteristics similar to those studied, would
experience around one driveway-related
accident every five years per kilometre. Fewer
accidents would be expected on links where
the speed of traffic is limited to 20 mph or less,
which should be the aim in residential areas.

7.11 Overrun areas 7.11.2 Overrun areas should generally be
avoided in residential and mixed-use streets.
7.11.1 Overrun areas are used at bends and They can:
junctions (including roundabouts). They are • be visually intrusive;
areas of carriageway with a surface texture and/ • interfere with pedestrian desire lines
or appearance intended to deter overrunning (Fig. 7.25); and
by cars and other light vehicles. Their purpose • pose a hazard for cyclists.
is to allow the passage of large vehicles, such However, they can help to overcome problems
as buses and refuse vehicles, while maintaining with access for larger vehicles and so may
‘tight’ carriageway dimensions that deter smaller represent the best solution.
vehicles from speeding.

Figure 7.25 The overrun area at this junction is hazardous for pedestrians and/or requires them to divert from
their desire line. Notice also the unsightly placing of inspection covers. The layout is particularly hazardous
for blind and partially-sighted pedestrians.

Design for Homes

8
Parking
parked is a key factor for many issues, such as
Chapter aims
visual quality, street activity, interaction between
• Emphasise the importance of providing residents, and safety.
sufficient good-quality cycle parking in
all new residential developments to meet 8.1.3 A failure to properly consider this
the needs of residents and visitors. issue is likely to lead to inappropriate parking
behaviour, resulting in poor and unsafe
• Explain how the parking of vehicles is a
conditions for pedestrians.
key function of most streets in residential
areas and that it needs to be properly
8.1.4 Parking can be provided on or off the
considered in the design process.
street. Off-street parking includes parking within
• Confirm that, having regard to the a curtilage (on-plot) or in off-street parking
policy in Planning Policy Statement 3: areas (off-plot).
Housing (PPS3),1 designers need to
consider carefully how to accommodate 8.2 Cycle parking
the number of cars that are likely to be
owned by residents (Wales: refer to TAN 8.2.1 Providing enough convenient and
18: Transport 2). secure cycle parking at people’s homes and other
• Describe how providing a level of car locations for both residents and visitors is critical
parking below normal demand levels can to increasing the use of cycles. In residential
be appropriate in some situations. developments, designers should aim to make
access to cycle storage at least as convenient as
• Explain the efficiency benefits of access to car parking.
unallocated car parking and the need
to meet at least some of the normal 8.2.2 The need for convenient, safe and
demand on the street. secure cycle parking in new developments is
• Offer guidance on footway parking. recognised in Policy Planning Guidance
Note 13: Transport (PPG13)5 (Wales: TAN 18),
• Give guidance on the size of parking which recommends that provision should be
spaces for cycles, cars and motorcycles. increased to promote cycle use but should
at least be at levels consistent with the local
authority’s cycle target strategy in its Local
8.1 Introduction
Transport Plan.
8.1.1 Accommodating parked vehicles is
Determining the amount of cycle parking
a key function of most streets, particularly in
residential areas. While the greatest demand is
8.2.3 Shared cycle parking is normally more
for parking cars, there is also a need to consider
efficient than providing sufficient space within
the parking of cycles, motorcycles and, in some
each dwelling for the maximum possible number
circumstances, service vehicles. Where there is
1 Communities and Local of cycles. Shared cycle parking facilities should
Government (2006) a need to regulate parking, this should be done
Planning Policy Statement be secure and convenient to use.
by making appropriate traffic regulation orders
2 Welsh Assembly (TROs) and signing and marking in accordance
Government (2007) 8.2.4 The amount of cycle parking in a shared
with the Traffic Signs Regulations and General
Technical Advice Note 18: facility will depend on the overall number of
Transport. Cardiff: NAfW. Directions 2002 (TSRGD). 3 Guidance is also
3 Statutory Instrument 2002 cycles anticipated across the scheme, based on
provided in the Traffic Signs Manual.4
No. 3113,The Traffic Signs average cycle-ownership levels. This number can
Regulations and General
Directions 2002. London: vary considerably depending on circumstances.
8.1.2 The level of parking provision and its
TSO.
4 Department for Transport location has a key influence on the form and
(various) The Traffic Signs 8.2.5 Houses tend to have higher levels of
quality of a development, and the choices
Manual. London: TSO and cycle ownership than flats. Research carried out
HMSO. people make in how they travel. The way cars are
5 DETR (2001) Policy for CABE/Oxfordshire County Council by WSP
Planning Guidance
Note 13: Transport.
London: TSO.

Table 8.1 Average cycle ownership levels in 8.2.11 In mixed-use areas and where there are
Oxfordshire, 2006 commercial or communal facilities in a residential
neighbourhood, well-located and convenient
Average cycles/ Average cycles/
public cycle-parking will normally be necessary.
dwelling resident
Design solutions for residential

Houses, 2.65 0.73
Oxford City cycle-parking
Houses, rest of 1.51 0.52
Oxfordshire 8.2.12 Cycles are often kept in garages, and
Flats, 0.97 0.48 this can be convenient and secure if located near
Oxford City the front of the property. However, garages are
Flats, 0.44 0.23 not normally designed for cycle storage, and the
rest of proportion of housing schemes with individual
Oxfordshire garages is declining.
8.2.13 Greater consideration therefore needs

and Phil Jones Associates in 2006 found the to be given to the provision of bespoke cycle
average cycle ownership levels shown storage. Cycles are not suited to overnight
in Table 8.1. storage outdoors as they are vulnerable to theft
and adverse weather. At the very least, any
8.2.6 The amount of provision will also outdoor cycle parking needs to be covered, and
vary depending on the type of development. preferably lockable (Fig. 8.1).
Cycle use can be expected to be relatively high
in places such as student accommodation. In 8.2.14 If no cycle parking is provided, this
sheltered housing or housing for older people, may affect the way garages are used. This
lower provision is likely to be more appropriate. aspect, among others, will inform decisions on
whether garages count fully towards car-parking
8.2.7 When assessing the effect of location, provision (see paragraph 8.3.4 below).
census data on the proportion of trips to work
made by cycle provides a useful proxy for 8.2.15 Where separate cycle-parking is
assessing the likely level of cycle ownership. provided within the building, it needs to be
conveniently located, close to the main point of
8.2.8 Cycle parking is often likely to be access. Where cycle parking is to be provided
within, or allocated to, individual dwellings, within a separate building, such as a detached
particularly for houses. In such cases, it will be garage or other outbuildings, it will need to be
necessary to consider the potential for one cycle secure, with doors designed for easy access.
to be owned by each resident.
8.2.16 In flats, cycle parking has often
Visitors and mixed-use areas been inadequate, leading to cycles being
stored in hallways or balconies. For new
8.2.9 Providing cycle parking for visitors is developments, the storage of cycles is an
important when planning new developments and important consideration.
modifying existing streets. In residential areas,
the amount and location of visitor parking can
be informed by the amount of cycle parking
available to residents and the targeted modal
share of visitor trips.
8.2.10 In some cases, visitors may be able

to use spare space within residential cycle-
parking facilities, whether shared or individual.
Some provision in the public realm may also
Figure 8.1 Secure cycle storage.
be appropriate, particularly where residents’
provision is not easily accessed by visitors.

TfL Streetscape Guidance, Transport for London
Andrew Cameron, WSP
Figure 8.2 Cycle parking that has good surveillance Figure 8.3 Sheffield stands are simple and effective.
and is at a key location – in this example near a The design allows the bicycle frame and wheels to
hospital entrance. be easily locked to the stand. Note the tapping
rail near ground level and the reflective bands on
the uprights.
8.2.17 For ground-floor flats, or where
adequately-sized lifts are provided, storage
within the accommodation may be an option,
but it will need to be expressly considered in the
design and it will be important to ensure that
cycles can be brought into the building easily
and quickly.
8.2.18 Cycle parking for flats can also be

located in communal areas, such as in hallways
or under stairs, but, if so, it needs to be properly
Cycling England
designed in order to prevent parked cycles
becoming a nuisance for residents. If parking is
to be located on upper floors, adequately-sized
lifts need to be considered.
Figure 8.4 A contemporary design for cycle parking
8.2.19 Another option is to provide communal – note that this arrangement is not so convenient for
locking both wheels to the stand.
cycle-parking in secure facilities, such as in
underground car parks, in purpose-designed to the carriageway than to buildings. They
buildings or in extensions to buildings. should be detectable by blind or partially sighted
people. A ground level tapping rail at either end
8.2.20 Visitor cycle-parking in the public of a run of stands should be provided.
realm is best provided in well-overlooked areas,
which may often be the street itself (Fig. 8.2). 8.2.22 The preferred spacing of these stands is
Although there is a wide variety of design about 1 m, so that two cycles can be stored per
options, simple and unobtrusive solutions, such metre run. Where space is limited, an absolute
as Sheffield stands (Fig. 8.3), are preferred. minimum spacing of 800 mm may be used,
Some bespoke designs are not so convenient, for although this will make it more difficult for
example they may not allow both wheels to be cycles with baskets and panniers to be stored.
easily locked to the stand (Fig. 8.4). The outermost stands should be no closer than
550 mm to a parallel wall. In addition, there
8.2.21 Cycle stands need to be located clear of should be at least 550 mm clear space betwen
pedestrian desire lines, and generally closer the ends of individual stands and any wall.

8.3.2 PPS3 makes it clear that, when
assessing the design quality of a proposed
new development, it is important to consider a
1000 min.
Wall fixings design-led approach to the provision of car-
parking space that is well-integrated with a
high-quality public realm. PPS3 (paragraph 51)
advises that:
‘Local Planning Authorities should, with
2000 min. stakeholders and communities,
develop residential parking policies for their
Figure 8.5 Plan of store for two cycles using wall fixings.
areas, taking account of expected levels of
car ownership, the importance of promoting
good design and the need to use
land efficiently.’
Sheffield stands
8.3.3 The context of a new residential
development needs to be carefully considered
2000 min.
when determining the appropriate amount
550 min. 900 550 min. of parking (Fig. 8.7). This will be informed
by the Transport Assessment, together with
any accompanying Travel Plan and the local
authority’s residential parking policies set out in
550 min.
its Local Development Framework.
8.3.4 Although the ability of residents to

reach important destinations by other modes is
one factor affecting car ownership, research7 has
Figure 8.6 Plan of store for four cycles using
Sheffield stands. shown that dwelling size, type and tenure are
also important.
8.2.23 Where cycle parking is provided

internally, the indicative dimensions shown in
Figs 8.5 and 8.6 are appropriate.
8.2.24 Overall space requirements can be

reduced where cycles are stored on-end or in
two layers using rack systems, but such storage
is often not as easy to use by everyone, and is
a less desirable option than parking on
the ground.
8.3 Car parking
Introduction and policy background
8.3.1 The availability of car parking is a major

determinant of travel mode. The Government’s

6 Welsh Assembly general planning policy for car parking is set out
Government (2002)
Planning Policy Wales. in PPG13: Transport. The Government’s policy
Cardiff: NAfW. Chapter 8, on residential car-parking provision is set out
Transport.
7 Forthcoming in PPS3: Housing, which is particularly relevant
Communities and Local for MfS (Wales: policy on parking is set out in
Government research Figure 8.7 Residential car parking.
document Planning Policy Wales,6 supplemented by TAN 18).

8.3.5 Local planning authorities will need to 8.3.8 More information on car clubs is
consider carefully what is an appropriate level available at www.carplus.org.uk and in the
of car parking provision. In particular, Department for Transport document Making Car
under-provision may be unattractive to some Sharing and Car Clubs Work10 (see box).
potential occupiers and could, over time, result
in the conversion of front gardens to parking Car clubs
areas (see box). This can cause significant loss Making Car Sharing and Car Clubs Work
of visual quality and increase rainwater run-off, advises that:
which works against the need to combat climate ‘The importance of on-street spaces cannot
change. It is important to be aware that many be underestimated both for open and closed
disabled people are reliant on the use of the schemes; not least because they provide a very
private car for personal mobility. Ideally, visible image of the presence of a car club, and
therefore, layouts should be able to accommodate demonstrate direct benefits for potential users.
parking provision for Blue Badge holders. The provision of dedicated parking spaces is a
major incentive for the uptake of community
car clubs, particularly in urban areas.’
Car parking provision for new homes

CABE research8,9 found that car parking
remains a significant issue for residents and 8.3.9 Highway authorities are able to make
house buyers. Many people feel that the TROs, limiting the use of on-street parking
design for a new residential development spaces to car club vehicles. Authorities that have
should accommodate typical levels of car done this include Bristol, Ealing, Edinburgh, and
ownership and that the level of parking in new Kensington and Chelsea. The supporting traffic
developments is often inadequate for residents’ signs and markings may need to be authorised
and visitors’ demands. There was a general by the Department for Transport in England or
feeling among buyers of new homes that the Welsh Assembly Government (see Fig. 8.8).
apparent attempts to restrict parking in order
to curb car ownership were unrealistic and had a
little or no impact on the number of cars a
household would require and acquire.
8.3.6 Provision below demand can work

successfully when adequate on-street parking
Andrew Cameron, WSP

controls are present and where it is possible for
residents to reach day-to-day destinations, such
as jobs, schools and shops, without the use of a
car. This will normally be in town and city centres
where there will be good public transport and b
places that can be accessed easily on foot and
by cycle. For residents who choose not to
8 CABE (2005) What Home
own a car, living in such an area may be an
Buyers Want: Attitudes attractive proposition.
and Decision Making
amongst Consumers.
London: CABE. 8.3.7 One way of encouraging reduced car
9 CABE (2005) What it’s
ownership is to provide a car club. Car clubs
Andrew Cameron, WSP
Like to Live There: The

Views of Residents on the provide neighbourhood-based short-term
Design of New Housing.
London: CABE.
car hire to members for periods of as little as
10 Department for Transport one hour, and have been shown to reduce car
(2004) Making Car Sharing
and Car Clubs Work:
ownership and use. To function effectively, car
A Good Practice Guide. club vehicles need to be made available close to Figure 8.8 (a) and (b) A successful car club scheme is
members’ homes. operating in Bath, with spaces provided on-street.
Transport.

