-ia;it"i'r'trtil

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jjrt2
J,J*j,JJ
J J.iJ) j.Jj
I

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td

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F
i i' r fl-f Et'i
i -ii
iF-1!
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rii

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DISK

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rl{

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5*riv* I*i:*r: il" gti*gfl*t;

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VOWEL
SYMBOLS

EXAMPLE

tiyl

see, prece

lpl

past, pepper

hl

sit, give

tbl

box, number

leyl

say, break

ttl

time, most

lel

rest, head

tdl

date, hard

lal

map, laugh

tkl

king, come

lal

shut, ago

lsl

get, dig

lol

hot, father

lel

think, author

luwl

boot, shoe

t6l

this, other

["]

book, could

tfl

fair, rough

lowl

go, road

lvl

vote, ever

lrl

bought, Iaw

lsl

same, nice

layl

buy, side

[z]

zoo, reason

la*l

house, now

tJl

shop, nation

loyl

toy, voice

l:l

pleasure, beige

thl

hear'y, ahead

ItJ]

check, watch

tdrl

joke, age

lml

mail, summer

lnl

now, know

tll

sing, tongue

Id

rent, borrow

trl

Iast, collect

tyl

year, young

lwl

west, away

CONSONANT
SYMBOLS

EXAMPLE

Contents

About the Series

English lan[iuagc teachers alwa)'s appreciare and enjov professional reference books

with

prnctical classroonl approaches that are firmlv grouncled in current peclagogical r.escarcl.r.
Tips for:Ie.ching is a responsc to this demancl in the form of a series of books on
a varicty
of topics of pmctical classroom-centcred interest.
Designed for teachers of ESL in nativc Engrish speakinlr countries as welr as teacrrers
of EFL in non-native English-speaking countries, z?sfar r Teacbrng acrdresses aucliences in
secondarl' schools, colreges, and aclult education courses with students at var).ing levels
of prolicicncy. Each book in the series is a pftrctical m:rnual that provicles teachers with
clearly conceived firethodological ideas, approaches, tasks, activitics, anal,/or techniques
to
better accomplish their pedagogical goals. tlsers may be novice teachers seeking pr;ctical
guidelines for instfuction in a specilled area, or cxperiencetl teachers in need
of
relicshing new ideas.
Each book in the series is committed to offering soundli. conceived, realisric
approaches to classroon instruction. There is some treatment of r-lndedl,inla pedagogical
principles of language learning and teaching in clearr), comprehensible terms.These treatments arc brief and concise but not rrivial.The metho dology of rips
I()r Teachitlg is based,
on communicative ancl/or. task-based language teaching foundations. Sftrclent centered,
interactive classroom activities fecciye primary fbcus, but not at the expense of appro_
priate tercher-cente|ed approaches or tasks fbr indi\-idual in class or homework :rctivit\r

We're very pleased to present the most reccnt vohrfire in this series, this time on pro_
nunciatiur.In Tips for Teaching pronu.ncicttion. .nuthor Lincla Lanc l.ras provicled rcaders
$'ith the best of cuttini edgc r.escarch on tlte acquisition of phonology, along with prac_
tical teclx qucs for inproving rearners' pronunciation. c)nc of the first things y'ti will
notice is that the sequencing of chapters does n ot begin witl] the more traditionxl consonants lnd vowels. Recent research ancl practice have shown that adult learners of
English find significanrl-y greater bcnelit in a primary fbcus on the prosodic elements of
phonology. As thc author notes in hcr text, most misunderstendings of learners. speech
production stem from $ord stress, rlr{hln, and intonation.
Anothcr imporrant feature of rips for Tbaclsing pronunciation is its focus on intelligibilit\', comprelicnsibiliq', acccnt, and voice quality. Recognizing that achieving a ffue
"nativelike" accent is an unrealistic goal for adult students, Lanc offers a common-scnse

Vi

AboLt! the Se es

approach that encoumges teachers to work $'ith their students on the many aspects of
pronunciation that inpede a listener's clear understanding of the learner's speech
A third refreshing perspective provicled by thc author is her recognition of a myriad
of variables that can affect a learner's oral production, not al$'ays in sJ'stematic or preclictxble ways. It is now well known that age, personaliq', motivation, learning style,
amount of exposure, native language background, and other factors can all affect a
learner's success in clifferent r.a_vs. ancl therefore eech inclividual may present a uniquc
set of circumstances for the teacher to address. The author provides readers with an
abunrlance of practical options to approach sr-rch variabiliry
Finalll', teachers will be pleased to see in Tips for Teqcbing Pronunciation an
emphasis on helping learners to become responsible for theif own linguistic der-elopment, so that they can eYentually wean themselves from the teacher and classroom'
Exercises on selimonitorini range from the segmental leatures of speech to global characteristics of speech in a context of natural discourse And, recognizing that teachers
cannot always be available for correction of student errors, Lane provides the feader with
options for self- and peef-corre(:lion.
Teachers who use this volume not only gain acccss to a multitude of pfactic:rl techniques for teaching pronunciation, but also acquire awarencss of the rationale behind
such techniques. This unclerlying knowledge enables teachers to adapt techniques to
their own cofltexts. Teachers will also find Tips.for TeaclJing Pronunciation to be an
invaluable hamlbook of information that is easily accessed through chaptef headings, an
index, and a u\ehrl bibliogr:rPh1.
goals'
Best wishes as )'ou usc the tips in this book to help -vour learners achieve their

Dr H. Douglas l3rown
Professor Elneritus, San Francisco State Uniuersity
Series

Edilor

I NTRO D U CTIO N

TEACHING
NUNCIATION

Reccnt lears hare scen I rcncwecl rccolaritioll that pronuncietion js :r cnlcial

clement of effccti!,.e contml'llticati(nt and that proltunciation teachhg belor]gs in
nlainstrc:rm. conrn ll'ri.rtiv. I:SI- classlooms ESL students pl:rcc a l-righ pfiorit\ on
irst^rction in pronunciation. At the sarlc time. EsL tcacbcrs'rav fecl urcasv ab'ut
teaching pronunciation becausc the) lack training in phoncti!^s or linguistics or
cxperiencc in texching pronunciatiou. As a rcsult, in spitc of its rccognizccl importance
to comrrunication. pronunciation is still a natginalized skill in manr ESL progruls.
It should not be. Pronunciation is inti'rarcl,v linked to other oral,/;r.ml sklls, both
inllucncing an<l influenced b\'listcning co',prchension a'd fl.e'cr,. Gilbcrt describcs
thc rclatioflshi1t betn ccn promutciation al]d listcning comprehcnsion ils a ..speech
loop betrveen spcaker and listcncr" (1987. -lJ): instruction in onc intpro\es
pcdbrmancc in thc olher. for c\amplc. the reductjons that nativc speakers use in both
frrrmal and infornral spcakiig arc in sl.raq) contrast to their word list pronunciati(xrs:
comparc thc pronllltciation of czl promruncecl alone encl its prorunciatioll in Bed
cdtt ligbt tbe bc.{con ligl.rt (/bivkat laYt 6r bi,vkan laytl). The rvord list pr(nrLrnciation.
ho$.e\.er. is thc one that ntost stuclents learn first ancl the one the] expcct to hear ir.l
spcaki|rg. "Xlicroieyel' listening tasks can make studcnts awarc of ltow grammar
wofds like cdl/ sour]al in conltected speech ald thus il]lprol e corlprehensiotl (Choi
19f38. Murph,v 1991.). In addition, Xlichaud and l{eed nainrain thar pronunciation
irNtruction can lead to inproYelnent in \\,riti1lg b_v naking students morc aw:rre of
er()rs thilt occuf in borh sPcaking ancl $riting, like nissing $()rd endings (2(X)8).
In this Inlroductioll. we discuss the goals of pronunciation teaching. f-actofs
that aft'ect lcarning a new pronunciation. pronunciation s\.llabi, gcncral tyl)cs ol'
pronunci;rtior.l excrcises and actiYities. scll-monitoring, and fccclback.

C.OAIS OF PRONLINCIATION TEACHING

Studcnts who lcarn Enlilish as aclnlts Or $'h0 are adults wtcn significant
exposure to English begins \['ill probabll'never speak jt \1,irh a nati\.e acccnt (br.tt
sec Bonlaacrts et al. 1997). A natiYelike accent is not a realistic goal ii)r studcnts. t.tor

t{
Icr. hrn,g fr',nunci.rtion

is it a necessaq' one for effcctive commlrnication in English More

fealistic
pronunciation go: s afe intelligibilit\'. confidence in speakinl], an(l a reduction of
accent features that distract the listener's attention fiom intelligible mcss:rlacs
(Modey 1994, Gilbert 1980, (lelce-Murcii et al. 1996). A gcntlc accent, together with
accuracy in other areas of English (grammar', word choice), can even be an
advxntage, conferring on thc speaker positil'e qualities like sophistication and
irtclligence. While these are not modest goals and not all students achieYe them,
most stlrdents can (and do) learn to speak lnore clearl)'and conlidently

Intelligibility, Cornprehensibility, Accent, and Yoice Quality

Intettigibitity refers to the dellrcc to $'hich a listener can recognize words,
phrascs. and utterances (smith and Nelson 1985, smith 1992, Derwing alld Munro
1997).In research, it is rtsuallJr measured by asking listcners to tmnscribc nonnativc
spech ancl comparing thc worcls listeners recognize with the words speakers
intend. Another term, comprehensibili4,', descrlbcs the easc with which listeners
can understand a nonnative speaker (llerwing and Munro 2005). "Confortable
intelligibility" is also usecl in this sense (Abercrombie 1949, Kenworthv 1987, 16).
Accent refers to noticeable differences betwccn native and nonnative
pronunciations. Wlile htelligibilit)', compre hensibiliq', and accent are interwoven,
they are also, to a certain extent, indePendent lt is possible, fbf example, fbr even
heavily accented spcech to be intelligible. Vrtice quality refers to pronunciatiol.)
features that arc gcnerall,v present in nativc speech, like averagc level of'Pitch
The goal of inte lligibilit.Y is uncontroYersial: Without intclligibilit t',
conlnlunication is impossible. Considering all areas of language, errors s-ith
pronunciation and worcl choicc (the choice of an inappropriate word to exprcss a
speakcr's meaning) afe the rwo t,vpcs of errors most likely to nake a student
incompre hensible (Gass ancl Sclinkcr 2001, 266). Grammatical errors, such :rs
omitting tlre past tense in a selltence (c.g ,I'ast nlght I go to d lnof ie) rarel-v lead
to unintelligibiliry althoulh a ltrrge number of grammatical errors, togethcr witl.I
pronunciation cffors, can reduce comprehensibilitv (Varonis ancl Gass 1982), as can
ronpronunciation discortrse etrors ('Nler 1992)
Research on the contribution of pronturciation to intelligibilit]' has asked
which t'catures of pronunciation havc the greatest impact Accurate use of
suprasegmentals (stress, rhlthm, and intonatiort appears to have a grcater impact
on intellilibility assessments b)' rrative listencrs than accruate promrnciation of
consonanis and vorvels (see, for example, Anclerson Hsieh et al. 1992, Derwing,
Munro and Wicbe 1998. Hahn 2004). Tllese strtdies havc inYestigated the
pronuncietion of primarily intefnediate ancl athanced ESL learners, and it is tlot
clear whether the same finclings wor'rld hold lbr studcnts at lowcr levels of

proficienc)'. In addition, experjirental conditions can be far removcd from real

situations in which two per)ple try to unclerstand each othcr
Assessmcnts of illtelligibilitv also dePcnd on w-ho the Listeucrs ere Most research
on intelligibiliq' hes usecl mtive Englisll listel]ers When nonnative listeners iudge thc

Teaching

Pronunciation 3

intelligibility of norxratiye speakers, their assessments are sometimes based on aspects

of pronunciation that are not importanr to native listeners Oenkins 2000, 2002; Field
2005).I'he familiarity of the listener with nonnati\,e speech in gene ral, with a particular
foreign accent, and with a particr- ar nomative speaker also ailbcts ;rssessments of
intelligibility: Thc greater the familiarity, the more intelligible the speech (Gass and
Varonis 1984). Because of this, ESL teachcrs may not be the best judges of their
students' intelligibility. Kenworth,v suggests that teachers sct higher standards for
intelligibilit!' than what they themselves actually require in the classroom (1987).Much
as our students like us, they are probabl_v not taking English so that they can ralk to us.
Stuclies of comprebensibility (easc of untlerstanding) show that listcners'
judgments depend on both segmental (consonants and vowels) and supfascgmental
(stfess, drythm, and intonation) errofs (Dcrwing and Munro 1997). In addition to
efrors in pronunciation, many other factors have an effilct (nr compre he nsibility:
Speaking rate, effors in granmaq word choice, cliscourse markers, the age at which
English is learned, the amount of exposure the learner has had to natively spoken
English, the extent to wltich learners use English, and the listenef's familiariw with
the topic of conversation have all bcen shown to affect comprehensibility (Hinfotis
anti Bailey 1981, Anclerson-Hsieh and Koehler l988,Varonis and Gass 1982. Gass and
Selinker 2001, cass and Varonis 1984, Flege et al. 1995).
Accent tefefs to djffefences between native and nonnative pronunciations that
are noticed by native listeners (Derwing, Munro, andWiebe 1998,396). The degree
of accent is xssociated y/ith segmental, supr.rseimental, and yoicc quality features.r
Although accented pronunciations do not necessarily intedere with inre lligibiliqr,
distracting, stigmatized, or stereofi?ed pronunciations should be addressed by
pronunciation teachers. Even fu y htelligible pronunciations can be evaluated
negatively by native speakers because of accent (?ermington 1998, Levis 2005, Riney
et aI.2000). For example. the substitution of /d/ for /6/ iJ.:,ttle word tbem (e .g.,Bring
dem lserc),whtle tnderstandable, is stigmatized (for native Enlllish listeners) because it
is a dialect feature of nonstandard English. The substitution of /z/ for /6/ in tbem G.g.,
Bring zent beA, on the other ltand, simply marks the speaker as nonnative
Distracting or stereotyped pronunciations can affect intelligibiliry by dmwing
the listener's attention away from the message to the mispronunciation itseli
Examples of distracting or stcrcotyped pronunciations inclucle the confusion of /n/
and /l/ by speakers of some Cantonese dialects (e.g., He nooked at tbe uoman
instezd, of He looked at tbe u)ornan); conftrsion of /r/
/l/ (tbe sterectLyped, flie.l
^fld
Iice fot fried rice) forJapanese ESL students; and the confusion of /y/
/d3/ (jess
^nd
for !es, jesterda! for lesterda!) for Spanish ESL students. These are pronunciation
problems that can and should be addressed. The pronunciation of the vowels in
beach, sbeet, and Jbcu' words which have caused corntless ESL students
embarrassment. should also be addressed.
.

listeneii do not (Rine,v et

al

1005)

Teachinp, Pronunciation

quality settll1gs are pronllnciatioll features that are present most of the
time in the speech of native spelll<ers some languages, for example, are tlpically
Voice

spoken at lower levels of pitch (e.g., Dutch) and others at higher lcYels of pitch (e g ,
(e g.' English) In one language, words may
Japanese) relative to a particular Lurguagc
and witll less in another language;the
tension
be spoken with greater ovenll musclllar
may havc a generzlly "creat<yl'
speech
lips may be more olten spread (or roundcd), or
"breathll'or modal (neutral) sound (see, for example' I'aver 1980, Esling and wong
1983, EsLing 1994, Keating and Esposito 2007). Esling a]1d Wonl suggest thxt ESL

studcnts become familiar

with a broad model of voice quality

settinls

for Nofih

American Englisl.r (NAE), but note that not all dialects shxre these characteristics: spfead

(the
hps, open jaw, palatalized (fronted) tongue body position, retrof'lex articulation
tong.,. tlp ftrrns up and back), nasal voice , lowerecl larynx (lower o\'-erall pitclt, and

cfeakyVoice(1983,91)'The)'offbfsevel?lwaysinwhichStudentscanbecomeaware
of voice qriality settinlis;for exrmple, students speaking differert native languages can
(19a3,94)'
say a shon phnsc in their native language and <lifferences can be conpared
Although there is Iittle doubt that Yoice quali$ plays a role in accent, more

Stud-Yisneeded.Notonlyarethefedi-fferencesintheVojceqllalitySettingsof
speakers of the same language, there is also not alwa-vs agreement about which

pafriculaf settings are pfesent or absent (Keating and Esposito 2007). Mofe fesearch
using larger numbers of speakers is neecled befbre teachers can confidently apply
these findings in the classroom

FACTORS THAT AFFECT PRONI-NCIATION LEARNING

The degree of success that learners achieve in adopdng a ncw pronunciati')n is
influenced by many elements, irlcluding age and social-psychological factors' amount
of exposurc to the second language (L2), amount of use of the L2, the native language
tolether with univcrsals, ancl personaliry Many of these factors (such as age and
native language) are beyond the control of the classroom teecher and the learner

Age and Social-Psychological Factors

there is a "critical period" for learning a
language natively, which exten.ls up to puberty: Neurobiological chanlaes in the
Lenneberg (1967) proposed

thlt

bfaintl]atculmiflateatpubert-vblocktl]enativc.llLngualieleafningability
thereafter.2 In the area of grammatical learning, .Iohnson and Newpoft found
evidenceforagraclualcleclineinlanguageleafningabilitiesduringthecfitical
period rather than an abrupt fall off at the end (1989)'

social'psychologicaldiffbrerrcesbetweenadultsandchilclrcnhavealsobeen
ollerccl to explain the effect of age Aclults are assumcd to have a deeper and
stfonger attachrnent to their natiYe culture than children, which ma,v consciousb' or
'Tliis clllln

is.Luestioned Lrr (r:rsltert,

l9li.

Tead)ing Pr()nuncialian

unconsciously prevent the adults from fully adopting the norms of a new language
:rnd culture (catbontin, Trofimovich, and Majid 2oo5,Jenkins 2005, Leyis 2005). One

of my students was very conscious of the conflict between English anct his native
language (culture) and stated that he did not want to sound like a.fake American.,,
Another explanation of the age effect may be that adults'greater cognitive abilities
(cspecially anah.tic abilities) are less effective in learning a new pronunciation tltan
the mofe natural abilities found in young cl.rildren.

Exposure and Use

Pfonunciation learninti is also affected by tlte amount of exposure lcafners
have to the new language and the extent to which they use it (see Trofimovicl.r and
Baker 2006 for a review of research on these factors). It is not surprising that
students who have spent three years in the United Srates typicalli, pronounce
English bcttef than those who have spent three months. Similafly, students who use
English a great deal in drcir daily actiYities are likely to pronounce the language
better than tltose who rarely use it.

Native-I-anguage Backgfound arrd Linguistic Universals

The ability of natiye speakers to recognize specific foreign accents once they
have expefience with them attests to the influence of the native language on
pronunciation of a new language. The native-language sound q/stem (consonants,
vowels, stress, rhlthm, intonation, and voice quality) affects not only how learners
pronounce English but how they hear it. For example, the two vowels in the English
words sceze and slz correspond to a single vowel in Spanish. Bcginning ancl lowintermediate Spanish-speaking stndenrs arc likel,v to haye difficulfl hearinE! the
difference between sc?n e and sl, and may transfer their native{anguage vowel into
the pronunciation of these words. As proficiency increases, students becomc better
able to hear differences and notice pfonunciations that are not present in their
native languages.

Similafities between a natiye language and English can either facilitate or

hindcr learning. Lee, Guion, and Harada (2006) for-lnd that Japanese ESL learners

were better able to lengthen stressed English \.owels and shorten unstressed vowels
than Korean ESL learners. They attributed this result to the fact that, while neither
language is similar to English in terms of word stress,Japanese uses long and shoft
vowcls to contrast some words (e.g., stt
and szzr-,,numbef,,) while
-"vinegar"
Korean does not.3 Because vowel length is impodant in Japanese, the Japanese
learners may have been prirned to notice diJlerences in vowel length in English. On
the othef hand, if learners interpret a similafity as an equivalence, tlte,v may be
unable to noticc the differences between sin lat but not identical, pronunciations
i

Sone dialecLs of Korean conlr?Lst long end shofl

(2006.

49r.

vo,xLs,

but

l leatu$ in lhei,ee et al. stud\ werr: not sprkeN 0f dtos dixlecll

wra.toucnaN

TeachingPrcnunciation

Glege 1987). The persistent mispronunciation of the vo$'els in sreet and beacb may
be the resnlt of classifying English /iyl (the \.owel it sheet alf.d beach) tl:le same as
the natiyelanguaEie pure vo$,'el /i/ (seeVowels, page 169). Classroom work can help
to make students aware of differences they might otherwise not notice.
Universals are features of language that afe in some sense easier, more natural,
more common in languages, or typical of children leaming their first language (L1).
The terms /ess marked and more marked are also u sed to descfibe the relatir.e ease
or clifticulty of rclated features of pronunciation. For example, open syllablessyllebles that end in vowels (e.9., so, me, sta!)-^re easier (i.e., morc universal, less
marked) than closed syllables that end in a single consonant (e.9., dog, top, miss).
Closed syllables that end in one consonant (.e.g., dog, top, miss) are easier (less
marked) than closed syllables that end in a consonant cluster (e.9., beh, ask,
stoppe.l). Open syllables are found in every language, whereas closed syllables are
not; and both 1,7 and L2 learners have more difficulty pronouncing the final
consonants of closed syllables (Broselow and Finer 1991, Eckman 1991). For a
comprehensive review of natiyeLanguagc transfer and the fole of uniyersals, see
Eckman (200,i).
The native-language background(s) of students should influence the choice
of pronunciation topics addressed in the classroom. Difficulty with specific
consonants, for example, depends heavily on native language. Arabic students
confuse /p/ and /b/, sour]ds that do not contrast in Arabic. Spanish students haYc
problems with ,/b/ and /v/, which do not contrast in Spanish, while cantonese,
German, Russian, and Turkish students have problems with /v/ and /w/
.

Difficulties with English vowels, on the other hand, are widespread, and
difficr- ties v/ith stress, intonation, and drythm are even more widespread.
Appendix B summarizes typical pronrinciation problems of students from a
variety of native-language backgrounds.

Personality
Research has not shown a clcar link between personality characteristics and
sLlccess in L2 learning. Neyertheless, it is reasonable to suppose that outgoing,

sociable learners should have an adyantage over introverted, shy leafnefs in

acquiring oral-aural skills, including pronunciation. Outgoing students are more
likely to participate in conversations with native speakers and will therefore have
more opportunities to practice and to hear English.
A relaxed classroom atmosphere should also foster pronunciation learning. In
an oft-cited experiment on lowering inhibitiot]s, Guiora et al. found that learners'
pronunciation improved after drinking moderate amounts of alcohol (1972).

Fossilization
Vrith adult L2 leamers, pronunciation :rnd grammar learning seems to plateau,
perhaps pemanentl)', after a number of years. Selinker first described the cessation of
leaming as fossiLization (1972): it is also referred to as stabilization (Gass and Selinker

/NrfOUU(

r/ON

Teaching

pnuutjci,lti()n 7

2008)." Once fossilization (stabilizatiorD has ser i,', substantial improyemenrs

in
pronunciation (and grammar) in spontaneous speech mav not be possible.
Althougdt
vafious causes of fossilization havc been proposed. including Ll intcfblcnce.
motil?tion, leamers' goals or needs, and alae . the process is not well unclerstood.
and
more resea.rch is needed on both why antl when fossilizetion occurs (sce. for
example,

knneberg

1967, Gardner 1988, i_ong 1990, Nakuma 199u).

Acton describes a prollram to change the intelliiibility of fossilized

pfofessionals who have spent many veafs in an English_speakinpl coulttrv
ancl
reached high lcvels of fluencv (198,i). Thc program requires a substantial

commitment of time both in and our of class and a native_English .,infbrnrant,,on the
.iob who assists the student witlt pfoblem words and provides natural pronunciation
models. Students learn not only about pronunciarion but also about body language
used bv native speakers of English. About half of the shjclents who beiin thc
program afe able to devote the time needed to show progress.
My own experience, which has ilcluded lrany students of the type Acto11
describes, confiflns that very fer wurkitrg pr,,fessionals lre rble to make the
time

commitment that might lead

to significant improvements in intelligibilitY of

spontaneous speech. Howel'ef, it is possible fof thcse students to lcafn to self coffec^t
and to speak more intelligibl,v in some situations. Fossilizecl learners. fbr cxample,
can
learn to pronounce English nore accuratel-v in controlled classro.m acti.,,ities ancl to
apply this knowledge when they deliver a rehcarsed presentation. However when
they mo!'e from plarmed into unplanned speecl], thc old errors are likely to recrjr.
Phonological learning may be most rapid in the eafhr stages of lcarning (Flege
1988, Flege, Munro, and Skelton 1992), suggesting that ir is imporrant to srart

pfonunciation wofk with beginning learners. Chela_Flores recommends that

pronunciatiorl be a regular part of coursework with beginncrs, like vocabulary or
grammar teaching (2001).

SYLLABUS
Pronunciation shour(l be taught to a revcls of strrtlenrs as tonla as intelligibiritll
distracting pronunciations, and lack of confidencc in speaking are issues.
Pronunciation improvements, like improvemcnts in grammatical accuracl,, occur
slowly (Trofimovich et al. 2007). According to wong, dramatic changes in stude'rts,
speech in 3 to 6 montlts arc rare', (l!g7, g). Because inprovcments are graclual ancl
often piecemeal, students benefit from reviewil.tg or recycling olcl topics.
Given that there are over fofty consonants and I,owels (segmcntals) and at
least as nany features of word stfess, rhtthn, and intonation (suprasegmcnhls),
curriculum planners, textbook writers, and cl;rssroorn teachers have a lurge number
of potential pronunciation topics trom which to choosc. The audiolingual approach
focused more heavily on the teaching of segmentals, r-Nin!! acti\.ities like nir.f'ral

t^-rroo,:rcaov TcachinEPranunciation

pair drills, sentence repetitions, anci dialogues. communicative approaches have

focusccl more on suprascllmcntals, moving stuclents bc1'ond the level of single
words. Totllrl', a more "txrlancecl' approach, inchtcling important consonants and
vowels as well as sr.rpnscgme ntals, is fecommended ((lelce-Murcia et al. 1996, 10;
Derwing, Mr.rnro. andWiebe 1998. Dauer 2005).
Because rhlthm and intonation aflect mcanin!! in discourse profounclll',
teaching them promotes intelligibility as well as flucncy.Word stress (lexical stress)
is also impoftant since misplaced stress caJl make a word unrecognizable.
Problem consonants and vowels drat are liequent or have a higl] ftu]ctional load
strould atso be taught (Catfbr.l 1987,Browl 1988, Nh.nro and Dcrwing 2006).Thc vowel
coutrdst leaue-lil,e has a hi!fi functionad loacl because there are rnany p:tirs of wotds that
contr:$t these two sounds (e.g., seat-sit, sleep-slip, least-list). C)n the other hand, the
vowel contmst in Iuke-look, whiclr occurs in fb$' word pairs, has a low linctioral load.
From a pedagogical standpoint, thc \owels iu the pair /ea.,e-l/./e arc more impoftant lbr
students to leam than those it Lukc-look. As discussed eadier it is also irnpoftant to
aclclrcss mispronunciations that are distracting, stilmatized, or stereot!?ed.
Pronunciation textbooks providc rcad,y-made q'llabi from wltich teachers can
pick and choose. A course syllabus that includcs problem pronunciation topics
cor,'ering vowels, consonants, stress, rlrythm, and intonation is approprilte lbr all
levels of studcnts. The teacher can alternate topics, starting, for e'xample, with a topic
on intonatiol, next addressing a problem consor.]ant or consonant cortrast, and then
prescntinli a topic on word stress. arld so o1]. This approach provicles variety arld
interest and also reflects the fact that in speaking, all aspects of pronunciation occur
sirnultalreously; a two-syllable word like uisit ot drugstorc, for exanplc, has both
consonants and vowels, differcnt le\.els of stress, and diffcrent lcYels of pitcll.

In choosing topics for a particular class, the teacher can eithcr stafi with a
diaEinostic tcst to idcntiq,' problem areas or cltoose topics which Posc pfl)blems for
lnost studcnts, regaralless of native-language backpgouncl (sce Conlmolt P()mrnciatioll
Problcms, bclow). A good diagnostic tool is a one minutc recording of unrehearsed
(:nd unwritten) speecl], such as a descriptiotl of a picture stor,v or caftoon. A short
sample of spontaneous spccch provides a liood snapsltot of a strtdertt's pronunciation
problems. Problems with rhlthm (choppy or staccato clelivery unclear wortl grortps,
ditliculty linking w<rrds), with ir.Itonation (inappropriate dses/falls in pitch, lack of
discourse foctts, general levcl of expressi\-cness), and segmentals (consonants and
r.owcls) will be evident. A sample diagnostic test is provided in Appenclix D.
The cl]oice of pronunciation topics should also fef'lect students' necds and
goals. In a life-skills class for immigrant parents of school-aged children, for instance,

the pronunciation syllabus night centcr on topics required fcrr giving personal
information: the letters ol the alphabet fbr spelling names; numbers and thcir
app()priate grouping for giving telcphone ancl address information; and irltonation
and rhlthm in questions. Work $'ith these pronunciation topics will also improve
students' comprehension of inlbrmation reqlrests.
International teach rg assistants (ITAS) in thc scienccs must be able to clearly
pronor-rnce technical terms that may contain many s-vllables and difficult sounds (c.g.,
geothermal energi). Levis and Grant st rgElest basing plonutciation work on errors that

/NIROLrL,a

r/oN

Tcaching

Pronunciation

occur in student prescntatiolts (2003). ITAS ffLlst also be able to use appropriate
rhythm and intonation pattefns to ask qucstions of their stuclents. to group wofds, to
hipdrlight kc1'w.ords, and to signal topic changcs in their presentations of material.
'lhe sl,llabus fbr a short-term tlltorial f(,r a professional who is preparing a
pfesentati(,n can include the pfoltunciation problcms that occur in th presentatioll
itself. To prepare for the q Llestion-and-answer session that fbllows nlany
pfesent:itiurs, classwork can irlclude topics such as highlighting key words (see
Intol.ration, pag 96), which will Irelp stuclents understand the direction of questions
and make their answers ciearcr to an auclience.
Alrother factor thirt sho! d ilJlucnce the choice of pronunciation topic is the
teacher's level of comfort in tcaching it. Duri|tli classwork on pronunciation (of any
topic), students pa,v attentioll to how thc,v sot-urcl. As long as pr.lctice includes the use
of connected speech, other aspccts of pronunciation not dircctly addtessed in the
lesson are likely to bencfit from this incrc;rsed arrenrion (Hardison 200.1). F'or example,
a teacher ma-y not fcel cor.nfortable teaching some aspects of intonation but may feel
corafident about teaching the t, sounds (e.g.,tlxink, t/rrt, sornds tltat are casy to reach
and learn end important to leerncrs (Tirdt 1992). In a conlmullicative acti.r'ity focused
on btlhdays (or personaLity characterisrics related ro birth order), not only are //,
sounds in words like birtbdar- hkclv to be pronounced mofe accumtel)', but the
grouping of words (e.g.,May 41 mal' b e clearer and intonation more natunl sounding.
Vhen students pa). attention to how they sound during speaking, many featufes of their
pfonunciation souncl better Attcntion to pronunciation druing speaking, then, may be
as impoftant as the particr ar point of pronllnciation beinla focused on during a lesson.
Institutional or program goals and assigneal curricula may determinc the
sl.llabus, rather tl.ran the teachcr In some progmms, for example r pronunciation work
is narrowly focused, covering all the vowels in one semester all the consonants in
anothct and so on. Even though this ry..pe ol syllabris does nor pro\.ide a balanccd
coveragc of sormds and suprasegrnentals, otltef lbatures of pronunciation, such as
fhlthm and intonation, can still be addresseci as long as clxss materials include
oppoftunities to practice connected spccch (e.9., di"k)gues).

The Lingua Franca Core

Jcnkins (2000, 2002) proposes a pared-down pronunciation syllabus, the
Lingua Franca Corc (I-FC), fbr. stu(lents who will be using English with otl]cr
nonnative speakcrs (rather thalt native speakers). Jenkins's clata sulllicst that
commulication breakdowns betrveen nonnative spcakers are usnally the fesult of
mispronoulccd consonants or yo$'cls, rather than inappfopriate suprasegmentals.
In contr:Lst, inappropriate usc of suprascgmentals appears to hal.e a greater effect
on inte lligibilit_y with native listencrs (see Intelligibilit]' on page 2). The LFC s.vllabus,
which focuses on teachable ;rnd leernablc p(,ints of pronunciation that promote
intelligibility bctween nonrati\'-c spcakers, inclucles primarily consonants, some
!o\4iels. and onc suprasegmental (highlighting of kcy words).
Jenkins's proposals have inspired he:rlthy debare on which areas of
pronunciation should be taught and who the arbitefs of intelligjbility shor cl be

10

Teach

ng Pran unci at i on

(see, for example, Dauer 2005, Levis 2005). Given that more research is needed and
that teachers cannot know for ceftain wl]ether their students' future inteflocutefs
will be native or nonnative Englisl] speakers, a syllabus that includes important
pfoblem sounds as well as suprasegmentals will serve students' needs better than
one that focuses on only one area of pronunciation. A balalced syllabus is also likely
to be nore appealing to teachers and more interesting for students.