Allocated and unallocated parking On-street parking
8.3.10 Not all parking spaces need to be 8.3.12 An arrangement of discrete parking
allocated to individual properties. Unallocated bays adjacent to the running lanes is often the
parking provides a common resource for a preferred way of providing on-street parking. It
neighbourhood or a specific development. has little effect on passing traffic and minimises
obstructions to the view of pedestrians crossing
8.3.11 A combination of both types of the street.
parking can often be the most appropriate
solution. There are several advantages to 8.3.13 It is recommended that, in most
providing a certain amount of unallocated circumstances, at least some parking demand in
communal parking, and it is recommended that residential and mixed-use areas is met with
there should be a presumption in favour of well-designed on-street parking (Fig. 8.9).
including some in most residential layouts. Key
considerations for communal parking are that it: 8.3.14 Breaking up the visual impact can be
• only needs to provide for average levels of achieved by limiting on-street parking to small
car ownership; groups of, say, about five spaces. These groups
• allows for changes in car ownership can be separated by kerb build-outs, street
between individual dwellings over time; furniture or planting.
• provides for both residents’ and visitors’
needs; and 8.3.15 In planning for expected levels of car
• can cater for parking demand from ownership it is not always necessary to provide
non-residential uses in mixed-use areas, parking on site (i.e. within curtilage or in off-
which will tend to peak during the daytime street parking areas). In some cases it may be
when residential demands are lowest. appropriate to cater for all of the anticipated
Figure 8.9 An example of on-street parking in the centre of the street that helps to separate the car from
other users and provides strong surveillance of the cars.

On-street parking –
positive and negative effects
Positive effects
• A common resource, catering for residents’,

visitors’ and service vehicles in an efficient
manner.
• Able to cater for peak demands from

various users at different times of the day,
for example people at work or residents.
• Adds activity to the street.
• Typically well overlooked, providing
improved security.
• Popular and likely to be well-used.
• Can provide a useful buffer between
Figure 8.10 On-street parking in Crown Street,
Glasgow.
pedestrians and traffic.
• Potentially allows the creation of areas
demand on-street. This could be the case, for within perimeter blocks that are free of cars.
example, with a small infill development where
adjacent streets are able to easily accommodate Negative effects
the increase in parking, or where a low
car-ownership development is proposed. Crown • Can introduce a road safety problem,
Street, Glasgow, is an example of a large scheme particularly if traffic speeds are above
that has accommodated all parking on-street 20 mph and there are few places for
pedestrians to cross with adequate visibility.
(Fig. 8.10).
• Can be visually dominant within a street
scene and can undermine the established
8.3.16 Where regulated on-street parking is character (Fig. 8.11).
provided, it is important to note that it cannot
• May lead to footway parking unless the
be allocated to individual dwellings, although street is properly designed to accommodate
such spaces can be reserved for particular types parked vehicles.
of user, such as disabled people. • Vehicles parked indiscriminately can block
vehicular accesses to dwellings.
8.3.17 In deciding how much on-street parking • Cars parked on-street can be more
is appropriate, it is recommended that the vulnerable to opportunistic crime than
positive and negative effects listed in the off-street spaces.
‘On-street parking box’ are considered.
Figure 8.11 Street detailing and pedestrian provision dominated by car-parking considerations

8.3.18 Generally the most appropriate solution 8.3.25 It is preferable to provide these spaces
will be to design for a level of on-street parking in unallocated areas, including on-street, as
that takes account of the following factors: it is not normally possible to identify which
• the overall level of car ownership in the properties will be occupied by or visited by
immediate area; disabled people. It is recommended that spaces
• the amount of off-street parking provided; for disabled people are generally located as close
• the amount of allocated parking provided; as possible to building entrances.
• the speed and volume of traffic using the
street; and 8.3.26 In the absence of any specific local
• the width and geometry of the street and policies, it is recommended that 5% of residential
its junctions. car-parking spaces are designated for use by
disabled people. A higher percentage is likely to
8.3.19 Indicating on-street car-parking spaces be necessary where there are proportionally more
clearly through the use of road markings or older residents. Local authorities should provide
changes of surfacing material can help to spaces on the basis of demand.
encourage good parking behaviour.
8.3.27 Where local authorities mark out
8.3.20 Where on-street spaces are provided disabled bays on streets in residential areas, the
in bays adjacent to running lanes, having traffic signs and road markings should comply
them drain towards the street will make with TSRGD and be supported by a TRO.
cleaning easier.
Parking for service vehicles
Visitor parking
8.3.28 In most situations, it will not be
8.3.21 It is recommended that visitor parking necessary to provide parking spaces specifically
is generally served by unallocated parking, for service vehicles, such as delivery vans, which
including on‑street provision. are normally stationary for a relatively short time.
If such parking bays are considered necessary,
8.3.22 Research11 indicates that no additional other vehicles may need to be prevented from
provision needs to be made for visitor parking using the spaces by regulation and enforcement.
when a significant proportion of the total
parking stock for an area is unallocated. Design and location of car-parking spaces
8.3.23 In town centres and other locations 8.3.29 Guidance on the design and location of
with good accessibility by non-car modes, and car-parking spaces can be found in a number of
where on-street parking is controlled, it is often recent documents.
appropriate to omit visitor car-parking spaces.
8.3.30 Better Places to Live13 echoes many of
Car parking provision for disabled people the principles already set out above, including
(Blue Badge holders) opportunities to use a combination of allocated
11 Noble, J. and Jenks,
M. (1996) Parking: and unallocated parking and the scope for on-
Demand and Provision 8.3.24 Spaces for disabled people12 need to be street parking, provided that it is designed so
in Private Sector
Housing Developments. properly marked and meet the minimum space that it is interrupted at regular intervals.
Oxford: Oxford Brookes requirements (see paragraph 8.3.58 below).
University.
12 DETR (2001) Policy
Planning Guidance 13:
Transport. London: TSO.
(Wales: Welsh Assembly
Government (2007)
Technical Advice Note
18: Transport. Cardiff:
NAfW.)
Better Places to Live: By
Design. A Companion
Thomas Telford Ltd.

Figure 8.12 This arrangement of buildings creates Figure 8.13 This well-overlooked parking court at
well-overlooked parking spaces (shown in pink) Bishop’s Mead, Chelmsford, is obviously in the
– through routes increase natural surveillance from private realm (source: Safer Places14 ).
passing pedestrians (source: Better Places to Live ).
8.3.33 The Urban Design Compendium15

8.3.31 Better Places to Live notes that advises that vehicles should not be allowed
courtyard parking can be a useful addition to dominate spaces, or to inconvenience
to spaces in front of dwellings, and that pedestrians and cyclists; and that a careful
courtyards which work well exhibit three main balance has to be struck between the desire of
characteristics: car owners to park as near to their dwellings as
• they are not car parks, but places which possible and the need to maintain the character
have parking in them;
of the overall setting. Parking within the front
• they are overlooked by adjoining houses, or
curtilage should generally be avoided as it
by buildings entered from the parking area
breaks up the frontage and restricts informal
(Figs 8.12 and 8.13); and
surveillance. Where cars are parked in courts or
• they normally include, at most, 10 parking
squares, the design should ensure that they are
spaces – if there are more spaces, the
overlooked by adjoining buildings.
courtyard layout should be broken up.
8.3.34 Car Parking: What Works Where16
8.3.32 Better Places to Live also acknowledges provides a comprehensive toolkit for designers
the success of developments which depend on that gives useful advice on the most appropriate
basement or undercroft parking, without which forms of car parking relevant to different types
they would not be viable. The advantage of of residential development. The guidance
putting cars underground is that it preserves the includes examples of:
street frontage, uses land more efficiently and
14 ODPM and Home Office may be more convenient for drivers accessing the • parking in structures such as multi-storey
(2004) Safer Places: The and underground car parks;
Planning System and building, particularly in adverse weather. However,
Crime Prevention. London: as with courtyard parking, much depends on the • parking in front and rear courts;
Thomas Telford Ltd. • on-street parking in central reservations,
15 Llewelyn Davies (2000) location and design of the entrance.
The Urban Design along kerbs and at different angles, and in
Compendium. London: parking squares; and
English Partnerships and
The Housing Corporation. • parking on driveways, in garages and car
16 English Partnerships and ports, and in individual rear courts.
Design for Homes (2006)
Car Parking: What Works
Where. London: English
Partnerships.

8.3.35 The guidance includes detailed Table 8.2 Efficiency of different types of parking
case studies that illustrate the application
of these parking solutions for different Level of Type of parking Comments
efficiency/
locations and types of housing.
flexibility
8.3.36 When drawing up parking High On-street Most efficient,

policies or designing for new car-parking as parking
arrangements, it is recommended that local spaces are
shared and the
authorities and applicants seeking planning street provides
permission have regard to the good practice the means of
set out in the above guidance (and also see access
box). Consideration should also be given
to the Safer Parking Scheme initiative of
the Association of Chief Police Officers
(ACPO),17 aimed at reducing crime and the Off-street Requires
fear of crime in parking areas. communal additional access
and circulation
space
Car parking arrangements:
good practice
Off-street Although less
It is recommended that the following key
allocated spaces flexible in
principles (based on Car Parking: What Works but grouped operation, this
Where) should be followed when considering arrangement
the design and location of car parking: allows for future
• the design quality of the street is changes in
paramount; allocation
• there is no single best solution to providing
car parking – a combination of on-plot, off-
plot and on-street will often be appropriate; Off-street Inflexible, and
• the street can provide a very good car allocated garages largely precludes
park – on-street parking is efficient, away from sharing spaces.
understandable and can increase vitality dwellings Also security
and safety; concerns
• parking within a block is recommended only
after parking at the front and on-street
has been fully considered – rear courtyards Within individual Requires more
should support on-street parking, not dwelling curtilage space due to
replace it; the need for
• car parking needs to be designed with driveways, but
security in mind – advice on this issue is more secure
contained in Safer Places. See also the Safer
Parking Scheme initiative of ACPO; and
• consideration needs to be given to parking Low
for visitors and disabled people.
Efficiency of parking provision

8.3.38 Each type of solution has different
levels of efficiency and flexibility (see Table 8.2).
8.3.37 A key objective of PPS3 is to ensure
that land is used efficiently, and to this end the
total space taken up by parking needs to be
minimised (Wales: refer to TAN 18). The more
flexible the use of parking spaces, the more
efficient the use of space.
17 See www.britishparking.
co.uk.

Garages
8.3.39 Garages are not always used for car

parking, and this can create additional demand
for on-street parking.
8.3.40 Research shows that, in some

developments, less than half the garages are
used for parking cars, and that many are used
primarily as storage or have been converted to

living accommodation (see box).
Use of garages for parking

Recent surveys found the following proportions
of garages were used for parking:
• 44% at various sites in England18
• 36% at Waterside Park, Kent;19 and Figure 8.14 Footway parking at Beaulieu Park,
• 45% at various sites in Oxfordshire.20,21 Chelmsford.
8.3.41 In determining what counts as parking prams or pushchairs (Fig. 8.14). It is therefore
and what does not, it is recommended that the recommended that footway parking be
following is taken into account: prevented through the design of the street.
• car ports are unlikely to be used for storage
and should therefore count towards parking 8.3.43 Footway parking may also cause
provision; and damage to the kerb, the footway and the
• whether garages count fully will need to be services underneath. Repairing such damage can
decided on a scheme-by-scheme basis. This be costly and local authorities may face claims
will depend on factors such as: for compensation for injuries received resulting
– the availability of other spaces, including from damaged or defective footways.
on-street parking – where this is limited,
residents are more likely to park in their 8.3.44 In London footway parking is prohib-
garages; ited, unless expressly permitted by an order.
– the availability of separate cycle parking Outside London footway parking is not gener-
and general storage capacity – garages ally prohibited, but local authorities can prohibit
are often used for storing bicycles and footway parking through a TRO. Any such order
other household items; and would, however, need to be enforced, which
– the size of the garage – larger garages may be costly without an awareness-raising
can be used for both storage and car campaign. Local authorities should therefore aim
parking, and many authorities now to encourage drivers to regard the footway as
18 WSP (2004). Car recommend a minimum size of 6 m reserved for pedestrians, and public information
Parking Standards and by 3 m. and education programmes can help to influence
Sustainable Residential
Environments – research attitudes in line with this objective.
carried out for ODPM. Footway parking
19 Scott Wilson – Surveys
of garage use at Ingress 8.3.45 It is also possible to deter footway
Park and Waterstone 8.3.42 Footway parking (also called pavement parking through physical measures, such as by
Park, Dartford, Kent.
20 Some 63% of residents parking) causes hazards and inconvenience to installing bollards, raised planters or other street
in Oxfordshire who did pedestrians. It creates particular difficulties for furniture, and by clearly indicating where people
not use their garage for
parking said that this was blind or partially-sighted people, disabled people should park.
because it was used for and older people, or those with
storage, including cycle
storage.
21 WSP and Phil Jones
Associates (2006)
unpublished reasearch.

Case study
Derby City Council –

tackling pavement parking
In a number of pavement parking hot-spots
in Derby, the Council placed Parking on
Pavements leaflets on vehicles parked on the
pavement (Fig. 8.15). These leaflets give a clear
message as to the negative effects of pavement
parking, along with an indication of the
penalties that pavement parkers could incur.
Since 2002, over 300 Parking on Pavements
leaflets have been placed on vehicles in hot
spots, and the effect on pavement parking has
been positive.
Figure 8.15 DCC’s Parking on Pavements leaflets.
Derby City Council

8.3.46 Further guidance on deterring footway Dimensions for car-parking spaces and
parking is contained in Traffic Advisory Leaflet manoeuvring areas
04/93.22 The Department for Transport has also
drawn together examples of authorities that 8.3.48 For parking parallel to the street, each
have tackled footway parking (also see ‘Derby vehicle will typically need an area of about 2 m
City Council case study box’). wide and 6 m long.
8.3.47 Where there is a shared surface 8.3.49 For echelon or perpendicular parking,
(Fig. 8.16), conventional footways are dispensed individual bays will need to be indicated or
with, so, technically, footway parking does not marked. Bays will need to enclose a rectangular
arise. However, inconsiderate parking can still area about 2.4 m wide and a minimum of 4.2 m
be a problem (Fig. 8.17). Parking spaces within long. Echelon bays should be arranged so that
shared surface areas which are clearly indicated drivers are encouraged to reverse into them. This
– for example by a change in materials – will is safer than reversing out, when visibility might
let people know where they should park. Street be restricted by adjacent parked vehicles.
furniture and planting, including trees, can also
be used to constrain or direct parking.
Una McGaugh in, Llewelyn Davies Yeang

22 Department for
Transport (1993) Traffic
– Pavement Parking.
Figure 8.16 Clearly indicated parking spaces on Figure 8.17 Untidy and inconsiderate parking.
Transport. a shared surface in Morice Town Home Zone,
Plymouth.

Parallel parking arrangement Perpendicular parking arrangement
4.8 m
w
2.0 m
4.8 m
6.0 m 2.4 m
Figure 8.18 Suggested parallel and perpendicular parking arrangements.
Figure 8.19 Gradual widening of the carriageway to create on-street spaces, with running carriageway
checked using vehicle tracking.
8.3.50 Figures 8.18 and 8.19 show some 8.3.53 Where space is limited it may not be
suggested arrangements. possible to provide for vehicles to get into the
spaces in one movement. Some back and fore
8.3.51 The width (W in Fig. 8.18) needed manoeuvring may be required. This is likely to
to access echelon or perpendicular spaces be acceptable where traffic volumes and speeds
conveniently, depends on the width of the bay are low.
and the angle of approach. For a 2.4 m wide bay,
these values are typically: 8.3.54 The dimensions given above for
parking spaces and manoeuvring areas can also
• at 90 degrees, W = 6.0 m;
be applied to the design of underground and
• at 60 degrees, W = 4.2 m; and
multi-storey car parks. For detailed guidance on
• at 45 degrees, W = 3.6 m.
the design of these types of parking, reference
can be made to guidelines prepared by the
8.3.52 These width requirements can be
Institution of Structural Engineers (IStructE).23
reduced if the spaces are made wider.
Swept-path analysis can be used to assess the
effect of oversized spaces on reducing the need
for manoeuvring space (Fig 8.20).
Tracking assessment
o o
90 b1 90 b2
w2
w1
23 IStructE (2002) Design

Recommendations
for Multi-storey and b1 < b2
Underground Car Parks. w1 > w2
London: IStructE.
Figure 8.20 The effect on overall street width requirements when wider car parking spaces are provided.

Parking spaces for disabled people 8.4 Motorcycle parking
8.3.55 Detailed design specifications for 8.4.1 In 2003 there were 1.52 million
parking spaces for disabled people are set out in motorcycles in use – representing around 5%
Traffic Advisory Leaflet 05/9524 and in Inclusive of all motor vehicles. The need for parking
Mobility.25 Further advice is available in BS 8300: provision for motorcycles is recognised in
2001.26 However, it is important to note that the PPG13, which advises that, in developing
diagrams on page 58 of Inclusive Mobility do not and implementing policies on parking, local
show the correct way to mark nor do they show authorities should consider appropriate
the full range of dimensions for on-street bays provision for motorcycle parking.
for disabled people. The diagrams also show
some of the kerb-mounted sign posts poorly 8.4.2 Guidance on motorcycle parking is
positioned for people wishing to access their contained in Traffic Advisory Leaflet 02/02.29
cars. Traffic signs and road markings for on- General advice on designing highways to meet
street bays reserved for disabled badge holders the need of motorcycles is given in the Institute
should comply with TSRGD and further guidance of Highway Engineers (IHIE) Guidelines for
is provided in Traffic Signs Manual Chapter 327 Motorcycling, published in 2005.30 Some of the
and Traffic Signs Manual Chapter 5.28 guidance contained in that document has been
repeated here for ease of reference.
8.3.56 It is recommended that parking bays for
disabled people are designed so that drivers and 8.4.3 The IHIE guidelines provide
passengers, either of whom may be disabled, can considerable detail on the provision of public
get in and out of the car easily. They should allow motorcycle parking at locations such as
wheelchairs users to gain access from the side educational establishments and workplaces,
and the rear. The bays should be large enough at shopping/entertainment areas and within
24 Department for Transport to protect people from moving traffic when residential areas lacking private parking
Leaflet 05/05 – Parking they cannot get in or out of their car on the opportunities.
for Disabled People. footway side.
Transport. 8.4.4 Motorcyclists prefer to park close to
25 Department for Transport 8.3.57 Inclusive Mobility recommends that their destination, in places where they can
(2005) Inclusive
Mobility: A Guide to dropped kerbs with tactile paving are provided secure their machine. Designated motorcycle
Best Practice on Access adjacent to car-parking spaces to ensure that parking facilities that fail to meet these
to Pedestrian and
Transport Infrastructure. wheelchair users can access footways from requirements will probably be overlooked in
London: Department for the carriageway. (Wales: Further guidance on favour of informal spaces that are considered
Transport.
26 British Standards car parking standards and design for inclusive more suitable by owners.
Institute (BSI) (2001) mobility will be produced in association
BS 8300: 2001 Design
of Buildings and their with Welsh guidance on Design and Access 8.4.5 Motorcycles are prone to theft, as
Approaches to Meet Statements during 2007.) they can be readily lifted into another vehicle.
the Needs of Disabled
People. London: BSI. Security should therefore be a key consideration
27 Department for 8.3.58 The recommended dimensions of for those providing parking facilities for
Signs Manual Chapter off‑street parking bays are that they are laid out motorcycles.
3: Regulatory Signs. as a rectangle at least 4.8 m long by 2.4 m wide
London: HMSO.
28 Department for Transport for the vehicle, along with additional space as
(2003) Traffic Signs set out in Inclusive Mobility.
Manual Chapter 5: Road
Markings. London: TSO.
29 Department for
– Motorcycle Parking.
Transport.
30 IHIE (2005) Guidelines
for Motorcycling:
Improving Safety
through Engineering and
Integration. London:
IHIE.

8.4.6 In planning for private residential of wheel sizes in use. The addition of guard
parking, in most situations motorcycles railing prevents the locking rail from becoming a
will be able to use car parking spaces, but tripping hazard.
in some situations it will be appropriate to
provide designated motorcycle parking areas, 8.4.3 To estimate the space required for
particularly: parking motorcycles, it is recommended that
• where there is a high density of a 2.0 m by 0.8 m footprint is allowed per
development and where car parking is likely motorcycle. It is not necessary or desirable to
to be intensively used; and mark individual bays. For regulated on-street
• where demand for motorcycle parking is parking, supported by a TRO, diagram 1028.4 of
expected to be significant. TSRGD should be used.
8.4.7 Where designated parking is provided,

covered spaces will provide protection from the
elements.
Motorcycle Industry Association

8.4.8 Physical security need not be difficult
or expensive to provide. Fixed features, such
as rails, hoops or posts designed to provide a
simple locking point to secure a motorcycle
should be considered. Where motorcycles are
parked in bays with one wheel against the kerb,
a simple continuous steel rail satisfies most Figure 8.21 Secure motorcycle parking.
situations (Fig. 8.21). The rail should be set at
around 600 mm high to accommodate the range

9
Traffic signs and markings
James Pu kiss, Halcrow

(the TAL series). The publications relevant to
Chapter aims
signing include LTN 1/94 The Design and Use
• Discuss the influence of signs on making of Directional Informatory Signs7 and TAL 06/05
streets successful. Traditional Direction Signs.8
• Raise awareness of the visual impact of
9.1.5 Designers need to understand the status
excessive signing.
of these documents. Compliance with TSRGD is
• Direct practitioners to detailed guidance. mandatory. The Traffic Signs Manual, the LTNs
• Examine the flexibility allowed by the Traffic and the TALs are guidance.
Signs Regulations and General Directions
2002 and the Traffic Signs Manual to 9.1.6 On occasion designers may find that there
ensure that signing is appropriate to the is no prescribed sign which suits their purpose.
street and its intended uses. If so, they can apply to the Department for
Transport or the Welsh Assembly Government,
• Encourage designers to optimise signing. as appropriate, for authorisation to use a non-
prescribed sign. However, they should check
carefully beforehand to make sure that the
situation they wish to address is not already
covered by TSRGD – some applications for
non-prescribed signs turn out to be unnecessary
9.1 Traffic signs for this reason.
9.1.1 The Traffic Signs Regulations and General 9.1.7 Some streets feature few, or no, signs
Directions 20021 (TSRGD) is a regulatory or markings. This may be appropriate in
document which details every traffic sign lightly-trafficked environments. It reduces sign
prescribed for use in the UK. It includes all of clutter and the relative lack of signing may
the prescribed road markings, as a road marking encourage lower vehicle speeds. However, it is
is legally a sign. TSRGD also stipulates the worth monitoring such arrangements to confirm
conditions under which each sign may be used. that the level of signing is correct.
2002 No. 3113,The Traffic
Signs Regulations and 9.1.2 Further advice on the use of signs is 9.1.8 In residential areas, minimal signing can
General Directions 2002.
London: TSO. contained in the Traffic Signs Manual,2 which work well if traffic volume and speed are low.
2 Department for Transport gives advice on the application of traffic signs Some designers have experimented with this
(various) The Traffic Signs
Manual. London: in common situations. Chapters likely to be of approach on more heavily-trafficked streets,
TSO and HMSO. particular relevance to street design include: but there is insufficient evidence to date to be
(2004) Traffic Signs able to offer firm guidance here.
Manual Chapter 1: • Chapter 1 – Introduction:3 sets out the
Introduction. London: TSO.
4 Department for Transport background to, and principles of, signing; 9.1.9 When planning how to sign a street,
(1987) Traffic Signs • Chapter 3 – Regulatory Signs:4 gives advice designers should note the following:
Manual Chapter 3:
Regulatory Signs. London: on the use of signs which give effect to • the size of a sign should suit the speed
HMSO. traffic regulation orders (TROs); of the traffic regardless of its purpose.
(2004) Traffic Signs • Chapter 4 – Warning Signs:5 gives advice on It is not appropriate to use smaller signs
Manual Chapter 4: signs used to warn of potential hazards; simply because the sign is informative
Warning Signs.
London: TSO. • Chapter 5 – Road Markings:6 gives advice on rather than a warning or regulatory sign.
6 Department for Transport the use of road markings in common situations. If the sign is necessary, motorists need to
(2003) Traffic Signs
Manual Chapter 5: Road be able to read it;
Markings. London: TSO. 9.1.3 It is important that designers refer to • signs are most effective when not used to
(1994) Local Transport Note the Traffic Signs Manual before embarking on excess. Designers should ensure that each
1/94 - The Design and Use the design of signing. sign is necessary – they should use the
of Directional Informatory
Signs. London: HMSO. flexibility within the TSRGD and associated
8 Department for Transport 9.1.4 Supplementary advice is also published guidance documents to ensure that signs are
Leaflet 06/05 - Traditional by the Department for Transport in Local Transport provided as required, but do not dominate
Direction Signs. London: Notes (the LTN series) and Traffic Advisory Leaflets the visual appearance of streets;

a b 9.2 Designing signs
9.2.1 No signs are fundamentally required by
Jesse Honey, Llewelyn Davies Yeang

TSRGD per se. Signs are only needed to warn
or inform, or to give effect to TROs, and TSRGD
simply sets out how signs must be used once it
has been decided that they are necessary.
9.2.2 Designers should start from a position

Figure 9.1 (a) Sign clutter in residential areas;
of having no signs, and introduce them only
(b) the yellow backing board adds clutter and its use where they serve a clear function:
with the flashing amber lights is counter-productive.
In addition, the sign post should not protrude
above the sign. ‘Signs are used to control and guide traffic
and to promote road safety. They should
only be used where they can usefully serve
these functions.’9
• signs which have no clear purpose should 9.2.3 Street layouts, geometries and networks
be removed to reduce clutter and to ensure should aim to make the environment self-
that essential messages are prominent; and explanatory to all users. Features such as public
• consideration should be given to art, planting and architectural style can assist
incorporating colour contrast bands on navigation while possibly reducing the need for
poles and columns to help partially- signs.
sighted people. A single white or yellow
band 150 mm deep with its lower edge 9.2.4 The location and design of signs and
between 1.5 m and 1.7 m from the ground signposts should be planned to permit effective
is likely to be appropriate. maintenance (including access for cleaning
equipment) and to minimise clutter.
Clutter
9.2.5 Providing additional signs may not
9.1.10 Signs can clutter the street if used to solve a particular problem. If signs have proved
excess (Fig. 9.1). Clutter is unattractive and can ineffective, it may be more appropriate to remove
introduce hazards for street users. them and apply other measures rather than
providing additional signs. If motorists already
9.1.11 Cluttering tends to take place over time have all the information they need, additional
by the incremental addition of signs to serve a signing will simply clutter the environment:
particular purpose without regard having been
given to the overall appearance of the street. It ‘Appropriate warning signs can greatly
is recommended that street signs are periodically assist road safety. To be most effective,
audited with a view to identifying and removing however, they should be used sparingly.’10
unnecessary signs.
9.2.6 The TSRGD provide significant flexibility
9.1.12 In the case of new developments, in the application of statutory signs, including
some highway authorities seek to guard against the use of smaller signs in appropriate conditions.
having to install additional signs at their own Designers need to be familiar with the Regulations
expense later, by requiring all manner of signs and with the published guidance, determine what
to be provided by the developer at the outset. conditions they are designing for and specify
9 Department for Transport This can lead to clutter and is not recommended. appropriate signs. Working drawings for most
(2004) Traffic Signs Manual
Chapter 1: Introduction. The preferred way of addressing such concerns prescribed signs are available free of charge on
London: TSO. is to issue a bond to cover an agreed period, so the Department for Transport website. Designers
(2004) Traffic Signs Manual that additional signs can be installed later at the should always start from these when adapting a
Chapter 4: warning Signs. developer’s expense if required. prescribed sign for special authorisation.
London: TSO.