Comrnon Pronunciation Problems

The following chart shows pronunciation topics that are useftll for most
students, regardless of native-language background.

Vowel length in stressed and unstressed syllables

See pages 2L-27

Vowel :eduction in unstressed syllables

See pages

25-27

S:ress patterns

See pages

28-38

of classes of words

Highlighting important words with stress and pitch

See page 96

Tlought groups Grouping words into meaningful phnses)

Sec page 52

Linking adjacent words

See page 54

Intonation to mark utterance boundaries

See page 100

/,

See page 126

sounds ln

thinh

and then

Conffasls involving the first souflds in per, bet, fbte, uet, afid

uet

See page 124

R:etoflexed. /r/: red, driue

See pages 141, 146

Ftral consonants and consolant clusterc: bed, belt

See pages 151- 162

cmmmatical endings

See page 159

The vowels in leaue-Iiue (/iy/-/ID

See page 16P

The vowels k7 net-Nat-nut-not uE/-/r/-/e/-/oD

See pages 176-183

r-colored vowels in heorcl, hard, and board

See page 192

Teaching

Pronunciation'll

PROIIIINCIAIION DGRCISES AND ACTNTTIES

Pronunciation work call be integrated with other coursewolt, providin!!
reinlbrcement of vocabularl', content, and structures dtat students are alfeady
learning. \)(r'ork with word stress is easily added to a reading or vocabulary lesson
(see page 23). Dialogues in course books can be used to practice grouping words or
intonation. A key word in a reading/discussiolt activitF may include a problem
sound that can be a point of focus. Grammatical structures pfovide many
opportunities fof pronunciatiolt wofk: practice with comparatives, for example, can
also incorporate practice with the /-colored vowel in bigger, with tl]e //, sound in
than, or with contrasti!.e stress (e.g., It's BIGget not BETter). In tlte sections
co\IerinE! specific leatures of pronunciation, links with othef types of coursework
are pointed out.
In pronunciation textbooks, lessor]s typically includc an int{oduction,
contfolled acti.llities. and communicative activities. Some textbooks also include
homework rcti\ ities.
The introduction devclops awareness of the topic, sometilnes indr.rctivell',
sometimes deductively. For example, after hearing a number of two-syllable nouns
(e.g., table, kitchen, sanda'icb), even beginning students can induce rhe rule that
most two-syllable nouns are stressed on the first syllable. On the other hand,
students are not likely to induce the articulation of r-colored vowels (e.g., bird,
bqrd, LUqr) simply by hearing examples. In the latter case, articulation must be
expiicitly taught.
Controlled exerciscs allow students to de\.elop skill in perception andlor
pfoduction witl.r a fe ature of pronunciation: exxmples include repetition of words
(addressing sounds or word strcss p;rtterns) or phrases (acldressing rhlthm and
intonation), minimal paifs (pairs of words diffbfing in only one sound, fof
example, bid-liead), dialogues, and so on. Exercises may progress from highly
controlled (repetition of words, for example) to less controlled activities (creating
dialogues and some types of games). The teacher can spend more or less time on
controlled activities, depcnding on the difficulty students experience with a
pronunciatiol.t point.
Many students learn to pronouncc a feature of pronunciatioll accurately in
controlled exercises (reading a list of words, for example) but are unable to apply
their ncw skills in cofirmunicatiye spcakinla. In communicatiye speech, where the
focus is on meaning, and processing demands are high, pronunciation often seems
to"fall apart" (Dickerson and Dickerson 1977, tune)'et al.2O00, Lin 2001,I-in 2003).
'l'he leafner must fincl words to express his meanini, make grammatical decisions,
and, at the same time, manage ditficnlt articulations and unfamiliar pfosodic
patterns (stress, rhlthm, and intonation). Thc fact that pronunciation gains in
controlled activities may not carr_y o\rf in communication does not mean thet
controlled activities haye no value; on the contrarl', they provide practice
opportunities that can graduall_v lcac1 to more automatic use of the new
pronunciation as well as to skills for self-correcting. However, contfolled activities

12

Teach

ng

P ro n u nc I ati

an

should not be the end of the lesson. C)ur students are nor studying English to
become proficient readers of word lists.
Communicative actiyities push students to apply their new learning in more
normal speaking tasks and to deyelop self-monitoring skills. Thc_y establish a
context in which a particular feature of pronunciatioll is called fbr ancl allow

students to create their own language in that context. Al example of a

con nlrnicative ncti\Iit] involving contrastive stress is a compafison of two cell
phone plans presented in chart form (Plan A is CHEAPCT, but Plan ts has more
ANYTIME minutes).
Homework activities can take almost any form. In a pronunciation/speaking
course, homcwork can include short recordings of eithcr spontaneous speech or a
controlled warm-up exercise followecl by a freer speakini task. If str-ldents have
acccss to a compute! an inexpensive microphone, and the Internet, their recordings
can bc e mailed to the teacher xs atteched sould files.t The teachef can give live of
recofded feedback. Student recordings can also be used in class in peer feedback
activities (see Self-monitoring and Feedback, below). Instructions for recording and
sending a sound file are provide.l in Appendix E.
Homework in ESL settillgs can also include real-world speaking and listening
tasks, such as calling an 800 number to inquire about a product or seryice (1br
examplc, ayailability on a llight to San Francisco) or lioing into a store to get
information about a particular product. In these assilinments. the teacher can

instruct studcnts to pay attention to their use of a particular t'eatufe of

pronunciation (for example, question intonation) or simpl_v to speak as cleady as
possible. In tlre lbllowing class, students report on thc experience they had.
Listeninla tasks can also be used as homewofk. Students can listcn to a recorcling and
note how many times a reducecl w<)rtl llke can is used and how it is prurounced.

SELF-MONITORING AND FEEDBACK

Because pronunciation improven.rcnts are gradual ,md piecemeal, spreading
from a more limitcd use of a new pronunciation to a wialer Llse, it is important thnt
students develop self-monitoring and self-correction skills.6 A student who
consistently uses an s-like soud fot the"tl1" iJ1 tbing, th.tnks,
tbink is li1(.ely f[st
to pronounce the l/: sountl correctl,v when it begins a common^nd
word like tbanks but
continue to use /s/ in other words. With time, the correct pronunciation spreads to
othef wofds and other positions. C)sburne's stud.v of pronunciation seiicorrections
fbuncl that a common stratel'used by advanced learners involrcd focusing on
spccific worcls as units and thinking about how they shor. d sound (2003).
t lne4ensir,e

crophones

fie prlerxble

sinc thel

lick ul

less

ambiert noisc. Built in micro loncs nrin

enough sound.

and onh later

stxtile

(rr)

and lLctility (rurlr) lerbs

(Budoli Hdig ard

Re|noLtls

l99i).

ormal

olprolideclear

TeachingPronunciation

l]

Monitoring for Specific Pronunciation Features; Carryover Words

This technique reflects the piecemeal nature of pronunciation changes, which
often start in common words or phmses. ln this tcchnique, a carrl-or,rr word or
phrase containing a targeted pronunciation feature is selected by the stuclent of
teacher for self-monitoring and self-correction.
Continuing wirh the example of tr, the teacher can assilan the word, tbink as
a catryover word. Thc students goal is to pronounce thc caffyover word correctly
whenever they use it. Tlte cafryover worcl/phrase should be semantically cleaf,
grammaticall)' easy. communicatively important, and frelluent enouih tltat
students harr opportunities to use it in x variety of contexts. The phrases I think
and I don't think, used to introduce opinions, rncct all of these rcquiremeflts. A
commlrniclLtivc activity cenrered on givin!! opinions v,ith I tbink/I futn't think
can serye as a watn-t-up for carf,yover Studcnts can also select thcir.o!r-n earryoycr
words; an ITA doing rcsearch in geothermal energv migl]t select geothermql as a
crrr) ( '\ cr u ord for /h.
While the carryoyer technique is particularl.t' srdted ro rvords (and the
problem souncls tltey contain). it can also be extended to common phfases: the
phrase i7t q minute can serve as a cafryoYer phrasc for tlte rhlthm pattern of
prepositional phrases (see Rhy'thm, page 60) or for joining final consonants to
vo\\.'els (c.g., in d minutq see Rhlthm. pagc 56). Greetings can be uscd for
intonation carryover with beginning leafners (see xlso Chela-Florcs 20Ol).

--/Mo\
Gaad ing
n

--lyou*\

See

ter

Monitoring for Global Characteristics of Clear Speech

The carryoyer technique focuses monitorinli on specific worcls or phrases.
Studcnts should also learn to nonitor thcir spcech fcrr more general (global)
charactcristics tltat affect clarity. 'l'lrese include specch fate, spcaking volume.
attention to the ends of s.'ords, and speaking expressivcl)'.
Researcl.r on speaking rate shows that nonnati\,-e speakers spcak English more
slowly than native speakers, a reflection of their incornplete knowlcdge of the L2
(Guion, Flege, Liu, and Yeni Komshian 2000).'Ihere is some e\.idence that slower
speaking rates contfibute to accentedness ancl reduced comprchensibility (Munro
and Derwini 199u). tlowever, asking most students to speed up is likely to be
cor.lnterpfoductive , intfoducin[i crrors that would not occur if students ga\.e
themselves more time. In the expcricnce of many teachers, when fast talkers
(students whose speaking rate outpaces their abilitv to spcak accurately) slow
down, their pronunciation and contprchcl.tsibilitv improve, cven though the_v may

"14

Tfithing hanutu iJltnn

not be speaking as quickl-y as nadve speakers. In contrast to fast talkers, other

students may seem to speak too slowl_v, pausing too often. for too k)ng, or in
inappropriate places. Inappropriate pausing often reflects a lack of fluenc-y
It is not easy lbr students to change their speaking mte. Fast talkers need
frequent rerninders to slow down ancl ma-v also feel that speaking more slowly will

then sound

fluent.Inappropriate pausing may disappear as students gain

fluency; it can also be addressed by pronunciation work on thought groups and
linking adjacent words (see Rh)'thm, pages 52 ancl 51).
Speech that is not lor.rd enough to hear (in my experience ,more cotrrmon with
female students than with males) ma-y result from a lack of conficlence or cultural
gender roles. Like speaking rate, it is difficult to change.I am sure that I am not the
only teacher who has repcatedly reminded a student to speak up in class only to
hear the same student booming fofth in her native language in the hall during a
break. A technique that is usually effectivc is to ask the student to address her
comments to a classmate on the opposite side of the room.
Many students have problems pronouncing consonants at the ends of words
(e.g.,pick, ask, belt). Pronunciation wolt with fu]al consonants and frequent error
correction are effective in improying this area of pronunciation.
Some students use a flat, monotone delivery when thev speak Enilish, possibly
because they lack confidence or because the)' are using natiYe lartguage intonation
patterns or both. They need to understand that a flat delivery can make thcm sound
disiflteiested and to be reminded to use their voices more (use a $/ider range of
pitch). This is a difficult pronunciation problem to correct, especially if a wider
range of pitch sounds unnatuml or silly in tlte student's native language.
To help students monitor the general clarity of their speech,I keep this short
list of reminders in the upper left corner of the blackboard and point to them
when necessary:
make

less

Slow down

Speak

Final sounds
Spea k expressive y

Error Correction by Teachefs and Peefs

Little research has treen donc on thc effect of ertor correction on

pronunciation. Research on error cofrectiolt of gnmmar, l]orveve! indicates that it

is effective in promoting accuracy in communicatiYe contexts when it can be done
qr.rickly and when students are familiar with the technique and the types of errors
to be corrected (Lightbown and Spada 1999). These finclings would seem to appl-Y
equally well to efror correction of pronunciation.
Teachers should always draw attention to unintelligible speech, asking the
student to repeat or rephrase more carefulll' (and often more slowll). It is only

TeaLhing

Pronuncrton I J

possible to coftect efrofs when the teacher knows what the student is trying to say.
'iyhen a whole discourse is unintelligible, the teacher must work with the student,
often using spelling and repetitions, first to determine what the student is trying to
say and then to identily the errors.
Teachers cannot possibly correct evefy pfonunciation effof, or even most of
them. Error correction during most class activities should be selective and directed

at unintelligible or odd sounding pronunciatiolls. During pronunciation activities,

feedback should also be provided on the topic at hand. The teacher should choose
a cue to signal pfonunciation errofs and explain it to students. The cue should be
as general as possible (for example, sa_ying "Pronunciation" or "Be clearer" a-fter an
error). The general cue allows a student to appb-his pronunciation learning and

helps develop self correction and monitoring skills. Sometimes students are
unaware of what the pronunciation erfor is and may need to hear both the incorrect
and coffect pronunciations to notice the error.

Peer feedback on student recordings

is also effective and gives

the

nonspeaking peef additional monitoring practice. Celce-Murcia rccommends that

peers listen for a particular feature of pronunciatlon (1996,352).

The next five chapters deal with pronunciation topics from word stfess,
rhythm, intonation, consonants, and vowels. Each chapter presents useful
background information and research, general teaching tips, and suggested
classroom acdyities for specific features of pfonunciation.

CHAPTER

WORD STRTSS

A consrunefs' politician? M]. student intendcd to sa,y 'a consummatc politician.,,

*rong when hc stressed "c6nsummate," a word he hacl ncver heard
befbre. placing strcss on the second slllable rather than thc first. As a result. his

He gucsseci

sentence (He's ct c()nsttl|ttnate politician) sounded like .,Hes a col]sumcrs,

politicitrn. 'lhe student's gucss tliat corstt rtl.tctlc was strcssed on tlte seconcl
slllable rvas probabll based on words likc contro| consurnet; connectj or
confession, all strcssed on thc second s,yllable. It was a good guess-which
happcnecl to be wrong.
For native English listeners, the most important syllablc in a word is the
stressed s)'llable, the primary cue for identi4'ing the word (Grosjean and cee 1987,
Benratrah iggT, Boncl 1999). This mlkes strcss J \ crt- important p(ongnciation
topic. ln xddition. because tlte chamcteristics of stressed ancl unstressetl sl Uables in
single words are mirrored in rhltl]m, tcachinli word stre ss primes students for work
with suprase gmentals. Dalton altd Seidlhofcr describe worcl stress as a
comnunicativcly impoftant and teachable pronunciation ropic, bridging the
continuum between segmcntals (consonants and vorvels), which are considered
rclatively easy to teach. and suprasegmentals (rhythm and intonation). rvhich arc
consiclcrccl more difficult to reach (199,1.7J).

LE\rEI"S OF STRNSS IN WORDS

In every Enilish worcl Of more than ()nc svllable, One s,vllable, the stressed
s)llable, is the most prominent. This promincncc is also callcd pdrnar_v stress, major
stress, heaq'strcss, of simpl_y the stfesscd s,yllable/\,.owel. (Thc tetms (ul1)strcssetl
uou'el and (utl)stlessed syllable are otten used interchangeabh'.) 1he remaininj
s,vllables may be unstressed or have secondary (niinoo stress. ln the woral sJlfa, tlnc
lifst syllable (so-) has prirnarl stress and the second (-y'l) is rntstfesscd.In the word
Japdnesa, the last syllable has primlrrv stress, rhe lirst syllable has secondary stress,
and the midclle syllablc is unstrcssed.

'17

1B

olAPftR

w.nd stess

languages, stressecl atrd unstressed syllables can be distinguished b_v

diffcrences in length, pitch, loudness, or vowel clualiryr As the chart below shows.
English makes use of all these distjnctions.

In

STRESS PI-A.CEMENT

'

Learning to lengthcn stressed vorl-els and shorten/reduce unstressed vowels

is challenging for most students. EquallY challenging is knowing which s-Yllable to
stress in a word.'fi'lte n lcarners are f:rced witll a ncw word they have never heard
befbre, they basc strcss placcment on many of tlle same strategies that native
speakefs do: analogv to phonologically sitrrilar words. strcss patterns associated
witl1 classes of words or cndings, or s,vllable structurc (DaYis and Kelly l997,Guion
et aI.200J. (;uion ef aI.2004).

Misplacccl stress-stfessing

the wrotlg sYllable-can make a wrlrd

nnrecognizable and co[rplctel,v clisftrpt the speakcr's message (Benrabal] 1997,

Fieltl 2005). Not all errors inYoh'ing misplaced stress arc equally serious. Field
(2005) reports that rightward misplacements of strcss in two-s-Yllablc worcls (c !a.,
stre ssinli the se cond syllable of a,ozrdr: I\'oMAN) impaire d intelliSibility morc than
leftward misplacemcnts (c.g., stressing the first svllable of enlof'ENjo)-). My
stndcnt's n.rispronunciation of consumln(Ite, descriLted at the beginninti of this
chapter, is an e'x:rmple o1 riglrtward strcss misplacement
The rules for English stress placement are con.tplex becar.rse English has
borrowed many words from other languages, cspecially Frcnch, Latin' Spanish, and
Grcek, with clifferent rules for assigning strcss (Jufis l99O) There arc, hower.cq
some general, teachablc principles which help students at all lcvels to predict the
stressed syllable. Teachcrs can also help students avoid misplaccd stless by working

with
t

stress in reading and vocabnlar-v lessons.

Nol all l"uguages use str.ss to s\slntdicitllt dilleruntiaft dre slllebles

/l/

is rhc

lo{'el ir

/l

Scc dso \b\\els.

lf

x \rold

CenLml\brtls. /a/ lLIrd/l/. |r)llL \b{'cls.

t.HAPTER

Wor.l Slress

19

NOTATIONS FOR STRESS AND SYLIABLES

There are yarious notations for stress, cach
(Celce-Murcia et el. 1996).

witl]

advantages and disadvantages

Stressed sy lable in capita s

Vls t

Circles above syllables

VIS

Stressed sylla ble bo ded

visit

Stressed sy labie

v sit

nderlined

Line over stressed syllable

vtsit

Acute marks (') over stressed sy lables;

grave marks

(') over secondary

it

dthlete

stress

Vert ca s (dictionary markings)

'ath, ete

Capitals and bold letters are yisuall_y strong and can be easily added by a
computef. It is difficult, however, to show mofe than two levels of stfess without
either changing tlpe size or combining bold ancl caps (tbr example, bold c:rps
coulcl be used lbr pfimary stress, plain caps for second:rry stfess and lower case fbr
unstressed). Cifcles afe also yisuallv strong but not as eas), to acld by computef.

Underlining is visually strong and exsy ro do bl. compute! but in some

pronunciation s'ork the teachef ma,\- want to use undedincs to show linking of
words of to indicate syllables. dcute and g.ave marks and verticals can be visually
strong when handwritten but are less notice:rblc when adclecl by conputer. The
teacher should not feel bound ro oltc tr?e of notation.When the meaning of the
notation is made clear, students are not tl.ouble d by mixecl notations. In my own
teaching, I choose the notatior which will nake the stressed s_vllablc mosr salient
to m)' students. In typed mater.ials, for example, I use capital lettcrs for tlte stressed
syllable because they are visually more salient than a typed acute mark; on the
board,I usually place a large acute mark over the stressed syllable, since switchinli
between capit:rls and lower case within a word slows clown my writing.
Curved undedincs are uselul f<rr showing the syllables in a word. They are
preferzble to slashes or hyphens within words (e.g., vilsit, vi sit) because they don,t
commit the teaclter to exact locations of syllable bounclaries, which are sometimes
difficult to determine.
visit

UU

listened

In addition, dictionaries do not alwa,ys agfee on syllable b ()tlndafics. American

Heritage Dictionar!, for example, scgments .sofl,-)., as,.sof-eJ,' wltilc lte&stert has
"sor-re." It is more important tltat students know how many syllables a word has
rhln t xactly $ herc , )nc s1 llablc ends lntl r he ncrr hegins.

20

]HAPTER

ward stress

STI]DENT PROBLEMS WITTI WORD STRESS

Students ha\.e two general difficulties with English word stress. C)ne involves
learning how different le\,-els of word st|ess are realized in English, in particular the
length of stressed r.owcls and thc shortness and reduction of unsressed vowels.
There is considerable evidence that the length distinction betwecn stressed and
unstressed syllables can bc lcarned, thefe is less evidence tltat vowel reduction is
learned (Flege and Bohn 1989. Anderson Hsich and venkataiiri 199'1, Ngul'cn ;urd
Ingran 2005, Lee et al. 2006).
The second difficult,v inyoh'cs kno$'ini which syllable to stress in a word.

Althougli there are no simple, general rules that will allow students to predict
which syllable is stressed, there are classes of words, such as compound nouns
(.e.g., airPort).with regular stress patterns that can be taugllt. As students become
more proficient, they also becone better able to predict which s.vllable in a $.ord
is stressed.

TIPS FOR TEACHING WORD STRESS

The sk tips listed below ptovide some general suggestions for helping
students to create clear diif'erences between stressed and unstressed vowcls and to
better predict which s-vllable is stressed. The tips are based on the characteristics of
English word stress and on problems students haYe with word stress.

ffi rrps
r, 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Emphasize the leflgth of stressed vowels.

Presenl sets of words with the same stress patterns.

Pfonounce new vocabulary so studerts call hear which syllables are stressed.
Use pronunciation spellings to develop stlrdents' awareness of how unstresscd
vowels are pronounced.
Point out that unstressed ]rowels have a short, indistinct sound regardless of

spellirg.

5.

Teach classes of words ahat have predictable stress patterns.

The remainder of this chrpter presents specific features of worcl stfess

listed below' 'l-he tips are further explained in thc context of these leaturcs

as

CHAPTER

Word Stress 21

@FWoRDsTREss
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9,
10.

Primaf),/Hea\T stress
Unstresscd svllables and yowel rcduction
Secondary stress

with two-syllable nouns antl verbs

Stress witlt compounds
Stress with verbs ancl nouns with prepositional prefixes
Stress with abbreviations
Stress with sulfi-\es
Stfess

More on unstressed s)-llablcs

Stress switching

\ffe discuss I'hat the teachef should know about each of these topics and
provide sulillestions fbr teaching them.

ffi

r*narylHearT stress

What the Teachef Should Know

Vowels with primary stress are longer and louder than unstressed vowels. In
citation fbrm (the word pronounced in isolation), the stressed yowel is also
pronounced on a higher pitch; in connected speech, high pirch may be downstepped (lowered) if the word dos not present new or important information in a
message. Because the long duration of English stressed vowels is ufl[amiliar to many

students, it is this aspect of stress that should be emphasized in the classroom (see
also Rhlthm, page 50).

In a stud)' con.lparing the length of stressed and unstressed vowels, it was

found that natiye-English speakers' stressed syllables were about four rimes longer
than their unstressed slllables, a large difference (Anderson Hsieh and Venkatagiri,
199'1,809). High-pfoficienq. Chinese speakefs of English sho\a'ed the same fatio as
the nativc spcakers, but intermediate learners' stressed and unstresscd syllables did
not differ lireatly in lenlith. Research involving leafners from other natiye-language
backgrounds also supports the claim tltat lengtlt of stresscd syllables is learned
graduallv (Flege ancl Bohn 1989, Ngul'cn and Ingram 2005, Lee et aI.2006).
Matclring or comparing the stress-s).l1ablc pattcrns of words (e.g..SepTEMbef
OcTObe4 NoVEMbeti DeCEMber) is effecti\.c for building sensitiviq' to patterns of
stfessed and unstresscd s.l/llables. Field descfibes thesc analogy cxercises as haying
"stroni psychological validit,v" (2OO5, 42O). Kenworthy (1987, 60,63) also
recomrlends "odd one out" exercises. in which students decide which of sevcrel
words lras a diffefent srcss pattern (e.g.,repeat, trauel, explqin, belieue).

22

C/tAPrtR

Activity

\4/dd sttcss

1.1 P nary

stress: fravel season trivia

level

Low lntermed iate

Worksheet

Page 202

Tips

Emphasize the length of stressed vowels,

Present sets of words with the same stress patterns.

Descr:ption This activity practices the stress patterns in the names of months
and seasons and in travel-related terms.

Brlng rubber bands to class to demonstrate the length of stressed vowels.

2.

Elicit from students the months of the year and the names of the seasons
Write the words on the board. Use a rubber band to demonstrate the length of
the stressed sy lable as you model the words: Stretch the rubber band as you
say the stressed syllable. Pass the rubber bands out to students. lr4odel the
words again, us ng the rubber band. Students repeat the words and stretch the
rubber band to reinforce vowel length.

3.

Elicit the number of syllables n each month, tapping out the syllables.
Underline the syllables on the board. Students may misidentify "January" and
"February" as three-syllable words, mistaking the vowel-vowel sequence (the
sounds represented by the letters ua in both month names) as one syllable
Explain that these are really two sy lables, separated by an unwritten /w/ ("wa")
sound. Add a smal Lv between the two vowe s to show their pronunciation
("Janu*ary, Febru*ary"). Underline the syl ables n all the words. Then elicit
the stressed syllab e from students and mark lt on the board.

Jdnuary Fdbluary Mdlch

April

Mriy

Jrine

ug uqt :eeeg g'gg

s:ltg useg STeg
ugly trys

4.

5.

u/u'g

Ask studentsl

Which words have a stress pattern like September? (answet I October,

November, December)

.
.

Which word has a stress pattern l!ke January? (answer: February\

.
.

How many words have a stress pattern l)ke July? (answer: just July)

Which words have a stress pattern like April? (answer: August, Winter,
Summer, Autumn)

Which words have only one syllable? \answer March, May, June, Spring, Fall)

Erase the words on the board. lVodel the month names again, stretching the
rubber band as you say the stressed vowels. Have the class say the names of
the months in order and in reverse order, student by student.

CHAPITR

ALllDity

@ 6.

l.l cantin

Worcl Stress

23

cd

Travel Trivia quiz. Pass the trivia quiz out to the class. Explain the meaning of
"trivia" if necessary, unimportant facts or pieces of information that most
people don't know. Most people guess the answers to trivia questions. Ask
students to read the trivia quiz. Answer questions about vocabulary. play

the

7.

aud io.

Studenis work in pairs to complete the activity as if traveling from the Unjted
States. Tell students to guess when they don't know the answer. When the pa rs
have finished, ask them about their answers. Remind them to make the
stressed voweis long.

8.

Write some questions about trave on the board:

Where would you like to travel?

When would you like to go?

What's the best time to travel? Why?

In pairs, students ask and answer these questions.

9.

When the pair work is finrshed, ask individuals to report their answers to the
class. lVonitor the pronunclation of stressed vowels.

Activity

1,2

Pfinary stress: lntegating sttess, vocabulary, and rcading

level

All levels

Worksheet

Page 203

Tip

Pronounce new vocabulary so students can hear which syllable

is stressed.

Descliption This activity focuses students' attention on the stress patterns of new
vocabulary. The vocabulary sample is from "Imeline of Lindbergh's
Life" in Northstar Reading and Witing: lntroducto,:y (Beaumont 2009,
135), a reading text for beginning students. The procedure described
below can be used at any level to integrate stress with any reading.

1.

Before class, follow this procedure:

a. Select several polysyllabic words from the reading (or vocabulary exercise) to
target for stress/syllable work.

welcome president receive kidnap

protect
artiticial
media factory
animal environmentalist

invent
cancer

(..tttinued on n$;t

paRe)

24
A

]HAPTER

ctiui ty

l.

worcl strcss

2 cotttinue.l

b. Count the syl ables in the selected words and mark the stressed syllable; ignore
secondary stress, Determine the syllable-stress patterns (the number of syllables
and the location of the stressed syllable) in the selected words. lt does not matter
if some stress-syllable patterns are represented by only one word. In the words
below, syllables are underlined and stress is marked with an acute accent (').

{9{re eryg{gI ggv Ss ury

?,tilis4
Qryg regs egu s's
6nimal
environm6ntalist
\JW\-/\-',\'/\-',

Stress patterns:

r.l_

t__

4. *l3. _l
'
receive artilicial
welcome president
kidnap media invent
cancer factory
2.

5.

---l--

environmentalist

animal

2.

tn class, make sure students understand the new words before they read Write
the preselected words on the board. Write the sy lable patterns as column
headings on the board and number them. Ask students to copy the words and
syllable patterns onto a piece of paper. Explain the notatlon: / represents a
represents a syllab e without heavy stress.
stressed syllable;

3.

IVlodel the words, lengthening stressed syllables. (To reinforce vowel length, use

the rubber band technique described in the Activity 1.1.) Students repeat

4.

Draw students'attention to the first word on the list and model it again. Ask
students to count syllables in the word. Underline the syllables on the board. Ask
students which syllable is stressed and mark it on the board (e.g., w6lcome)

5.

Ask students which pattern the first word should be written under and write lt
under that pattern. Repeat with another word.

6.

Students continue the activity in pairs, underlining syllables, marking the

stressed syllable, and writing each word under one of the patterns. Circulate,
modeling words and helping students count syllables, as necessary.

7,

When the class has finished, elicit from students the words that belong in each
column and add them to the board.

8.

When all the words are in their appropriate columns, students practice saying
them, column by column. Students should notlce that words in the same
column have the same stress pattern.

CHAPTER

Word Stress

25

Actlxity 1.2 @ntlnued

9.

To practice these words in context, the teacher can ask students to make
sentences about the reading from which the words were taken.

ffi tt"o."""d

Syllables and yowel Reduction

\Xhat the Teacher Should Know

Unstressed vowels are shortet softer (less loud), and pronounced at a lower
pitch than stressed vowels. Most vowels in unsressed syrlabres are reduced to a
centralized^vowel, usually /a,/ (the underlined vowel in qgo; fot /a/,see also Vowels,
page 180).3 For example, the undedined vovrels in qgai, natian, and euidence
ate
unstressed and pronounced the same. Because of its role in unstressed syllables,
7a,l
is the most common vowel sound in English (Avery and Ehrlich 1992,31).
Jenftins (2002) maintains rhat students who will communicate primarily with
nonnative speakers need not learn vowel reduction (or reduced words; see Rhythm,
page 72). Dauer, on the other hand, argues that it is dificult to speak
English at a natural
speed without reducing either the length or quality of unstressed yowels (2005).
There is eyidence that ESL learners gradually learn to pfonounce more Englishlike unstressed vowels, with shorter lengths,lower levels of pitch, and less loudness.
vowel reduction, however, seems to be more difficult. The ability to reduce vowels
may depend on the presence of vowel reduction in the native language and/or on
an early age of learning Engish (Flege and Bohn 1989, Nguyen and Ingram 2005,
Lee
et al.2OO6, Zuraiq and Sereno 2007). Flege and Bohn suggest that learning to make
a length difference between stressed and unstressed vowels is ,ra".rrury
"
precursor to \'owel reduction (1999).

Students whose native languages lack vowel reduction, spell worcls

phonetically and share many cognate words with English (for example, Spanish
or
Italian) may haye an especiany difficult time reducing unstressed vowers.It is usefur

to emphasize and remind them that unstressed vowels can be spelled with any
letter in English but are still prono\nced /a/ ot /r/.
Research has not investigated the effect of teaching students to reduce vowel
qualit)4 My own experience suggests that some intermediate and advanced
students
can and do learn to reduce unstressecl yowels to /a/ in normal speaking, although
perhaps on a word-by-word basis. rJ(/hen I began teaching promrnciation, I was on a
"crusade" against the pronunciati<in of todLtl, tonigtJt and, tomotrou) as ,,tooday,,,
"toonight," and "toomoffow.', In my first attempt at teaching vowel reduction, after
I

The vowevt (lhe !'owel in /1/) may also be used in unstressed syliables,
s!cially those spelled with the let tese
in di,uide) rheprctise qrality of rcducd vowels is inlluencerl by tlie sunouniiing soundr (Biownan
and Gol*t"in
and -0,, in words likep,'el4'atird lrintlau) e ;iitsir.es$ed but not reduceri to
/a/. ihe vorvel in the -r'zg

(u

in clectle) or

i (u

iD2l ftr .naing"?

ending is uruAiy p.noun..O

ir.'