Table 9.1 Prompts for deciding on the appropriate level of signing
Prompts
Users • What signs are necessary to assist users, including non-motorised users?
• Are directional signs needed for vehicular traffic, including pedal cyclists?
• Is information provided in the necessary formats to be accessible to all?
• Can navigation be assisted by means other than signs? For example,
landmarks or other visual cues ,etc.
• Can road markings be dispensed with in some places?
Place • How can necessary information be integrated into the place without dominating it?
• Can some pedestrian direction signs be designed to contribute to the sense of place
by using a locally distinctive format?
• Are traditional direction signs12 appropriate for the setting?
Safety • Are there any hazards that require signs?

• Can significant locations, such as school entrances, health centres, local shops, etc.,
be indicated by a measure such as surface variation to reduce the need for signs?
Regulation • What signing is necessary to give effect to TROs?

• Is it necessary to regulate traffic or parking?
• Can behaviour be influenced by means other than signing? For example,
can parking be managed by the physical layout of the street?
Speed • Are signs specified at the minimum size required for the design speed of traffic
(new build) or 85th percentile speed (existing streets)?
• Can traffic speeds be controlled by measures
(such as planting to break-up forward visibility)
to reduce the need for signs?
9.2.7 When designing for minimal signing, 9.2.12 The prompts in Table 9.1 will help
care should be taken that safety hazards are not when deciding on the appropriate level of
left unsigned. signing for a street.
9.2.8 The Department for Transport may 9.3 Common situations

be prepared to authorise departures from
TSRGD to reduce signs and road markings in Centre lines
environmentally sensitive streets.
9.3.1 The use of centre lines is not an
9.2.9 The Traffic Signs Manual states that absolute requirement. The Traffic Signs
‘it is desirable to limit the number of posts Manual Chapter 513 gives advice on the
in footways. Where possible signs should be correct use of road markings.
attached to adjacent walls, so that they are
not more than 2 metres from the edge of the 9.3.2 Centre lines are often introduced to reduce
carriageway, or be grouped on posts’.11 Lighting risk but, on residential roads, there is little evidence
(2004) Traffic Signs Manual equipment may also be mounted on walls (see to suggest that they offer any safety benefits.
Chapter 1: Introduction. Chapter 10).
London: TSO. Paragraph 1.57
12 Department for Transport 9.3.3 There is some evidence that, in
(2005) Traffic Advisory 9.2.10 In existing neighbourhoods, there can
Leaflet 06/05 - Traditional
appropriate circumstances, the absence of white
Direction Signs. London: be legal difficulties associated with attaching lines can encourage drivers to use lower speeds:
Department for Transport signs (or lighting) to private property – this is
• research undertaken in Wiltshire found that
(2003) Traffic Signs less of a problem with new build. the removal of the centre line led to a wider
Manual Chapter 5: Road
Markings. London:TSO
margin being maintained between opposing
14 Debell, C. (2003) White 9.2.11 Existing streets should be subject to flows. There was no indication that drivers
lines - study shows their a signs audit to ensure that they are not over-
absence may be a safety
were encouraged to adopt inappropriate
plus. Traffic Engineering signed and, in particular, that old, redundant speeds. At 12 test sites, it resulted in slower
and Control v. 44 (9) signs, such as ‘New road layout ahead’ have
pp316-317
speeds and reduced accidents, although the
been removed. council had concerns regarding liability;14 and

• research carried out in 20 residential areas 9.3.5 For designated parking spaces,
during the preparation of MfS found no markings indicating the ends of bays may be
relationship between white centre lines omitted if physical delineation is used, e.g.
and recorded casualties (see ‘Starston case build-outs (see Traffic Signs Manual Chapter 5).
study box’ and Fig. 9.3).
9.3.6 The new edition of Chapter 3 of the
Parking Traffic Signs Manual, which the Department for
Transport expects to consult on in summer 2007,
9.3.4 In residential locations, high levels of will give more guidance on footway parking and
kerbside parking and inconsiderate behaviour shared parking spaces.
can create problems with access, convenience
and safety. It may be necessary to manage
kerbside parking through the use of restrictions
indicated by signs and road markings (also see
Chapter 8).
Case study
Starston, Norfolk: effects of road surfacing was used. Over half of the signs
markings and signs on traffic speed were removed and many of the remainder
were replaced with smaller ones. New, locally-
designed place-name signs were also installed
which helped reinforce the sense of place of
the village. These measures led to mean speeds
being reduced by up to 7 mph.15
Following a Road Safety Audit, Norfolk County

Council reinstalled the white lines and noted that,
six months after the initial scheme opening and
TRL
three months after the centre line markings were

Figure 9.2 Starston, Norfolk. put back, there was some erosion of the earlier
Starston is a village on the B1134 in Norfolk reduction achieved on the western approach,
(Fig. 9.2) which was experiencing problems although they were sustained on the shorter
with excessive traffic speed. It would have eastern approach.16
required a significant number of new signs
to implement a 30 mph limit. Instead, The erosion of speed reduction may have been
road markings were removed, signing was a consequence of reinstalling the white lines
rationalised and natural coloured road- but drivers were also responding to other factors.
15 Wheeler, A. H., Kennedy,

J. V., Davies, G. J. and
Green, J. M. (2001)
Countryside Traffic
Measures Group: Traffic
Calming Schemes in
Norfolk and Suffolk. TRL
Report 500. Crowthorne:
TRL.
16 Ralph (2001)
Innovations in Rural
Stuart Reid, TRL
Speed Management.
Proceedings of the
DTLR Good Practice
TRL
Conference. London:
DTLR. Figure 9.3 Street with no centre lining. Figure 9.4 Kerb build-out defines parking area and
provides room for planting clear of the footway.

9.3.7 Parking restrictions are often ignored
where enforcement is limited. The use of planting
and placing of street furniture may be a more
James Purkiss, Halcrow

attractive and effective way of managing
parking (Fig. 9.4).
Junction priority
Figure 9.6 Clear and legible street name sign
attached to a building.
9.3.8 Most unsignalised junctions are designed
assuming a dominant flow, with priority indicated Informatory signs
by give-way signs and markings. There is,
however, no statutory requirement for junction 9.3.12 LTN 1/94 The Design and Use of
priority to be specified. Directional Informatory Signs gives guidance on
directional signs for drivers. The size of lettering
9.3.9 Some schemes, primarily on lower (defined by the x-height) should be appropriate
volume roads, feature unmarked junctions that for the traffic speed. Guidance on relating the
require drivers to ‘negotiate’ their way through, size of signs to traffic speed is given in Appendix
with the aim of controlling speeds (Fig. 9.5). A of the LTN.
At UK residential sites studied in the preparation
of MfS, unmarked junctions performed well in 9.3.13 Streets need to be easy to identify.
terms of casualties. There was, however, evidence This is particularly important for people looking
of higher vehicle approach speeds compared with for a street on foot. A good system of street
marked junctions. This may indicate an intention name plates may also make direction signs to
by drivers to slow down only when another certain sites, such as schools, churches, shopping
vehicle is present. For unmarked junctions, it is areas, etc., unnecessary. Name plates should
recommended that the geometry on junction be provided at each junction. They should be
approaches encourages appropriate speeds. legible with a strong tonal contrast, for example
black lettering on a white background. Attaching
9.3.10 Where there is a need to specify the name plates to structures can help reduce
junction priority, it can be signed in three ways: clutter (Fig. 9.6).
• a diagram 1003 ‘Give Way’ marking;
• a diagram 1003 ‘Give Way’ marking 9.3.14 Non-statutory signs can also contribute
and a diagram 1023 triangle; and to the sense of place of a street. This may include
• both these markings and a diagram 602 examples such as village signs, as well as the
‘Give Way’ sign. permitted use of a lower panel on statutory 20
mph zone signs, which allow for scheme specific
9.3.11 It may be appropriate to begin with the artwork and messages (Fig. 9.7).
simplest option, and introduce further signing only
if deemed necessary in the light of experience. James Pu kiss, Halcrow
Stuart Reid, TRL
Figure 9.5 Four-way junction with no marked priority. Figure 9.7 Design contributes to sense of place and
reduces clutter by incorporating several direction
signs on one post.

10
Street furniture
and street lighting

Chapter aims
• Describe how street furniture that
offers amenity to pedestrians is to be
encouraged, but clutter avoided.
• Comment on street furniture and lighting

design relating to context.
• Explain that lighting should be planned
as an integral part of the street layout.
• Recommend that where lighting is provided
it should conform to European standards.
Figure 10.1 Well-designed seating.

10.1 Introduction 10.2.2 Street furniture of direct benefit to
street users, particularly seating, is encouraged
10.1.1 Street furniture and lighting equipment but should be sympathetic to the design of the
have a major impact on the appearance of a street and respect pedestrian desire lines (Fig. 10.1).
street and should be planned as part of the
overall design concept. Street furniture should 10.2.3 Seating is necessary to provide rest
be integrated into the overall appearance of a points for pedestrians, particularly those with
street. Street audits can help determine what mobility or visual impairments, and extra
existing street furniture and lighting is in place, seating should be considered where people
and can help designers respond to the context. congregate, such as squares, local shops and
schools. Guidance is given in Inclusive Mobility
10.1.2 It is especially important that, in and BS 8300. Seating can sometimes attract
historic towns and conservation areas, particular anti-social behaviour and therefore should
attention is paid to the aesthetic quality of street be located where there is good lighting and
furniture and lighting. Care should be taken to natural surveillance.
avoid light pollution and intrusion, particularly
in rural areas. In some cases it may not be 10.2.4 Although much street furniture is
appropriate to provide lighting, for example in a provided for the benefit of motorised users,
new development in an unlit village. it is generally located on the footway and can
contribute to clutter. In some circumstances, it
10.1.3 Street furniture that encourages human may be possible to reduce footway clutter by
activity can also contribute to a sense of place. placing some of these items on build-outs.
The most obvious example of this is seating, or
features that can act as secondary seating. In 10.2.5 Street furniture, including lighting
addition, street features such as play equipment columns and fittings, needs to be resistant to
may be appropriate in some locations, particularly in vandalism and be placed in positions that
designated Home Zones, in order to anchor activity. minimise risk of damage by vehicles.
10.1.4 Where street furniture or lighting is 10.2.6 Street furniture and lighting should
(2002) Inclusive Mobility taken out of service, it should be removed. be located within the limits of the adoptable
A Guide to Best Practice highway. Street furniture should be aligned on
on Access to Pedestrian
and Transport Infrastructure. footways, preferably at the rear edge in order to
London: Department for 10.2 Street furniture reduce clutter. Care should be taken that street
Transport
2 BSI (2001) BS 8300: 2001 furniture at the rear edge of the footway does
Design of buildings and 10.2.1 Excessive street furniture, including not make adjoining properties less secure by
their approaches to meet
the needs of disabled equipment owned by utilities and third parties, providing climbable access to windows.
people. Code of practice. should be avoided.
London: BSI

Stuart Reid, TRL
Figure 10.2 Guard railing blocking pedestrian desire line - note the pedestrian in the photograph has walked
around it.
10.2.7 All street furniture should be placed to 10.3 Lighting

allow access for street cleaning.
10.3.1 Lighting can contribute to:
10.2.8 Guard railing is generally installed to • reducing risks of night-time accidents;
restrict the movement of vulnerable road users • assisting in the protection of property;
(Fig. 10.2). In some cases guard railing has been • discouraging crime and vandalism;
introduced in specific response to accidents. • making residents and street users feel
secure; and
10.2.9 Guard railing should not be provided • enhancing the appearance of the area
unless a clear need for it has been identified after dark.
(Fig. 10.2). Introducing measures to reduce traffic
flows and speeds may be helpful in removing 10.3.2 Lighting may not be appropriate in
the need for guard railing. In most cases, on all locations or contexts. However, if it is to be
residential streets within the scope of MfS, it is provided it should be of high quality. Lighting
unlikely that guard railing will be required. should generally be in accordance with BS EN
13201-2, BS EN 13201-3 and BS EN 13201-4.
10.2.10 A Local Transport Note giving further Guidance on lighting design is given in
3 British Standards
Institute (BSI) (2003) guidance on guard railing is currently in BS 5489-1, Code of Practice for the Design of
BS EN 13201-2: 2003 preparation.
Road Lighting – Road Lighting, to comply with the requirements
Performance Requirements. of BS EN 13201.
London: BSI 10.2.11 It may sometimes be necessary to
4 BSI (2003) BS EN 13201-
3: 2003 Road Lighting – introduce barriers to pedestrian movement. 10.3.3 Where streets are to be lit, lighting
Calculation of Where they are required, consideration should
Performance. London: BSI should be planned as an integral part of the
5 BSI (2003) BS EN 13201- first be given to the use of features such as design of the street layout, and in conjunction
4: 2003 Road Lighting surface textures, bench seating and planting
– Methods of Measuring with the location and anticipated growth
Lighting Performance. that can guide pedestrian movement whilst also of planting. This may require coordination
London BSI contributing to the amenity of the street.
6 BSI (2003) BS 5489-1: between authorities to ensure that similar
2003 Code of Practice standards of lighting are provided for the
for the Design of Road
Lighting. Lighting of adopted highway and un-adopted areas, such
Roads and Public as car parking. The potential for planting to
Amenity Areas.
London BSI shade out lighting through growth should be
considered when deciding what to plant.

10.3.4 Lighting columns should be placed so Lighting equipment on buildings
that they do not impinge on available widths of
footways in the interests of wheelchair users and 10.3.8 Consideration should be given to
people pushing prams, or pose a hazard for blind attaching lighting units to buildings to reduce
or partially-sighted people. Consideration should street clutter (Fig. 10.3). While maintenance
be given to incorporating colour contrast bands and access issues can arise from the installation
on lighting columns (see also paragraph 9.1.9). of such features on private property, some
authorities have successfully addressed these.
10.3.5 Lighting should illuminate both the There are likely to be fewer challenges arising
carriageway and the footway, including any from the placement of lighting on buildings in
traffic-calming features, to enable road users new-build streets. Where lighting units are to
to see potential obstacles and each other after be attached to a building, an agreement will
dark. The lighting design should ensure that be required between the freeholder of the
shadows are avoided in streets where pedestrians property, any existing tenants and the highway/
may be vulnerable. Adequate lighting helps lighting authority.
reduce crime and the fear of crime, and can
encourage increased pedestrian activity. 10.3.9 In attaching lighting to buildings, it
10.3.6 While lighting fulfils a number of should be noted that it may become subject to
important purposes in residential areas, care the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment
should be taken not to over-light, which can Act 2005. It is possible that lighting could then
contribute unnecessarily to light pollution, be subject to control by Environmental Health
neighbourhood nuisance and energy officers if is deemed to constitute a nuisance.
consumption. It is therefore important that wall-mounted
lighting is carefully designed to reduce stray
10.3.7 Lighting arrangements may be used to light.
identify the functions of different streets. For
example, a change of light source to provide 10.3.10 Key issues in the provision of lighting
whiter lighting can distinguish a residential or in residential areas are:
urban street from the high-pressure sodium • context;
(honey coloured) and the low-pressure sodium • lighting intensity;
(orange coloured) lighting traditionally used • scale; and
on traffic routes. This contrast may be reduced • colour.
over time if white-light sources become more
commonly used in road-lighting schemes.
Andrew Cameron, WSP
7 Clean Neighbourhoods
and Environment Act
2005. London: TSO
Figure 10.3 Street light mounted on a building.

Context 10.3.15 Lighting levels do not have to be
constant during the hours of darkness. Increasingly
10.3.11 Lighting should be appropriate to the equipment is available which will allow street
context. In some locations, such as rural villages, lighting to be varied or switched off based
lighting may not have been provided elsewhere on timing or ambient light levels. This offers
in the settlement and therefore it would be opportunities to design variable lighting to
inappropriate in a new development. Often, maximise the benefits while reducing negative
lighting suits highway illumination requirements impacts at times when lower lighting levels
but is not in keeping with the street environment may be adequate.
or the range of uses of that street. A street audit
can be helpful in determining both the level 10.3.16 Continuity of lighting levels is important
of lighting and the type of equipment used in to pedestrians. Sudden changes in lighting
the area. level can be particularly problematic for
partially-sighted people.
10.3.12 Over-lighting should be avoided. More
detailed information is given in the Guidance Scale
Notes for the Reduction of Obtrusive Light.8
This provides advice on techniques to minimise 10.3.17 As much street lighting is actually
obtrusive light and recommends that planning provided for highway purposes, it is often located
authorities specify four environmental zones at a height inappropriate to the cross section of
for lighting in ascending order of brightness, the street and out of scale with pedestrian users.
from National Parks and Areas of Outstanding
Natural Beauty to city centres. This is helpful in 10.3.18 In street design, consideration should
determining limits of light obtrusion appropriate be given to the purpose of lighting, the scale of
to the local area. lighting relative to human users of the street, the
width of the street and the height of
Lighting intensity surrounding buildings. For example, a traffic-
calming scheme in Latton in Wiltshire reduced
10.3.13 Guidance on the appropriate level of the height of lighting columns by around 40% to
lighting in an area is contained in BS 5489-1 make the appearance less urban. In a survey of
Annex B.9 This advice provides a systematic residents, 58% thought it was a good idea, and
approach to the choice of lighting class based only 3% opposed. This arrangement resulted in
on: less intrusion of light into bedroom windows.11
• type of road or area;
• pedestrian and cycle flow; 10.3.19 Where highway and pedestrian area
• presence of conflict areas; lighting are both required, some highway
• presence of traffic-calming features; authorities installed lamp columns featuring a
• crime risk; and secondary footway light mounted at a lower
8 Institution of Lighting • ambient luminance levels. height. This can assist in illuminating pedestrian
Engineers (ILE) (2005) areas well, particularly where footways are wide
Guidance Notes for the
Reduction of Obtrusive 10.3.14 BS EN 13201-2, Road Lighting – or shaded by trees. Careful design is essential
Light. Rugby: ILE Performance Requirements,10 gives details of to ensure that such secondary luminaries do not
9 BSI (2003) BS 5489-1:
2003 Code of Practice the necessary minimum and average levels of have a detrimental effect on the uniformity of
for the Design of Road lighting to be achieved at each of the lighting the scheme or increase light pollution.
Lighting. Lighting of
Roads and Public Amenity classes. For streets within the scope of the MfS,
Areas. London: BSI it is likely that Class ME (primarily vehicular) 10.3.20 While reducing the height of lighting
10 BSI (2003) BS EN
13201-2: 2003 Road lighting will be inappropriate and that Classes S can make the scale more human and intimate, it
Lighting – Performance (for subsidiary routes) or CE (for conflict areas) will also reduce the amount of coverage from any
Requirements. London:
BSI. should be specified. given luminaire. It is therefore a balance between
11 Kennedy, J., Gorell, R., shortening columns and increasing their number.
Crinson, L., Wheeler, A.
and Elliott, M. (2005)
Psychological Traffic
Calming. TRL Report 641.
Crowthorne: TRL.

10.3.21 Generally in a residential area, columns Other lighting considerations
of 5–6 m, i.e. eaves height, are most appropriate.
It should be noted that, if lighting is less than 10.3.24 In some contexts, lighting can contribute
4 m in height, it may no longer be considered to the sense of place of a street, with both active
highway lighting and therefore the maintenance and passive (reflective) lighting features blurring
responsibility will rest with the lighting authority the boundary between function and aesthetic
rather than the highway authority. contribution to the streetscape.
Colour 10.3.25 As with other forms of street furniture,

there are longer-term maintenance issues
10.3.22 The colour of lighting is another associated with the choice and location of
important consideration. This relates both to lighting equipment. It is recommended that
people’s ability to discern colour under artificial this be addressed in the planning process and
light and the colour ‘temperature’ of the light. that equipment which is both sympathetic to
Light colour temperature is a consequence of the the local vernacular and for which adequate
composition of the light, ranging simply from replacement and maintenance stock is available
blue (cold) to red (warm). be specified.
10.3.23 In terms of discerning colour, 10.3.26 In developing lighting schemes, it

‘colour rendering’ is measured on a Colour should be recognised that there will be an
Rendering Index of Ra0–Ra100,12 from no interaction between light shed and light
colour differentiation to perfect differentiation. reflected from pavement surfaces, etc.
Generally pedestrians prefer whiter lighting. It Lighting should therefore be developed in
provides better colour perception which makes it coordination with decisions about materials
easier to discern street features, information and and other street furniture.
facial expressions. The latter can be important
in allaying personal security concerns. For the
lighting of residential and urban streets, an Ra of
50 is desirable – and at least Ra60 is preferable
for locations of high pedestrian activity.
12 International Commission
on Illumination (CIE)
(1995) Method of
Measuring and Specifying
Colour Rendering
Properties of Light
Sources. Vienna: CIE.

11
Materials, adoption
and maintenance
Andrew Cameron, WSP
although other public and private-sector bodies
Chapter aims
can also be involved. It is therefore important that
• Encourage authorities to adopt a palette the highway engineers responsible for adoption
of materials which allow for more should be included in all key decisions from the
creative design. pre-planning stage through to detailed design.
• Show how planting can be included in
a street environment. 11.2 Materials and construction
• Advise on foul water and surface 11.2.1 Developers and local authorities are
water drainage systems, including encouraged to consider the innovative use of
the use of sustainable urban drainage materials, processes or techniques. This could be
systems (SUDS). supported by local authorities adopting a wide
• Provide guidance on accommodating palette of local and natural materials, bearing
utilities, etc., and planning for whole-life costs in mind.
maintenance in the long term.
11.2.2 The inflexible application of standard
• Advise on highway adoption procedures construction details and materials may not
and requirements. be appropriate in new housing layouts. Local
authorities should be prepared to allow the
use of alternative materials, landscaping
treatment and features (Fig. 11.1). However, it
11.1 Introduction is recommended that all materials meet the
following requirements:
11.1.1 The quality of the environment created
• easy to maintain;
by new development needs to be sustained long
• safe for purpose;
after the last property has been occupied. This
• durable;
requires good design and high-quality construction,
• sustainable (including the manufacturing
followed by good management and maintenance.
process and energy use); and
• appropriate to the local character.
11.1.2 The latter tasks are commonly the
responsibility of the local highway authority,
Crest Nicholson
Figure 11.1 The use of good-quality materials achieves a sense of place without leading to excessive
maintenance costs.

Figure 11.2 Good quality planting softens the street scene.
11.3 Planting tree roots can have on highway drainage – this

can be reduced with tree pits (see Fig. 11.4).
11.3.1 Planting should be integrated into street Detailed advice on this issue is contained in Tree
designs wherever possible. Planting, particularly Roots in the Built Environment.
street trees, helps to soften the street scene while
creating visual interest, improving microclimate 11.3.4 Trees and shrubs should not obstruct
and providing valuable habitats for wildlife pedestrian sightlines. In general, driver sightlines
(Fig. 11.2). Care needs to be taken to preserve also need to be maintained, although vegetation
existing trees, particularly when changes to a can be used to limit excessive forward visibility
street are planned (Fig. 11.3). to limit traffic speeds. Slow growing species with
narrow trunks and canopies above 2 m should
11.3.2 Where trees are to be used, careful be considered. Vegetation should not encroach
consideration needs to be given to their location onto the carriageways or footways.
and how they are planted. Trench planting,
irrigation pipes and urban tree soils will increase 11.3.5 Maintenance arrangements for all
the chance of trees establishing themselves planted areas need to be established at an early
successfully, thereby minimising maintenance stage, as they affect the design, including the
and replacement costs. choice of species and their locations.
11.3.3 Consideration should also be given to 11.3.6 Generally, any planting intended
the potential impact of planting on adjacent for adoption by a public body should match
buildings, footway construction and buried standards set locally and be capable of
services. Concerns have been expressed by regeneration or easy renewal if vandalised.
highway authorities regarding the impact that Planting needs to be designed for minimal
maintenance. Evidence that buildings and walls
Government (2006) have been built with foundations to allow for
Tree Roots in the Built tree growth may be required.
Environment. London:
TSO.

Mark Ellis
Figure 11.3 Existing trees preserved in new development.
11.3.7 The planting of less robust species • BS 5837: 2005 Trees in Relation to
which require specialist skilled maintenance, Construction; and
or more frequent maintenance visits than usual, • National Joint Utilities Group (NJUG),
are unlikely to be accepted for adoption by Guidelines for the Planning, Installation and
the local or highway authority and should be Maintenance of Utility Services in Proximity
avoided. to Trees.
11.3.8 Alternatives to formal adoption may 11.3.11 Further advice on planting

require innovative arrangements to secure considerations is set out in Chapter 5.
long-term landscape management. These
may include the careful design of ownership
Cast iron gate
boundaries, the use of covenants, and annual
Concrete lid
service charges on new properties.
PVC water
supply 100mm tree grating
11.3.9 Funding for initial set-up costs and an
endowment to generate income for maintenance
(e.g. executive staff, gardening staff, site offices,
2 See www.dft.gov.uk
equipment, machinery, stores, compost/leaf
Government (2006) litter-bins), and community and resident facilities
Tree Roots in the Built
Environment. London capable of generating regular income, may be
TSO. appropriate.
4 British Standards
Institute (BSI) (2005)
BS 5837: 2005 Trees in 11.3.10 Guidance on planting in street
WSP
Relation to Construction. Drain

Recommendations. environments includes: Tree ball
London: BSI • Roots and Routes: Guidelines on Highways Gravel drainage bed Fibreglass
5 NJUG 10 is under review fabric filter
at the time of writing.
Works and Trees – consultation paper;
Back fill soil
Please visit www.njug. • Tree Roots in the Built Environment;
co.uk/publications.htm
for more details.
Figure 11.4 Typical tree pit detail.