26

]HAPTER

worcl stress

and modeling reduced vowels in several words, I wrote the word

totnoffot! on the board and told my stuclents I would pronounce it itl two different
ways. Tlrey were to tcll me which wa-v was coffect. I pronounced totrTonou flrst ls
"toolnorrow" and then with thc vowel correctly reduced When I asked the class
which pronunciation was correct. no one said ar])'thing. I repeated the dcmonstmtion
explaining

it

ancl agnin got no response.I triecl once lnorc, extremely nervous by this time, ,!rld was
relicved to see one student timidl-l/ raise her hancl. She said, "'ifas the /f/ different?" I

learned two thinlas that day: first, that nl-v studcnts were very conccrned with the
pronunciation of /r/; ;!nd second, that students do not rlotice reduced vowels, even
when they are constantly modeled in the native English spoken around them. This
lack of awareness should not, pedraps, havc been surprising to me (although it was),
gi\.en the fact that reduced vowels are short, indistinct, and not reflected in spefling.
A fust step to learning to pronouncc reduced vowels, then, may be to devebp an
aw;Lreness for how they sound. Awareness is addfessed in the san.Iple actiYity below'

Activity 1.3

lJnstressed vowels and vowel reduction: Ioday, tonight, and tomorlow

Level

Worksheet

Page 204

Tips

Use pronunciation spellings to develop students'awareness of how

unstressed vowe s are Pronounced.
Point out that unstressed vowels have a short, indistinct sound
regardless of spelling.

Description

This activity uses pronunciatlon spelllngs to direct students' attention

to the reduction of unstressed vowels, The second part of the activity,
an information gap, uses TV schedules to praciice the reduced vowels
in today, tonight, and tomorrow. Other types of schedules (e g., train
schedules, movie schedules) can be substituted for the TV schedules

1.

ntermed late/Advanced

Present vowel reduction. On the board, wrlte words in which unstressed vowels
are spelled with each of the vowel letters (a, e, i, a, u, y), underlining the
unstressed vowels. Below the normal spelling of the words' write the

pronunciatlon spelling (respellings of words that reflect pronunciation better

than the normal spellings do). lvlark the stress on each word.

?C6 5vldgnce bScqn

ac6 6vadans b6kan
2.

f5rtqne

physician

l6rchan

lazishan

Direct students' attention to the under ined vowels. N4odel each word,
pronouncing the underllned vowel letters as /a/ Be sure to reduce the unstressed
vowels to /a/; when you read words from a list, you rnay give more prominence to
unstressed vowels than you would in norrnal speaking lmagine how each word

CHAPTTR

Word Strcss

Actiultr t.3 Lontinuc.t

sounds toward the end of a sentence, spoken naturally (e.g., Ior physician,
"There's a job available as a physician,s assjstant.,') Use this pronunciation when
you model the words. Djrect students, attention to the pronunciation spellings
below the words and model them again. Have students repeat.

3.

Ask the following questions:

.
.
.

What letters in the normal spellings are underlined?

Are these vowels stressed or unstressed?
Do the underlined letters have different pronunciations?

Explain that unstressed vowels are pronounced /ai, regardless of spelling. point
out that the underlined letters represent all the vowel letters used in English,
but they are all pronounced the same, as /a/.

4.

Add pronunciation spellings of several familiar words to the board. with a blank
below eac6 word. lvlodel the words.
tantr6l

mash6en

fdshan

prafdshanal

pal6es

palitakal

ddnjaras

s6kand

5. Ask volunteers to come to the board and write the normal spelling of the words
in the blanks. Students practice saying the words, using the pron u nciation
spellings as gu ides.
6. lnformation gap. On the board write today, followed by its pronunclation spelling:
today

taday

7. Say the word twjce, once correctly, using a reduced vowel (taday), and again
incorrectly, using a full vowel (tooday) in the first syllable. Ask students
whether your first or sejcond pronunciation was correct.

8.

Add tonight and tomorrow Io the board, with their respellings: tanEht,
tamorrow. lvlodel the words, reducing the first vowels. Ask each student to say
today, tomorrow, tonight, reducing the first vowel.

9. Put students in pairs, giving each member of the pair a different TV schedule.
Tell students not to show each other their schedules.

10. Students complete the information missing in their schedules by asking

questions like What's on today at 1:00? Remind students to reduce the first
syllable of today, tonight, and tomorrow.

27

28

cHAPrtR

lFl

watd

stress

secondary stress

what the Teacher Should Know

In the word rlmocriit. the last Yowel has secondar-Y stress Volvels in s-Yllables
$'ith secondary stress (markecl with ' ) haYe ful| vowels (i e , not reduced)' length'
ancl loutlness. The major cliftbrence bet*-een secondary stress and primar,Y/lleav-Y
lower pitch than
stress is pitcll:Vowcls with seconclary sress are pronounced at a
of Your
vowels with primary stre ss. Say ddm o.ru)l slowt-Y and liste n to how the Pitch
falls
then
(with
primar-v
strcss)'
s1'llablc
first
voice changes; it starts high ovcr the
with
syllable
thc
last
t>ver
low
remains
over the seconcl unstressed syllablc ancl
secondarv stress.
Secondary stress is often predictable:

Compounds.

Seconclary stress occurs on the second word of compounds:

5

irpdrt

office biilding

Numbers: "teefls"' N'.rtive speakers use t\\() pattefns of stress with numbers
endin!! in -teen. Beforc a pause' ancl without special empllasis on dle number
stress on the
(e .g., He\ sixtden), primarv stress usually falls ot7-teen ancl secondary
(e g t'l/tien cdndles)'
number (s/D. Sefore a worcl whose flrst syllable is stressed
'

primary
the reverse pattern is used;-/ee, receives secondarl' stress' and tlle number'
in
counting:
pfimary
stress
fecei]'es
also
-teen'
stfess. The number, rather f:nan
thirtCen, J6urfuen, flftden, and so on
(e g
Numbers: "tens". With -ttl nun]bers, primary stress is always on the number
'
-ty
-tee
bet$'een
difference
s/xfy) and the -/if ending is unstressecl Another
^nd see
(1
,-r.,-b..l' is thc pronunciation of the lctter t In -ry numbers' t is a flap fast d''
Consonants, page 129): sixD! In -teet? numbers, I is a /t/: sixteen
Studentsaresometimesmisrrnderstoodwhentheyuse-teenaf'd.t!numbers;

lf students stfess
intcndecl -teen numbefs are heard as Jt flumbers, and vice versa
-leer numbers on the second slllable' there *'ill bc less confusion as to whether
they have said, sixtden or slxty
preposition
Verbs with Prepositionaf Prefixes. Seconclar-v stress occurs on the
in most verbs witll prepositional prefixes:

dvell6ok

ilnderst6nd

Suffixes. Seconclary stress ,Llso occurs on some suffi-res: r4alize' cblldhdod'

Yerbs' the -ale
atltititde, pictuftsque. when worcls ending with -'7te are used as
rwhenthese
words
grdduiite
(/e-Yt,f
:'o
encling has secondary stress and a full \'1)wel
is
vowel
and
the
as flouns or adjectives, the -tJle ending is unsffesse(l
"a..rr".l
rcclnced: /zJLr ass'cidle /at/, grdduate /at/ students

CHAPTER

WoId Stress

29

Polysyllabic Words with prirna"ry Stress tovrard. the End of the Word.
Polysyllabic words with primary stress toward the end of the word often have
secondary stress two syllables in front of the primary stress. This use of secondary
stress creates a more even alternadon of stresses:

cbntribition

e4ft

As a pronunciation topic, secondary stfess is less important than pfimary

stress. Fof beginning students, the teaching of secondary stfess can be limired to
certain types of words, like compounds anr| -teen worcls.

If a beginning student's lack of secondary stress makes a word difficult to

understand (this sometimes happens withpdlitlcian, wlnere secondary stress is on
the first syllable), the teacher can address the error by instructing the student to
lengthen the first syllable of the word.
$i/ith intemediate and advanced str.ldents, secondary stress can be addressed
when working with the stress pattfns of compounds, verbs with prepositional
prefixes, or suffixed words (see below).

Activity

1.4

Secondary stress in nunberc; How nany people tive at /t4 Main S|rleet?

level

Beginn ing

Worksheet Page 2O5

lip

Teach classes of words that have predictable stress patterns,

Description This information gap provides practice with -teen and -fy numbers.
Students have a map with boxes representing apartment buildings at
different locations. Each student has the number of occupants in
half of ihe bu itdings.

the board, write all the -teen numbers in one column and the -fy numbers
in a second colu m n:

On

13
14
15
16
17
l8
19
2,

lVodel

30

40
50
60
70
80
90

the

tee, words first, stressing -teen. Students repeat. Ask students

which syllable is stressed. Repeat with the -fy words.

(continuetl

next page)

30

IHAPTLR

Actittly

1.4

word stress

t:ontin ed

3.

Ask students to listen again, this time paying attention to how the fs in sixteen
and sixty sound (the f in sxteen will be a true l; the i in s/xiy will be a flapped l)'
page 129)
You can explain the flapped fas a "fast d' (see Flapped lIl and ldl,

4.

lVodel the numbers across the rows Students repeat'

5,

you
Say one of the numbers on the board. Ask students to write the number
a
to
choose
students
select
partners
Then
with
answers
said and check their
and
heard
they
the
number
writes
class
The
class.
number and say it to the
then checks with the speaker'

6.

lnformation gap. lVlodel the information gap Draw a box on the board to
represent a OuitOlng on a local street Write the address below the box Below
the address write the question "How many people live at 232 lvlain Street?"

tl

232 lvlain Street

How many people liue aI

232 Main Street?

-ty or -teen
Ask the question and choose a student to guess the answer, using a
with
a different
number. ilave the student write the number in the box, Repeat

student and a different address

7.

pair'
Put students in pairs and hand out a different rnap to each member of the
pair
monitor
work,
During
the
class
the
Read the instructions on the maps to
pronunciarton of the nu'nbers.

8.

After the pair work, ask students how many people live in the buildings at
-feen and
the various addresses. Provide feedback on the pronunciation of
ty n umbers.

K tat."" with Two-Syllable

Nouns and Verbs

V/hat the Teacher Should Know

first,llable' motbe\
kitcben'husbdncl'tdble.About60percentoftwo-syllableverbsarestressedonthe
Eh ich 1992 67) 1 As
second syllable: repeat, occLff' ct(lmit, announce (Avery anrl
O\.er 90 percent of two-syllable nouns are stressed on the

1lho

(,

sylLable edjectnes $'hich are

lrhle ,rlrectrves lronowed fic,n

i'i.i.. ,i""i".iri.

AJtrl.,"

i,,gol.

uttrtr,rr,.Ltr

inr"'
the

Geflnmic \Lot&

(e

E l'eltau

other Lanlua::,es (e.g.', patite.

uorr]..,.,,iualli

h ngJ', l/,itstl)

tfnirl,' ttwf1

sireiserLon the

fint

'iLr"lr,
lirsi s,rllabLe. lbl/0. ag irnettl ttptirhwnl

ae

strcssed on the

ii$t

s'\'ilable of

fie loot;hvo

raay be slrcssed on either the lirst oL second s,vlLabLe

.lr't)
or sccond syLlable 6Ttrar[t, 6Jiict't pisible
t?'/'i'b]r 1tle slrcssed ol thc second svll$Le

tuid

CHA?TER

Word Stress

31

the percentages suggest, stfess placement is far more reglrlaf for two_syllable nouns
than for two-syllable yerbs.
Dauer presents ari altemative de for two-syllable verbs and adjectives: Stress
is placed on the root syllabte (1993,6D. This is a useftrl rule proyided thar students
can recognize the foot. syllable structure also influences stfess on two-syllable verbs
and may help students identis' the root. The last syllable of the verb is stressed if it
contains a long vowel (e.g.,repe.1t, decide, contain) or ends in a consonant clustef
(two or more consonants; e.g., elect, disturb). These rypes of syllables are hear,y
syllables, which attfact stress.While students cannot be expected to anatyze syllable
structure, hear.y syllables are olten graphically longer (i.e., have more letters) than

light syllables.
Noun-Vefb Pairs: a REcord-to feCORD. Noun-yerb pairs are two-syllable words
whose grammatical function determines stress.r#/hen sfessed on the f[.st syllable,
the word functions as a noun (e.g., a pdrmit)iwhen sttessed on the second syllable,
the word functions as a verb (e.g., to permit). These word pairs reflect the general
tendency for two-syllable nouns to be stressed on the first syllable and two-sdlable
verbs on the second.
Depending on both the speaker and the word, the stress slijt is not always
mandatory Some speakers, for example, pronounce lly'crease with the noun pattenl
whethef it is used as a noun or verb.
Group Ar Different stress patterns for nouns and verbs are mandatory for

most speakers.

record, conduct, addict, progress, perrnit, conflict, desert, object, convict, present,
produce, rebel, project, suspect
Group B: The noun pattern can be used for nouns or verbs.

increase, contract (business/legal agreement), protest, research, subiect, detail,

defect, insult
Group C; Nouns and verbs are stressed only on the first syllable.

ACcent, COMfort, PURchase, PROm se, REscue

Group D: Nouns and verbs are stressed only on the second syllable (many words
with the prefixes de-, dis-, and re- fall into this group).
conTROL, surPRlSE, deSlRE, deMAND, aRREST, reVlEW

When used as nouns,the words in Groups A and B often have secondary stress
on the second syllable;the verb forms have reduced vowels in the fust syllable: tbe
Pr6jact, to projdct /pfejtkt/ .
Because of the anount

of new yocabulary this topic is better suited

intemediate and advanced students.

to

32

aH \PrE^

l4ordsre(r

1.5 Stress with two-syllahle nouns: Classroon

Level Begin ners

Activity

obiects

Worksheet None
Teach classes of words that have predictable stress patterns'

Tip

Description This activity familiarizes students with stress in two-syllable nouns. It

ends with pair work in which each member of the pair tries to guess
five items that the partner has in her backpack (purse, bag)'

1.

your
On the board, write three column headings: Things in the room, Things in
"purse"
pocket, and Things in your backpack or purse Explain "pocket" and

if

2.

necessary.

Ask students to work together and wrlte down as many things as they can for
each column. Help students by p0inting at obiects and by taking things out
of your pocket or backpack/purse. Examples of things !n the room include a
table, a chair, a blackboard, chalk, eraser, a door, a computer, a window, and
books. Examples of things in your pockets lnclude a wallet, keys, a cell
phone, tissues, and change. Examples of things n backpacks or purses
include books, papers, pencils, pens' iPods, laptops, water, sandwiches,

and notebooks.

3.

When the lists are finished, ask students to volunteer words Write the words
on the board, circling two-syllable nouns Ask students to count the syllables in
words. Ask students if the circled words are nouns (names of

the circled
things) or verbs (names of actions). lvlodel the words, exaggerating the length
of the stressed vowel (ignore secondary stress in words ltke backpack or
blackboard). Students repeat. lvlodel the words again Ask students what
syllable is stressed and mark stress. Ask students if most two-syllable nouns
are stressed on the first syllable or the second syllable'

4.

Add some unfamiliar, two syllable nouns to the board which can be easily
polnted out. Point to the objects without saying them Examples might include
(depending on the room or the contents of your pockets or bag):
ceiling

outlet

carpet

scrss0ls

loldel

Tell students the words are nouns Ask students what syllables they think are
stressed and add stress marks N4odel the words Students repeat'

5.

lvlodel the pair work, Choose five ltems from the coLumn Things in your
backpack, including some two-syLlable words Choose a student and ask her'
in Your backPack?"
"Sue, do you have a

6.

Put students in pairs. Explain that each student will guess five things that his
in
partner has in his backpack, using the quest on "Do you have a

]HAPTER

Word Sttess

33

AdlDiA 1.5 .ontinued

your backpack?" The students can choose words from the board or words for
other things they know.

7. After the

pair work, ask several students to report on the contents of thejr

partners' backpacks. Provide feedback on word stress.

IF s*."" with Cornpounds

What the Teacher Should Kmrw
Compour.rd nouns and adiective-noun compounds have primary stress on the
stress on the second: air:pdtt, grdduate st dents, tbe

frst word and secofldary

Hduse.'fhe first word is pronoutced on a higher pitch:

IYV:ite

"tL
road

dog

This is a topic appropriate for beginning through adyanced students and is covered

in most pronunciation textbooks.

Mispronunciations of compounds usually occur because students have used a
higher pitch on the second word or on both words. Most intemediate and
advanced students use the correct stress-pitch pattern on compounds Bke airport
ot subu)ay, written as one word (although Spanish students often misstress
boyfriend and girlfriend). They have more difficulty with compounds written as
two words, which are harder to fecognize (e.g., graduate students, post ofrice,
oflice bailding).Nouns and adiectives fomed from phrasal verbs (e.g.,tbe tAke\fr
my mdkeiq), have the same stress-pitch pattefn as compounds. phrasal \'erbs are
discussed in Rhlthm, page 69.

Activity

1.6

Conpounds: Which came

Level

lntermeQiate/Advanced

Worksheet

Page ?06

figt?

Teach classes of words that have predictable stress patterns.

This activity practices compounds in the context of a trivia activity

and can be integrated with other work on discoveries/inve?tions or
technolo$/. Students see pairs of compounds (e.g., cell phones,
iPods) and decide which came first.
(continue.l on next page)

34

cHAPtR

\\lorcl strcss

Actll,iry t.6 continucd

lf

1.

D rect students'attentlon to the compound pairs. Go over meaning

necessary.

2.

Select 0ne of the compounds and wrlte it on the board. Write the f rst word
higher than the second, to illustrate the pitch pattern. IVodel the compound
and the isolated stress pltch pattern (DA
da). Ask the class whether the flrst or
pitch.
second word is pronounced on a higher
phones

@ 3. Students listen to the compounds and

repeat them.

4. In pairs, students decide which came first, guessing as needed. For example,
cell phones were in use before iPods.

first

Provide feedback
on the stress pitch pattern of the compounds-make sLlre students pronounce

5. After the pair work, ask students to report wh ch came

the first word on a higher pitch.

Fl so.tt

with Verbs and Nouns with Prepositional Prefixes

What the Teacher Should Know

Most verbs with trlrepositiollal pretixcs have prinary stress on the Yerb and
scconclary stress on the prcfix: dtttliue, dueridL inderstdnd, ilps't Atew arc morc
often stressccl on the prepositio n: 6uer ddse, a)utage, 6u ALu. Thcse are not fixed
rules, horvel-er, aud speakers nlay strcss either the prcposition or the Yerb in ordef
to mnintain a more equal alternation of strcsses:
You rea y upsdt

Mary.

or

You rea y 0pset [/]ary.

Ilecausc of the new r.ocabulary involvecl with these I'erbs. this topic is bctter suitcd
to intermediate and advancetl students.

Nouns and acljcctives can be formed frottt some verbs with prepositionxl
prefixes. These constructions are stressed on the preposition, following the general
pattern for two-syllable nouns: 4 Positirc 6utldok' an psrLting in prices' 4n
6utbriqk of Jtu.The adjective outstanding can bc stressed either on the prefk or
on the root: vrhen the mcaning is 'exceptionally good," outstandirlS usually has
primary strcss on sland;when the meaning is "unpaidi' as h an outstanding bill'
stress is usu:rlly on out Note that witll outdoor(s), indoor(s)' outside' a\d inside,
stress can be on either syllable.

]HAPTER

Activity

1.7

Wotd Stress

Verbs and nouns with prcpositional prefixes: Why do wonen

outlive nen?

level

Advanced/intermed iate

Worksheet Page 206

Tip

Teach classes of words that have predjctable stress patterns.

oescliption This activity uses paired dictations to practice the stress patterns of
nouns and verbs with prepositional prefixes, in the context of gender
differences. The activiiy can be integrated with work on longevity,
aging, or gender issues. This is also an opportunjty to practice the
pronunciation of the plural women, using the vowel hl (h/ is lhe
vowel in drd; see Front Vowels, page 169).

1.

On the board, write some verbs with prepositional prefixes. Go over meaning if
necessary. Students may ask whether whelm is a verb. Explain that it comes
from a verb meaning "capsize" used in Old and lViddle English (it is listed by

itself in the American Heritage Dictionary with the meaning,,overwhelm',).

outlive

withhold
2.

oveldo
overwhelm

undertake

overtake

outweigh

withdraw

Model the words, stressing the verb. Students repeat. Ask students whether the
words are nouns or verbs and which part of the word is stressed (verb or
preposition). l\4ark stress on the words. Explain that most verbs with
prepositional prefixes are stressed on the verb.

3. Add nouns with prepositional

income

prefixes to the board.

outgo

0vervtew

outline

4. l\4odel the words, stressing the prepositions. Students repeat. Ask students
which part of the words is stressed. Explain that nouns with preposittonal
prefixes are stressed on the preposition.
5. Paired dictations. Model the activity. Dictate the sentence below to the class.
Tell students to mark the stress on the word with the prepositional prefix.

Elderly women outnumber elderly men.

6. Put students in pairs and give each member of the pair a different set of
sentences for dictation. Students decide where stress should fall in the

underlined words in their sentences and drctate the sentences to a partner who
writes them. Students should speak as clearly as possible and not show the
dictation sentences to the partner until the activity is finished.
7. After the activity, ask individuals to read the sentences. Ask the class to
comment on the dictation statements: Are the statements true, false, or par y
true? Ask students if they think there are other reasons that women ou|ive men.

35

36

:HAPTER

word

Stress

Hh Abbreviations
V/hat the Teacher Should Know
The last letter of an abbreviation has heaviest stress and highest pitch:e.g.,
ATI\4 (automated teller machlne).

&

Activity 1.8

Ahhreviations: Integruti ng pnnunciation antl grannar

Ievel

lntermedlate

Worksheet

Page 207

Tip

Teach classes of words that have predictable stress patterns.

Description

This activity combines practice with the stress pattern of common

abbreviations and the use of premodifiers (articles and possessives)
with abbreviations. Students maich abbreviations 1o definitions and
supply a modifier in front of the abbreviation.

1. Students listen to the abbreviations on Worksheet 1.8 and

repeat them

2.

Ask students which letter of the abbreviation has the heaviest stress and which
has the highest pitch. (The last letter has the heaviest stress and the highest
pitch, which then falls.) Ask individuals to read some of the abbreviations.
Provide feedback on stress and pitch.

3.

Explain the use of articles and possessive adjective premodifiers if necessary

4. Students work in pairs to match the abbreviations with definitions and write
modifier in the blank before the abbreviation.

5
a

5, After the pair work, ask students to explain what each abbreviation stands for

(e.g,, the U/V stands for the United Nations), monitoring stress on the
abbreviation, as weli as premodifier use.
6. Abbreviated phrases such as IGIF (thank God it's Friday), AS,4P (as soon as
possible), and FYI (for your information), and texting abbreviations such as BFF
(best friend foidver), IOL (lots of laughs or laughjng out loud, also little old
lady), and /DK (l don't know) can also be presented. These abbreviations are
used more in writing than speaking.

is usedwith a
The artlcLe /re is used when the abbreviation refels tc a specific (or kno$n) rcferenl (e g.,lbe Ul\), a\d4
nonspeclfic (or unknown) relercnt (e.g., an ATlti): no article is used when lhe abbrevialion is a prcler nalne (e.g., IBtr{). Possessives arc
used when re rcferent "be1ongs" to an individual (e.g., ll'r D0B, date of bitlh)

aHAPTER

Ward Stress

37

Actiuiry 1.8 continued

7.

(3 4 students). Instruct each student to give additional

information about one of the places or organizations in the matchjng activity:
US, UK, UN, FBl, ClA. The informatlon can be of anytype: an opinion, a fact,
or a personal experience. Remind students to stress the abbreviation correc|y
Group work

and to use modif iers.

8.

After the group work, ask students what other abbreviations they are familiar
with (e.g., local abbreviations).

ffi

to."" with suffixes

Vhat the Teacher Should Know

Some suffixes require that stress fall on a particular syllable in a word and may
cause stress to shift from its regular bosition in the base word,.For exafiple, define

is stressed on the second syllable; when -tion/-sion is added, stress shifts to the
syllable before the suffix definltion (also uacAtion, conuersdtion, communicAfion.
identificAtion, decision, profession). WittL -eer, on the other hand, pfimary stress
shi.fts to the suffix ltsef, the last syllable: enginder, uoluntAet; pionder
FamiliaritF q/ith the stress pattems associated with suffixes takes some of the
guesswork out of stress assignment, especially in longer words where most
misplacements of stress occur (Fokes and Bond 1989). Since advanced students will
have picked up the stress pattems associated with some of these suffixes, the topic
can also be used to work with vowel reduction. a feature of stress which is not
acquired quickly.
Because of the level of vocabulary, this topic is not suited to beginning
students. There are, however, some yery common stress-changing sufflres, such as
-tion/-sion, that occur in words appropriate to a high beginner's lr'o cab\l^ry..nation,
decision, information, professlon. Stress on word forms inyolvingpDoto shoultl als<r
be taught to beginners:These words are misstressed by many students ar all leyels:

phr6to

phot6grapher

phot6graphy

photogriiphic

Many suffixes do not cause stress to change from its position in the base
wor<l: -zess OrAppiness-bAppy), -! (sldepiness-srcel4l), -ment (g6uernmentg6uern, tndasurement mdasure), -ful (bau ful-bdau4), mAsterfut-mAster). See
Appendix C for a more complete list of suffixes with associated srress patterns
and exceptions.

3B

CHAPTER

Activity

1.9

Strcss with suffixes: What's presidential?

Level

Advanced/intermediate

Worksheet

Page

Tip

Teach classes of words that have predictable stress patterns.

208

Desclipt:on This activity practices stress associated with suffixes used in words
that describe leadersh ip qualities.

@ 1.

Students listen to the words on Worksheet 1.9 and repeat them. Ask students

to identify the stressed syl ables and mark them (for all of these suffixes,
primary stress is on the syllable before the suffix: presid6ntial, intell6ctual,
controv6rsial, politician, muslcian, academician, l6gical, identical, ecol6gical,
idealistic, realistic, energetic, responsibllity, integrity, passivity, luxirlous,

ambitious, couriigeous).

2.

Students volunteer other words they know with these endings. Add the words to
the board, marking the stressed syllables.

3. 0n the board, write the question "What's presidential?"

(3-4 students). Ask students to discuss the qualities ihat a good

president or leader should have. Students can use words from the board or
choose other words.

4. Group work

5. After the group work, ask a member of each group to report t0 the class.
Provide feedback on word stress.

Fk to""

on Unstressed Syllables

what the Teacher Should Know

Native speakefs drop internal unstressed vowels in some common words:
Famil!, f$ example, is pronounced "farnly," and erery is pronounced "evry." The
dropped vowel is often followed by /r/ ot /l/.
Loss of the unsressed vowel has the effect of making the word one syllable
shorter than its written form suggests. It also has the effect of bringing consonants
together and creatinfa more closed (and difficult) syllables: Fa-mi-l!, with rhtee
open syllables, becomes fam-ly, with a closed and open syllable (closed syllables
cncl in consonants; open syllables end in vowels; see Consonants, page 118).While
thcse reductions are charactefistic of fluenl American speech, they are not a high
priority pronunciation topic. With advanced students, who have covered word
stress but still neecl more work, these worcls can add a new element, though
students may already be using reduced pronunciations in some of them (e 9.,
"intresting" for interesting).

CHAPTER

Wotd Stess

39

All students should be aware_of one word from

this gtoup, comJbr.table, stjrce
word is:ommon and rhe spelling does ,ro, ..p...*i.oTrrnciadon
:l:,
well. Most
native
speakers pronounced this word
Zfamfiar_SalZ.'ifre pronunciarion of
com'fortabre shourd be taught when the word
t nrst in*oouc!-o to students.
In the asterisked words below, the dropped syllable
almost atways,,disappears.,,
accidentally
*aspirin

(accidently)
(asprin)

awfu lly

(awfly)

beverage

(bevrage)

*chocolate
*comfonable

(choclate)

/kamftarbay - notice that the o.tlet ol M and ht is

switched in spelling and pronunciation,

deliberate (adiective)

(delibrate)

different

(diffrent)

elementary

(elementry)

*evening
*every

*family
favolite, favorable
*federal

(evning)
(evry)
(famly)

(favrite, lavrable)
(fedral)

general, *generally

(genral, genrally)

*interest, interesting

(intrest, intresting)

*laboratory

(labratory)

miserable

(misrable)

naturally

(natchra y)

*practically

(practicly)

restaurant

(restrant)

*separate (adjective)

(seprate)

*several
*temperature
*vegetable

(sevral)
(temprature)
(vegtabte)

40

]HAPTER

word

Strcss

Incorrectly Dropped Syllables (ex'cise for exercise). Although many

students pronounce unstressed syllables with too much pfominence, some
students, especially Chinese students, may drop them or pronounce them too
wc.LkJy Exercise, for example, $/hich is a three-syllable word, may sound like
"excise;' a two-syllable wotd; actiuitl, a four-syllable word, may sound like "acti\ty."
The unstressed syllables that are commonly dropped are internal -er- syllables
(together with r-dropping, see Vowels, page 192), internal syllables spelled with
-i- (e.9., euidence may sound like "evdence"), and final -y endings (e.9., uery gootl
may sound like "ver' good"). These are reductiye errors, errors in which phonetic
material that should be present is missing; they are distracting and can have a
negative impact on comprehensibility.
The words below are ones in which my Chinese international teaching
assistants (ITAS) frequently drop syllables.
art c

c ass

pronounced like "a(r)tko(l)"6

cai

pronounced like "clasko(l)"

economics pronounced like

"ecnorn ics"

exerclse-pronounced like "excise"

energy pronounced Ike "engy"

tec

hn

ologica

l-pronou nced like "tech(n) og co(l)"

understanding pronounced
un

Like "u nstanding"

iversity-pronou nced like "unvast(y)"

opportun ty-pronounced like "optunty"

evldence pronounced like "evdence"

activity-pronounced like "aktivt(y)"

In

classrooms

with mlxed native

languages,

this error is best dealt with

thfough effor coffection.

Parentheses arcund a

letter

ma-v be pronounced very weakly

for exampLe,

a(r)tko(l)-indicate fiat

the sound corrcspondirg to lhe lettr mal not be prcnounced or

|:ItAPTER

Activity

1.1

0 Disappea

level

Word Sttess 4"1

ng syllables: Gane

Advanced/intermed iate

Worksheets Pages208,209

Tip

Use pronunciation spellings to develop students' awareness of how

unstressed vowels are pronounced.

Description Thls activity presents dr0pped syllables in the c0ntext of

guessing game.

1.

@2.

Give each student a copy of the list of words on Worksheet 1.10A. Explain ihat
native speakers of English often drop one of the unstressed syllab es in these
words.

Students listen and draw a line through the unpronounced vowel. Then they
listen again and repeat.
lAnswers:

asp/tin

chocy'late

temp/rature

vegfable

int/rest

is/ra ble

laby'ratory

bevfrages

nat/rally

pracric/lly

ev/ning
tur/ly
gen/ral
led/ral
sep/rate (adj)
eufry
lavfrite comlort/ble
accident/lly awt/ltyl

3. Collect the handouts.

4. Divide the class into two teams. Give Team

the questions in Set 1 and Team

2 the questions in Set 2 of Worksheet 1.108.

5. Explain the game. Each team has a d fferent set of questions; the two teams

take iurns asking the opposing team their questlons. First, a member from
Team 1 asks a member from Team 2 a question. Encourage readers to say the
questions as clearly as possible so the opposing tearn understands what's being
asked. The Team 2 player must answer with a dropped syllable word. Then
Team 2 asks Team l a question.

El

t,"."" switching

What the Teacher Should Know

The strcsscd syllable is fixed in most worcls. Howeveq in some rvords where
secondary stress is followccl b-v rvord-final primar'!' stre ss, the two stresses can
switch syllables. For example, in citation form (the word in isolation), TdnneS.9EE
has primxr_y stress on the last s)'llable and scconclary stress on the first syllable.

42

]HAPTER

word strcss

Howevet in TEnnessAe RIae4 native speakers switch primary and secondary stress
on knnessee in order to avoid the two adiacent, heavily stressed syllables that
would result in TbnnessEE Rlrer (a stress clash). Stress switching creates a more
eyen alternation of stresses and a more eurhythmic (rhlthmically pleasant) phrase
(Liberman and Prince 1977, Selkirk 1984). Stress switching also occurs in the
pl.rases on the right, below.T
Primary stress on lasi sy lable

Primary stress shifts back

l'm slxTEEN.

in 1610 (Slxtden TEN)

Ndw YORK

NEW York Clty

Natiye speakers may also adtust timing or lengthen final sounds to separate
adjacent stressed syllables (Selkirk i984). For example, the rhlthm of 'Jine sings
w6ll" sounds slower than the rh)'thm of "The w6man is singing beautifully.'In both
sentences there are three stressed s]4lables. However, in the first sentence, all three
stressed syllables are adjacent, causing speakers to slow down to put space between
the stresses. In the second sentence, there are unstfessed syllables which prevent
adjacent stresses, and therefore there is no need to slow down.
Stress switching is not a high-priority pronunciation topic but can be added to
work on stress with advanced students as something new

Activity

1.1

Stess switching: What happened in the

l99h?

level

Advanced

Worksheet

Page

fip

Teach classes ol words that have predictable stress patterns.