11.4 Drainage adoption of sewers, and is accompanied by a
Model Agreement used by sewerage undertakers
Introduction and developers.
11.4.4 An important consideration when
11.4.1 One of the functions of a street is to designing sewers is their siting within the street
provide a route for foul water and surface water and the impact they may have on detailed
drainage (Fig. 11.5). design issues. Advice on these matters is given in
Sewers for Adoption.
Foul water drainage
Surface water drainage
11.4.2 The majority of streets are designed to
accommodate the disposal of foul water from 11.4.5 The street provides a conduit for the
buildings. This will normally take the form of storage or disposal of rainwater and, by its
drains around the curtilage of buildings which nature and its impact on the environment, the
come under Part H of the Building Regulations management of surface water runoff is a more
(2000), and sewers located in the street, where complex matter than dealing with foul water. The
the relevant guidance is found within Sewers for Government’s strategy in this area is set out in
Adoption. Making Space for Water, with the emphasis on
the sustainable management of surface water.
11.4.3 The adoption process for sewers is set
by section 104 of the Water Industry Act 1991. 11.4.6 When considering the management
Sewers for Adoption acts as a guide to facilitate of surface water, designers, developers and
the procurement, design, maintenance and authorities need to take account of the
2000 No. 2531, The
Building Regulations
2000. London: TSO.
7 Water UK (2006) Sewers
for Adoption, 6th edn.
Swindon: WRc plc
8 Water Industry Act 1991
London HMSO.
9 Department for
Environment, Food and
Rural Affairs (2005)
Andrew Cameron, WSP
Making Space for

Water: Taking Forward
a New Government
Strategy for Flood and
Coastal Erosion Risk
Management in England.
London: Defra. Figure 11.5 Sustainable drainage systems can form an integral and attractive part of the street.

guidance given in Planning Policy Statement 25: 11.4.12 SUDS are more sustainable than
Development and Flood Risk (PPS25)10 (Wales: conventional drainage methods because they:
refer to TAN 15: Development and Flood Risk11). • manage runoff flow rates, using infiltration
and the retention of storm water;
11.4.7 The planning and management of • protect or enhance the water quality;
surface water discharge from buildings and • are sympathetic to the environmental
highways requires a co-ordinated approach setting and the needs of the local
to evaluating flood risk and developing an community;
integrated urban drainage strategy. • provide a habitat for wildlife in urban
watercourses; and
11.4.8 A Flood Risk Assessment (FRA) will • encourage natural groundwater recharge
demonstrate how flood risk from all sources of (where appropriate).
flooding to the development itself and flood They do this by:
risk to others will be managed now and taking • dealing with runoff close to where the rain
climate change into account. FRA is required falls;
for planning applications where flood risk is an • managing potential pollution at its source;
issue, depending on their location and size, as and
set out in Annex D of PPS25. • protecting water resources from pollution
created by accidental spills or other sources.
11.4.9 The responsibility for undertaking an
FRA rests with the developer. However, PPS25 11.4.13 The use of SUDS is seen as a primary
advocates a partnership approach, consulting objective by the Government and should be
with the relevant stakeholders to compile the applied wherever practical and technically
FRA. This will involve the planning authority, the feasible.
Environment Agency and sewerage undertakers.
(Wales: refer to TAN 15.) 11.4.14 Detailed guidance on SUDS is contained
in the Interim Code of Practice for Sustainable
11.4.10 A Practice Guide12 has been published Urban Drainage Systems,13 Part H of the
as a ‘Living Draft’ to accompany PPS25. It Building Regulations and Sewers for Adoption.
contains guidance in the management of surface All stakeholders need to be aware of the
10 Communities and water and FRAs.The Practice Guide also covers importance of the application of SUDS as part
Local Government other areas of flood risk which may be worth of an integrated urban drainage strategy for a
(2006) Planning
Policy Statement 25: considering in the way streets can be used to development.
Development and Flood accommodate or eliminate flood risk.
Risk. London: TSO.
11 Welsh Assembly 11.5 Utilities
Government (2004) Sustainable drainage systems
Development and Flood 11.5.1 Most residential streets provide routes
Risk. Cardiff: NAfW. 11.4.11 The term Sustainable Drainage for statutory undertakers and other services.
Government (2007) Systems (SUDS) covers the whole range of Detailed advice on providing for utilities in new
Development and Flood sustainable approaches to surface water drainage developments can be found in NJUG Guidance.14
Risk: A Practice Guide
Companion to PPS25 management. SUDS aim to mimic natural
‘Living Draft’. Available drainage processes and remove pollutants from 11.5.2 It is best to liaise with the utility
online only from
www.communities.gov.uk urban run-off at source. SUDS comprise a wide companies when the layouts of the buildings and
13 National SUDS Working range of techniques, including green roofs, streets are being designed. In nearly all cases
Group (2004) Interim
Code of Practice for permeable paving, rainwater harvesting, swales, this should be prior to making the planning
Sustainable Urban detention basins, ponds and wetlands. To realise application. Where streets are to be adopted,
Drainage Systems.
London: Construction the greatest improvement in water quality and it will be necessary to ensure that all legal
Industry Research and flood risk management, these components documentation required by the utility companies
Information Association
(CIRIA). See www.ciria. should be used in combination, sometimes is completed as soon as is possible.
org/suds/pdf/nswg_ referred to as the SUDS Management Train.
icop_for_suds_0704.pdf
for downloadable PDF.
14 Available from
www.njug.co.uk

11.5.3 Similar principles apply to streets that 11.5.8 There have been problems with service
are to remain private. It is important that the strips where residents have not been aware of
rights of access to the development by utility them. In addition, service strips can be unsightly
companies are set out in the management and limit opportunities for planting. As an
company’s obligations. Residents will need to be alternative, placing apparatus in the highway
made aware of these rights. may be acceptable on well-connected networks,
as traffic can be routed around a point closure if
11.5.4 The availability and location of existing it is necessary to excavate the carriageway
services should be identified at the outset. The for maintenance.
requirements for new apparatus should be taken
into account in the layout and design of the 11.5.9 In shared surface areas, such as in
streets, and a balance should be struck between some Home Zones, the routing of services will
the requirements of the utility companies and require careful consultation between designers,
other objectives. The locations of any existing utility companies and the highway authority. This
trees or shrubs, and proposals for new planting, consultation should take place at an early stage
will require special consideration. in the planning and design process. It may be
necessary to route services in the vehicle track
11.5.5 Where possible, all utility apparatus in some places, but as noted above this may
should be laid in ‘corridors’ throughout the site. not be a significant problem on well-connected
This will facilitate the installation of the services networks.
and any future connections as the development
proceeds. Consideration should be given to the 11.6 Arrangements for future
use of trenches and ducts to facilitate this. maintenance

11.5.6 In designing for utilities, there are 11.6.1 It is important that the future
advantages in developing streets along maintenance arrangements of the streets and
reasonably straight lines rather than introducing public spaces in a development are decided
gratuitous bends and curves (but see Section early in the design process. If the streets are
7.4 regarding the control of traffic speeds). This to be adopted by the local highway authority,
practice will assist in simplifying utility runs, the layout and material choices need to be
with a corresponding improvement in the acceptable to the authority.
efficient use of land and a reduced need for
inspection chambers. 11.6.2 It is possible for streets to remain
private but a properly-constituted body with
11.5.7 It may be possible to install utilities’ defined legal responsibilities will need to be
apparatus in adopted service strips in privately- established to maintain the streets to the
maintained land adjacent to the carriageway, common benefit of residents. Further guidance
provided early discussions are held with service on management companies is given in
providers and the highway authority, and that Section 11.9.
adequate safeguards are provided. Conveyance
documents must incorporate perpetual rights 11.6.3 A highway authority will require legal
for service providers within the service strip. certainty that the streets are going to be
Such service strips should be clearly marked and properly maintained in perpetuity by these
residents should be made aware of restrictions private arrangements. In the absence of this,
that apply to the use of these areas. the Advance Payments Code contained in the
Highways Act 198015 enables highway authorities
to secure funding to meet any costs of bringing
new roads up to an adoptable standard.
15 Highways Act 1980.

London: HMSO.

11.6.4 A highway authority may be unwilling 11.7.3 The Section 38 Agreement sets out the
to adopt items such as planting and street obligations of the developer to construct the
furniture (e.g. play equipment and public streets and to maintain them for a set period
art) which are not considered to relate to the – normally 12 months. Following the satisfactory
highway functions of the street. If there is no discharge of these obligations, the new streets
private management company, arrangements can are automatically dedicated as public highway
be made for such features to be maintained by and are maintainable at the public expense.
another public body, such as a district or town/
parish council (e.g. by designating areas Advance Payments Code
of public open space).
11.7.4 The Advance Payments Code (section
11.6.5 In these circumstances the developer 219 to section 225 of the Highways Act 1980)
must ensure that there is agreement between the provides for payments to be made to a highway
county, district and town/parish councils as to: authority to cover future maintenance liabilities
• which authority is best able in practice to in the absence of a Section 38 Agreement.
take day-to-day responsibility for each
element of planting and/or non-highway- 11.7.5 The Advance Payments Code provides
related furniture; a compulsory process which involves cash
• the future maintenance responsibilities, deposits being made by the developer to the
obligations and liabilities arising from such highway authority before building works can
planting, street furniture etc.; and commence. It is an offence to undertake any
• the apportionment of these contributions house building until these payments have been
among the authorities concerned in the deposited with the highway authority. The
light of the apportioned responsibilities/ money securing the road charges liability is
liabilities. used to offset the cost of the works in instances
where the highway authority carries out a Private
Street Works Scheme to make up streets to an
11.7 Highway adoption – acceptable standard.
legal framework
11.7.6 Thus, before any construction begins,
Section 38 Agreements the developer will normally be required either:
11.7.1 Section 38 of the Highways Act 1980 • to secure the payment of the estimated cost
gives highway authorities the power to adopt of the highway works under the Advance
new highways by agreement and this is the Payments Code provisions as set out in
usual way of creating new highways that are section 219 of the Act; or
maintainable at the public expense. The Act • to make an agreement with the highway
places a duty on highway authorities to maintain authority under section 38 of the Act and
adopted highways at public expense under provide a Bond of Surety.
section 41.
Private streets
11.7.2 Under a Section 38 Agreement, the
developer is obliged to construct the streets 11.7.7 Where a developer wishes the streets
to an agreed standard, having first secured to remain private, some highway authorities
technical approval of the designs from the have entered into planning obligations with the
highway authority. A fee is normally payable by developer under section 106 of the Town and
the developer to the highway authority to cover Country Planning Act 1990,16 which requires the
its reasonable costs in checking the design and developer to construct the new streets to the
supervising the construction of the works. authority’s standards and to maintain them in
good condition at all times.

16 Town and Country
Planning Act 1990.
London: HMSO.

11.7.8 Such a planning obligation enables 11.7.13 Section 37 effectively sets the statutory
the developer to avoid making payments under requirements for a new street to become a
the Advance Payments Code, as the highway highway maintainable at the public expense. The
authority can then be satisfied that the streets key tests are:
will not fall into such a condition that a Private • it must be of sufficient utility to the public;
Streets Work Scheme will be needed. The and
planning obligation thus provides exemption • it must be constructed (made up) in a
to the developer from making advance satisfactory manner.
payments under section 219(4)(e) of the
Highways Act 1980. In addition:
• it must be kept in repair for a period of
What is adoptable? 12 months; and
• it must be used as a highway during
11.7.9 The highway authority has considerable that period.
discretion in exercising its powers to adopt
through a Section 38 Agreement under 11.7.14 There is little case law on the
the Highways Act 1980, but there are other application of these tests, however.
mechanisms contained in the Act which help to
define the legal tests for adoption. 11.7.15 Highway authorities have also tended
to only adopt streets that serve more than a
11.7.10 Although seldom used, section 37 of particular number of individual dwellings or more
the Act does provide an appeal mechanism than one commercial premises. Five dwellings is
in the event of a highway authority refusing often set as the lower limit, but some authorities
to enter into a Section 38 Agreement. Under have set figures above or below this.
section 37(1), a developer can give notice to
the authority that he/she intends to dedicate a 11.7.16 There is no statutory basis for the lower
street as a public highway. limit on the number of dwellings justifying
adoption. The use of five dwellings as a criterion
11.7.11 If the authority considers that the may have come from the notional capacity of
highway ‘will not be of sufficient utility to the private service supplies (gas, water, etc.) but it is
public to justify its being maintained at the now more commonplace for utilities to lay mains
public expense’, then it will need to apply to a in private streets.
magistrates’ court for an order to that effect.
11.7.17 It is not desirable for this number to
11.7.12 A further possibility is that the authority be set too high, as this would deny residents of
accepts that the new highway is of sufficient small infill developments the benefit of being
utility but considers that it has not been properly served by an adopted street.
constructed or maintained, or has not been used
as a highway by the public during the 12-month 11.7.18 It is recommended that highway
maintenance period. On these grounds it can authorities set a clear local policy on this issue.
refuse to accept the new road. In this case the
developer can appeal to a magistrates’ court Adoption of streets on private land
against the refusal, and the court may grant an
order requiring the authority to adopt the road. 11.7.19 Under some circumstances the
developer may not be able to dedicate a certain
area of land as highway because he does not
own it. If so, the road (or footway, etc.) can be
adopted using the procedures under section 228
of the Highways Act 1980.