210

Bescription This trivia activiiy practices the stress patterns in -teen numbers
used in years. lt can also be used to reinforce the use of the and
plurals with names of decades (e.g., the 1990s). Students guess
the decade in which historical events occurred1. On

the board, write:

He was 19 (nineteen) in the 1990s (nineteen nineties).

2. l\4odel the sentence. For the two occurrences of 19, stress -feen when it refers
to age; stress the number nine-when it refers to the century. Elicit from

students the stress on the two -teen words (or explain

it):

feen numbers are

' slre$ s$jfhing is onl,! a bacxw-ards" process: a finaL primary strcss exchdges pLace with x preceding scondary stress. T]rus, lor
exenple, stress s$jtchirg does not occlr r $ith compound! a conpound like /i/Rphre (wllh pdmary slRss on lhe lint noun) never
bccoms,ri?l4rw Strcss s\\'lrhing ls ar oflionaL rule and occum mo$ hequen ) in "lightlr bound" phm-\es Like 761r. Sxtie. TEN,
at NllW

1l), Cij,

(.Li'betman md

Pince l gl7,

320).

1HAPTER

Wotd Sttess

43

stressed on the number in years (this is a more general tendency which occurs
when the next word is stressed on the first syllable). Otherwise, students
should stress -teen.8

Elicit from students the names of the decades of the twentieth century. (There
is no agreed on name for the decade 1900 1909; it is sometimes called the
nineteen aughts or the 19-lowzl; the decade 1910-1919 is called the nineteen
tens.) Write the names on the board, including the article fhe and the plural
ending. Model the decade names. Students repeat.
Pass out Worksheet 1.11. Students work in pairs to identify the decade when
the event occurred. Ask students to guess if necessary.

Following the pair work, ask students when they think the events occurred.
Provide feedback on their pronunciation of numbers and the use of fhe and the
plural with decade names (e.g.,. the 1920s\.

CONCLUSION
When students leam to lengthen vowels in stressed syllables and shorten
vowels in unstressed syllables, they not only pronounce individual words more
cleafly, but also are primed for one of the keys to natural English rhythm-the
altemation of long (stressed) and short (unsffessed) words.
In addition, appfoaching the teaching of word stress through specific classes
of words like compor:nds, where stress is predictuble, helps students avoid one of
the single most serious pronunciation effors-misplaced wofd stress.

Natilr speaken may also stres the number (rather than -/aara),
19 (ninetren).

even when fhe number is followed by a pause, ai in 1

rz

CHAPTER

I ovefheard the following col.tvcfsatioll bctween thc owncr of x local

ne\vsstand (a Pakistani who speaks verv good English) and a Kofe'tlt cLlstomcr who
was I less pfoficient English speaker. The Korean man had dropped off a roll of film
to bc devek)pcd iu]d wanted to know $.hcn to pick it up. The pakistani owner
ans!\.'ered that it would be ready "two da)'s later, (thar is, on Saturclay). The Kofean

man wasn t sufe srhethcr the Pakistani ltaal said ,,todal', later,,or.,two days later.'.
Korea n: Today later, right?

Owner: Two days later.

Korean (po nt ng with his index f nger to the counter): Todav ater?
Owner: No, two days ater.
l\4e: Proba lt y Saturday.

This misunderstanding rel]ects a problcm with both rl]1.thm and word stfess.
two closcll' relatcd areas of English pronuncialion. English rhlthm is characterized
b.v an eltcrnation of meaningful words (like lu)o ot tlq.!),wt.\ch are long in dlu.ation
and stresscd, and grammatical words (likc the preposition to, or the lrtrticlc ttJe),
which ale short and unstressed. The same altcrnation of long-stressed :rnd short
unstressed is found within words; f<rr example. the sccond s,vllable of todaJ), the
stfessed syllable, is lol.rger than the first syllable (tocl.q),111e unstressed svllable..l.he
Kofean customer was apparently unaware of the diffcrcnce berween strcssed and
Lnstressed rvords and si4lablcs.In Enlilish, the first svllablc of today does not sound
like lz,o; becausc it is unstressed, the \.owel is reduced and pronounced likc the first
von'el in algo. In the Korcan's speech, todat- sovnded like tun cla1t. The Korean
appilfently also did not notice the Pakistani's use of the plurul da-trs. The fact that the
ncsrsstand owner was not a native speakef of English may also have contributed to
thc conftrsion, although the Pakistani's Englislt was vcry good. Ir is inpossible to
kno$- wltether the Korean was generall]. unaware of thc clift'efent pfonunciations of
lod.t)t ancl tun daJ,6), or n4tether he clidn't expect anotltef nonnative speakef to
make this distinction.
45

46

cHAt'rLR

Rhythnl

Natural English rh,vthm requires the use of length and loudness to distilrluish
morc promincnt worcls liom lcss prominent wortls, as wcll as thc abilitv to link
words together smoothly and pronounce thcn in meatingftll units.\tronli calls thc
length-loudness distinction "the ke,v to the rhlthnic s)stem of English" (19U7, 2l);
the ability to link words together and group thcm effectivel_y into units of meaning
is no lcss ifilpoftant.

PROFICIENCY AND RIIYTHM

Knowlcdgc of vocabuletl anci grammtr has an inpact on rhlthm.A student
whose speech is halting because she is scarching lor words is unlikel,v to hxve the
planning time to link the final end beginnin[a sounds of adjacent wotds (e.9.. dot
com) app()piatcly; the abilit]' to group words into appropriate phrases dso
requires quick access to lexicnl items and grammar. Lt a comparison of the cffcct
of prosodic (intonational) features and fluenc,v (pausing) features on accentedness,
fluenc-v-bascd problems like frequent, long. or inappropriate pauses were more
important contributors to accent than intonation (ltofimovich and Bakef 2006).
Lower-proficiency learners tend to pausc more liequently and inappr-opriate ly than
l.righ-proficie nc-v lcarners (Anderson-Hsieh and Venkatagiri, 1994).'lhese findings
do not mean that tcachers should avoid tcaching rh,vthm to beginning stt-tdents. on
the contrar]', rhlthm should be taught. but the topics and approach shottld be
linked to students'proliciency Chel:r-Flores, for example. rccommends that
begil.ming students learn the rhlthmic patterns of tlte language they are able to
use, suclr as the lalrliualac of lareetings ancl infortnatjon questions like WJat\ )nlrr
nculle? (20O1,).
Students are better ible to hear thc fhlthm pattern of a sentence or phrase
rvhen the pattern is isolatcd. For example, the rhvthnr of a phrase like ut IIOME or
in SCHOOL is casicr for stlrdents to hear s.hetr tlte phrase ar.rcl its isolatecl rhlthm
patterr are modclcd togethef: at HOME-da DA.
Students also find it easier to hcar the rhl-thm of a phrase or short sentence
when it is paired with a familiar wor.l that has thc snme pattern (for example.
engineer and Ann uvts here). A relaled technique can be used to teach awarcncss
of reduced pronunciations. Students notice thc |ecluced pronunciations of be ancl
ber in WlJat did he do or 'lvhctt's ber nante when the) see the questions re spclled
as "what diddy do?" and "\Whatscr name?'
One of the clifficr-rlties studcnts and tc'.rchers fhce $'hen workin! \i'ith rhlthm

in longer uttcrances is rhxt there are as mtny dilfcrcnt rh,\tl]m pattcrns xs there are
difTerent utterenccs. The fhythm of a giYen lltterance dcPcnds on the stfess patterns
of lexical items, their ordering, and the relation of the utterance to the larger
discourse;when lexical content. orclcr, and discourse contcxt differ, r'lrythm dift-ers.
'Working with shorter phr:rses with relativel]' predictable pattcrns sinplilies the
pronunciation task for teachets ancl students. Chela-Florcs atlvoctttcs a similar

CHAPTER

2 tlllvthn 47

appfoach, basing pronunciation work for beginning students on,,chunks,, of speech

that students can process as units of meaning and rh\thm (2O01).

Rh1tl]m churks are granmatical phfases with a predictable corc rhythm

pattern.'lhey exprcss Llnits of meaning and ma,y constitutc thought groups (see
pagc 52). The corc rhythm partern of a pfeposition?rl phrase, for cxamplc, is a weak
bcat (short, unstrcssed), thc preposition, followed b1. a strong bear (lonla, stressed),
thc tlolln at HOMF
The core rhl.thm pattcrn of a phrase type, for cxanplc, the weak-strong
pattcrn of prepositional phrases, ma_l' be idcntical to tlre rhlthm of an xctual phrase
(e.9., at HOXIE) or part of the fhlthm of an actual phrase.A k)nger prepositional
phrasc (e.g., dt the IJLINking RED LIGHT) may h;rvc additional bears (s]4lables),
both strong and weak.

TTPS FOR TEACHING RITYTHNT

The seven tips listed below proviclc some gcneral sulagcstions for helping
students to speak English with a clearer, nore natural rhlthm. The tips are based
on the characteristics of Englislt dtythm and on the problems studcnts encountcr
with rh\-thm.

tnps
'1. Model phrases using
nonsense syllables to make rhe

dlthm

partern easier to hear

?. Teach beginning students the rh).tltm patterns of communicatively uscftll

language at their level.

3. To help students distinguish meaningful groups of words, teach them to

lelgthen the end of one group before saying the following group.
4. Teach students to link the final consonant ofa word smoothly to the beginning
sound of the next word.
5. Teach stlrdents predictable

rhltlxn patterns of

phrases.

6. Teach students lo recognize the reduced pronunciations of gramrrrar wor<ls.

.7

Teach the reduced pronunciltion of can to help studerts pronounce the

difference between can

and.

can't,

Thc rcmaindef of this chaptcr prcscnts spe cific featt-tres of rh_\-thm. l'he seven
tips above are explained lifiher in the contcxr of the followinla fcarures.

48

.HAPrtR

It

sprctrtc rrnrunrs or nnYrnvt

Rhvthm

1. Stress-timed rhlthm
2. Content and fuilction words
3. Thought groups
4. l-inking adiacent words
5. Prepositional phrases and infinitives
6. Articlc + noun
7. Pcrsonal Pronouns
8. Pltrasal verbs
9. Coniunctions
10. Reductions of ftinction words
11. Fast-speech recluctions of function rvords

we disclrss what the teacher shoul.l know about each of these topics and
for teaching them ln some cases, the sullgestion is a classroom
pfovide
-activinr suggestions
In other cases, it is efror correctioll. Suggestions for error corrcction are
short enor,rgh to use when studen$ are engaged in nonpronunciation actiYities'
They are also useflil fbr adclressing pronunciadon problems that only one or two
students in a class experience

Fh

stress-Tirned

Rhlthn

What the Teacher Should Know

English rhlthm is described as stress-timed rh)-thm, one of several broad
types oidrl-thm. Other stress-timecl languages includc I)utch, German' Mandarin'
ancl Arabic. The cllaracteristics found in languages with stress-timed rhlthm
include the presence of a large Yariety of syllable qvpes-both open syllables
(encling in vowels) and closed syllables of various types (syllables endiflg in
consonants). Stress-timed languages may also have hean- and light syllables;healy
end in
syllables, which attract stress, are those that have long vowels andlor
are
consonant clusters. In aclclition, in stress-timed languages' unstressed syllables
shorter than stressed syllables, and vowels in unstressed syllables may be reduced'
The more of these characteristics a langualle has' tlle nlore stress'timed its rhlthm
(Ramus et al. 1999).
Strcsstimed rh)-thm contrasts with sf/llable-timed rh)-tlm, forurd in tanguages like
Spanish, Ita[an, Korean anct Cantonese ln syllable-tined languages stressed and

cHAprER

Rhythm

49

unstressed syllables axe of approximately equal length; the variety of syllable types
is more limited; and vowel reduction in unstressed syllables is unlikely. r Lloyd James
likens stress-timed rhlthm to Morse code signals (long dashes and short dots) and
sfllable-timed rhlthm to "machine gun" or staccato pattems (1940). Learners whose
native language is syllable-timed have difficulty learning English rh)'thm, but with
exposure and increasing proficiency, they will acquire some of the characteristics of
stress timing.

Infomation about the stress-timed nature of English rhlthm is included in

many pronunciation textbooks and helps students understand and become aware of
the genefal nature of English rhlthm. It is presented here in a similar spirit, as
"rh1'thm appreciation" and as an introduction to more focused work on specific
fe atures of rhlthm.

Activity

2.1

level

Prcsenting stessi/ined rhythn: Linericks

lntermed iate and Advanced

Worksheet See page 211.

lip

1. Direct students' attention to the pictures of the two tree lines on Worksheet 2.1.

Ask students to compare the tree size and spacing of the two tree lines.
2, Model the sentences below the tree lines. Ask students which words are longer

and louder. Ask students if the rhythm of English is more like the natural tree
line or the apple orchard.
J. lvlodel the sentences again, following each with its isolated rhythm pattern: Ihe
birds abandoned the forestAa DA da DA da da DA da; They built their nests
in the orchard
DA da DA da da DA da, Students repeat the sentences and

4a

rhythm patterns.
(continued on next page)

I
:

inslrumenlal bsdng hrs failed to confinn some of lie perceptuai charactristics of strcss-ti.oed languages (Dauer 1983, Ramus et al.
$rcss timed languags, slrcsses arc heard as occuring at equal inlNals in lime (isochrony) ; in syllable{imed larguages, the
befteen $resses is more variable. llowever, instrumental measurments rcveal that stre$ses in English (e $ress-tined language)

ll9) . In

=e

n0 more rcgular than those in syllable{imed Languages (Dauer 1983).

50

]HAPTER

Rhythm

ActiuiU' 2.1 conttnued

4.

Ask students to read the limerick silently and then go over questions
about vocabu lary.

@ 5. StuCents listen to the limerick and repeat. Ask students which words

are

stressed (i,e., longer, louder). lStressed words: once, man, beard; said, just,
feared; owls, hen; larks, wren; build(tng), nests, beardl

6.

In pairs, students practice the limerick. Then, on the bottom half of the
handout, the pairs write a new third and fourth line; lines 3 and 4 need nOt
rhyme but the rhythm (i.e., the number of syllables and location of stressed
syllables) should be the same as in the 0riginal. Each pair presents its limerick
to the class, alternating the lines.

Etl con..n

and Function words

What the Teacher Should Know

Content words are words with clear meaning (e.g.,run, coffe4 bot) Fl]nctiott
words lrave abstract or grammatical meantrlg (e.g.,tbe, to, at).In connected speech,
content words are usually stressed and function words are usually unstressed.

Stlessed
Nouns (table, dog)
Ueths (watk, eat)
Adiectives (big, beautifut)
AdueJbs (quickty, vety)
Demonstratives (this, those)2
ouestion words (Who? How?)
Content words:

Negatives (inctuding
(not, don't, isn't)

2
3

Inng prepositions
Celce

Like

]lurciaet al.

content words (e g

Atticles (a, an, the)

Auxiliary verbs (an, is, has, can, will)
Short preposilions (to, at, in, for, with)3
Coniunctions (and, ot, that, when, if)
Relative pronouns (who, wnon, that, which)
Personal pronouns and possessive adjectives
0' you' he' them' our' their)

contractions)

d&?e/t or undemeath h,we

cleNer mexning (comp'lred to /0 or

list demonstrative adjectiles (e.g , that

lDr, r/ /rpre)

Function Words: Unstressed

0 996, I 53)

nan, lhue

d/)

and ,.lre often strcssed

bctohs) ts functior Notds alid denorstrative Ponouns aj

)HAPTER

Activity

2.2

level

Rhythm 51

Content and lunction wods: Shopping

Beginn ing

Worksheet None

Tips

Model phrases using nonsense syllables io make the rhythm pattern

easier to hear.
Teach beginning students the rhythm patterns of communicatively
useful language at their level.

Description This activity links the stress patterns of familiar words to the rhythm
pattern of phrases" The sample is a short dialogue about shoppjng.
Reprinted lrom Top Notch: English for Today's World, Fundamentals
by Joan Saslow and Allen Ascher, Pearson Longman, page 49.
Used with permission. The activity in Top Notch taryets shopping
language, including clothing and color vocabulary.

1. Students listen to the dialogue oir the Audio

T, LET'S GO

CD, track 8, and repeat the lines.

HOpping.

H: OK. WHAT do you NEED?

T: I NEED a TIE and a NEW SUIT.

H:

IS

THAT ALL?

jt lS. OH, Actually, I NEED

T: YES,

2.

SHOES, T0Ol

Copy the dialogue on the board, capitaiizing the stressed syllables of content
words. Below each line, write the isolated rhythm pattern,

T: LET'S G0 SHopping.

DA DA DA

da

H: OK WHAT do you NEED?

DAda

DA

da

da

DA

T: I NEED a TIE and a NEW SUIT.

da DA da DA da da DA DA

H:

IS

THAT ALL?

da DA
T: YES,

it

DA da

DA

lS. OH, Actually, I NEED SH0ES, T0O!

DA.

DA,

DAdada,

da

DA DA

DA
(c()ntinued on next l)age)

52

]HAPTER

Actiri Dt

2.

Rhytl)m

2 co, ttinaed

3.

lVode each line, followed by its isolated rhythrn pattern. Emphasize the
stressed syllables. Students repeat the dralogue lines and the rhythm patterns.

4.

Ask students which words are longest and loudest (the cap talized words).

5.

Select pairs of students to perform the dialogue for the class. Provtde feedback
on rhythm: The capitalized words should be long and loud.
questions from the textbook un t (or from units
previously covered) n one column and possible answers in another column,
with whlch students can create new dialogues. Capitalize the stressed syllab es

6. 0n the board, list related

of content words.

Ft] rhought croups

what the Teachr Should Know
Vords within an uttemnce are broken into shorter, meaningflil groups of
words called thought groups. A thought group includes at least one content
(stresse(D word and often corresponds to a gfammatical stfuctufe (e.g., a verb
phrase, prepositional phrase, or short clausc).In the sentence below,thonght groups

ale underlined.
It's not too late to f nd a r6om at a natjona park this season.

Most students understand the notion of a thought group and arc able to dividc
a written sentencc into appropriate liroups. They may not, however, know how the
yoice conveys this information. In English, both rhlthm and intonation provide cues
for the Lstener The rhlthmic cue is a lengtlleninti or holding of the end of a thongltt
group betbre the ncxt begins (Selkirk 1984,Wightman et al. 1992).The lengthenir.rg
may be heard as a pause, although within an utterance, the !-oice "lingers" rather
than stops irt a thought group boundary In addition, words within a thought group
are linked more closely than words across thouliht gror-lp boundaries.
Thought groups also have thcir own intonation patterns.* At thc cnd of an
internal (nonJinal) thought liror-lp, intonation usually rises a little, a signal that the
speaker has more to sa)', but may also fall a little. The sentence above is repeated
below, showit.tg the drlthmic and intonational cues that mark its thought groups.
It's not

toitate to f nd a ro66 at a nationa

loo,"rg

.1

tO'O

e18 ^

6il

OO o

tni. .*--)n
drLat

Thought groqts are dso cxLled inlor)ation units (Gilhefl 1981, Cclce NlrLcie et el 1996). int0nnti(Dal lhrdes or inteDnedilte
phm-ses (Pierehun )efi 19t0, Picrchlmbert xlld HiNchbeql 1990). and k)lle Lrnils (Bnzil 1994a)

intoretional

.H^prrR

Rhvthn 53

Because thcse nonfind intonirtion changes are difficult for students and teachers to
hea! the main tcacltinla focus should be on the rhrthmic cues, the lengtheninla or
palrsinli at the encl of a thought group.
'l'hcre are no fixed rules for determining in adyance what
tlte thougltt groups
in a given sentence should be. Me:rninli is a factor, but so, too, are rate of speakinli
(ftwcr thought groups ;uc used in fastcr speech) and stvle of speaking (morc
thoulaht gfoups are used in public speakin!). The senrcnce above, for example,
coultl also be broken into two of thfee thought laroups:
It's not too late to f nd a room at a fattona oarkthsseason
It's not too ate to flnd a room at a nationa oark this season

Appropriate thought groupinll bcnefits the student in two wa,vs. Organized

into sl.rofter, meaningful units, thc student's message is more comprehensible. In
addition, the brief pause or holcling of the end of a thought tiroup slows the student
down, gir.ing him more time to make lexical, larammatical, and pronunciation
choices (Gilbcrt 1994, Lcvis and Grant 2001).

Thought groups arc both teachable and learnable. Anderson-Hsich and

Venkatagiri found that ntore proficient Chinese learners used pausing more
appropriatel_y than less proficient learners (1994). Ueyama lbund that aclrancccl
Japanese learncrs lengthened the ends of thought groups more eppropriately than
bcginning learners (1996).In this book, thoulaht laroups are atldressed below as I'ell
as in activities that focus on rhe rh,vthm patterns of specific phflrse tvpes (c.g.,
prepositional phrases).

Activity 2.3

Thoaght groups: Exercise

Ievel

High Beginning/Low Intermed iate

Worksheel

Tip

To help students distinguish meaningful groups of words, teach them

to iengthen the end of one group before saying the following group.

Description

This activity practices thought groups in the context of exercise and

fitness and can be iniegrated with topics on health, nutrition or
sports and with the grammar of the present tense third-person singular ending. Students interview their classmates about a) how often
they exercise, b) what they do, c) where they exercise, and d) with
whom they exercise. Each piece of information is a potential thought
group. Once the information is gathered, each student reports to the
class about another classmaie, using the present tense.

one

(coittilllecl

ot1

1rci page)

54

otAPrF.R

Rhythm

Actixily 2.3 continue.l

1.

Introduce the activity by asking students what kind of exercise they do. lvlake
list on the board (e.g., walk, run, work out at the gym, play soccer).

yourself on the board, including frequency (e.g., once

in a blue moon), the activity (e.9., I walk), place (e.g., around the block), and
with whom (e.9., wlth my dog).

2. Wrile a sentence about

Once in a blue moon, I walk around the block wrth my dog.

3.

l\4odel the sentence, ho ding/lengthening the ends 0f thought groups. With your

hand, rnake sweeplng underlines corresponding to your thought groups (move

your hand from right to left, which will be your students' left to right).

4.

Ask students which words you grouped together. Underline the groups. I\4odel
the sentence again, holding/lengthenlng the end of each thought group.
Students repeat. Explain that the end of a thought group is held briefly and
lengthened a little before the next group starts.

5.

On the board, write four headings: "How often," "What," "Where," and "Wlth
whom." Ask one or two students to describe their exercises, providing the four

pleces of information.

the class questions for each of the four pieces of information, and
questions
on the board ("How often do you exercise?" "What do you
write the
you
"Where
exercise?" and "Who do you exercise with?").
do?"
do

6. Elicit from

for each iype of information (e.g., for "How often," ellcit

"every day," "once a week," "occasionaLly," "maybe once a month," and so
on). For the last category, "With whom," add "by myself" if students don't
know the expression.

7. Elicit expressions

8.

Students interview another classmate, take notes, and then report to the class
about their partners. Instruct students to group words clearly and provide
feedback on grouping.

rinkins eo;acent words

What the Teacher Should Know

In connected speech, sounds at word boundaries join closely togethe! in some
cases creating blends;this linking of words is also referred to as word-to-word timing
(Zsiga 2003, ,i00).

Inappropriate linking of words contributes to accentedness and

unintelligibility and can disrupt rhlthm as sh.rdents struggle with final sounds. Many
problems with word-to-word linking occur when a word ending in a consonant is
followed by a word beginning with a consonant (e.g.,Web slte). Depending on the
natiye language of the learneq these difficulties ma] reflect difficulty with final

C//,lfrER

Rhydrrr

55

consonants in laeneral (that is, with English sl'llable fi,pes), difficulty with rhe wa,\.s
in which wofd final consonants are linked to following words. or with both.
Learners whose natiye langualies limit of do not allow final consonants use
several strategies to deal with them (see also Final Consonants, page 153). The final
consonant may be deleted (e.g., "re color" for "red cokrr',); it may be changed (e.g.,
''pockctboot" lbr "pocketbook"); or a vowel may be adclcd to separate it fi.onl the
following word (e.g., "redr colof) (Weinbergef 1987; Maior 1987, 1996; Hansen
2001). Chinese learners may substitute a glorral stop (phonetic s),mbol ,/?/, a sound
found in the warning Uh Oh /?a?ow/ and in Cockney English): too& a ualk, for
example, ma1, sountl like "too? a walk."
Specific final consonants mav also have distracting, odd-sounding
pronunciations. One example is the pronunciation by Korcan students of linal /4/ es
in ubich). /(13/ @s ln agg), [/ (as in catlO, a1:.d B/ (^s tn Derge). In connected speech,
these wofds may sound as though the bpe.Jker hlLs rrd.led r short J/ ending to the
word: nhichy one. a1cy limit. r.ashr pa1 nrenr. r
Difficulties may also arise because English and tl.re learncr's natir.e language link
words in different ways. In English, final consonimts are not strongly rcleased unless
the following word begins with a vowel (Catfbrd 1987, Ladefoged 1993). The lack of
release makes final consonants less audible than when the)r occur a1 the beginning
of a word or syllable. In contrasr, in Russian, a langualae wl]ich also allows a large
number of Rnal consonants and final consonant clusters, final consonants are audibly
released, and Russian ESL learners carry this pattern into English (Zsiga, Z0Ol). An
English listener may hear the released llnal consonant as an added vowel or.syllablc.
The way in which worcls are linked in English depends on the nature of the final
and beginning sounds. The information below describcs dilferent tlpes of linting.

Linking Final Consonants to Beghrniflg Vowels. The final

consonant joins

closely to the following r-owel, almost as if it were part of the following s,'ord.ln this
context, the final consonant is easily hcard.

both_apples

fix it

black out

other animals

Linking Final Consonants to Different Beginning Coflsonants.

Final Stop Consonant + Ditferent Consonanr
When a word ending in a stop consonant (/p, b, t, d. k, g,f is fbllowcd by a word
beginning with a different consonant. the final stop is pronounced but not audibly
1.

released Oronounced strongly), and the nc'xt word is said immediarelv. In the
examples bclow, the superscripted right parcnthesis indicates the unrelcasecl sto1.r.
keep)trying

job)lair
':

big)storm

black)bird

white) coat

cold)spell

c atLc]ltion 0l a Koreen studelL, he srid he $?s not xddirg x

ro\cl

56

(HAPTER

Rhythnl

Unreleased stop consonallts are short, altd students have ditTiculty ltearing them.A
cue to their presence is the cutoff sound of the Yowel preceding the final stop.
Consider the differcnce betwe en tl.te vowels in rzaAe and rla./ in the phrctses make
dinners and May dinnersBxamples like this help "convince" students that the hardto-hear final consonant is inded present.

Different Consonant
In general, other final consonants are kept short when fbllowed by a diffetent
consonant. Ilecause the air is not completely cut olf with n()nstop consonants, they
are easier fbr students to hear even though they are short.6
2. Other Final Consonants +

give) money

nose) job

beige)

some) people

watch) Tv

pants

both) cars
mail)man

one) day

Linking Final Consoflants to the Same Consonant. rwhen a word ends in a

final consonant and the next word bcgins with the same consonant, one long
consonant links the words.T The consonant is not pronounced twice Linking is
represented

as

_.

hottl_ihings
0n

e_nepn ew

blac(_ca r

live-_vans

smal0amps

lresh shellfish

\Vlren

a word e nd ing it1 /L[/ (e .g., u)bi94 uatg!4 cburcb) is folktwed by a word
beginning with [/ (e .g., shop, sboe, sheeqt), tl1e words ioin together as if the final
and beginning consonants were tlle samet Luhlcb s/:oe. This occurs because the last
part of /I[/ nfid the sound /t are the same sounds.

Linking Final Vowels to Beginnirrg Vowels. ri/hen words ending with

the

vowels ,/iy, eyr ow, uw aw, av, o1',/ are followed by a word beginning with a vowel
(e.g.. see Ann, sa! it, go in, ckt ouer, bout eas\, my uncle, to! engine). the glide
ending (/)'/ or /w,/) of the final vowel links to the following vowel, creating the next
syllable (see also pages 170, 183, and 191). The glide souncl is not always written.

c{!n

seetlAnn

say_it

how_easy

my_un c le

do "over

toy_engine

The same hlking of a glide cnding to a following \.owel occurs inside words:
uide ro, ponetr!.

and voiceLess ftlcalives requires uoLe knowledge ofphonetrcs

7

fian

studerrls hal'c or need ?urd

s|orld nolbe laught.

Slntilar final and begin|ing consonants aft dso linked as onc long sormd: Drg.?r The tonguc p0sition 0i the bold consonants in &tg
./l/ h fie sanlei tlle hvo soulds dillr in ioicifg (see Consonants, f4e 1i9).

cHAprER

Rhythm

57

When a word ends in a vowel without a glicle endjng (e.g.,l.tto, sp.t, sof., and.
the next word begins with a vowel, the two vos/els link smootl y togitherlaw_of nature

spa_entrance

sofa_arrangement

Pronunciation work on the linking of words in connected speech is impoftant

at all levels. The topic can be divided into two lessons, a lesson on linking
consonants to consonants (e.9., dot com), whete many effors occut and one on
linking consonants to vowels (e.g., fresb 4lr). Vowel-ro-\.owel linking is discussed
on page 191. Unking can also be addressed in pronunciation of the past tense
endings (see Consonants, page 159). Simplifications of final consonants made
by

native speakers

iLre covered

in Final Consonants, page 155.

Pfesefrting Linktng Rules to Students. The rules above are too complex to
present to students. The following rules are simpler alternatives.

1.

A word ends in a consonant; the llext word begits s/ith a vowe l:fresb

.tir

Join the consonant clearly to lhe vowel:fresb a.h pickJtp.

2.

A word ends in a consonant;the next word starts with a different consonant:

cloN 9om.

Say the final consonant but keep it \-ery short. Say the next word inmediately:
doP com, Wel) site.

3.

A word ends in a consonant; the next word starts with the same consonanr:

big_girl.

Say one long consonant. Do

not say the consonant twice: bi{girt, nic{'smile.

Fast-Speech Blends. Word blends result from rhe very close

ioining of final and
beginning sounds in adiacent sounds.
thisheer (this year)
lascheer (last year)

wouldja (would you)

They won't letcheMlhey won't letcha 0et you).

impart (in part)

I dombelieve it. (l don't belleve it)

58

IHAPTER

RhYthm

Blends like tbislreer (this year) and dMia (did you) xe palatalizations,
assimilations of one sound to a following palatal sound. In the examples aboYe, the
palatal sound is /y/.8 The palatal soutTd /y/ i7 lear attacts the final /s,/ of tbis to the
/y/ position, producing /[/ (the first sound of sl:zp).
s+

/-

-l + y- becomes

-fs+/

becomes 4/

Nice to meetchew (meet you).

I wancha (want you) to know.

/t/

becomes

/grJa/ (guess you) know.

/t/

Thatcher book. (That's your book.)

Whatcher name? (What's your name?)
Didla? (D d you?) Wouldja? (Would you?)

-d+ybecomes/d3l

The nasal consonant ,/n/ also assimilates to the place of articulation of some
following consonants (Avery and EhrlicF. 1992,4-D.
I

karl

go. (l can go.)

I camp believe you. (l can't believe you.)

Many students learn words in their citation (word list) pronunciation and
expect to hear them pronounced in the same wa1'. They need to be aware of how
words sound when blended together, especially blends involving pllatalizatiorrs,
which are common.
It is not necessary to teach blends for production (i.e., for students to use in
ordinary speaking). Like fast-speech reductions of function words (discussed
below), blends are associated with high levels of fluency and accur:rcy (i e., with
native English). Less proficient students may sound less clear if they use these
blends than they would if they had used the unblended forms. For a recognition
actiyity involving blentls, see the Activity section for Fast-Speech Reductions of
Function words, page 84.

Palanl sounds, such

as the lirsl sounds in j,01l end

srf,

arc produced $ hen the frcnt of the ton il e approachs the h ard laLate Mosl
/yor/s/ to the palatalsound (for alveolar consonants, see page 129)

palataLizations involve assimilations of aheolarsounds likc

.HAPTER

level

Intermediate

Wo*sheet

Page 272.

Tp

Rhythm

Teach students to link the final consonant of a word to ihe beginning

sound of the next word smoothly.

Description This activity reviews compounds and practices linking final consonants to words starting with different consonants. The activity can
provide a pronunciation focus for other lessons on jobs or employ-

ment. ln the sample matching exercise on page 212, all of the final
consonants are stop consonants (/p; b, t, d, k, el), a group of consonants that is among the most difficult for students to link in connected speech. This pronunciation topic can also be added to an
activity on the stress patterns of compounds (see page 33).

1.

lntroduce linking. On the board, write a work-related compound (e.g., work

place, job seekers, job growth, job benefits, unemployment /lnes), underlining
the final consonant of the first word.
wort place

2.

iob seekers

Model the compounds. Students repeat. Direct students, attention to the final
underlined consonants. Explain that final consonants must be pronounced but
they are short. The next word follows immediately.

@ 3. Students listen to the compounds in the matching exercise on

Worksheet 2.4

and repeat them, paytng attention to the pronunciation of the final consonant.
4. Select several students to say one or two of the compounds individually, and
provide feedback on the fjnal consonant; make sure that students pronounce
the final consonants but keep them short. lf students separate the words with a
vowel sound, tell them to say the second word immediately after the first.
lVlodel the correct and incorrect pronunciations.

5. ln pairs, students match the phrases to the definitions. Then they create short

dialogues using the model below.

A: What's
B:

a
IS

6. ln pairs or small groups, students answer the discussion questions on the

handout. Students should focus on pronouncing final consonants but keep
them short (not release them strongly).
7. After the pairlgroup work, ask several students to report on their group,s
discussion. Provide feedback on final consonants.

59

60

aHAPTER

Rhvtllnl

Prepositional Phrases and rnfinitives

ffi

What the Teacher Should Know

The core rhl.thm pattern of a prepositional phrase is a weak (unstressed) beat
on the preposition (e g., to, dt, in, on,.l-ot u'ith, ht, of, from) followed b-v a strong
(stfessecl) beat on the noun. Infinitives havc the same pattern: unstressed ,o is
follo$'ed by a stressed ve|b. The phrases below illustrxte the core Pattern. The
rhythm pattern is isolated below each phrase.
to

HoME
dA DA

scHoot
dA DA

at

t0vE
dA DA

in

JoHN
dA DA

for

from SPAIN
dA DA

The noun object of the preposition may be separatcd from tlle preposition by
other words, some stressed (strong), some unstressed (weak).
in JUST a

Mlnute

on a Sultry, SUMmer DAY

Although n.)alry prepositional phrases are themseh-es thought groups, short

prepositional phrases like at bome might be part of a larier thought 8roup, and long
prepositional phrases like on a sultry, summer da!- mzy consist of more than one
thought group.
Prepositio al phrases consistin[i of a preposition followed by a personal
pronoun, (e.g., to her) have no content words ln such cases, one of the two
constituents receives more stress tllan the other (though neither receives healry
stress); alternati\''el)', one constituent is reduced while tlle other is not. The decision
to stress the pfeposition or pronoun more heavily may clepend on the speaker's
meanin! or on the overall rhythm pattefn of the sentence.
gave the book to her.

lluwarl : to rece ves rnore stress than her

'gd/p

h6 boo.

Lo

/tahar/ : her rece ves nlore stress than

10

\vhen pfepositions have clear meaning (e g, behteen, undenleatb, ouer),

both the preposition and the noun rcceive sress:
beTWEEN the

LINES

underNEATH the TAble

Some sholt plepositions are reduced as well as unstressecl in connected speech:

C

tation pronunc

lall
for lforl
aI

ation

Reduced pronunc atjon

/aV I think he's /aV home.
/farl John bought the ring /far/

N4ary.

Tlre prepositions in /h't/?Lnd on /on/ arc sometines reduced to /arl/ (Celce-Murcia

er al. t996.177).

:HAPTER

Rhythm 61

The prepositions of e;nd, to have two promrnciations, depending on whether

the following word begins with a yowel or consonant. Students sometimes notice
and ask about tlte two pronunciations of to. If the word following of or to beglns
with a vowel, the final consonanr (the final /y/ of of /e-"/, the fin l /w/ of to /t\wf)
links the two words togethef:
a bag

'When

/avlapples (of

nuM a movie (to 1-,a movie)

apptes)

the following word begins with a consonant, ojf is pronounced /eyl or /a,/:
a cup /av/ coflee

Before

a /kaper' coflee

consonant, to is pronounced

/la/ (or may eyenbe reduced to an aspirated [th]:e

Today l'm driving /ta/ school.

When prepositions end

a sentence

(or are ,'stranded,,'not followed by

noun),

they are unstressed but not reduced:

Whar are you loo,rrng /el,/?
The store I took my cornputer /tuM is on 4th Street.

'When

teaching the rhl.thm pattern of prepositional phrases, choose phrases

with short prepositions (e.g., to, at, in, on, ol by, fot uitlr, fron) followed by nouns
(rather than pronouns). This pronunciation topic can be taught at all levels and
included with the grammar of prepositions. The pedagogical focus should be the
lack of stress ofl the preposition. The consonant and vowel reductions of
prepositions can be taught for recognition.
I

Aclivity 2.5

Prcp os iti o n a I ph ras es ;

level

High Begin ning

Wotksheet

Iip

Teach students predictable rhythm patterns of phrases.

Description

This activity practices the rhythm pattern of prepositional phrases, in

the context of shopping. The activity can be easily changed to review
other kinds of vocabulary and to reflect local businesses and shopping habits (e.g., on QVC, at Amazon.com, onLlNE, on Ebay).

Sh oplp i n

one
I

(contlnued on nact page)

'\atiye

spalre$ sometimes use the morc

ftduceilfom s ol of Va\/) Md to (hel)

even when

fie following

word begjns

witli

a yowel.

62

CHAPTER

Rhythm

Actiai4) 2.5 contlnued

1. 0n the board, write a list of items the students in your class might

need

io buy

and businesses where they can buy them. Write the preposition for in front of
each item. Write the preposition to in front of the businesses, The items should
be ones that fit naturally in the sentence f'ame l'm looking for a. . . . Head the
list of items with "l'm looking . . ."; head the list of stores with "Go . . . ."

2.

Add to the board a short dialogue, capitalizing the stressed syllables of

mean ingfu I words.

A: WHERE are you Going?

B: SHOpping. l'm Looking for a DlCtionary.

(l

NEED

to BUY some GROceries)

A. GO to BARNES and NObIe.

3.

Ask students to volunteer things they buy and stores where they shop and add
them to the board. Write fot in front of items that fit naturally in the model
dialogue frame l'm looking for . . . , capilaLzing the stressed syllable (these are
usually singular count nouns). Your students may volunteer items that do noi
sound natural in the sentence frame I'm looking for. . . in the model dialogue
For example, I'm looking for food. fhe teacher can add a more naturalsounding sentence frame for these items (l need to buy [someJ food. Your
students may also volunteer things that are not found in shops, such as a
doctor or apartment. You can add other phrases to the board like Look on the
lnternet, Look in the newspaper, and Ask the teacher, as these arise.

looking... l needtobuy... Go...

to BARNES and NOBLE
for a SWEAter some FOOD
for a Dlctionary some FuRniture to BEST Buy
for a comPUter some GRoceries to MAcy's
to lKEa
for SHOES

l'm

for a TAble

to

for JEANS
for a JAcket
for

4. Model the lists on the board. Students repeat. Ask students whether the noun
or preposition is stressed strongly in the forand lo phrases. Ask students what
each store sells.

:HAPTER

Rhythn 63

Actiuity 2.5 conttnued

5.

lVodel the dialogue on the board, lengthening stressed words and grouping
words. Students repeat and then practjce the dialogues in pairs.

6. ln pairs,

students create their own dialogues, replacing the underlined words

on the handout with other words. Students read their dialogues to the class.

Activity

2.6

level

Prepositional phrases: Good nanners

lntermediate/Advanced

Worksheet Page 2I3

tip

Teach students predictable rh!.thm patterns of phrases"

Descripfion This activity practjces the rhythm pattern of prepositional phrases

.
and infinitives in the contexl of manners and courtesy.

1.

I2.
3.

Establish the context. Ask students to read the paragraph on table manners on
Worksheet 2.6 to themselves and underline prepositronal phrases and
infinitives. Students check their underlining with a classmate and then with
the teacher,

Students listen to the paragraph, paying attention to the pronunciation of the

prepositional phrases and infinitives.
Elicit from students and/or explain the pronunciation: The preposition is not
stressed; the followrng noun (verb in infinitives) is stressed. The words in the
phrase are grouped together.

84.

Students listen to the prepositional phrases in the matchjng activity on

Worksheel 2.6 and repeat them.

5. Ask students how they learned table manners-who taught them, how old they
were. Ask students to give some examples of table manners that they learned

(e.g., don't talk with your mouth full).

6. Paired matching activity. Direct students' attention to the matching activity on

:

the worksheet. ln pairs, students create a list of table manners by matching

do's/don'ts with an appropriate prepositional phrase.

7. Ask individual students to report some of the tabie manners to the class, giving
feedback on prepositions that are pronounced too strongly.
8. To extend the activity, the class can also discuss which manners they think are
universal and which are specifrc to a particular country or culture.

64

:HAPTER

ffi

Rhythm

a"ti.r. + No'n

What th Teacher Should Know

The core rhlthm pattern of an article + noun is identical to that of

prepositional phrase:a weak beat (the article) followed by a strong beat (the noun)
The article and noun are grouped together
an

a B00K

thE GIFT

EGG

da DA

da DA

da 0A

The definite afiicle tbe has two pronunciations, depending on the first sound
of the following word. It is usually pronounced /6V before a vowel, and the glide
en<hng /y/ linki the article closely to the following word lt is pronounced /da/
o
before a consonant.l

6iy_air

6iy

authol

6a3log

6a

sun

The indefinite article 4, pronounced /a/, is used before words beg rning with
a consonant so lfird an, pronounced /3n/, is used before words beginning with a
vowel sound.
Students may choose the wrong form of the indefinite article before words

beginning with the letter 4 or lr. In unit, unique, uniuersity, ^nd union, fot
example, the first letter of ttre wotd is a Yowel, but the first so'lnl is the consoflant
tyt G.5., unit /\'uwnetD. The article a is used before these words because they
begin with a consonant sound Strldents need to understand that the choice

betweenaandazdependsonthefirstsorrldoftheword,nottfi.]firstletterThe
opposite problem occurs with words that begin with silent lJ (e g,honest, bono4
niir hour). Students often choose the article 4 rather than '7'? because the first
letter of the word is a consonant tetter (b). The correct ?rticle, however, is at',
because the first sound of the word is a vowel (e.g., honor /onet/)'
Teaching the rh''thm pattern of articles not only addresses rhlthm and

reviews a very difficult area of English grammar, it is also an opportunity to reYiew

ttle joining of final consonants to Yowels (e g '
the rlJ pronunciation (as in tbe)
^nd

an-appIe).

r0

Native speakers sometimes use

/de/

bforc words bgiiningwith voweLs ot consonants'

CHAPTER

Activity

2.7

Level

Rhythn 65

Atticles: Food
Beginn ing

Worksheet Pages2l4-ZI5

Tip

Teach students predictable rhythm patterns of phrases.

Description This information gap reviews food vocabulary and the use of the
article a with first-mentioned singular count nouns. The activity
reviews countable food nouns, container expressions (e-g., a box of\
and utensil/d ish ware nouns (e.g., a gtass of). Students should be
familiar with this vocabulary as well as with the expressions on the
right and on the left.

1. 0n the board, draw two numbered

?" on the board.

boxes. Wrjte the question ,,What,s jn Box

A
Mft v

"What's in

Box 1

2. Choose a student to ask you about Box 1. Answer the question with ',an
apple," and write the answer on the board, underlining the joining between

"an" and "apple"; mark stress on ,,apple." Students repeat.

aLiippte

3. Ask a student to come to the board and draw an apple in Box 1.

4. Cioose another student to ask you about Box 2. Answer the question
with
"There's a c6rton of milk on the left. There's a p6ar on the right.,, Write
the
answer on the board, underlining noun phrases with a and marking the
stressed syllables of "cadon" and ,,milk.',
5. Elicit (or explain) pron unciation:

.
.

The article is unstressed and the noun is stressed.

,4n is used before a vowel sound. ,4n joins closely to the noun.
before a consonant.

4 is used

(continued on next page)

66

]HAPTER

Rhythn

AcIiriA 2.7 conlinue.l

6.

Put students in pairs. Give one member of each pair Grid A and the other
member Grid B of Worksheet 2.7. Students ask each other about their empty
boxes and draw the missing pictures. When their grids are complete, they
compare them (and laugh at each other's drawings).

7.

After the pair work, choose students to describe the pictures in the grid. Give
leedback on p'onunc,ation.

8.

Alternate versions. For high beginners or low intermediates, prepare two

completely filled in grids, with some cells identical in both grids and some
different (e.g., five identical cells and five different cells) For example, in Grid
A, the first cell might have a banana on the righi and an apple on the left; in
Grid B's first cell, the banana is on the left and the apple on the right.
Students describe their grids to each other to find the different cells.

E] r.tsontl

rronouns

what the Teacher Should Know

Personal pronouns (1, mq J/ou, be, sbe, it, bim' beti ute' us, tbe!, tbem) alf'd
possessive adiectives (?tl.Jt, louf IJis, hef its, ou4 their) are usually unstressed in
connected speech.
Verbs and obiect pronouns are almost always grouped
together. The verb is stressed, and the object pronoun is unstressed Native speakers
link pronouns very closely to the Yerb, pronouncing them as if they were an ending

vrb + Obiect Pronoun.

to the Yerb.

!!ADj

EtLIg

UlgDth'ry

Pronouns and Possessives. In connected speech, native

speakers often drop f]ne /h/ of be, him, bis, and her ancl closely link wlrat remains

Reductions

of b

of the pronoun to the preceding word.

Whatser name? (What's her name?)
Thatsrz otfice/ Thatsaz office. (That's his offlce

I toldrm. (l told him.)

What diddy do? (What did he do?)

The same type of reduction occurs in the auxiliary verb s haue, IJas, and had (see
pagc /b ).
Jackad (lack had) already gone home.

]HAPTER

Rhythm

rJfhen , pfonouns begin a sentence or afe pfeceded by a pause, the

not dropped.

67

/h/

is

He carne. (nol 'E came)

Her sister is in Dallas. (not'Er sister is in Dal as)

Reduction of Them. In connected speech, native speakers reduce tbem to either

/6am/ or /am/.
Let's ask /dam/. (Let's ask them.)

l'lsendam the papers tomorrow. (l'll send them the papers tomorrow.)

Reduction of fou. In connecte d speech, you is often pronounced /ya,/.

Seeye tomorrow. (See you tomorrow.)

Areya free tonight? (Are you free tonight?)

V/tren common words encling in /t/ or /d/ (e.g., ubat, did) are followed by
/t/ or ,/d/ combines with the /y/ of you to produce a blended sound
ot /d3/ (.see also Fast-speech Reductions of Funcrion words, below).

J)ou, the final

/t[/

I'll leiJa know. (l'll lei you know)

Did3a see the movie last night? (Did you see the movie last night?)

Reductions of Pronoun Vowels befote 're and'll The contractions 're arrd 'll can
alter the vowel quality of I /^y/, be /f]jii/, she / jy/, lou /]ruw/,ue /wiy/, and ttrey /6ey/.
All of these pronouns end in a glide somd (/w/ ot /yD. When '/e or 7/ follows these
pfonouns, they weaken the glide ending and the vowel (see also pages ss, tt, and uu).
I

think

l'l

go. (/7i sounds very close to "all.")

We'll call you when we're ready. (14le7l sounds very close to "will" or
/wall: we're sourds like /Mr/ or

lwar/.)

Pronoun vowel weakening before 're and 'll i.s of minor pedagogical importance,
but native-English-speaking teachers should be aware that they may be using these
reduced pronouns.
Students should be aware of the reductions of 11 pronouns because they will
encountef them in the connected speech of native speakers. Even beginners enjoy
leaming about these reductions in common, leyel-appropriate contexts, for
example, in questions like "What diddy (did he) do?" or "Where diddy (did he) go?"
Indeed, through exposure to English, some students pick up these reductions in
high-frequency expressions.
Because the joining of ,less pronouns (lge, lsim, +is, +er) to the preceding
word is mandatory, studcnts who lack the proficiency to join words together easily
and smoothly are unlikely to be able to use these reductions in spontaneous speech.

68

cuAPr[R

Rhythm

The teaching focus should be the de-sressing of pronouns, not their ,-less
pronunciations. Taylor found that nonnatiYe speakers judged to have good
pronunciation and rhlthm made appropriate length and stress distinctions between
stressed and unstressed words but used few redr.rced pronunciations (1981).

Activity

2.8

Level

Verb

+ qbject Prcnouns: Spofts

Low lntermediate

Worksheet None

Tip

Teach students predictable rh)'thm paiterns of phrases

Description This activity praciices the rhythm pattern of verbs followed by ll in

the context of sports. Student pairs lalk about what players are allowed
to do with a ball in different sports (e.9., kick it, pass it, dribble it'
head it, carry it). The activity can also be used to review the reduction
'
of canj What can you do with a ball in basketball? You can pass it or
dribble it, but you can't carry it. 0ptional: Before class, gather pictures
from the lnternet of the sports you include in this activity.

1.

On the board (or in a handout), write the question "What can you do with a
ball?" Elicit answers from students, write them on the board, and add other
verbs. Verbs like pitch or bounce are likely to be new vocabulary but are easily
demonstrated. The verbs bel0w cover ball handling ln baseball, soccer,
basketball, and American football. Write the pronoun ltafter the verb, mark
stress on the verb, and underline the joining of the verb and lf. Ask the class if
they know how to play any of these sports. Those who do can help demonstrate
new vocabulary and serve as experts on the rules.
Whai can you do wilh a ball?
rhr6w lt

c6rry it
h6ld

it

it
ciitch it
kick

p6ss it
h6ad it

it
sh6oi it

dribble it

hit

bfnt it

pitch it
ii
dlink it
Basketball Baseball Soccer Amelican lootball
br6unce

it

dl6pkick

2.

Explain or demonstrate new vocabulary (pictures can help; so can students who
know the sports). Ivlodel the verb phrases, lengthening the stressed syllables of the
verbs and pronouncing lias an endlng to the verbs. Siudents repeat Tell students
that pronouns like lt are unstressed and are pronounced like endings to the verbs.

3.

Add the phrase "in

?" to the question on the board.

?

What can you do with a ball in

Explain the use of "you" to mean "people"

if

necessary

:HAPTER

Rhythn 69

Tctioi\t 2.8 coninued

4.

Demonstrate the activity. Choose two students. One selects a sport, and asks
the other the question on the board. Repeat with another pair of students.

5.

Students work in pairs. Each student chooses a sport and asks, ,,What can you
do with a ball in (sport)?" The partner answers the question with one of the
verb phrases. The partners should make a list of legal and illegal ball actions
for the sport. Note that for some sports a ball action might be illegal for some
players, but not for others. For example, in soccer, the goalie can carry the
ball, but other players can't. Circulate around the room and make sure the
questjon includes the word "ball" so that the student answering the question
can use it. Give feedback on pronunciation and help students with vocabulary.

ffi

rhrasal verbs

What the Teacher Should Know

In phrasal verbs like come on, figure out, ot pick r4A the preposition (also
called the particle) has adverbial meanini and receives either primary of secondary
stress (Celce-Murcia et
1996,112).
Phrasal verbs can ^1.
be transitiye (separable), as lnpick it up, tut"n it on, and. try
tbem on, or intransitive (inseparable), as in come on, utatcb out, and get in.l t When
separable verbs have pronoun objects and end a sentence, the preposition/particle
is usually more heavily stressed than the verb. The same is true for intransilive
phrasal verbs.
try them 6n

look it fp

Watch 6ut!

get in

Native speakers link the words in phrasal verb phrases ll1tre pick it up closely.
In many cases, the linking is between a final consonant and a beginning vowel.
Pfonunciation wofk with phrasal verbs then also provides practice with consonantyowel linking.
picak i!_up

try them on

ask herJut (askef out)

Phrasal verbs are grammatically more complex than single-word sy,nonyms and
may not be semantically transparent (e.g., the meaning of put off as,,postpone ', of
figure out as "sol\.e"). Several studies have shown that students avoid plrrasal verbs

in favor of simpler and clearer one-word

synonyms (e.g., leaae instead of go

of come in; confuse instead of mix up). Howe\ler, natiye
speakers in large numbers pfefer phfasal yerbs over their one-wofd synonyms
@agut and Laufer 1985, Hulstiin and Marchena 1989). pronunciation practice of

out/aua!; enter

instead.

phfasal verbs, therefore, also promotes the use of more natural, idiomatic English.
rl

Trarlsil.ilt

!t$s

hale dircct ohjects; spxrable !rbs arc trlursitilc phra5alve s Intrensitive vebs do not have dircct obiecb.

70

]HAPTER

Rhythm

Phrasal Verbs + Prepositions: Get au)aJ) lritb. Some phflsal Yerbs are followed
by a true preposition that is unstressed. The true preposition has a noun obiect.
He gr6t awSy with murdel!

G6t 6ut of the taxi.

Nouns Formed from Phrasal Verbs: a takeoff' Nouns and adjectives formed
from phrasal verbs have primary stress on the flrst word and secondary stress on the
second, the same stress-pitch pattem as compounds (e.g.,tlre tAkedfr, my md.keiQ).
They can be included in a lesson on the word stress of compounds or as a contrast
to phrasal verbs in a lesson on rhlthm.

Activity

2,9

Phrasal verhs: Don't put off until tonortow what you can do today

Level

Advanced/High lntermed iate

Worksheet

Page

Tip

Teach students predictable rhythm patterns of phrases.

216

Description This activity practices phrasal verbs in the context of procrastination,

1.

Direct students' attention to the dialogue on Worksheet 2 9. Ask students to

first read the dialogue silently. Then go over vocabulary as needed.

&2.
-

Students listen to the dialogue, paying attention to the pronunciation of the

underlined phrasal verbs. Elicit pronunciation from students or explain it:
Words in phrasal verbs are grouped together; prepositions receive stress.
Students listen to the dialogue again and repeat it.

3. ln pairs, students practice the dialogue.

4. Write the phrasal verbs from the dialogue

on the board. Tell the class

put it off, and what the
you
something that you put off, the reason
put
off calling my parents because I
consequences arelwere; for example, "l
don't have time. Then I end up/wind up feeling guilty." Choose two or three
students and ask them what they put off, why they put those things off, and
what the consequences arelwere. Encourage students to use phrasal verbs. Add
other phrasal verbs to the board to describe the situations.

5. In small groups, students talk about things they put off, using phrasal verbs.
6. Afier the group work, ask several students to report on what their group said
Provide feedback on stress and grouping words in phrasal verbs.

cHAPrtR

ffi

Rhvthn 71

conjunctions

What the Teacher Should Know

In connected speech, conjunctions are not stressed, and some are also reduced.
The coninnctions and
or arc discussed below in Reductions of Function W'ords,
page 72. Conrunctions ^nd
are usually grouped with the words they introduce.
Ca I me

w'en t-e package

arr ves.

Lee said that he's sick.

._7->

We'll reschedule if it rains.

.---->-

Exercise rs as impodant as a healthy d et.

Exerclse is more mportant than a healthy d et.
Students may not group coniunctions in the same way that native speakers do.
Bada found that Turkish ESL students gtouped tlrat more closely with the words
preceding the coniunction than with the words following it, whereas the pattern for
native speakers was the reverse (2006).
Citation form

Reduced (connected speech)

when /wrn/

/wan/

lhal
if

l6eIl

l7zl

lhan

l6all, l6aDl12 | don't belreve /6aV Tom would do that.

don'i belreve /daD/ Alan would do that.

lfl(lafl)

hft

as

Did someone come /wan/ you calLed? (someone

and come when rhyme)

l6anl

| don't know

/lfl (/af/) I can go.

lazl )o^n. 'azl h Jng(y lazl a bear.

/6an/

The subway rs faster /6an/ a bus.

Like other reductions, reduced conjunctions must be linked closely to

surrounding words in order to sound natural. Students should be aware of these
reductions but should not be expected to use them in speaking. Learning to group
and de-stress conjunctions propedy is more important.
Since some conjunctions represent more advanced grammatical strllctures
(e.g., conditionals, some noun clauses with tbat), the lcvel of grammar that students
are able to use in connected speech should affect which con,unctions are chosen
as pronunciation topics.
rr

/ in z,4ler flapjng of a final I

in trlhuddt thel uant? (Whdl da lhel tlant?). See page 129 lor flals.

The svmboi D represents the flapped sound of

u|

as

belbrc r,o$eh occuN in comnon \\,ords like a.'/ial and

72

1HAPTER

Rhythm

Activity 2.10 Noticing unstessed conjunctionst Medical ethics

level

Advanced/lntermediate

Worksheet

Page 277

Tip

Teach students to recognize the reduced pronunciations of

grammar words.

Description This activity provides practice noticing unstressed conjunctions. ln

the example below, students listen to a passage on medical ethics,
fill in blanks with conjunctions, and then answer the questions posed
in the passage.

1.

Pass out Worksheet 2.10 to students. Students listen to the passage once or
twice and fill in the blanks. They check their answers with classmates and then
with the teacher.

2. Elicit or explain the pronunciation

0f conjunctions by modeling one of the

sentences from the passage and directing students' attention to the
conjunction. ls the conjunction grouped with preceding or following words? ls it
stressed or unstressed?

3.

Ask students to read the passage again, breaking longer sentences into

thought groups.

4.

Students read the passage to a partner. The partner checks for unstressed
conjunctions and clear grouping of words.

5. The discussion questions can be answered

as a whole class activity or in

groups. Students' pronunciation focus for the discussion should be speaking as
clearly as possible and grouping words together clearly and smoothly. lt ts
difficult (if not impossible) for the teacher (or students) to monitor
pronunciation of a potentially large sei of words like conjunctions. lf the
teacher notices a heavily stressed or inappropriately grouped conjunction, she
can give feedback on that. But she should explain that sometimes a speaker's
meaning requires that a conjunction be stressed (for example, "l think ihe
doctor should tell the patient-lF the patient's family agrees").

ffi

n"d.r.ttons of Function words

what the Teachr Should Know

In natively spoken English, function words Grammar words lile t/re or at) arc
unstressed. Some function words are also reduced: The function word Yowel is
pfonounced /a/, and consonants may be lost. In the sentence 1 cdn slrim, said as a
neutral statement about abilittl, can is pronounced /ken/ , so that I can rhymes with
liken.Because of teductions of z/lll and he4 your logic u)ill persuade ber can sound
almost the same 7s lour logical persuader

clIAPTER

Rhythm

73

The reductions covercd in this section are not colloquial; they are used in
formal as well as inlbrmal speaking. Reductions r4rich are more colloqui.al or
informal (e.g., pfonouncing the question Wbat did lou do? ,WhaJe do?',) are
discussed below, in Fast-Speech Rcducriol.ts of Function Words. ^s
When students learn about the reductions and blen(ls used by native speakers,
they may try to speak faster than they are able to in order to sound more English
like (Rine)', Takegi, and Inutsuka 2005). Teachers should advise sh.rdents not to race
throuih the weak words, but rather to iroup words and lengthen the stressed
s)4lables of the strong word(s) in each group.
There haye been few studies of nonnative speakers' abilities to reduce
function words. They suggest that while proficient learners are able to pronounce

ftrnction words with shorter length than content words (Trofimoyich and Baker
2006, Setter 2006), they rarely use reduced yowels in function words (Taflor 1981,
Setter 2006).

Studies of the reduction of unstressed vowels within words reveal similar

findings. Proficient lcarners are able to make an appropriatc length distinction
betwecn stressed and unstressed vowels, but vowel reduction to schwa is unlikely,
especially for those who haYe learned English as adults and whose natiye language
does not have vowel reduction (Tlege and Bohn 1989;Lee, Guion, and Handa 2006).
Although these studies have not looked at the effect that pronunciation teaching
miiht l.lave on students' abilities to pronounce rcductions, they suggest that
function word reductions should be talrght primarily for recognition, as an aid to
understanding natively spoken English, mther than as a goal for pronunciation.
ESL teachers, however, would disagree with this conclusion for at least some
function words. rwhen students fail to pronounce can with a reduced yowel, they
are often misunderstood as having said "can't " In addition, some students "pick up"
reductions of ancl and o/ in l.fgh-frequency phrases (such as "milk'n sugar," and
"onear two," for one or h.uo , evcn at low le\.cls of proficienc_v13
'When new grammar is taught, function words are introduced in their citation
form (fcw teachefs will introduce a grammar lesson on czrx by saying,"Today we 're
going to stud)' /kn/"). Thus, the first prollunciation rhat classroom students hear is
the full, unrecluced fbrm. It is understandable that tltis is the pronunciation they
continue to usc.
In addition, although thc reduced form is modeled in the speech of native
speakefs, it is difficult for students to notice how these short, unstressed words are
pronounced.v4ren Iistenirrli to English, students pl'ocess speech semantically; they
pick out the mcaningful (content) words,which are also acousticnlly salient because
they are stressed (Swain 1!85). Using these words, they are able to undersand the
message without attending to tlte le ss meaningful, less clear ftlnction words, which
are difficr t to notice (Van Patten 1990). At lower levels of proficiency,
understanding is effortftll, and students have little time to notice the subtler
meanings and modalities that function words carry when listening for meaning.As
rr

Thcsc urightbe learned er |hythm idio[]s, $herc dre pronunci^tim ol th phmse as a \r,hole is

hx

red

74

]HAPTER

Rhythm

proficiency increases, understanding becomes easief, and more adyanced students

are better able to notice some of the "details" they missed earlier
Special efforts are often necessary to help students notice reductions. Pairing
single words that students can pronounce (for example, bacon) with a phrase
contaifliflg the reduced flrnction word (for example, Mr Bay can cook bacon) is an
effective way of helping students notice how the reduction sounds. Lane refers to
pairs like Bea can ligbt 'ttrd bedcon liglrt as "l.romophrases" and uses them in
awareness actiyities (2005b, 2005c).
The sections below discuss the reduced pronunciations ot and, or:, alfd can,
followed by contractions and reductions of auxiliary verbs. Reductions of
prepositions, pronouns, and some conjunctions are coYered on pages 60,66, and 71.

or Reductions of and and or can be taught to beginning level students for

comprehension. Some students may already be using them in common phrases.

And,

Reduced lorm

Citation lorm

AND

lanl

lendl

Noticing

black 'n white

(blacken white)

larl

lo

OR

Cary C&n't. In connected speech, can is reduced to

-el endings
(big or small = bigger small)

Aanl when a verb follows.

Sue can /kan/ come.

It is not reduced when

a verb does

not follow.

Yes, I can /kan/.

can / kan/,

I'l

come.

The negative can't, like other negatives, is stressed and pronounced with a full
vowel:

/krnt/.

I can't

/kanv come.

The reduction of can should be taught at the beginning level, simply because
there is so much confusion as to whether a student has said can ot cdn't.The natiYe
listener's most important cue for detemining whether the positive or negatiYe has
been said is the vowel. lf the vowel is reducetl Ua/),lhe listener hears can; tf the
yowel is ,/r/, the listener hears can 7 Thus, when students pronounce caz with the
full vowel /rl the listener is likely to hear can't; the negatiYe Ycrb, however, doesn't
make sense in the context, and the listener may ask,"Did you satt can ot can't?"-a
question all too familiar to students. Because of this con{ilsion, students sometimes
use the lrncontracted cannot ]l]-f'te dof can't. The use of cannot does not solve the
problem, howe!'er, because the problem lies with the pronunciation of &zz.
Aftef teaching the reduction of can, students may not be able to use it at first
in connected speech, but they will be better able to understand sentences where it

, d \t tt

is reduced, the teacher will have an easier time drawing attention

pronunciations, and students will be better able to self-cofrect.
Citation

CAN
CAN'T

form

lkanl
lkanv

Connected speech

/kan/, (even

form

/kn,

2 Rh,,thrr' 75

to confusing

Noticing
May can cook

!A!!!.

lkanV (no reduction)

Cofltractions and Reductions of Auxiliary Vertrs. Contractions are extreme

cases of feductions and are especially common after pronouns. Contracted verbs
are reduced to a consonant (e g., I'm, He's, WdD. Contractions of not (n't) Te

pronounced as a final consonant cluster (e.g., don't, uon'' aren't) or a.s a

separate syllable /ent/ (e.9., doesn't, basn't, sbouldn't).In negatiye auxiliaries,
the anxiliary yerb is stressed (e.g., [sn't, bAsn't), caftylng the stress that the
negative normally does.
Students should be encouraged to use contractions after pronouns in the
tenses they know and are accustomed to using. Contractions may be avoided
because they creaie difficult final consonant clusters, or because students think they
will sound clearer if the full forms are used (and sometimes they do). Students who
have been taught not to use contractions in writing may extend this admonition to
speaking. Howeve! contractions are important in casual spoken English. Native
speakers may fesort to uncontracted fofms when they want to cfeate clistance in a
convefsation, to asseft authoriry of to show displeasure. Considef the diffefence in
tone between the two sentences below. The use of uncontracted r/o ,1ot sounds like
an order or warning.
Don't come late.
Do not come late.