11.7.20 On completion of the works to the 11.8.3 One way of enabling designers to
satisfaction of the highway authority, and achieve local distinctiveness without causing
following any agreed maintenance period, excessive maintenance costs will be for highway
notices are posted on site. These state that authorities to develop a limited palette of special
unless objections are received from the owner of materials and street furniture. Such materials and
the land, the highway in question will become components, and their typical application,
maintainable at public expense one month could, for example, be set out in local design
after the date of the notice. An inspection guidance and be adopted as a Supplementary
fee is payable in the same way as for Planning Document.
Section 38 Agreements.
11.8.4 Developers should produce well-
Section 278 Agreements reasoned design arguments, and articulate
these in a Design and Access Statement (where
11.7.21 A Section 278 Agreement, under the required), particularly if they seek the adoption
Highways Act 1980, enables improvements to of designs that differ substantially from those
be made to an adopted highway that convey envisaged in a local authority’s design guide or
special benefit to a private body – for example, MfS. However, provided it can be demonstrated
the formation of a new access to a development that the design will enhance the environment
site, or improvements to permeability and and the living experience of the residents, and
connectivity that help strengthen integration that it will not lead to an undue increase in
with an existing community. maintenance costs, then highway authorities
should consider responding favourably.
11.7.22 Before entering into such an agreement,
a highway authority will need to be satisfied 11.8.5 Drawings should indicate which parts of
that the agreement is of benefit to the general the layout the developer expects to be adopted
public. The developer will normally bear the full and how the adoption limits are to be differentiated
cost of the works, and a bond and inspection fee on the ground. Widths and other key carriageway
is also payable, as with Section 38 Agreements. dimensions, and the location and dimensions of
parking spaces, should also be shown, together
11.8 Design standards for adoption with full details of all planting.
11.8.1 The highway authority has considerable 11.8.6 Highway authorities would be expected
discretion in setting technical and other to adopt street layouts complying with their
requirements for a new highway. Concerns have Design Guide which have been constructed
been raised over the rigid adherence to these in accordance with the highway authority’s
requirements, leading to refusal to adopt new specification of works. They would normally be
streets. This issue was explored in Better Streets, expected to adopt:
Better Places.17 • residential streets, combined footways and
cycle tracks;
11.8.2 Highway authorities are nowadays • footways adjacent to carriageways and main
encouraged to take a more flexible approach to footpaths serving residential areas;
highway adoption in order to allow greater scope • Home Zones and shared-surface streets;
for designs that respond to their surroundings • land within visibility splays at junctions and
and create a sense of place. It is recognised, on bends;
however, that highway authorities will need to • trees, shrubs and other features that are an
ensure that any future maintenance liability is integral part of vehicle speed restraints;
kept within acceptable limits. • any verges and planted areas adjacent to
the carriageway;
17 ODPM (2003) Better • Structures, i.e. retaining walls and
Streets, Better Places: embankments, which support the highway
Residential Environments: or any other adoptable area;
PPG3 and Highway
Adoption. London:
ODPM

• street lighting; private arrangements. Typical areas maintained
• gullies, gully connections and highway in this way include communal gardens, shared
drains, and other highway drainage features; off-street car parking, shared cycle storage,
• on-street parking spaces adjacent to communal refuse storage and composting
carriageways; and facilities, and sustainable energy infrastructure.
• service strips adjacent to shared surface streets.
11.9.2 Where a private management company
11.9 Private management companies is established, it is desirable for residents to have
a strong input into its organisation and running
11.9.1 Any unadopted communal areas will in order to foster community involvement in the
need to be managed and maintained through upkeep of the local environment.

Index

Access See Pedestrian access; Vehicle access
Adoption of streets
design standards 11.8
drainage systems 11.4.3
landscaping 11.3.6–7, 11.6.4
legal framework 11.7
street furniture 11.6.4
Advance Payments Code 11.6.3, 11.7.4–6
Advertising boards 6.3.26
Alignment of street 4.5.5, 6.5.5, 7.2.6–7
Alleyways 4.5.1, 4.6.3
Allocated parking 8.3.10–11
Audits
quality 3.7
road safety 3.7.5–13
Backs of houses 4.6.3, 5.6
Barriers, pedestrian 10.2.11
Blind people See Visual impairment
Block paving 7.2.15
Block structures 4.5.2, 4.5.4, 7.3.17–18
Blue Badge parking 8.3.24–27
Building frontages
oversailing of footways 6.3.24
in relation to street 2.3.8, 5.5–6, 5.9, 7.3.5
vehicle access 7.9
Building height, in relation to street width 5.4.3–4
Bus dimensions 6.5.2
Bus lay-by 6.5.10
Bus routes 6.5.1–8
Bus stops 6.5.9–15
Car clubs 8.3.7–9
Car-free developments 6.6.3
Car parking 8.3
allocated and unallocated parking 8.3.10–11
crime prevention 4.6.3
design and location of spaces 8.3.29–36
dimensions for spaces and manoeuvring 8.3.48–54, 8.3.58
for disabled people 8.3.24–27, 8.3.55–57
effect on emergency vehicle access 6.7.3
efficient use of space 8.3.37–38
footway parking 8.3.42–47
front gardens 5.9.2
garages 8.3.39–41
government policy 8.3.1–2
level of provision 8.3.3–6, 8.3.18
off-street 6.3.28, 6.6.3, 8.1.4
on-street 7.8.6, 8.3.12–20
visitors’ 8.3.21–23
Car use (See also Motor vehicles) 4.2.1, 4.3.2–3, 4.4.1
Carriageway alignment See Alignment of street
Carriageway widths See Width, street
Centre lines 9.3.1–3
Characterisation of streets 2.4.9–14, 4.7.1, 7.2.4
Claims against highway authorities 2.6.4–8
Classification of streets See Street types
Closed-off streets 6.3.11, 6.4.2
Clutter 5.10, 9.1.10–12, 10.2.4
Collaborative design 1.3.1–3, 3.2, 3.6.32
Commercial vehicles 6.6.1
Communal parking 4.6.3, 8.3.11
Communal space 4.5.2, 5.7, 10.2.3
management and maintenance 11.9.1
Community function (See also Social interaction) 2.2.5, 5.7
Connectivity (See also Permeable street layouts)
crime prevention 4.6.2–3
cycle links 4.2.4, 6.4.2
external connections 4.2.5–8
pedestrian links 4.2.4, 6.3.11
Conservation areas 3.6.17, 3.8.6
street furniture and lighting 10.1.2
Context appraisal 3.6.1–7
Continental-style roundabouts 7.3.16
Corner radii 6.3.12–14, 6.4.6, 6.5.8

Courtyard parking 4.6.3, 8.3.31
Crime and Disorder Act 1998 4.6.1
Crime prevention (See also Personal security) 4.6, 10.2.6
access to houses 5.6.2
motorcycle parking 8.4.8
Cross-falls See Vehicle crossovers
Crossings for pedestrians See Pedestrian crossing points
Crossovers See Vehicle crossovers
Crossroads 7.3.8
Cul-de-sacs 4.5.7, 6.7.3, 6.8.3, 6.8.10
Cycle lanes 6.4.1, 6.4.8
Cycle links 4.2.4, 6.4.2
Cycle parking 6.5.12, 8.2
Cycle routes 6.4.3–4
Cycle stands 8.2.21–24
Cycle tracks 6.4.4, 6.4.7–8
Cycling 2.3.6, 4.2.2
design requirements 6.2.1, 6.4
inclusive design 4.2.4, 6.1.4
priorities of different road users 2.4.6, 3.6.8–9
roundabouts 7.3.14–16
DASs (Design and Access Statements) 3.8.2
Definition of street 1.1.7
Densities, housing 4.4.3
Design and Access Statements (DASs) 3.8.2
Design audits 3.7
Design checklists 3.5.5
Design codes 3.6.28–34
road safety audits (RSAs) 3.7.5, 3.7.9
stopping sight distance 7.5.4
Design process 3.1–10
planning 3.2–3
policy review 3.4
objective setting 3.5
outline and detailed design 3.6
quality auditing 3.7
planning approval 3.8
implementation 3.9
monitoring 3.10
Design Review 3.3.3
Design standards 1.4.5, 2.5.2
for adoption of streets 11.8
Design teams 3.2.1–2
Desire lines See Pedestrian desire lines
Detailed plans 3.6.25–28, 3.9.1
Development Team approach 3.2.2, 3.6.33
Dimensions of streets (See also Width) 5.4, 7.2
height of buildings 5.4.3–4
spacing of junctions 7.3.17–18, 7.4.4
street length 5.4.5
Direction signs 9.3.13
Disability Discrimination Act 2005 2.7.1, 3.10.2
Disability Equality Duty 2.7.1, 2.7.3, 3.10.2
Disabled people (See also Mobility impairment; Visual impairment)
car parking provision 8.3.24–27, 8.3.55–57
design for 2.7, 3.10.2, 6.1.1–3, 6.3.4
shared-surface streets 7.2.10–12
Distributor roads 2.2.3–4, 7.9.3–4
Drainage 2.3.10, 3.2.1, 11.4
foul water 11.4.2–4
pedestrian areas 6.3.32
surface water 11.4.5–10
sustainable drainage systems 11.4.11–14
Dropped kerbs 6.3.9, 6.3.12, 8.3.57
Echelon parking 8.3.49–52
Emergency vehicles 6.7
Environmental impacts 2.3.5
Equestrian crossings 6.3.9
External connectivity 4.2.5–8
Fire services See Emergency vehicles
Flood Risk Assessment (FRA) 11.4.8–10
Flood risk management 11.4.6–10
Footbridges 6.3.7, 6.3.26
Footways

at bus stops 6.5.10, 6.5.13
parking on 8.3.42–47
width 6.3.22–23
Forward visibility 7.8
Foul water drainage 11.4.2
Front gardens 5.6.1, 5.9.2
parking use 8.3.5
Fronts of buildings See Building frontages
Functions of streets 2.3
Future-proofing 3.6.19, 5.13
Garages 8.3.39–41
doors oversailing footway 6.3.24
Geometric choices 4.5.5–7, 6.6.1
Government policy and guidance 2.5.2, 2.5.4
Gradients
cycling 6.4.11
pedestrians 6.3.20, 6.3.27
waste collection vehicles 6.8.9
Granite setts 6.4.12
Guard railing 10.2.8–10
Headroom, cycling 6.4.11
Height of buildings, in relation to street width 5.4.3–4
High streets 2.4.10
Highway authorities 1.4.1–2
adoption of streets 11.7–8
joint working 3.2.1–2
responsibilities
categorisation of street/road types 2.4.7
disability equality 2.7.1
maintenance 2.6.4–5, 2.6.8, 11.1.2
road safety 2.6.6, 3.7.6
Historic towns, street furniture and lighting
(See also Conservation areas) 10.1.2
Historical perspective 2.2.3
Home Zones 2.4.10, 7.2.16–22
routing of services 11.5.9
Housing densities 4.4.3
Improvement schemes 3.1.3, 3.6.4
Inclusive design 1.1.4–5, 1.6.1, 6.1
Informal crossings 6.3.9
Informatory signs 9.3.12–14
Integrated street design See Collaborative design
Joint working See Collaborative design
Junction design 5.5, 7.3
corner radii 6.3.12–14, 6.4.6, 6.5.8
cyclists’ needs 6.4.6
junction priority 7.3.7, 7.4.4, 9.3.8–11
pedestrian needs 6.3.12
visibility splays 7.7
Kerb build-outs 6.3.9
Kerb line 7.2.7
Kerbing 2.3.5, 6.3.15
dropped kerbs 6.3.9, 6.3.12, 8.3.57
Landscape Character Appraisals 3.6.2
Landscaping 5.7.1–2, 5.12, 11.3
adoption of streets 11.3.6–7, 11.6.4
parking areas 9.3.7
shading of lighting 10.3.3
Large-scale developments 3.6.19
Lay-by, bus 6.5.10
Layouts
context appraisal 3.6.2–4
conventional approach 2.2.3–4, 4.5.3
crime prevention 4.6
detailed plans 3.6.25–28
factors influencing 5.8
movement framework 4.2
outline plans 3.6.15–19
structures and geometry 4.5
sustainable communities 4.3
walkable neighbourhoods 4.4
Legal context 2.5, 3.6.33