After nouns, some auxiliary verbs lose their initial consonants and are reduced

to a

syllable,

which is pronounced like an ending on the preceding noun. For

I think Nick tuill go, the underlincd

words are likely to be pronounced

like "nickel." The auxiliary u)ill has lost the initial /W, its yowel has been reduced to
/a/, and what remains ioins closely to the preceding word, like the -el ending in
nickelIn Tbe land bad been used as a park, the \nde ined words are likely to be
pronounced like "Ianded": bad loses the i tial /h/ and is pronouncecl like zn -ed
exarnple, tn

enrJing on land.

Be

I'm He'YShe's lt's

layml lhiyzll[iyzl fttY

You're

lyvrl

We're
lwhl

They're

l6trl

The contractions I'm and be's/she's,/it's are used eady by students, including
beginning level students. Contractions of are (you're, Lue're, thq)'re) are avoided,
possibly because

/r/

is a difficult sound.

76

.HAt'rtR

Rhythm

Native speakers contfact ls after nouns, just as they do after pronouns. If a

noun ends in a sibilant (see page 131),like/osr, rose, or judge, r's is pronounced like
a long plural:

here.
Joshaz

Josh's

The rose is

beautiful.

The judge is wise.

roses

judges

After nouns ending in consonants, ,1re is pronounced like an -er ending.

Some !!U&l!S_aIC absent.

Bill and John are here.

"studentser"

"Johner"

Hate

He's She's lt's

lhiyzl ftyzt lxsl

I've

You've We've

They've

layYl

lyuwvl lwiyvl

lleyul

Studcnts avoid contracting the present perfect auxiliary verbs baue and has.
This may reflect the grammatical difficulty of the present pcrfect tense as well as its
relative infrequency, compared to the pfesent tenses. Howevef, students should be
encouraged to use the contracted forms of baue ?.nd rds witll pronouns.
Natiye speakers contract r,rs after nouns iust as they do after pronouns After
nouns ending in sibilants (s-like sounds, see Coflsonants) like Josb, rotgr or judge,
,ds is pronounced like a long plural:The initial /h,/ is dropped, the vowel is reduced
to /a/, and what remains joins to the preceding noun:

gone.
Joshaz
Josh has

The rcSg-h3! glown a lot.

The iudge has left.

judgaz

]osez

Tbe a\xiliary baue is also reduced after nouns: The iflitial /h/ is dropped, the
vowel is reduced to /a,/, and what remains joins closely to the preceding word. The
reduced pronunc iatiot]' of baue sounds identical to the Pronunciation of of /aY/.
The students have linished.

Where have you been?

"wherav"

"studentsav"

Stndents should be aware of the reduced pronunciltlon of baue after nouns

In modal perfect constructions, natiYe speakers almost never prono\tace baue

in its full form. It is re duced to /av/ and ioins Yery closely to the preceding word.
I

gh!U[L!i!g

known.

"shouldav"

You could have come.

"couldav"

The reduction of baae may be caffied even ftlrther with the loss of fi|Lal /v/.
pronunciation
is sometimes written, " shoulda, coulda, wouldal'
This
lshould have known.
"shoulda known"

You could have come.

"could3 come"

4"Ptt.R

Rh\|hm

77

Because the reduced pronunciation is virtually always used in speaking, it is

the only natural pronunciatiott of haue in this construction. Furthermore, with
modal perfects, students can linl< the reduced pronunciation of baue to a small
number of preceding words-tDould, could, sbould, ,nustr and might-Lnd, ttre
reduction can be learned as a unit with the modal Learning to reduce ,l, aue after this
small set of words is easier than learning to reduce it in the present perfect, whete
the possible number of words preceding baue is yast. Advanced students who use

modal perfects spontaneously and have practiced the reduction are able ro use the
reduced pronunciation spontaneously with some modals, especially in sbould baue
(possibly because sbould haue is practiced extcnsively, in the context of regrets or
seconcl thoughts).
The same feductiofi of baae occurs aftef negative modals.

lshouldn't have done it.

He couldn't have seen it.

"sh6uldantev"

"c6uldantav"

Students should be aware of the reduction of baue after negative modals but should
not be expected to use it in spontaneous speaking.

Hacl, Would The past perfect auxiliary rad and the modal ulould are contracted
to fin l /d./
pronouns:
^
^ft.ff
I'd already done

it.

I'd like

coffee.

You'd better study.

Because the past perfect is a difficult and advanced terise, students do not make
much use of it and rafely use contfactions when they do. ln the expression ,I:ad
bette4 which is used spontaneously by some students ,lr.td Is also ruely contractecl.
Part of the reluctance to contmct ,a d in bad better may be the difficr t cluster that
arises at the boundary of the

rwo wotds (baAl^effer). Alrhough this cluster will

will

be present whether bad is contracted or not, students might feel their speech
be clearer if they use the full form of bad.

In the expression utould. like, common at all levels, students also avoid
contfacting uould. Again, as with. bad betteli a difficult cluster arises at the
boundary of uoukl and, like (/d/ + M. I3ecause uould like is a cofirmon
conyefsational form, students should be encouraged to use the contraction with 1
in Id like, for example. Students will need practice linking the final /d/ to the
following word.
The negative contractions lJadn't and xuouldn't are not used frequently by
students. Higher priority should be giyen to the contmction of utould, especially
after the pronoun 1, than to hadn't ancl, ttouldn't.
After nouns ending in consonants, Edd is pronounced as a syllable,like the ,ed
ending in started. The if:'iti^l th/ is dropped, the vowel is reduced to /a/, and what
reo]' ins of bad joins closely to the preceding word:
Rick had already graduated.

Ed had edited it.

"Rickad already graduated"

"Edad" edited it.

78

)HAPTER

Rhythm

Students should be aware of this reduction but not expected

to use it in

spontaneous speaking.

wiry Won't Students are reluctant to use contracted //, perhaps because they do
not hear it cleady. In English,t}j'e frnal A/ of 1rll/ is a "dark l" (see page 741) an<l may
sound unfamiliar to students. In connected speech, the dark I of contllcted u)ill
alters the vowel of the preceding pronoun, weakening the glide ending of the
vowels in pronouns. Consider the pronunciation of the contractions in the following
sentences, spoken normally:
Cal me and

ljl

come.

(sounds close to "all")

Te I me if

he'l

be there.

(sounds close to "hii ")

Let me know when they ll come.

'
It

(rhymes with "shell")

is not necessary to teach these pronoun alterations to students.

The contraction taon't is also avoided by students. Students may use a Yery
similar pfonunciarion for uon't and u)ant, which can be confrrsing to a listener
Students should be taught to round their lips tightly fot uon't and to use the vowel
i7 fatber fot uant.
uon'L because of
It is important for students to use the contractions of ll
^fld
the forceful meaning that uncontracted uill and u.till nol can haYe. Consider the two
sentences below;the second sentence has the feel of an emphatic refusal.
I won't go.

I will not go.

Students should be aware that they may sound imperious or rude when they use
uncontracted forms of loill a1J.d uill not.
After nouns endiflg in consonants, z/i// is reduced to the syllable /ay, $/hich
joins closely to the preceding word; it is pronounced like an -al, -le, or -el ending on
the preceding wofd. Native speakers pronounce the two sentences below neady

the same.
The cat will drink water. = The cattle drink water.

Students should be aware ofthe reduced pronunciation of ?r/// after nouns, but
should not be expected to use it in spontaneous speaking.
Like other negatiyes, the negative contractions d6n't, d6esn't, and dldn't are
stressed. The contracted forms don't and didn't are more common in student
speech than doesn '/, perhaps because ofthe third-person singular present -s ending,
which is frequently omitted by students. Students shottld be encouraged to use
negative contractions of the simple present and past tenses.

cHAPrtR

Rhythm

79

Activily 2. 1 1 Reduction of and: Foods that go together

level

igh Beginning/Low lntermediate

Worksheet None

Tip

Teach students to recognize the reduced pronunciations of

grammar words.

Descriplion This activity is from Focus on pronunciation I (Lane 2OO5a,

12L-122).lt provides practice noiicing and pronouncing the reduced
pronunciation of and

1.

Read aloud these words for some foods that often go together. Repeat the
phrases. Pronounce and as [an]. Join it to the first word.

turf
f. salt and pepper
b. turkey_and stuffing g. cake and ice cream
c. cookjes_and mjik
h. chipq,and dip
d. bacon and eggs
i. fish and chips
j. rice and beans
e. bread_and water
a. surf and

2.

Choose three phrases from Part 1 and write them on the lines.
Your phrases:

3.

Work with a partner. Read your phrases to your partner. your partner will write
what you say. Then listen to your partner's phrases. Wrjte them on the lines.

Partner's phrases:

4.

Work in small groups. The foods in Part 1 are eaten by different groups of people
or in different situations. Complete the sentences with ihe foods in part l.

a. ln the caribbean,

it's

rice and beans

b. For breakfast, it's

..

In priso4

ir

tl-e o'o days, il was

d. At beach restaurants, it's

e. For a children's snack, it's

f.

For dessert, it's

g. At a party, it's
(cortinue.l on next page)

B0

cHAPr[R

Actiuit!

2.1 1

Rhythnl

cuttinued

h. For Thanksgiving, it's

i.

These spices make food taste better:

1. ln England, it's

5.

Write down other foods that go together. Then te I your group about foods thai
often go together ln your country.
We eat a lot of shrimp and vegetables.

Activity 2.12 Can and can'|. What difference can an individaal nake?

level

Intermed iale/Advanced

Worksheet

None

Tip

Teach the reduced pronunciation of can to help students pronounce

the difference between can and can't.

Descliption This activity can be integrated with other materials on environmental

problems. lt praciices the unstressed pronunciation of can and the
stressed pronuncialion ot can't, in the coniext of how an individual
can help the environment.

1.

Introduce the topic of environmental problems. Ask students what

environmental problems they are concerned about. l\4ake a list on the board.

2.

lntroduce the pronunciation oI can and can't. Wrile the J.EK. quote, beiow, on
the board, leavlng out can.1a Read the quote and ask students to listen to how
the words in the blanks are pronounced. Ask students whether can is stressed
or unstressed.
lVy fellow Americans, ask not what your
Ask what

ra

you

country

do for you.

do for your coLntry.

3,

Show the reduced pronunciation of canon the board: Dlrectly after "country"
and "you," write "kan," in the blanks, leaving no space between "kan" and the
preceding word (this shows that can is pronounced like an ending). lvlark the
stressed syllable of "country," and put a stress mark over "you." Model
cduntrykan and y1ukan seuen tlmes. Students repeat,

4.

Ask several students to read the J.F.K. quote. Give feedback on the
pronunciation of can. Ask students to paraphrase J.F.K.'s quote,

lhis quote

is

fron John n Kennedl

iraugural

add.css

ir Jarllrari i961.

CHAPTER

ActiuiU'

5.

2. I 2

Rhythn 81

co.ntinued

Write the sentence below on the board. Ask students how they think J.F.K.
would complete this quote. Ask students how they would complete the quote.
Each student should say the quote so that it reflects his own opjnjon. Explain
that the negattve can'f is always stressed.

An

Individual

do a lot to help the envjronment.

(can/"an l)

6.

Ask students what an individuai can do to help the environment. Elicit a few
answers with can and monitor pronunciation (e.g., you can walk to school or
work, you can use a fan instead of an air conditioner). Write the suggestions on
the board as verb phrases (e.g., walk to work, use a fan instead of an air
cond itioner).

7.

Students work in pairs, continuing the list of things a person can do to help
the environment. Ask students to write sentences starting with ,,you can.,,
Circulate among the pairs, helping them with vocabulary or giving suggestions
(e.g., recycle, vote for "green" candidates, reuse empty coniainers).

8.

When students have written several sentences on their lists, ask the pairs to
read their sentences and add new ones io the list on the board. Help students
with pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary.

9.

Choose a suggestion from the list on the board (e.g., ,,walk to school") and ask
a student, "Sonia, can you walk to school?,' Sonia should answer for herse'f,

"No I can't because I live too far away.,' provjde feedback on the pronunciation
of can and can't. lf students use short positjve answers (e.g., ,,yes, I can',),
write the short answer on the board and tell students that can isn,t reduced in
short answers.

ERROR C0RRECTI0I{: Your sJudents pfonorLrce can $ke canl.

After students have learned the feduced promrnciation of can, provide feedback on

mispronutciations: Ask,,Can or Can't?,,

ffi

n^t-sp"ech Reductions of Function words

What the Teacher Should Know

The reductions described aboye reflect pfonunciations that occur in fofmal as
well as infomal speech. Other reductions,like Wy'rajd do? for wbat did you do? or
Wbatcba been doing? fot WlJat baue you been doing? are associated with fast,
casual speech. A natiye speaker deliyering a fomal presentation at a conference
would be unlikely to use these forms. Since native speakers speak informally far

82

.HAPTLR

Rhythm

more often than they do formally, our students should be aware of the informal
reductions they will undoubtedly hear.
Fast-speech reductions should be taught for recognition rather than
production. Indeed, there may be a "style clash" if students attemPt to use fastspeech reductions when they lack fluency: The use of gor1r1a, for example, by a
student with little fluency, can sound incongruous. In addition, less proficient
students who use gonna m?y 2:dd to (.e .g.,I'm gonna to do it) or \rse utanna when
the subiect is rels be/it (e.g.,She utanna do /t), errors that heighten the style clash.
On the other hand, through exposure to spoken English, some students do pick up
some fast-speech reductions on their own and use them accumtely. If the reduction
sounds natural, the student should not be discouraged from using it.
Some fast-speech reductions should probably be viewecl as a continuum of
reductions, rather than as discrete fixed forms; the continuum involves a blending
together of more and ntore wotds and a loss of phonetic material that can be
extreme. Reductio trs of be Soing to are an example Years ago, my father planted the
seeds that later set me to listening for these reductions when he chided me for
saying "Imanal"'Imana?" he asked."Whafs Imane?l" Since then,I have heard the full
range of reductions shown below, in my own speech, in my father's speech, and in
the speech of other native speakers.
l'm going to go to the bookstore after class today.
I'm gonna go to the bookstore after class today.
lmana go to the bookstore after class today.
lrnna go to the bookstore after class today.

lma go to the bookstore after class today.

Althougtr native speakers may not be aware tllat they are making these extreme
reductions, they all occur in the informal English of educated native spcakers
The following fast-speech reducdons are presented in many pronunciation
textbooks (Dauer 1993, Hewings and Goldstein 1998, Lane 2005c).\feinstein (2000),
1n wlJaful.aya sd.l1r, has developed nonstandard spellings of these reductions, which
also appear in dialogue in novels and plays. Although the first two entries in the list
below, baue tonJas to afld used to, are usually presented as fast-speech reductions'
the reducecl or blended pronunciation is used in formal as well as informal English.

lt

Citation form

Fast-speech spellings and pronunciation

have to, has to

hafta lhaftal, hasta Aastey'

used to

/yuwsta /yuwstuMl5

going to

gonna

The last vo$el ol mel lo

to pnjq

\o\\, d

^eo

(/a/

,'"'

or

/u\t),

lrp 0

'.

/ganJ

depends on the

.s'.010.

ahu

'

iint

sound of the following $ord. Thc /ury' pronunciation occuN beforc

pag'

(l

1HAPTER

have got to

gotta /goDe/6

want to

wanna /tvoney'

ought to

ought to 6Der'

don't know

dunno

out of

outta /awDd

could have

coulda /kuDey'

would have

woulda AvuDey'

should have

shoulda 4uDoy'

must iave

musta /mesta/

Rhythn

83

/den6v

The reduction of going to to goww occurs only when going to is used as the
futufe auxiliary, not s/hen it is the main verb of a sentence alrd to is follov/ed by a noun.
l'm gonna study. (l'm going to study.)
NOT: l'm gonna school. (l'm going to school.)

The reduction zr)anna. is .used, with the subject pronouns I, you, ue, ot tbq) rc
repl ce uant to or uant a, b1ot not u,ant tbe,
I wanna study. (l want to study.)
I wanna book. (l want a book.)

NOT: I wanna book(s). (l want the bookls].)

Other fast-speech feductions arise when certain sounds come in contact,

producing blended sounds (e.g.,"Whaia" for "What did you"). Fast-speech blends are
discussed in Linking Adiacent Words, above.

The auxiliaries d.o md d.id. and the pronoun

Wu

undergo some extfeme

reductions, especially in questions. The vowel in da is ofien feduced to /a/ Z;nd |dre
nitial /d/ naybe flapped (phonetic symbolD) aftet Wbat? (see Consonaffs,page 129).
Whaddaya /waDaya/ think? (What do you think?)
Howdaya /hawDaya/ know? (How do you know?)

The atx:hary did may be reduced to a single consonant /d/ .lI you follows did.,
the sing]e consonant is /dy.
Wherd they go? (Where did they go?)
Whaja do? (What did you do?)

16'lhe

synrbol D repruents the flapped sound of /, ,s i n water

(w

page 129).

84

LHAPTER

Rhvthm

Aclivity 2.13 Reductions, Recognizing do and did

ntermed iate/Advanced

Level

Worksheet

Page

Tip

Teach students lo recognize the reduced pronunciations of

grammar words.

0escription

This activity helps students recognize da, did, and you in their fastspeech pronunciations. Students listen to sentences and wriie ihe
full forms of the sentences in the blanks.

218

1. Students listen to the sentences on the handout.

2.

Students work together to write the standard spellings of the questions

and sentences.

3. Tell students that they do not need to use these reductions ln their own
speaking but ihey shou d be abLe to recognize them.
4. Ask students to share their experiences with "fast English" other reductlons
they've heard or difficulties they have had understandlng colloquial or
dialectal English.

CONCLUSION
Most classroom topics involving Englisli dlthm larget the linking or grouping
of worcls or the dillerence in length and loudness between stressed (content) words
and unstressed (function) words. Research shows that these aspects of English
pronunciation can be learned by students. It also sl]ows that native listeners of
English rely as heavil]', and possibly morc heavil]', on rhlthmic cues as they do on
appropriately pronounced consonants and vowcls Therefbre, as students gain skill
with the lbatures of r\thm, they inProve thc conlpre he nsibiliry of their own
speech.At the same time, their comprehension of native speakers impfoves as the]gain familiarity with how words are altcrcd or emphasized in connected speech.

CHAPTER

INTONATION

Ncar the cnd of class, in response to lny request fol a par;rphrase

of what a
speakcr hacl just said in an inte fview. mv Kore an stuclent
ans'we red..He said that,,
He se emed to bc finishe d:His voice rose on lldr, which was
stresse d. anal then fell
to a low note. I asked (too soon. I now believc),,,yes. but
u)b.tt didhc say? In r_our
owlt $.ords." The srudent looked anno;.ed at my question. After[.,ards
i thor-lghr
about the cxchange and his reaction.I concluded that
his intonation had led me tcr
belicve his answer was finishcd-rltat he had said,.He
saicl that.,, rather rhan ,,lle
said that ...'
Intonatiot], the meaningf]. use ofpitch on a word or phrase,
contributes to the
interpretation of discoursc mcaning, grammatical meanini, ,,rnd
affectir.e meaning.
In discourse. intonation identifies intportant infbrmation
fbr

tlte Iistencr. shoI!.s ltow

ditlerent picces of informati.n rclxte ro cach othcr, est,rblislres
a levcl of
engagement
betwcen the speaker and listener ancl manages conversattonal

tuLns.In
granmal particular intonation patterns are common with
particular structurcs,
hclping to distinlauish statements (e.g.. 1t,s ralnirg.) from questions
(e.g.,
raining) or direcr obiecr nouns (e.g.,I knou) Uat1,.) trom direcr adclress Z:r
nouns
(c g I knotu' Mqry.) rn its afitctive ftlnctior.r, into.ation
r-eflects the attitudes and
'

cmotiol-ls 0f speakers.

DEFINITIONS
Pitch on a word. Ever1. s,vllablc is spoken with a particular leyel pllcD
of
(a note).
I)ut onh. pitches thar are noticeably highcl or lox.cr than
o,fr...
ir=
in
for,r"r.
'fhese occur on dte stre.ssed
sy,llables of w.or.tls that the speaker wants to meke
prominent and highliglrt l In the dialog'e berorq most speakirs
wourcr highright thc
wo(l "doctor" as the most import;rnt information in a stiaightf<rrward
answer to the

it

cfut^/ltde.

sttt!.t. tt)ttic

st lloble. .tenlet tLi slras

aid

tr;lrzr'.vr,,i
B5

86

]HAPTER

lntonation

question "If/hat's your day Like?" High pitch,length, and loudness combine to draw
the listener's attention to this word.
Ar What's your day

B:

L'm going to

I ke?

the DOQtor this afternoon.

In the example aboye, pitch "steps down" from the srressed syllable of
"doctor" to the following unstressed syllable. Pitch "glides down" on single-syllable
stressed words and in words stressed on the last syllable. Glide patterns are more
difficult for learners to hear than step patterns because the pitch change occurs
over a single syllable.
It's H0T.

aGREE.

Low pitch on an important word is also sometimes used to make it salient

In the exchange below, "don't" is pronounced with low pitch. In this case, the
speakef is correcting or contradicting preYious information (Pierrehumberl and
Hirschberg 1990).
Ar I thought you wanted steak.

B: I DON'T want

\_ ,,---'/

stdak.

English intonation is traditionally presented as having three or four levels of

pitch: low, mid, high, and a fourth level of extra high pitch, used to shoY/ strong
(?ike 1972, Prator and Robinett 1985,]ifong 1987'
emotions such as disbelief or
et al. 1996). Following Levis's suggestion (.1999), a
Beisbier 1995, Celce-Murcia 'oy
simpler two-term system for describing pitch leYel, ltiglt/higber or lou,4oLuer' is
recornrnended.z In pmctice, classroom teachers often end up with a two-level
system an)'way, using terms like /,her or lou)er eYen if the textbook presents thfee
or four levels of pitch.
are stretches of speech set off by silence. In a
quick exchange, they can be as short as a word; in extended discourse, they can be
several sentences long. Longer utterances are broken into shorter units of
information (thought groups), each of which has its own intonation contour
(melody or tune). Most speakers would break the sentence below into two thought
groups, shown by underlines.

Ifltoflation cofltoufs. (]tterances

ryTIgAfrorn
2

the start

The two-tenn rysten also rcflch llnguistic descdltions olinlonation (Pienchumbert 1980,0ha1a 1983, Bolingr 1998, Cusshoven
jgh or low onlr in rclation t0 local adjdcent pitches, not in
In addition, higli or Low pitch is not a lixed level A pitch is heard ,i h

2004) .

rcLation to ,rn xbsoiute.

CHA?TER

lltonati)n 87

These units of information are referred to by vafious n ames.. intonation units,

intonational pbrases, inteftnediate phfases, tone group' tone units, tlJougbt
groups, cbunks, and,pbrase groups.3 In this book the term',thought groups,,is us;d.
Each unit contains at least one prominent word, has its own intonation contour, and
often constitutes a grammatical pl
(for example, a short clause or prepositional
phrase). In the dialogue below, the "se
sentence',I think it went well,,' consists of two
thought groups, each with its own intonation contour, At the end of the fust clause,
intonation does not fall to a low note, signaling that,,I think,, is not the end of the
utterance and should be understood with \shat follows. In the second thought
goup, pitch rises o\'er the highlighted word "well" and then falls to the bottom of

the speaker's range, showing that the utterance is complete.

A:

How was your interview?

B:

In

=-

rot sL,e. athink ,1=4

6n,
_

*"N

RESEARCH ON INTONAIION

Final Intonation Patterns and Pitch

Final falling and final rising intonation patterns in English are traditionally
linked with diflerent rypes of sentences: Declamtive sentences and information
questions tlpically end with falling intonation, yes-no questions end with rising
intonation. The dialogue below illustrates the three sentence types and their
typical intonations.

A: What are you doing tonight?

B: I

thlnk l'll just watch

TV.

---',.

Do you want to see a movie?

(information question, fall ng intonatlon)

(dec arative statrnent, falling intonation)
(yes no question, ristng intonation)

The same intonation patterns are used with the same sentence types in most
languages (Cruttenden 1986). Because of this similariry Kenworthy maintains that
"teachers can assume faidy safely that in many cases learners will use intonation in
English appropriately" (1987, 85). The use of salient pitch to make information
prominent is also found in many languages.

In Pienehumbefi and Hi$chberg, mtonational phrdJes corcspond rou$ll to sentence length ultermces; thought groups $ithin the
intonational phrases arc refeffed t0 as "intennediate phrases' (1!!0,277).

88

aHAPTER

lntonation

On the other hand, languages also djffer in the ways in which pitch and
intonation are used, ancl these differences can be difficult fof students to learn. For
example, although both English and Portugnese use pitcl.t to highlight important
information, in Portuguese, the prominent word occupies the fi11al position in an
intonation phrase. In English, the prominent word is usually the last content word
(stressed word) in an intonation phrase but can also occupy nonlinal positions, as
in the following example (Cruz-Ferreim l9tl7, 105):

(She gave dog brscuits to someone.)

She gave her dog

(She gave brscuits to her dog.)

In Portuguese, the differcnce between tltese two sentences would not be

expressed through pitch but through difTerent grammatical constructions or lexical items.
Gumperz reports on a misunderstanding befween Inclian cafeteria workers
and their British customers that involvcd intonatior.r patterns with Ps-n o questions
(1982).Vhen the Indian workers oflered grary to their customers, they used falling
intonation, their native language pattern, rathef than the risini intonation expected
in English.
Gravy?

Their British customers interpreted this intonation as rudeness, an indication that

the workers didn't care if the customers wanted gravy or not.

Pitch Range and Ievel

Range of Pitclr, the difference between the highest and lowest notes produced
in ilrl lrttennce, can also dillbr from language to language. Stlrdies of l)utch and Spanish
learners of English showed tl.nt the lezLrnels used a narrower pitch range compared to
native English speakers, closer to that of thejr native languages @ackman 1979,
Willems 1982). The transfer of a narrower pitch range into Eng.lish could contribute to
the "flat" intonation used by many ESL students (as could lack of confidence).
It is not always easy to convince students to use a wider range of pitch. In my
own classrooms. when I ask "flat talkers" to "use their voices more," the results
usually sound good to me (sometimes students use a range of intonation tllat is oYel
the top and we all have a good laugh). Some students welcome my comments and
make clear efforts to apply them in speaking. Other students, howevet say they feel
foolish or silly. While textbooks that encourage students to sound "enthusiastic" in
English have been criticized (Ranalli 2002), we owe it to students who use patterns
that make them sound rude or uninterested to inform them of the impression they

a HApIER

tntonation

89

may be creating The fact that some students $ ill not take our advice does not mcan
that we shor d not make tlte effort.
In othcr cases, speakers of languages \vith a wider pitch range than En1;lish, tor

example, Sweclish learners, ma1. speak English

Murcie et al. 1996, 185).

with a sinEi_song intonarion

(Cclcc_

Languaies differ not oni. in rnnie of pitch bur also in average leuet (t pitch.
Natiyc Geman speakcrs of English, for exaLmple. arc regartlccl as speaking wirh a
rather low flat intonation that mal' souncl ot erly serious or pedantic to a Nortl.l
American English listener; the rangc of pitch in German is also nafrower than in
English (Trinrm 1988, as quoted in Mennen 2006). A study of the level ancl range of
pitch used bv aclvancecl Gernnn spcakers of Englisl] showed that while most
a
'sed
higher average level of pitch in Engrisl] (closer to the Engrish nomr), rhey continued
to use a narrower rxnge of pitch, (closer to the nom for Gernun), sufiElesting that
level ofpitch ma)' be more casily learned than range ofpitch (Mennen 2006).

Studies of Second Language (L2) Learners, Intonation

Therc haye been few stlldies of how L2 learncfs t-lse it.rtonation in Enlalish. Most
have looked at the intonation of intemecliate to aclr'ancccl learners and show that. as
with other areas of pronunciation, intonation is inf'luenced b,y tlte nadve language
system. They :rlso reveal problcnntic areas of English intonation lbf learners: the usc

of pitch to make important words pronlinent, in pafticulaf, the use of contrastive

stress (e.9., This is YOtlRS. not MINE); a difficuln usinli rising intonarion with
uttefances othef than :le.s-r?o questions, antl a corresponding oYeruse of fallinl
intonatioll. Most studies that include lcarners at dirlerent proficiency le,,els report
that morc proficient learners use intonation more accurately than less,proficient
learners, evidencc that featurcs of intonation are learnable

Cruz-Ferreira strr(lie.l h()q/ Poftuliuese learners of English interpreted English

intonation, ancl how English learners of portuguese interprctecl portuguese
intonation (1987). Shc found that whcn both languagcs used rhe same inronation
pattcrn to expfess the same meaning, the lcarners intelpreted intonation tlte same

way that nntive listeners do. \Vhen both lang,ages usccl the same intonation feature
but used it to express diflerent rncanings, learners intcrpretcd intonation as the.I.
would in their nati\.e languages. Finallv, when a target language intonation pattern
did not have a counterpart in the nati\.e language, learners either ignorccl

intonation, basing interpretations on the lexical content of the Lltterance. or

intcrpreted mcaninla randomly.
Pennington and Ellis studied the ability of aclr.anced Cantonese EFL learners to
distinguish pairs of sentences which diflbrecl only in prosody (rh1,thm ancl
intonation): for examplc,ls be driuing tbe BUS vs.Is HE (lriulng tlre bus;TtJe
fight
is ouer lired vs. Tlte fight is oter Fred (2000). Thel fbund that with explicir traininti,
learners were bener able to notice prosodic difTerences, especially diffcrences in
the placement of highlighted words.'Ihcy conclutlecl that there is a need for cxplicit
instftrction in thc form of intonational features and their functions.

90

]HAPTER

3 ,Intonation

ln a study of intermediatc Spanish, Japanese, and Thai ESI- learners,

wennerstrom (1994) found that learners did i.Iot always use pitch to signal contrasts
where native speakers would.

wennerstrom (1998) compared the use of four intonational features b-v

Mandarin Chinese international teaching assistants (I'IAs) and native-Enlilish

teaching assistants (TAs).'I'he ITAs ranged from intermediate to low-adYanced levels

of proficiency. Ms.Irennerstrom found dlat all learners, including those with lower
proficiency, were able to use hitaher pitch with new content words (stressed words)
ancl lower pitch with function words (unstressed words; ' Lower-proticiency

learners had difficulty producing an appropriate contrast between words

presenting new information ancl words referring to old information She also tbund
that ITAS unclerused paratone, the wiclening of pitch range when a new topic is
introcluced. In general, her study showed that hillher-proficiency ITAS usecl
intonation more lppfopriately thnn lower-proficiency ITAS. Since all ofthe iTAs had
had some instrlrction in pronunciation, she concludetl that at least some aspects of
intonation can be taught and learned, although, as in most stLldies of pronunciadon
learning, there was indiviclual variation

Pickering studied the use of falling and risirlg intonation by Chinese lTAs
(2001). She found that rhe ITAS undefuscd fising intonation at utterance boundaries
comparecl to natiye-English TAs. The preponderance of falling and level intonation

usedbythelTAscreated..aflatmonotonicpitchstructufeunfamiliartoflative
hearers" (2001,249).
Ueyama andJun studied the intonation of;les-zo questions in E1.Iilish by native
speakers of Korean and Japanese (1998) In all three langualies' intonation typically

rises at the end of 7es-n o questions. However, in English, the rise :rfter the focus
(highlighted) worcl is continuoLts, whereas in Korean and Japanese, it is not The
intonation used by the more-pfoficient lelfncfs was nlofe Englishlike than that of
less-proficient learncrs.

CONCERNS ABOUT TT,ACHING INTONATION

Dalton and Seidlhofer describe intonation as the "problem child" of
pronurciation teaching (1994,73). Teachers cxpress a variety of concerns about

teaching intonation: One concern is that intonetion is hard to "pin down"; a giYen
sentence can be pronounced with different intonation patterns, sometimes,
but not always, creating a clear diflerence in meaning' This problen can usually
be avoicled by presenting and practicing intonation in context, rather than
in isolated sentences (Bolinger, 199{3). Context sharply redlrces the number of

intonation choices.

slftrss el]clitics (unstressed larticles thet join closelr to surtoutlding

'ronls).

(HA?TER

lntonation 9"1

Another difficutty is that intonation is hard to hear, and even trained

transcribers disagree on how certain examples should be transcdbed (Brazil 1994a,
6). This difficulty can be avoide<l by focusing classroom work on features of
intonation like the use of pitch to make information prominent or the use of pitch
at the ends of utterances (final intonation patterns). prominent words are not
difficult to hear, and the pause at the end of an utterance makes final intonation
easier to hear Minimal dialogues (one-word exchanges), lite the one below, are
useftil for focusing students' attention on final intonation patterns (.\(/ong 19g7,62).
Minimal dialogues are also natural: In casual conversations especially, we do not
always speak in complete sentences.
A:

'''.Finished?

B: Almost.

A: Five m inutes?
B:

No.

A:

When?

B:

Later.

The difficulty of hearing whether the yoice is rising or falling can also be
reduced by replacing words with nonsense syllables to isolate the tune. For
example, in the dialogue above, students may have difficulty hearing the falling
intonation on "When?" because the fall is rapid, occurring over a single syllable.
(Students may also be confused by the question mark.) However, when a nonsense
sllable is used in place of"When?" the fall in inronation is much easier to hear.

Speech visualization technology can also be an aid to teaching intonation (Chun

1998, Levis and Pickering 200|. The technology allows learners to see their orlm

intonation and tlnt of models, displayed as a waye pattern, which helps compensate
for some of the difficulty in hearing intonation. Some speech yisualization proglirms
can be downloaded ftee: WASP (Iluckvale 2OO7) .and PR4,4T (Boersma and Weenick
2009). Others are available commercially: for example , Visi-pitclJ 1Il (KayElemetfics
2004). Both Chun and I.el.is and Pickering fecofirmend using visual clisplays of

92

]HAPTER

lntonatian

authentic discourse as models, wl.rich are a better feflection of actual intonation use
than scripted, isolated sentences.
To reduce the complexity of intonation, teachers can combine both geneml
and specific approaches. Ta-vlor suggests that teachers shoultl focus on "broad
geneml principles, mastery of which will have a high pay-off for leerners and
teachers" (7993, 2). For example, a general rneaning of final rising intonation is
uncertainty or lack of finality or completeness. This explains its common lrse in JLle.tno questions (uncertainty), its use in "holding the floor" in conversation (lack of
finality-the speaker is not finished yet), its use in lists of infomation (lack of
finality-there's more to follow in the list;see Listing Intonetion, below), and its use
in discourse to signal that what came before is to be interpreted with what follows
(the preceding is unfinished).' Each of these rtses of final rising intonation can be
practiced in separate lessons with a specific communicative fuflction.

APPROACHES TO TEACHING INTONAIION

Traditional
In many textbooks, intonation patterns are linked to different types of
sentences or phrases. yes-zo questions, for example, end in risin!! intonation, while
declarative statements and inforrnation questions end in falling intonation.

A: Did yo- wa., h lto 1ci{ tor gnll (},es no qJesl o.li
B: I wasn't hoib. (declarativel wfrat

r,fien-dl

(inforrnat on question)

Another rule states that items occurrinfa in the beginning of a list are
pronounced with rising intonation;the last item ofthe list is pronounced with falling
intonation if the list is complete, or with rising intonation if the list could continue.
---'/J

red, white, and b ue

.-'-/._--...-/._-/

red, wh te, b ue, green (. . .)

General meanings ofintonation patterns are usually presented. Rising intonation, for
example, indicates uncertalltF or lack of finality/completeness.
The association of intonation patterns with grammatical structllres (sentence

types, phrase rypes) is both teachable and learnable. The intonation-structure

associations reflect the intuitions of natiYe speakers and may also reflect the most
frequent intonation pattern used with a particulaf structure (e.g , falling intonation
with declaratives).
The traditional approach to teaching intonation, however, has been criticized
as overly simplistic and inadequate because the rules it presents are not always

The nreanings of

"uncefainq

and

"

lack ol cotnplcteness are xrgueblv rclabd. Il a spelker

ols

a co rvorket lor extuDpl,

'tut

the

(HAprER

tntonation

93

reflected in natural speech (see, for example, Cauldwell and Hewings 1996, Levis
and Pickering 20o1)-rn addition, the use of isolated sentences does not reveal the
coffmunicatiye role that intonation plavs in connected speech. Levis and pickering
conpared natiye speakers' intonation on sentences fead first in isolation. ordered so
the sentences were unrelated to each other (200,1). The final intonation on these
sentences, mostly declamtives, was falling, conforminli to the tmditional rules (i.c.,
most declaratives end in falling intonation). Howevef, wlten the same scntences
were reordercd to cfeate a coherent paragraph, the native speakers used more rising
intonation, even where the rules would predict falling intonation. pickering (2001,
cliscussed above) found sinflar results in her comparison of the intonation used by
natiye-English TAs and ITAS when deliverinFi a lecture. pickering sugiests that rhe
native-English lAs'use of rising intonation when deliyering new inlbrmation (where
the expected pattem would be falling intonation) allowed them to ayoid sounding
as if they were alwa)'s infofming rheir students (2001).

Discourse Intoflatiofr
A more recent alternadve for teachin[i intonation is discourse intonation.
Discourse intonation has irs roots in the work of Halliday (1973) and, as a
pedaliogical approach, is most associated with the work of Brazil (1991a,7994b).
Brazil's framework was developed to introduce advancecl students to the role of
intonation in structuring discourse. The outline that follows is a simpliJication of
discourse intonation; interested readers should see Brazil 1994a,1991b.
The basic building block of discourse is rhe ton unit (an intonational phrase
or thought group). There are three malor features ofintonation that speakers choose

within tone units: prominence, proclaiming/referring tones (final intonation

patterns), and high and low key (changes in pitch level at tlte first pfominent word

of a tone unit).6 In the example below the tone units of a message are indicated by
thc s) mbol //.
//the bus stopped//we'd got to the termlnus//and everyone got ouvl
Tone units have at least one ptomineitt word (shown below in capitals), and
the last prominent word (underlined) is defined as having tonic stress. Speakers
decide which words to highlighr (make prominent) as a means of guiding the
listener to the most important information.
//WC'd GOT tO thE TERN4INUS/i

Intonation patterns (tones) that end a rone unit (thought gror-rp) are chosen
accordinli to wherher the speaker believes the information in the tone unit is new
or shared.T When tlte speaker believes the information is shared, a rising tone
'

rredke$ nlake lrolher piLh

leveL

choice, cnlled tennin ation. at the begin njn g or

-...1r.''np ib,ro \,al llo, D-r/

lrliels

: .rrs

,cou^pLou(coerlrorco,pt tr't. i .,rt.o

about shared information rlepend on sharerJ a$arcr\s,rj

(Chapman 2001).

d ol a tone Llnit wh ich rcLafts t0 ke! choices

D.. l(\(.rl^r

rc Jng!age, nf$hxi

ol

hxs bcensaidbefore,

antlolprll

and locaL

94

.HAPTER

lntonation

s
speaker holds the
(referring tone) is used Rising tones also indicate that the
help to the
offering
.to-ir,*i position in tl.re discoiirse (has more to say) or is to introduce new
listener Speakers choose falling tones (proclaiming tones)
a falling tone on the new
information into cliscourse.In thi example below, B uses
the last prominent word in the
infofmation.,,bills. " The intonation change occurs on
tone unit and extends to the end of the tone unit'
A: Was there any mall?
B, //a LOT of BILLS//
language that is formulaic or needs
Leyel tones are used when the speaker is using
himself time to think (fbr exarnple' lelt see )'
to
-- !!ive
'- fn. ,p.ut . also chooses a level ofpitch'the key Qrigh' miLl' or low)'for the tone
of a tor]e unit The pitch on this word
unit, which occurs on the tirst prominent word
in the tone unit is expected (a fall
indicates whether the speaker feeb the information
last class' next Friday'
a fn.nl o. r,.r."pectecl (a rise in pitch) In the sentence-'Ourtone
unit "next Friday"
of.the
word
*iil U. p""y,' shQwn below, the irst prominent
in this tone
information
the
"
that
,p.uker's pitch fa11s ot.t "ltt*t" to show
irln
Friday)'
is
next
":t]ift.
that the last class
,,r-rit l, ."p..t.a 6recause the listencrs know
Our last class//NEXT FRIDAY//wlll be a party

--- l--L- correction of A' the first prominent word in the tone

In the example below, B's

level ofpitch (a high key)
uflit is"fifth" B savs tllis tone liroup on a higher-than-usual
is comflron when the tone
to show thxt this infofmation is inexpectecl. High key
group presents a contrast or coffection'

A: The fourth

daY?

B: //the FIFTH of MAY//

involves listening to and
Bnzil's approach to teaching discourse intonation
prominent words'
units'
tone
repeadng authentic sptech s"mflt"; identirying
why speakers made the irtonation choices drey did;
and pitch changes; discussing'Although
there is wide agreement dlat discourse
and preclicting intonation
is usecl in (liscourse' studies of
intonation offers Yaluable insights in; Ilow rtonation
full fi'amework is challenging (Hadley
classroom use sulgest that iniorporatirg the
in these studies reportecl difficulty in
1996,Ranx i 2002,Cnapman 2ottil Participants
indcciding-whether hformation was
hearing whether a tone was rising or falling and
(1t9(') and Ranelli (2002) suggest that' mther
sharecl or new. cauldweu and Heiings
teachers supplement
than adopting a complete cliscourse intonadon orientation'
from discourse intonatiofl
raditional materials fbr teaching intonation with elements
funcdon Examples include the
that are easily taught ancl serve iclear communicative
s

Then: are hvo othet comple{ tones:The

lall

Lise

is xiothr
tone is efolher rclrdng toneilhe rist hlLlone

lloclainillg

tone'

aHAPTER

lntonation

95

rishg intonation on comprehension checks (e.g.,Rigtnn and the use of rising

intonation to hold the floor some of these are addressed in nondiscourse intonation
textbooks. chapman also recorimends that students listen for tone units (thought
groups) and prominent words in recordinlas of natural discourse in order to develop
a "realistic and generalized view', of the communicative use of intonation (2OO7,
rct.
use of

TIPS FOR TEACHING INTONATION

The tips described in this chapter are listed below They provide some specific
suggestions for how to help students improve their intonation.

ffi rtps

The remainder of this chapter presents specific features of intonation. The tips
are further explained in the context of these features and activities suggested to

practice them.

SPECIFIC FEATURES OF INTONATION

1. Highlighting
2. Contrastiye stress
3. Final intonation patterns
4. Comprehension checks and tag questions
5. Intonation with lists, choice questions, nonfinal
6. Appositives and parentheticals
7. Intonation, emotions, and attitudes

intonation pattems

We discuss what the teacher should know about each of these topics and
proyide suEigestions for teaching them.

96

cIAPTER

El

lntonation

"isr'righ.i"g

V/hat the Teacher Should Know

The following conversation between my claughter and me took place in our
living room, as I was reading the newspaper:
Son a (walkine n, exasperated,

accusing): can't find my

GLASSeS.

lvlom (not I stening, still reading), What about your g asses?

Sonia (bitterly, since t's l\4orn's fau

t):

've LOST them.

Even though I wasn't paying attentioll to what my daughter said,I was able to
pick out the word "glasses" because shc made that word prominent. She replied to
my abscntminded question, highlighting "lost," the information she wanted me to
know about her glasses. After tl.rat, wc got up, did a searcll of the apartment, and, as
usual, I found her glasses.
Highliglrting involves the use of salient pitch (usually high, but not always),
together with length and loudness (drlthmic prominence), on the stressed syllable of
a word that the speaker considers to be more important than surroLrnding words.
Highl.ighting is also referred to as informatioll tbcus, sentence stress, primary stress,
pitch accent, nuclear stress, and toric stress.'l'his usc of pitch (as well as length and
loudness) provides "a funning conmentary on the newswofthiness of the various
items of infomation" (Maidme nt 1990,22).Daltofl and Seidlhofer describe prominence
(highlighting) as "the most important function of intonation, and alnost certainly the

most teachable one" (1994, 81; see also W'ennerstrom 1998,Jenkins 2000, Hahn 2004).
Highlighted words are often the last content word of a sentence, where new
information is wpically pfi: I bougbt a neut CAR, I'd like some COFFEE. In
discourse, highlighted words prcsent new, foregroundcd, or contrasting information

Ttre example below shows the role of Prominence in signaling new information.
Speaker B first gives prominence to "partlt'new information that answers speaker
A s question. In the seconcl part of speaker B's answe! the new information is "loud";
"party" is now olcl information and is pronounced with a lowered pitch

A: Why do you look so tired?

B: There was a PARTY in the bu dlng last nlght, a very LOUD parly.
Highlighted words also presertt information that contrasts with previously
mentioned information. In the following dialogue, speaker B is contrasting
information about his new car (see ContrastiYe stress, below):

A'

How do you like your new car?

B: lt gets

better GAS mileage, but it's not as FAST.

The fact that highlighted words are often the last content worcl in a phrase
provides a straightforward approach to teaching this intonation lbature to beginning
students. There are also general, teachable exceptions to the last-content-word rule

CH^prER

Intonatian

97

(Cruttenden 1990). Nouns tend to be focused more often than verbs, acliectives, or
advefbs. In presentational sentences, the noun following tbere is/are tencls to be
focused eyen if there arc otlter following nouns which also present new infomation.
There was a PARTY in my bui/ding.

Final adverbs are not usually focused, unless they present contfasting information or
the speaker wants to emphasize the specific meaning of the aclverb.
I'm going to B0ST0N, fortunatety.
I finished the BOOK yesterday.

The tendency for highlighted words to be the last content word of an

utterance is not a rule, nor clo all exceptions fall into the general exceptions
described above. Intermediate and ndvanced sttrdents need to be aware that the
speaker can focus potentially any word, regardless of its position. In the first line of
the dialogue belov', the word "pictures,', the last content word of the sentence and
the new Lformation, is highligl.lted. In the second line,,,back,,is highlighted, while
"yet;'an adyerb, is de-emphasized, one of the general exceptions to the last_content_
word rule.In the third line,"yesterda)." and "today" are cortrasted and so are fbcused.
In the fourth line, the manager highlights the words ,,who,, and ,,I,llr.,, words in
contfast, but also "have;' to emphasize the lack of ',existence,, of the particulaf
service. The highlighting of"have" neither follows the last-content-word rule, nor is
it one of the general exceptions to the rule, described above.
Customer (handing a slip to the store ernployee): I want to p ck up some PICTURES.
Employee (checks and returns empty handed): Sorry. They're not BACK yet.
Customer: I brought them ln YESTERDAY. I was told they'd be ready TODAy.
Employee: Sorry. I don't know WHO you spoke to. l'M the manager and we don't
HAVE next day service.

Activity 3.1

Highlighting: Breakfast in the rcal world

Level

Beginning, ESL Settings

Wolksheet

Page

Tip

Teach highlighting of key words to help students make their

meaning clearer.

Description

Students practice ordering breakfast in a restaurant, highlighting new

information (the breakfast choices they order). This activity can also be
integrated with other work centering on the topic of food (count and
mass nounsr for example, are often presented with food vocabulary).
Classroom practice can be followed by a t.ip to a restaurant.

2I9

(continLla.al on ne$ page)

98

]HAPTER

lntonation

Actlulry 3.1 continued

1.

Before class, plan t0 go with your students to a local restaurant for breakfast,
lunch, or dinner. Bring copies of the menu to class and go over them.

2.

In class, after explaining the restaurant trip, pass out menus to students and
ask them to choose what they will order. Go over vocabulary as necessary. lf
the menu is long or includes a great deal of new vocabulary, ask students to
go over it as homework, choosing the items they will order. In this way, class

time can be used for speaking and pronunciation praciice raiher than
vocabulary development.

3.

Write the students' choices on the board. lvlodel the pronunciation

and ask students to repeat. IVake sure students can pronounce their
choices u nderstandab ly.

4.

Write a dialogue on the board, using one student's choices, or use the sample
dialogue on Worksheet 3.1. To keep the practice natural, do not insist that
students always use complete sentences. Capitalize highlighted words and
mark intonation.

@ s. oirect students' atteniion to the capitaiized words. Students listen to the

dialogue and repeat the lines. Explain that the capitalized words have the most

important mean ing.

6.

Students practice the dialogue in pairs, taklng both parts.

use the model on the board to practice
their own choices, in groups of two (waiter and customer) or three (one waiter
and two customers), before going to the restaurant.

7. After practicing the dialogue, students

[F]

contrastive stress

V/hat the Teacher Should Know

Contrastive stress is like highlighting, except that two words are pronounced
with salient pitch and stress. ContmstiYe stress tells the listener that two pieces of
information afe being contrasted or compared.
The lecture

wil

be in HA[/lLTON Hall, not LEWISOHN Hai

Pierrehumbert and Hirschberg describe tlle pitch accent on contlirsting

information as a sharp rise (from a low note) to a high note (1990,296).

CH^PIFR

Act;vity

3.2

Conttastive strcss: Which apartnent is bettet?

level

lntermed iate/Advanced

Worksheet

Page 22O

Iip

3 lntonatian 99

Teach highlighting of key words to help students make

meanings clear.

Description In this inforrnation gap, students complete information missing from

descriptjons of two apartment shares and then decide which is
preferable. This activity can be adapted to many other comparisons,
such as two schools, two cars, two cell phone service plans, or two
bus routes. lt can also be used to integrate pronunciation with
grammar practice of comparatives.

1.

lntroduce the topic of housing. Ask the class what is irnportant when they look
for a place to llve. List thelr answers on the board, recasting them as much as
possible as nouns (e.g., location, size, rent/price, privacy, noise).

2.

lntroduce pronunciatlon. Check two of the items on the board and contrast
them in a sentence Iike "For me, loCAtion is more irnportant ihan SIZE.',

3.

Ask students which words you contrasted and how your voice shows the
contrast (the contrast words are heavlly stressed, pitch is higher on these
words). Repeat your sentence and ask students to repeat, using their voices to
h ghlight the contrast words.

4.

Ask a student to choose two items on the list and compare them for
importance. Provide feedback 0n pronunciatlon of the contrasted words.
Choose several other students to do the same.

5.

Find out if anyone tn class is living tn an apartment share. Ask the class why
people choose apartment shares.

6. Put students rn pairs, giving one member Chart A, and the other Chart B. Tell

the class that each student has half of the information about two apartment
shares. Each member of the pair tells (not shows) her partner the information
on ihe chart, stressing words that contrast (not all of the information on the
sample charts contrasts). The listener writes the missing informatron to
complete his chart. When the charts are complete, the pair discusses which
apartment share is more desirable.

7. After the pair work, ask students which apartment share they preferred and
why. Provide feedback on the pronuncia on of contrasting words.

100

:HAPTER

ffi

lntanation

ua"t rntonation Patterrx

what the Teacher Should Karow

As discussed aboyc, specific intonation patterns are often linked to sentence
types'. Yes'no questior.ls, for example , end in rising intonation. The link, however, is a

loose one. Bolinger, for example, reports that J,es-no questions end with falling
intonation almost as oflen as they end with rising intonation (1998). Research on
the role of gender and intonation in yes-no questions shows that women are more
likely to use rising intonation than men (Svrdal and Jilka 2003).
lfli questions can end with either falling or rising intonation. When the
question is a true information question, intonation falls. When the lVH question
is used to ask for a repetition or clarification, it rises. The example below
illustrates both.

A:

I know somebody at the UN that you should contact.

B: Great. What's
hls narne? (asking for informat
---'--''-----..-

on)

A: A. Chandaha nathan
B: What was that? (asking for a repet tion/c arification)

A: C'H-A-N-D-A-H-A-N-A-T-H-A-N.

Thl] use of rising intonation with 1f11 questions is a useful one for ESL
students, who frequently need to ask for repetitions or clarifications, and is also
addressed in a number of textbooks.
In discourse intonation, fisinE! intonation at

the end of a tone unit (thought

group) signals that information in the tone unit is shared between speaker and
hearer It can also be an invitation for the listener to make a conment (i.e.,
indicating the end of a turn). Brazil explains yes-n o questions plonounced with
risin!! tones (e.g., Is tbat tlre titleX as "making sure" questions, questions whose
answers the hearer knows and the speaker assumes to be true (1994a,20).

Flral Falling Intonation

Declaratives, Comrnands, Iflformation Questions. Final lalling intonation
(also called rising-falling) is t)'pical with declarative sentences, commands, and
information qr.restiol.rs. The genefal meaning of falling itttonation, certainty or
finality, is consistent with the typical meanings of declaratives and commancls. Ifl the
first statement below ("I saw John yesterda)'l'), the speaker is not expressing doubt

cHAprER

Intonation 1O1

about seeing John yestefday. Similarty, commands do not reflect doubt about what
the speaker wants to happen.
1

saw John yesterday.

Open the window.

Although information questions are not statements of fact, they

of certaintF. For example, when we ask the

neyertheless reflect a good deal

question Wbere did sbe go yesterd.ay? we believe that she went somes/here-we
iust don't know where.
In discourse, speakers use final falling intonation when they are informing
listeners of something new (of something the speaker believes the listener was not
aware of). Final faling intonation is also used to signal that a discourse or
conyersational tum is finished. For ottrer uses of falling intonation, see also
Comprehension Checks and Tag Questions, page 104.
Yes-No Questlons. Thompson describes yes-no qtestions with falling intonation
as conducive questions, questions to which the speaker already knows the
answers (1995).
Teacher (going over a student's essay that is very repetitive):
Are these two sentences really

dfferent?

Bolinger gives the follov/ing example of a yes-no question with falling

intonation, spoken with a steadily falling pitch by an exasperated mother to a child:
Are yolr going to pick up your toys?

----=-'=-

Final Risfurg Intonation

I.es-No Questlons. A final fising intonation can mean that the speaker is
unceftain. This final pattern is cofltmon in yesao questions and intonation
questions (declaratives used as questions).Btaztl calls yes-no questions with rising
intonation "making sure" questions <1994b, 2O).In the question below, intonation
rises on the prominent word ("Sonia") and stays high to the end of the question
(righ rising).
ls Sonia here?

102

IHAPTER

lntonation

A low-rising iJrtonation, where pitch is low on the prominent word and then
rises to a high note, is also used and appears to differ little in meaning from the highrisirg t ontour Oevis 2002).

tl'

ls\r9fiere?
Low-rising intonation is common in polite requests for information from
stmngers. We might use this intonation to stop someone on the street to ask for
the time .
Excuse me. Do you have
WU Questions Asking for a Repetition or Clarification. When 1tr41 questions
are used to ask for a repetition or clarification, intonation rises on the question
word, remains high, and rises a little at the end of the question.
Let's go to a movie.

B: What did you say?

A more exaggerated use of this rising pattern with lFI1 questions can indicate
disbelief or increduliry

A: A taxi hit my blke today.

B: What?

Holding the Floor

A final falling intonation indicates a speaker has fiiished speaking. To show the
opposite, that the speaker is not finished and has more to say, final intonation
doesn't fall ro the bottom of the speaker's ranfie, but remains at a higher ler.el.
Consider the two pronunciations of "I know" below.In the first, spoken with falling
intonation, the speaker signals to the listefler that she is finished.In the second, final
intonation remains faidy high, a signal that the speaker is not finished or needs time
to think.
I know

cnaprrn

Activity

3.3

lntonatictn "lf)f,.

final intonation: Mininat diatogues

Level

Most Levels

Worksheet

Page 221

Iips

Use short utterances to illustrate jntonation patterns.

Teach inionation patterns that occur at the ends of utterances.

Descriptior

This activity provides practice with final intonation patterns

associated with declarative sentences (falling), information questions
(falling), and yes-no questions (rising). As students practice
ihe
dialogues, the teacher can glve feedback on whether the range of
intonatjon is wide enough.

1. Students listen to the djalogue and practice jt in pairs.

2.

Students write their own mjnimal dialogues and perform them for the class.

Activity

3,4

Leyel

Finat intonation: Fanous people

Beginn ing

Worksheet None

]lps

Teach intonation patterns that occur at the ends of utterances.

Practice the intonation of communicatively useful language ihat your
students know how to use.

lsolate intonation patterns usjng nonsense syllables to make them

easier to hear.

Description ln thjs activity, students practice the rhythm and intonatjon

paiterns of common questions used for asking about names and
spellings in order to discover the name of a famous person. The
spelling questions also provide practice with the pronunciation of
letter names.

1.

Before class, prepare cards with the names of famous people your students
will recognize (actors, poljtlcians, musicians, school officials).'prepare as many

cards as there are students.

(continLted on next page)

1O4

:HAPTER

lntonation

ActtuiA 3.1 continue.l

2. ln class,

write the following questions on the board, varying the size of the
words to show their relative prominence. Draw intonation lines. (Do not write
the isolated rhythm patterns shown in parentheses on the board.)
wHAT',S your
HOW do you
WHAT'S your

FIRST

NAtVtE? (On ou

sPELL it?
LAST

(DA oa oa

NAM E?

DA

DA

Dn)

oa)

(on au DA On)

DA
How do you SPELL it? (DA o, ou

ou)

3. l\lodel each question, followed by its isolated rhythm-intonation pattern,

Students repeat both the question and the isolated pattern.

4. As a demonstration, choose a student to ask another ciassmate the four
questions. Provide feedback on rhythm-intonation and pronunciation. Repeat
the process, choosing another student to demonstrate the questions.
5. ln pairs, students ask each other the four questions. (Although many students
will know each other's first names, they may not know last names and spelling
may be even more mysterious, especially in classes where students speak

different native languages.

6. Famous people. Put students in new pairs and give each student a different
card (see step 1, above). Students ask each other the four quesiions on ihe
board and write their partners' answers. When pairs finish thelr cards, they
pass them to another pair and repeat the activity with cards from another pair.
Repeat the card passing and questions two more times.
7. Following the pair work, ask several students to ask a classmate (not their
partners) the same questions about the names on the classmate's current card.
Provide feedback on rhythm and intonation.

@! comp"ehension

Checks and Tag Questions

What the Teacher Should Know

Comprelrension checks, tags like OK? ot Rigrrt? Me appropriate for all levels of
students. Comprehension checks are added to the ends of statements and
pronounced with risinla intonation.
So I twist the white wires together, right?

A?TER

tntonation

"l0s

::s\e

expressions are easy for students to use and afe communicarively usefi-d, as
Pickering
suggests that ITAS include comprehension checks in their lectures in
--.11.
:iier to break up the preponderance of falling and level tones that haye been

:.::rn-ed (20O1).
Tag questions llke isn't be? or can !ou? end in either falling or rising
::Dnation.When the speaker is asking for confimation, the falling pattern is used.
-:-rn the speaker is expressing rincertainry
rising intonation is used.
Ihls is a nice party, isn't it. (requesting conf rmation)

''-,

You're from Mexico, aren't you? (expressing uncerta nty)

A tag question

alone

with falling intonation can also be used to

express

.rgreement.

A: lt's cold outside.

B: lsn't

it.

Tag questions are among the last question types to be used accurately by
students. They are granxmatically difficult, requiring mastery of the verb system as
well as subjcct-verb inversion (Lightbown and Spada 1999, 79). Because they occur

with either rising or falling intonarion, tlteA pronunciation is also difficr t. In

addition, they are pragmatically difficult. Levis suggests that before students are
taught how to pronounce tali questions, they lear-n the situations in which they are
used appropriately (1999,52). As an example, he imagines e help room situation in
which an ITA is working through problems witlt an undergraduate student who
seems to be having difficulry Levis asks how the I'I'A knows whether to ask about
the difficulty with a direct question or a tag question. He presents several possible
questions, shown below, and concludes that only thc first is cleady appropriate
(1999,53).
Student: Oh, I'm just not getting these problems.
ITA: This is real y hard for you, isn't it?

This isn't really hard for you, s

it?

ls this real y hard for you?

This is really hard for you?

Because of the difficulties with tag questions, they are better left as
pronunciation topic for high intemediate and advanced students.

106

(HAP\IR

Activity

tntanatian

3.5

Conryehension checks; My favo te sandwich

Most

Level

Worksheet None

:ip

Practice the intonation of communicatively useful language that your

students know how to use.

Description Students write a recipe for their favorite sandwich. The recipe should
be simple and easy to make. In pairs students listen to each other's
recipes and take notes. The listener checks his understanding by
reading back his notes and adding the confirmation check right?
with rising intonation. (Alternatively, students can give each other
directions to their homes, a favorite restaurant, park, movie theater,
or library. lTAs can define a term or concept from their field to
someone who isn't in their field.)

1.

Before class, prepare simple lnstructions for making a sandwich to use as a

demonstration, The example below is for a garlic-and-cheese sandwich. Only
one copy of the recipe is needed.

ngred ents, a slice of good bread,

your favorite cheese

c ove of garl c, ol ve oil, salt and pepper,

1. Peel the garlic clove and cut it in half.

2. Toast the bread.

3. Rub the cut sjde of the garlic over one side of the bread.
4. Sprinkle a little olive oil over the bread.
5.
6.

Sprinkle a little salt and pepper over the oil.

Add cheese to the bread and eat,

2. ln class, give the sandwich recipe to a student who

will read the instructions

while you write them on the bOard. Tell the student to read at a normal pace.
3. As the student gets ahead of your writing, stop him. Repeat the last part 0f the

instructions he read, ending with the comprehension check rghtZ

4. Ask the class what word you added to check your understanding. Ask whether
your voice rose or fell over that word (i.e., rightn. lf necessary, repeat the last
part of the instructions with the comprehension check.
5. The student continues to read the recipe instructi0ns and you continue writing
them on the board, stopping the reader from time to time to check your
understandl ng, using rteht?

.HAPTER

lntanation

"l07

Ytilnr) 3.5 continued

5.

Students write their own slmple recjpes for

a sandwjch (or some other food).
Provjde help with vocabulary.

7. Pai

work, One student reads her recjpe to her partner,

who takes notes on the
steps. The partner then checks his understandilg
ov-r!.oire back the notes
and using the comprehensjon check right.z witf,
i.ing

,tonu'tion.

jsts, Choice
euestions, and
IStoTlior,rfyith I
Non-Final-Thought
Groups
S/hat the Teacher Should Know

Listing Intonation. The first items in a lisr are usually

pronounced with rising
intonation, especia.lly

when they a-re single woros or strort ptrrases. The

last item is
pronounced with falling intonation to indicate
that the list is complete.

-.''''/---\

We v'sited Beijirg. Sharghsi. and

Horg4oig.

If the speaker wants to show that the list is not complete

and that she could
add more to it, the last item is also pronounced
*itt
,lrirrg irriorration. The raised
final pirch indicates that the list is nor finished. Th
e word1nd is ofren omitted in
"open" lists.
One, two, three. .

----''/--''''/

We visrted Beijing, Shanghai, Ho-ng Kong.

.

, cauldwelr and Hewings point out that this intonation rule,like all others,is not
always
observ-e<l

presented

in natural speech (1996) and that ,fr" ,.rf., should not be

"hard and fast.,'They cite an example from an introduction

to a radio
prog?m g: th: poetry of Phillip La&in (1996,3]8).In
describing his poetry, Larkin
uses two lists;the first (a) follows the pattern
clescribe.l above while the second (b)
does not.
as

(a) | tike to see at a gtance ,-,.-1"-ngt'.

tniGilo,^,u

no

,*

*--===J;nuru.

(b) And r want to prck up things rir" p*.trnt-----ron

uno ituti..iiltlil-J i. g"t ro.t.
Cauldwell and Hewings, working in a discourse intonation
framework (see page

93), suggest that Larkin chose ro use falling into nurion

un
rising, because punctuation is not something the

prnriuation, ruther tlr^n

radio listiners would expect to be
important in poetry (i.e.,lookini at punctuation is
new information).In a discourse
intonation model, falling intonation is used to sign"t
new into.mafiorr.

108

:HAPTLR

tntonation

Choice Questions and Questions with o/. Choice questions are often phrased
or: They look tike -lLlesr?o qllestions, but the speaker expccts them to be
answered with one of the choices, rather than with./es or zo. 'l'he choices are in
different thought groups;pitch rises on the first choice(s) and lalls on the last.

with

'-'-,'-'--'-

A.

Do you want to go on Friday, Saturday, or Sunday?

B.

Saturday.

Some J,es-no questions with or are trucJes-/lo questions, qr,restions that can be
appropriatel) answefed with Js o!: ,?o. In this case, both items in the or phrasc arc
in the same thought group, ancl intonati(.,n fises as with other l.,es-7?(/ questions.

A: Can you corne on Saturday or Sunday? (the speaker doesn't care wh ch day)
B. No, sorry. I'm busy.

Non-Final-Thought Groups. Non-final-thought groups (phrases or clauscs) can

encl with a slight rise or fall. Pitcll cloes not rise or fall to the level it docs at the end
of an uttcraficc. This slight chanl;c in pitch is one of the rvays the boundaly of a
thought group is markcd (Avcry and Ehdich 1992). Th intonation on the second
clause often starts at a lower note. These changes in intonation at internel thought
grc-r4r bounclaries are difficult to hc:r.
lforgot my keys, and now I'm locked out.
lf h s score is good, he'll app y to law schoo

s.

it's ate.
--''--.--..-___--,,-..--_
,-=------^--,--

You can't come n because

When the phone rang, I didn't answer it.