Legible design 6.3.4, 9.2.3
Length of streets 5.4.5, 7.3.17–18, 7.4.4
Level changes (See also Gradients; Surface level crossings) 6.3.7, 6.3.15
vehicle crossovers 6.3.28
Liability and risk See Risk and liability
Life cycle of a scheme 3.1.1–2
Lighting columns (See also Street lighting) 10.2.5, 10.3.4
effect on visibility 7.8.7
height 10.3.18–21
Local amenities 4.3.2, 4.3.4, 4.4.1
Local authorities (See also Highway authorities)
design codes 3.6.33
joint working 1.3.3, 3.2.1–2
responsibilities 2.3.2
disability equality 2.7.1–2
standards and guidance 1.4.5, 2.5.5, 3.4.2, 3.5.6
Local Development Frameworks 3.4.2, 5.7.2
Local distinctiveness 3.6.1–4, 5.11, 11.8.3
Local materials 11.2
Local policies, standards and guidance (See also Design codes) 1.4.5, 2.5.2, 2.5.5, 3.4.2, 3.5.6
Local Transport Plan 3.4.2
Maintenance 5.13.1, 11.6
highway adoption 11.7–8
landscaping 11.3.5–9
private management companies 11.9
responsibilities 2.6.4–5, 2.6.8, 11.1.2
street furniture and lighting 10.2.7, 10.3.21, 10.3.25, 11.6.4–5
Management companies 11.9
Masterplan
detailed 3.6.25–28
outline 3.6.15–19
Materials (See also Surface materials) 11.2, 11.8.3
Mini-roundabouts 7.3.15
Mobility impairment
car parking 8.3.5
design for 6.3.20, 6.3.28
public transport use 6.5.1
Monitoring 3.7.13, 3.10
Motor vehicles
(See also Bus routes; Car use; Emergency vehicles; Service vehicles) 6.6
priorities of different road users 2.3.6, 2.4.2–8, 3.6.8–9
Motorcycle parking 8.4
Movement 2.3.6
analysis of existing patterns 3.6.8–12
proposed movement framework 3.6.13–14, 4.2
status in relation to place 2.4
Multi-functional streets 2.2.4
Name plates for streets 9.3.13
Networks See Street networks
Objective setting 3.5
Obstructions (See also Closed-off streets; Visibility) 6.3.10, 6.3.26
overhanging trees and shrubs 6.3.26
oversailing of footways 6.3.24
Off-street parking 6.3.28, 6.6.3, 8.1.4
On-street parking 8.3.12–20
signs and road markings 9.3.4–7
in visibility splays 7.8.6
One-way streets 4.2.8
Open space (See also Communal space) 5.7.1–2
Open Space Strategy 3.4.2
Outline scheme layouts 3.6.15–19
Overhanging trees and shrubs 6.3.26
Overrun areas 7.11
Oversailing of footways 6.3.24
Parking (See also Car parking; Cycle parking; Motorcycle parking) 2.3.9, 4.6.3, 8
ingsignage 9.3.4–7
Parking bays 8.3.48–54, 8.3.56, 9.3.5
motorcycles 8.4.9
in relation to junctions 7.8.6
Partially-sighted people See Visual impairment
Pavement parking 8.3.42–47
Pavements See Footways
Paving materials (See also tactile paving) 6.3.9, 6.4.12, 7.2.15
Pedestrian access to buildings and public spaces 2.3.7–8

Pedestrian barriers 10.2.11
Pedestrian crossing points 6.3.7–9, 6.3.30
Pedestrian desire lines 6.3.12
Pedestrian links 4.2.4, 6.3.11
Pedestrian networks 6.3.7
Pedestrian refuges 6.3.9
Pedestrians
design requirements 6.2.1, 6.3
inclusive design 4.2.4
priorities of different road users 2.4.6, 3.6.8–9
seating 6.3.33, 10.2.2–3
Pelican crossings 6.3.9
Perimeter blocks 4.5.2, 4.5.4, 7.3.17–18
Permeable street layouts 2.2.5, 4.2.3–8
crime prevention 4.6.2–3
junction design 7.3.9
spacing of junctions 7.3.17–18
Perpendicular parking 8.3.49–52
Personal security 2.2.5, 6.3.18–19
cyclists 6.4.10
inclusive design 4.2.4
layout considerations 4.5.1
subways 6.3.7
Pinch-points 6.3.9
Place 2.1.2
characterisation 2.4.9–14, 4.7.1, 7.2.4
context appraisal 3.6.5–7
design quality 5.3
local distinctiveness 3.6.1–4, 5.11, 11.8.3
sense of 1.1.7, 2.3.2–5
status in relation to movement 2.4
Place/movement matrix 2.4.9–14, 7.2.4
Planning approval 3.8
Planning framework 2.5
Planning policies 3.4.1, 4.4.3,
Planning Policy Statement 13: Transport (PPS13) 4.4.1
Planning process 3.1–3
Planting See Landscaping
Policy review 3.4
Priorities of different road users (See also User hierarchy) 2.3.6, 2.4.2, 2.4.6–7, 3.6.8–9
buses 6.5.6
Private streets 11.7.7–8
Project life cycle 3.1.1–2
Project planning 3.3.1
Public consultation 2.4.11, 3.3.2, 3.6.16
Public Realm Strategy 3.4.2
Public space See Communal space
Public transport 6.5
bus routes 6.5.2–8
bus stops 6.5.9–15
priorities of different road users 3.6.8–9
use of 4.2.2, 4.3.3, 4.4.3
Puffin crossings 6.3.9
Quality auditing 3.7
Quality of design 5.2
Quality places 2.2.5, 5.2
Rear access to houses 5.6.1
Recycling provision 6.8.14–18
Residential sprinkler systems 6.7.3
Reversing distances 6.7.2, 6.8.8
Risk and liability (See also Road safety) 2.6
balanced approach 3.7.11–12
Road closure 7.3.11
Road markings 9.1.2, 9.3.1–3
centre lines 9.3.1–3
for parking 9.3.4–7
Road safety (See also Risk and liability; Speed reduction) 2.2.5, 6.3.19
centre lines 9.3.2–3
cycling 6.4.4–6
guard railing 10.2.8–9
highway authority’s responsibility 2.6.6, 3.7.6
visibility splays at junctions 7.7.9
Road safety audits (RSAs) 3.7.5–13
Road types 2.2.3, 2.4.7, 2.4.10, 4.7.1
Roads compared with streets 2.2, 2.4.4

Roundabouts 7.3.12–16
RSAs (Road safety audits) 3.7.5–13
Rural areas 2.3.5
design statements 5.11.2
street furniture and lighting 10.1.2, 10.3.11
Safety See Crime prevention; Personal security; Road safety
Seating 6.3.33, 10.2.2–3
Security See Crime prevention; Personal security
Segregation of road users 2.2.3, 3.7.9, 4.5.1, 7.4.1
non-segregation 4.6.3
Sense of place See Place
Service roads 7.9.4
Service strips 11.5.7–8
Service vehicles 6.8
parking provision 8.3.28
Services See Utilities
Setts, granite 6.4.12
Sewers 11.4.2–4
Shared-surface streets and squares 7.2.8–15, 11.5.9
Signing 9
informatory 9.3.12–14
junction priority 9.3.8–11
for parking 8.3.9, 8.3.27, 8.3.55, 9.3.4–7
overuse of 2.3.5, 5.10.1
Signalised crossings 6.3.9
Single lane working 7.2.3
Smaller developments 3.1.3, 3.6.3, 3.6.16, 3.6.19
planning approval 3.8.6
Social interaction 2.2.5, 2.4.12, 5.7
Speed limits 7.4.2, 7.4.5–8
Speed reduction (See also Traffic-calming) 6.3.19, 6.5.14, 7.4, 9.3.3
Speed tables 6.3.15–16, 7.3.11
SSD (Stopping sight distance) 7.5, 7.6.4
Stages of a scheme 3.1.1–2, 3.3.1
Staggered junctions 7.3.10
Standards and guidance See Design guidance; Design standards
Stopping sight distance (SSD) 7.5
Street character types 4.7
categorisation 3.6.20–23, 7.2.4–5
conventional approach 2.2.4
Street definition 1.1.7
Street dimensions See Dimensions of streets
Street furniture 2.3.5, 10.1–2
adoption of streets 11.6.4
reducing clutter 5.10.1–2, 9.1.10–12, 10.2.4
Street lighting 2.3.5, 10.1, 10.2.5–6, 10.3
attached to buildings 10.3.8–9
colour 10.3.7, 10.3.22–23
lighting levels 10.3.11–16
reducing clutter 5.10.1–2
scale 10.3.17–21
Street name plates 9.3.13
Street networks (See also Layouts) 3.6.24, 6.3.7, 6.8.2
conventional approach 2.2.4
2Subways See Underpasses
SUDS (Sustainable urban drainage systems) 11.4.11–14
Surface level crossings 6.3.7–9, 6.3.15–16
Surface materials (See also Paving materials) 2.3.5
cycling 6.4.12
pedestrians 6.3.31
relation to street lighting 10.3.26
shared-surface streets 7.2.15
Surface water drainage 11.4.5–14
Surveillance 4.5.1, 4.6.3, 6.3.18
Sustainable communities 2.2.6, 2.3.2, 4.3, 5.2.1
Sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS) 11.4.11–14
Swept path analysis 7.2.6
Tactile paving 6.3.8, 6.3.12, 6.3.16, 8.3.57
Tall buildings 5.4.4
Tapering obstructions 6.3.26
Technical approval 3.9.2
Toucan crossings 6.3.9
Town Design Statements 5.11.2
Tracking models 7.2.7
Traffic See Motor vehicles; Movement

Traffic-calming 6.5.5, 7.4.3–4, 10.3.5
junction design 7.4.9
single lane working 7.2.3
speed tables 6.3.15–16, 7.3.11
Traffic signs 2.3.5, 7.4.5–9, 9.1–2
Traffic speeds See Speed limits; Speed reduction
Transportation policies 3.4.1
Travel choices, influencing 4.2.1, 4.3.1–3
Trees (See also Landscaping) 5.12.4, 11.3.2–4
effect on visibility 7.8.7
pedestrian issues 6.3.25–26
Trunk roads 1.4.2–3
Turning areas 7.10
Types of streets See Street types
Unallocated parking 8.3.10–11
Uncontrolled crossings 6.3.9
Undercroft parking 8.3.32
Underground parking 8.3.32
Underground waste containers 6.8.16
Underpasses 4.5.1, 6.3.7
Unmarked junctions 9.3.9
Urban design principles 5.3
Urbanisation 2.3.5
User hierarchy (See also Priorities of different road users)
conventional approach 2.4.2–3
recommended 3.6.8–12, 4.2.2, 4.2.9–11
Utilities 2.3.10, 11.5
Vehicle access to buildings and open spaces 7.9
Vehicle crossovers 6.3.28–30
Vehicles See Motor vehicles; Movement
Visibility
along the street edge 7.8.4–5
effect on driving speeds 7.4.4
forward visibility 7.8
obstacles to 7.8.6–7
requirements 7.6
visibility splays at junctions 7.7.1–10
Visitors’ parking
cars 8.3.21–23
cycles 8.2.9–11, 8.2.20
Visual impairment
design for 6.3.9–10, 6.3.12, 6.3.16, 6.3.26, 6.3.30, 10.3.4
shared-surface streets 7.2.10–11
Walkable neighbourhoods 4.4
Walking (See also Pedestrians) 2.3.6, 4.2.2
Waste collection 3.2.1, 6.8
Waste collection points 6.8.9–10
Waste collection vehicles 6.8.4–6, 6.8.10
routing 7.9.3
Waste containers 6.8.9, 6.8.11, 6.8.13, 6.8.16–18
Waste storage 5.10, 6.8.9, 6.8.12–18
Width
footways 6.3.22–23
parking bays 8.3.48–52
public transport vehicles 6.5.2
street 5.4.2, 7.2
effect on driving speeds 7.4.4
bus routes 6.5.7
emergency vehicles 6.7.3
waste collection vehicles 6.8.6–7
Zebra crossings 6.3.9

Manual for Streets
Manual for Streets is expected to be used predominantly for the design,

construction, adoption and maintenance of new residential streets, but it is also
applicable to existing residential streets subject to re-design. It aims to assist in
the creation of high quality residential streets that:
• build and strengthen communities;
• balance the needs of all users;
• form part of a well-connected network;
• create safe and attractive places which have their own identity; and
• are cost-effective to construct and maintain.
Transformation in the quality of streets requires a fundamental culture change in
the way streets are designed. This needs a more collaborative approach between
design professions and other stakeholders with people thinking creatively about
their various roles in the design process. This publication is therefore aimed at all
those who have a part to play in creating high-quality streets.
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Manual for Streets

Manual for Streets

Distributors for Thomas Telford books are

First published 2007

© Queen’s Printer and Controller of HMSO, 2007

Ordnance Survey mapping

Cover image © Countryside Properties. Scheme designed by MDA

Section B 4 Layout and connectivity 40

Section C 6 Street users’ needs 62

9 Traffic signs and markings 114

10 Street furniture and street lighting 120

11 Materials, adoption and maintenance 126

Project team Additional consultation and advice

Steering group Case studies

 Manual for Streets

Manual for Streets 

1 DfT, ODPM (July 2003)

 Manual for Streets

Manual for Streets 

on meeting the needs of pedestrians, cyclists and

Manual for Streets 11

Andrew Cameron, WSP

1.2 Who the manual is for

12 Manual for Streets

1.4.3 Some trunk roads could be described 1.6 Changes in approach

Manual for Streets 13

Streets – an historical perspective When the regulation of roads and streets

Figure 2.1 Newark: (a) the Market Place, 1774;

and (b) in 2006.

Manual for Streets 15

1 Snellen, D. (1999) The

16 Manual for Streets

Manual for Streets 17

2.4.1 Of the five functions, place and

2.4.2 In the past, road design hierarchies have

Llewelyn Davies Yeang

18 Manual for Streets

Manual for Streets 19

20 Manual for Streets

Manual for Streets 21

• Set out the design process in broad

• Look at the key principles within the design

• Introduce a user hierarchy where

3.1.3 The process is a general one and

large schemes. This is unlikely to be the case

Manual for Streets 23

24 Manual for Streets

Key stages Key activity/outputs Responsibility Large Small Changes

1. Policy review Review national, regional Design team

Review Local Transport Plan Design team 3 3

Review Public Realm Design team

Review any Street Design Design team

2. Objective Prepare Development Planning and

Agree objectives All 3 3 3

3. Design Carry out context Design team

Develop proposed Design team

Prepare outline Design team,

Develop street character Design team

Design street network Design team 3 3

Manual for Streets

Manual for Streets

Manual for Streets

Manual for Streets