In a discourse intonation fi?mework, final and nonfinal phrases (tone units) afe
not differentiated from eaclr other tbrmall_\.. A risin! tone at the end of a phr.rse
inclicates that the inlbrmation in thc phflse is slrared betn'een the speaker and
hearer'. A falling tone shorvs that the speakcr believes the informetion is new (or
chooses to speak as if it were new). In Pierrehumbert and Hitschberg's framervort,
nonfinal phrases and clanses are callcd intermediate pluascs. high tone at the encl
'\
of rln intcrmcdiatc phrasc indicates that it is to be interpreted $,-ith what follows. A
low tone is used to show that the phrase is independent of $.'hat follows ( 1990, 287).
Neither explanation of the differencc in meaning bet$-een nonfinal rising and
falling intonation is concrete or clear enough to appll in the classroom. Cllxssroom
studies ha\.e shown that the shared-ne$' distinction is frequcntly unclear to tcachcrs
and students. It seems likely that the distinction bet$ een informrtion that is to be
interpreted with $'hat fbllows and information that is indepefldent of s.'hat follows

cHAprER

lntonation 1Og

will be

as unclear, leaving the teacher with no ready explanation for why intonation
on one nonfinal clause falls but rises on anothef. In my own teaching, I address the
pronunciation of nonfinal clauses (phrases) as part of rhlthm (thought groups) and
do not focus on the co-occuffinfi intonational changes, which are especially difficult
for students to notice.

Acaivity

3.6

level

Listing intonation: eobrs, aninals, fanily wotds , ,

Beginn ing

Worksheet None

Tip

lntegrate intonation work wilh classroom work on other English skills.

Description Students practice listing intonation in the context of a game. After

presenting the intonation patterns associated wiih lists, students
play the game in groups of three. The group chooses a vocabulary
category that your students have learned (for example, family
words). One student starts by naming two types of family members,
using listing intonation (e.g., mother and father). The next student
repeats the two items and adds a new one (mother, father, and
sister). The third student repeats the three items of the second
student and adds a fourth (mother, father, sister, and brother).
'
When the group can't think of any new words in that category (or
remember all the words that have been said before), the last
contributor to the list chooses a new category (e.g., colors, animals,
rooms in a house, or means of transportation).

1.

On the board, write category headings. Choose familiar categories that students
can expand (e,9., animals, colors, family words, months). Ask students for
words that belong in each category and add them to the board.

2.

Demonstrate listing intonation when the lists are complete. Ask the question
What are the first three (colors) in the list? Choose a student to answer.

3.

Write the answer on the board, adding intonati0n lines, and model the answer,
Students repeat.

-----/.'''/

red, blue (and) yellow

4.

Then ask What are the first four (animals) on the listT \Nrite the answer on the
board, showing the intonation lines. Students repeat.

5. Elicit

intonaiion: l\4odel each item on the lists and ask students whether your
voice goes up or down. (Alternatively, explain intonation: 0n the first words,
your voice goes up. When the list is f nished, your voice goes down.)

(c

xinued on next page)

10

LAPTER

lntonation

Actiuitt 3.6 dlntlnued

6.

Erase the words in the categories, leaving only the category headings on the

board. Choose two students to demonstrate the game with you.

7.

Choose one of the categories on the board-for example, colors. Ask a student
from your "group" to say two colors. Give feedback on intonation. Ask the other
student in your group to repeat the first student's colors and add a third. v,ou
repeat the three colors and add a fourth. The student who chose the first two
colors repeats your four and adds a fifth, and so on. When someone forgets a
color word or can't think of a new one, a new category is chosen. The student
who is the last to add to a category (i.e., has produced the longest list), gets to
start the new category.

8.

Students work in groups of three and repeat the demonstration.

Kl

Appositives and Parentheticals

V{hat the Teacher Should Know

Appositives. Appositives are phrases that follow a noun and provide additional
fufofmation about the noun. They are pronounced in a group by themselves, set off
from the rest of the sentence.
When an appositive occurs insidc an utterance, intonation also sets it off from
the rest of the sentence. At the beginning of the appositiye, pitch drops to a low
note, rises a little on the impofiant word in the appositive and falls again to a low
level.
I\4r.

Johnson, rny boss, s coming to d nner.

._?,--..\

Yakima, "The Frult Bowl of the Nation," rs my hometown.

tr---l

ft

When appositives end a sentence, intonation usually starts low, rises, and
then falls.
I inviled

l\4 .

Johr:on. mv boss.

- -/--'\.-

l\4y hometown is Yakima, "The Fruit

_r--Bow

of the Nation."
__

Pai:entheticals. Parentheticals are expressions that are set apart from the main
utterance . Examples include direct address forms (e.g.,Mr Smitb, can I ask lou a
question?), comments thnt exprcss how the speaker feels about the message (e.9.,
He's late ag.in, I suppose), politeness expressions (e.9.,I'd like an application,
please), of final reporting expressions, (e.g., I'm la4t, be said). Parenthetical

CH^prF,R

tntonation

111

information is pronounced in its own thought group,e with low pitch and low

volume. This rather monotone delivery sets the parenthetical information off from
the "livelier" intonation ofthe main message.weaker le,,els of stress are also involved
in parenthericals (Dickerson 2003).
The intonation on sentence initial parentheticals can end in either a rise or

a fall.

lVr. Smith, can I ask you a question?

lVary.

c6" lash you a questior.

In the middlc of a sentence or at the encl, parentheticals are pronounced v/ith

lower levels of pitch; intonation rises slightly on the prominent wofcl (Celce_Murcia
et al. 1996, 191).
I

was waiting, I guess, for an hour.

That's rny book, I think.

Students use parenthetical expressions, but they may not use appropriate
intonation to set the expression off from the rest of the
utterance effectiyely. If students give a parenthetical word too much prominence,
that word may be interpreted as part of the main Lrtterance rather than as a
pafenthetical, leading to a possible confusion between Ilozr,.s our (Jncle Cha es?
J,,
lbr example, and Aou.t's lour uncle, Cba es?
stress, grouping, and

Activity 3.7

Parcntheticals: Yau look ptetty happy, Iuke.

Level

Advanced

Worksheets

Pages

Tip

Practice the intonation of communicatively useful language that your

students know how to use.

llescription

This activity provides practice listening to final parentheticals in

dialogues, and noticing the pronunciation that marks them as
parenthetica ls.1o For pronunciation practice, students add final
parentheticals to a d ialogue.

222-223.

(continued on nefi page)

'l

long pa1nthetical may consist olmore than one thought group:for example, lo ur uark. ln
facl, all the aot h )nu'ue darl thit
b.$bee letific ln lhis sentence, the parenthelic l is long (ii1.bct, aitlhe aork
'rc t1atrc tbis zr,ee*) altl would likelv be

eek

:.onounced in firce thoughl gto.lps o/l.t'act/all the aorhl,ou l,p

-lirry \I'ould chffecteria the entiN p tnthetical

l0l

his a.tivitvls nodcled after Dicke$on (2003)

la

76r, 6i, ,,rrU, Regirilles

of Length. a lou"pitched, monoton'e

112

]HAPTER

tntonatian

Actiuit! 3.7 conunuecl

@ 1. Students listen to the

dialogue. Direct students' aitention to how the

underlined parentheticals are pronou nced.

2.

Elicit the pronunciation, using these questions:

ls the parenthetical separated from the main sentence?

ls the voice loud or soft?

.
.

ls heavy stress used on the parenthetical?

ls the voice low or high?

Alternatively, explain the pronunciation of parentheticals: There's a slight pause

before the parenthetical expression; the volume of the voice is low; the stresses
are not as strong; and the pitch 0f the voice is low.
3. Students listen to the dialogue again and repeat the lines.

4. Students practice the first dialogue in pairs and then do a class reading. Give
feedback on pronunciation of the parentheticals.
5. ln pairs, students add parenthetlcal expressions to the second dialogue. They
can use examples from the table of parentheticals given on Worksheet 3.7B, or
other expressions they know, Tell students to use parentheticals that are
appropriate to the meaning of the dialogue and not to overuse specific
parentheticals. Students practice ihe dialogues in pairs.
6. After the pair work, choose palrs of students to present their dialogues to the
class. Provide feedback when parentheticals are not clearly set off from the
main sentence.

ffi

ntonation, Emotions, and Attitudes

What the Teacher Should Know

Intonation plays an important role in the expression of emotion and attitude.
Gussenhoyen (2004) distinguishes between informational interpretations of
intonation and affective interpretations. An example of an informational
interpretation of falling intonation is "finished" or "ceftain." As cliscussetl above,
languages show considerable similarity in how they interpret the informational
meaning of final intonation. Affective interpretations includc e'mluations of whether
a speaker is angr)', fiiendly, conlident, or sacl.
There is evidence that languages associate similar affective intefpretations with
particular chamcteristics of pitch and intonation (Bezooijen 1984, Scherer 2000,
Scherer et al. 2001), ns well as evidence of sorne differences (Graham, Hamblin and
Feldstein 2001, Chen and Gusshoven 2003). The universal interpretations

CttAPtER

lntanation

113

(infomational and affecti\.c) of jr]tonarbn are belieyed to clerive from biological codes
(Ohala 1983, Gusshor''en 2(X)4). One biological cocle, rhe ficc1uenc1. code, associates
conrotatioos of "small" with high pitches xnd "big" with low pitches. .Ihcse
associations come from the fact that larger vocal cords and yocal tmcts, such as those
of men (or large animals), ploduce lo\rer pitclted sounds;smallcr r,'ocal corcls ancl \,ocal
facts procluce higher pitchcd sounds, slrch as those of childrcn (of small animals).
Afltcti\,'e interpretntions of intonation arc believcd to havc developed from thc
big-small meirnings of low and high pitch. Low pitch is assorliatcd wirh
assertivcness, confidence, dominance, aggression, finalitl', and thrcatl hilh pitch is
associated with lack of certainq', fricncllir.tcss, lack of confidence, politeness,
vulncrabiliq', and submissivcness (Ohala 1!t3J, Gusscnhoven 2004).
Another code, the effort code, maintxins thxt lireatef articulatory efloft results
in clearer, more explicit speech contfirsts. In intooation, greatcr ellbrt produces a
wider ranlle of pitch, wliile less effort produccs a narrower rarlle of pitch. Affective
interpretations of a widcf range of pitch include surprise, enthusiasn, authority, and
helpftrlness. Interprctations of a narrowef fange of pitch (less effort) ir.rclude lack of
interest, lack of commitment, less surprise, ancl so on.
ln intcrpreting others' emotional states, we r.ely not olly on vocal cues (level
or range of pitch), but also on r.isnal cues (facial gestur.es, posturc, or body
language); on context cues (the situation in which a particular conversatiolt takes
place or the felationship between speaker and listener); and on linguistic cues (the
specific wolds used ancl their connotations). An emplo,vee who takes offensc at l.ris
boss's criticism, for example , mav say nothirg but srill rcveal his rlnlier in a stiffening
of the lace ancl body. An onlooker to the exchange rnight latcr sa,.\r, "I know he was
angry I conld sec it in his face."
Research on nativc speakers' abilitr,' to recognize ernotions in audio recordings.
where there are no visual cues;rnd therc may be no context cues, shows agrcement
as to what emotion is being portrayed, alrbougb there afe diff'efences in rhe degree
of agreement. When listeners arc asked to choose among a small numbef of
"prinary" emotions (anger, fear, sadness, jolD, agreement is highef than when
"secondafy" cmotions (hate, nervolrsness, or timidity) arc also included among the
choices.r 1 Disaireements usuallv inyoh-e distinctions between closely r.elatecl
emotions such as sadness and depression.r2
Graham et al. (2001) studic.l the abilit]- of lrati\.e and nonnatiye speakers of
Englisl] to idcntify emotions portm,yed in English in an ar-rclio recording of fbur
professional actors. The nativc English listencrs $,'ere Alnerican college students;the
nonnative listeners werc Japa[ese and Spanish ESL studcnts at different levels of

ilor extnple. leer leads to flighl) Scondan cmolions nll'be mo|e culture specilic. \lOst firchologists
flace rngc1 1iu,
hapliness xnrurg lhe frrnaN e.roLions but nto' not aqLe 0n lhe lull set Stc l0r criLNllc. ElnDm (1999)

io

rccitations ol ihe iLlphabet |ead with diliercnt emotiors (Deurz

lnd DlriL

1959) t0 te\ts rcad

bl

actors.

sadness,

114

(H^PIER

lntonatiott

proficiency. They found that although the ESL learners identified emotions at betterthan-chance le\.els, they identfied them less accuratell than natir e EngLish listeners.
A rnore surprising finding was that the more-proficient ESL srudents wefe not bctter
able to identify the emotions than the less-proficieflt students. Gmham et al. suggest
several possiblc explanations fbr their results, including the tact that students are
not likely to be exposed to certain types of emotion in the classroom. Indeed, the
clzssroom is not an appropriate place for tlte expression of man] strong emotions;
neither teachers nor chssmates welcome the genuine expression of erupting ra!e,
deep despaif, of scathing sarcasm.

The attitudes and emotions we want our students to express more

appropriately are tamer: confidence, interest, ffiendliness, and so on. These are
positive attitudes that are likely to extend conYefsation, create more opportunities
for practice, and, ultimately, lead to greater learning. We can expose our students to
the expression of more extreme emotions and attitudes vicariously by bfinging
emotion into the classroom through Yideos and movies. Because the affbctive
interpretation of intonation is highly dependent on context, it is difflcr t to make
teachable, generalizable statements about its use (LeYis 1999) As a result, intonation
teaching should focus preclominantly on features of intonation that ha\.e broad
informational value in discourse (e.g., making words prominent or turn taking)
father than on the expression of emotions.
Students can, howeYer, without explicit irlstruction on the use of specific pitch
levels or pattems of intonation, be given the opportunity to "stretch their Yoices" in
role plays and skits, where they ffy expressing different feelinp;s and attitudes and
try on different persoflae.

Activity

3.8

Attitudes and emotions: Anbiguous dialogues

level

l\4ost

Worksheet

Page

Tip

Encourage monotone speakers to use their voices more

224

Description This activity can be used as a voice warm-up. The teacher or

students describe different situations in which a short exchange
between two people might take place. Pairs of students act out the
exchanges. The differing relationsh:ps and situations require the
expression of different attitudes and emotions.

1. Students

2.

read the dia ogue and the situations on Worksheet 3.8.

The teacher explains that the class wlll use the dialogue to act out the
situations in the handout. Since the words in the dialogue do not change,
students must use their voices to show the different situatlons.

CHAPTLR

lntonati.)n

115

Actit) y 3.8 mnttnued

3.

The teacher and an outgoing student perform the dialogue,

acting out one of
the situations on the handout.

4. ln pairs, students perform the diarogue

situations.

5,

three times, to refrect each of the three

After the pair work, the teacher chooses different pairs of students
to act out
one of the sit_uations. The pair should not tell the class whjch situation
they are
acting out After ristening, the crass wiI decide which of the three
situations
was demonstrated.

Actiyity

3.9

lnprovs; The Chaser

level

High lntermed iate/Advanced

Wolksheet

None

Tips

Encourage monotone speakers to use their voices more.

lntegrate intonation work with classroom work on other English
skills.

Description lmprovisations are useful in the classroom and give students

an
opportunity to take on other personae. I use the short story ,,The
Chaser" by John Collier (1940) for improvs. ln ,,The Chaser,,, a

young man purchases a love potion very inexpensively from

a shrewd
shopkeeper. The shopkeeper first tells the young man about
another
potion he sells, a ,,life cleaner," which is far more expensive
than the
love potion. The shopkeeper knows that the love potion will produce
such suffocating devotjon from the woman who drinks it that the
young man will return to the shop, later in life when he is
well_off. to
purchase the life cleaner and rid himself of the woman.
The improv
scene takes place either iwenty days or twenty years (students
choose) after the purchase of the love potjon and uses two
to three
actors. lnstead of basing the improv on a short story the teacher
can
choose a different situation for students to enact*ior. example,
a
first date, breaking up, or lost :uggage at the airport.

1. The teacher or teacher and students choose a situation to act out in

five-minute scene. Objects in the classroom can be used as props.

2.

Two students are chosen

initially as actors and one as director. The director

decides what props should be used and blocks the scene (decides
where the
actors and props should be, where actors should enter and exit
the set, etc.).
The two actors and director come to the front of the class.
(coittinued on next page)

"116

cHAprER

lntanation

Actil'io, 3.9 continued

3,

The class creates the script, which the teacher writes on the board and
students copy at their desks. New characters and actors are added as
necessary. As the scene is being written, the teacher provtdes needed language,
gives feedback on grammar and word choice, makes suggesttons about the
direction in which the scnpt is going, and decides when the scene is finished.

4.

The script is rehearsed by the actors and the class as it is being written. The
director and audience provide feedback to the actors to make them more
expressive. For examp/e, they might say, "that doesn't sound angry enough" or
"that sounds too angry" or "say that louder."

5.

Once the script is written and on the board, the actors rehearse again,

receiving direction from the ciass and director,

6. Then the script rs erased. The actors act out the scene, improv sing as necessary.
7. After the performance, the actors and director stay in character. The rest of the
class asks probing questi0ns about the characters.

CONCLUSION
The role of intonation in both structuring and interpreting a speaker's meaning
makes it a crucial component of pronunciation. It is also the most colrmunicative
aspect of pronunciation: Alone , withot-lt words, it can communicate meaning. Native
speakers, for example , may "hum" common utterances lilFie I don't knott) ot yes,

A: ls l\4ax

ready?

(l don't know.)

A: Are you ready?

Fr

B: ff ['l

(Yes.

Teachers should focus intonation work on communicatively useful ancl easyto-hear intonation features such as highlighting or comprehension checks,
presented and practiced with sufficient context to make meaning clear Dialogues
and other materials from nonpronunciation class work can provide an excellent
source fbr intonation practice and at the same time reinfofce the sructures ancl
vocabulary taf[ieted in those materials.

HAPTE

Cowboy tongs? This is how one of n]y stuclents pronounced.cowboy

towns.,,
Given the context, I understood what thc student wantecl to say,
but 1:he
pfonunciation was odd enough to make fi]e turn it over and oycf
in
m.,, he.rd

missing whatever the student said next. part of the problem was a
mispronunciation
of the I'inal consonant in tozlr?z

Pronunciation difliculties with consonants are highly dcpendent

on the
student's native language, in contrast to vowel cliflicr tics, which
are more
widespread (McNerney and Menclelsohn 1992). There are 24 consonants
in Noffh
American English.

There are only a few Engrish consonzurts v/hich afc difficr t for most
studcnts
first sounds in thing and tDlO. Since many English consonants ha\'e close
counterpafis in other languages, studcnts may fi.rd consonants. at least
at the
heginnings ('l w(,rd\. easi(.r to lcffn lhrtn vowcls. Ted(.herr
,f.,n
iUlO.on.rnrn,r
-r1
easier to tcach than vowels (Daucr 2005). corsonrnt contmsts are not
as clitlicult
perceptually as vowel contmsrs (Tench 2003), ancl the spelling of consonants
is nore
(e.g. the

consisteflt than the spelling of vowels. ln addition, because consonants

involve
touching one part of the mouth to zu.lother (or moving one part of tlte
mouth close to
anothcr part), the studcnt has fixed refefence points, which are often easy
to visu;tiize
and control;instructinli a student ro touch the rop teeth to the bottom
lip, for example,
is usually sufficient to enable l.ler to pronounce tlte first sounds in
,s/J ancl uan.
Pronouncing consonants at the cnds of words or sylleblcs, on the other
hancl, is
challenging for most students, even when the same consonants pose no problems
at
1'17

118

cuAPrtR

Cansanants

the beg rnings of words. A student who has no difficulq' pronounclitg th.e

/t/

time
may nevertheless have a great deal of difficulty pronouncing tbe /t/ it migbt.
Consonants that occrr in consonant clusters Groups ofconsonants, as in train or test)
are also rnore difficult than consonants which occur singly (Hancin-Bhatt and Bhatt
199D. A student, for example, may be able to pronounce /r/ in rou), but not in grozl
Problems with consonant clusters and with finxl consonants generally are tied
to the dilferences between syllable structure in the learner's native language and
in English.
'1l].

SYII-{BLE STRUCTT]RE
a "beat" in a word. For example, dog has one syllable, urslt has two
u)onderful has three syllables. The center (nucleus) of a syllable is a
r'owel. In English syllables, vowels may be preceded and/or followed by one or more
consonants. Every language places restrictions on the type and location of
consonants that can occur in syllables. The word tlack, for example, is not a
permissible English word because /tll is not a permitted cluster (although it is in
some languages). Trlrs4 which doesn't happen to occur in English, is a permissible
word because it does not violate English s_vllablc strucLrre (the beginning cluster in
the nonword t /rst occurs in tbree altrd tbrift).
Syllables are either open or closed. Open syllables end in a vowel;for example,
the word see is an open syllable, and soJn? contains two open syllables ("so" and "fa").
Closed syllables end in one or more consonants; r/og for example, is a closed
pictule.s (pic-tures) contains two closed syllables.
syllable,
^nd
Open
syllabtes, found in every language, are simpler oi more ufliyersal than
closecl syllables (Jakobsen and Halle 1956, Greenberg 1965, Tarone 1980). Students
whose natiye languages are predominantly open-sllable languages Oapanese,
Cantonese, Portuguese) often have difficr.rlty pronouncing the final consonants and
consonant clusters of English s-vllables, like those in dog, felt, or utaltz.
Thus, the teacher can assume that pronunciation work with a few generally
"difficult" consonants. with consonant clusters. and with final consonants $'ill
benefit most students, regardless of nativc-lanlauage background. For other
consonants, howe\.er, the teacher will need to cliagnose the speech of his students
and base additional consonant work on those assessments.

A syllable is

s_yllables, and

ARTICIIIATION OF CONSONANTS
When two parts ofthe vocal tract (the areas where souncls are produced) move
close enough toiether to obstruct the air streem, consonants arc produced. For
example, the fust sounds ln path llnd batb in'.r'olve a brief closure of the lips, an
obstruction that completely stops thc airflow. If snrdents cannot pronounce a

CtlAprER

_i,19

Consonants

consonant alter seeing and hearing it cleady modeletl,

they may need information
about how the consonant is articulated (pronounced).
Consonant

articulation

involyes three factors:the place ofarticulation, the

marut*
r".f,.f.i"g.
Place of aftianlatioz refers to the place where
""i.rl"*rr,
the ai_r"fsteam
is obstructecl in the
vocal tract. For the fust sotnds of pati and bath,
this occurs ,i ,n. lpr, which are
pressed together /b/ and /p/ are called
bilabial (,,rwo lips,,) sounds becausc the
obstruction occurs at the lips. If you prepare to say time
and dime, lToldjllg the first
souncls of these words and concentmting
on the tip of the tongue, you should feel the
tip of the tongue touching behind the top teeth. The rop
of the mouth just behind the
teeth is_ called the alveolar ridge or tooth ndge.
/t/ and /A/ are both alvcolar consonants.
. The consonants of English_ are produced at seven places in the vocal tract,

shown in the diagram below The place of articulatlon

of specllic consonants is
shown in the charr.

Nasal Cavity
Palate

Velum

Bilabial consonants
@oth lips)

Tongue

I-abio-dentat
consonants
(teeth and lips)

Vocal cords/

glotis

p, b,

m,w

Interdental

0 (thought),

consonants

6 (though)

Getweefl the teeth)

AlYeolat consonants

t, d, s, z, n,l,

Gehind the rop

teeth)
Palatal consonants

(front roof of the

mouth)

J ("hip),
g (pleasure),

tf (chair),

CazT-)

y (ves)
Velaf consonants
(soft palate)

Glottal consonant
(vocal cords)

k (cow),
c Go)
! (sing)

120

:HAPT:R

Consonants

Manner of articulation refers to the wa-Ir iI Fhich the air stream is

obstructed.Ifith stop consonants, the air stream is brieflr but completely stopped.
Tty p6th and bath again and holcl the first sound-do not release it. If you now
try to breathe through your mouth, you will find ,vou cannot: The closure of the
lips completely stops the airflow. Now say the first sounds of ls, ard uan,
prolonging the consonants. You will notice two differences betryeen /p,b/ nnd
/v/,rhe air continues to flow through the mouth. Second,
/f, v/. First, with /f/
^nd than
/f/ and /v/ are "noisier"
/p/ or /b/-there is a hissy sound when they are
pronounced. /f/ an(l /v/ are fricati!-es, a second manner of articulation. With
fricatiyes, the air stfeam is obstructed enough to create turbulence and a noisy
sound, but not completely stopped.
Affficate sounds represent a third manner of articulation. There are two
affricates in English: the first sounds in cbeck /tl/ and jazz /Q,/. An affricate is a
complex sound that combines a stop consonant Ut/ or /d/ in English) with a
edge very slowly,
fricatiye: [/ (^s in sbip) or /s/ 6s in pk..sure). s^y mucb
^nd
"cuts off" the vowel
prolonging the end of the words. There is a brief silence that
before the final consonant is produced; this is the "stop" part of the affricate (the /t/
of /t[/ and tl]'e /d/ ot /qD.when the stop is rcleased, the noisy fricatiye part of the
affricate is heard.
In all, there are six manners of articulation. rvhen important, manner of
articulation is covered below in Specfic Consonants.
Stops (air is stopped)

p,b,t,d,k,g

Fricatives (afu is obstacted but not

{ \. 0, 6, s, z, f (ship),

stopped)

h (hearT)

Affricates (stop + fricative)

tf tchairr, Q tjazzl
m. n. ! (sin9

Nasals (air comes out

tlrough the

noso
Liquids (A/ and /rDl

l,r

Glidts (Jw/ and /yD

w,y

(pleasure),

The final factor that determines the sound of a particular consonant is

uoicing-whether the vocal cords are yibrating as the consonant is produced.
'When the vocal cords vibrate, yoiced sounds (e.g.,
/b/ 'and /v/) are produced.
'When the vocal cords do not yibrate, r'oiceless sounds are produced (e.g., /P/
and /f[).
I

The

tem'Ljquid"

is a perceptual

ternr 'lhe c0ns0nanls

//

and/l/

heve a liquid sornd.

]HA?TER

Consonants

121

You can test voicing by placing your fingertips alongside the yocal cords (the
Adam's apple) nnd pressing gently while 1'ou alternate between a long /y/ arrd a
long /f/:

wvrrffflfi'vwffffff

'When you say A'l'v\.v/, )'ou should be able to feel the vibration ifi )'our fingertips.
When yotr say /ffff/, th.e yibration "switches off." It is difficult to feel rhe difference
in voicing between /p/ and /b/ n ttls way, because these sounds can't be prolonged
and /y/ can. Howerze! if you close youf e;rrs with your fingers and then say"pa"
^s/f/
and "ba," keeping the vowels as short as possible, you can hear the vibration in your
head with "ba" but not with "pal'

Voiceless sounds (vocal cords do

p, r, k, 0 (think), f,

s,

J (ship),

tf (cheap), h

vibrate)
sounds (vocal cords vibrate)

b, d, g,

Y,

6 (then),

(jazz),n,m,D

z, 5 (pleasure),
(sin9, r l, rv, y

&

WIIAT DO STUDENTS NEED TO KNOW?

Although eyery consonant has a place of afticulation and a manner of
articulation and is either \.oiced of voiceless, teachers rarely need to refer to all
three parameters (place, manner, and voicing). For example, if students
pronounce other as"ozzer:'the error involves place of articulation, not yoicing or
manner of articulation. For the middle sound in ot e4 the tip of the tongue should
be between the teeth;when students say "ozzer," the tip of the tongue is behind
the top teeth.
In addition, teachers should avoid technical terms like uelum or alueolar
ridge or fricatiues in the classroom.lwhen it is necessary to refer to features of
consooant afticulation, diagrams afe effective, and most technical tefms have easyto-understand, ordinary English paraphrases.

122

(1lAPttR

C(ntlonants

AIJTRRNATTVES TO TECHNICAI TERMS

Bilabial

Both lips

Labio-dcntal

Top tceth an.l bottorl lip

Alveolar ridge

Td)th ridgc;flat part behind the top teeth (this can be felt with
the tongue)

Palate

Front part of the top/roof of the mouth (this can be felr with the
tonglre)

Vchul

Back part of the top/roof of the mouth (this cannot be felt with

the tongue)
Vocal cords

ry

No substilute , but tl.le teacher can point to tlle Adam's apple

Stop

Stop: the air is completely stopped

Fricative

A noisy sound; the air isn't completcly stopped

Affricate

/t/

+ /J/ prcnounced together (4/ is lirst soturd in s/rrp). Students

will not hear the two parts as separate sounds (see Sibilants,
below);

/d/ + /3/ ptonouncecl together (/3/ is the middle sound in

pleasure).
Students

will not hear the two parts

as separate sounds

tn, or "en[a"

Nasal

Nasal;lhe eir comes out thc nosc;

Liquid

rorl

Retroflexion

The tip of thc tongue poil.rts/cu s I'rp

Lareral

l; air passes over the sides of tl.tc tongue (refetence to this term
is rarely necessarl,

Glide

&,

Voiceless

Voiceless; r'ocal cords do not Yibrate

voiced

Voiced; vocal cords \.ibrute; morc "sound" than voiceless consonants

1/,

V\\-an or j/ VYan

cHApT[R,i Consonants

"l2i

TIPS FOR TEACHING CONSONANTS

The six tips listed below provide some general suggestions for helping sfi.tdents
improve their pronunciation of consonants. The tips nre based on how consonants
are pronounced in English and on how they are learned by nonnative speakers.

ffirps
improve their

W'e discuss what the teacher shor d know about each of these topics and provicle
suggestions for te;Lching ttrem. In some cases, the suEigestion is a classfoom activity.In
other cases, it is effor coffection. Suggestions for error correction are shon enough to
use when sh.rdents rre engaged in nonpronunciation actiyities. They are also usefij for
addressing pronunciation problems that only one or two of your students experience.
The remainder of this chapter presents the following consonants and lbatures
of consonant ptonunciation. The slx tips aboye are explained further and reflected

in the context of specific consonants.

7. Labials: pe' bet, jfeet, uet, net

2. th so].]lJ'ds: tbink, this
3. Srops /r/ and /d/: tie, die;Fla[rs: tuefting, zaed.ding; Glottaljzed /t/: xuritten
4. Sibilants: see, zoo, sboe, pleasur?, cheap, jazz
5. Nasals: sz4 somq sung
6. Stops /k/ and /g/: coat, goat;'lhe lettef x
7. Glottxl /h/ lzand
8. Illltial /r/ . rigbt
9. Initial A/: Ugbt; Final A/: all; Contrasting /l/
/n/: ligbt,night
^nd

124

HAPILR

Cotisonants

10. Contmsting /r/ afld /l/: rigbt-Ught

lI. Glides:/)/J"l xnd /\\/ tttt)'
12. Initial yoiceless stops. pea, tea, ke!
13. Initial consonant cllusters'. probletl
14. Final consonants:plecq asft
15. -ed and -s endings

ffi

ruriur., p" t, bet, feet, aet, uet

what the Teacher Should Know

Articulation of the labial consonants /p, b, f, v, w/ involves the lips.Vith /p/ ancl
is voicclcss
/b/ ]s voiced.With /f/ a'nd /v/,tlre top
^nd
teeth touch the lower lip; / is yoiceless
/v/ is voiccd. with /w/, the lips are
^nd
rounded. The diagram'below shows the mouth shapes for these consonents.

A/, the lips firnrly close;/p,/

pandb

fandv

Coflsonants nnde with the lips, the labial sounds /p, b, f, v, w/, are the source
a
of variety of pronuncintion problems. The protrlems clepentl on the native
language of the student end usually involve specific pairs of souncls:

/p, b/: These sounds are problems for Arabic students. The problem is onc of
voicing. In Arabic, /p/ and /b/ are variants of the same sound.

/p, f/: These souncls are confused by Koreart-speaking students

/i v/:These sounds are problems lbr Japanese-spenking students
,/b, v,/:These souncls are problems for Spanish-speaking studcnts

.
.
.

/y, w/: These sounds are problems for native speakers of a wide rangc of languages: Chinese, Vietnamcse, Thai, German and other Germanic languages,
l'urkish, and Russian and other Slavic latlguages

Consonant clusters with /w/, especially /kw/ (e.g., question, quiet, Ianguryq hoin):These words are problems for Korean sttrdents, who often omit
/w/ (or fail to round the lips enough to make ,/w/ cleady heard;scc also Initial
Consonant Clusters, bekrw).

uroman, uoulD: 'Ihis is a pfoblem for natiye

speakers ofJapanese especiall)', as wcll as Korean. See Glides, page 148.

. The sequence /wo/

(e .g.,

CHA?|ER,4 Consonants

125

Few students ha\'e problems with the articulation of all five labial sounds (/p,
In classes where students speak a varietF of native languages, the ftrll set
of sounds can be presented, and the teacher can be confidenr that the lesson will
address problems that each student has. Because labial consonants are pronounced
at the front of the mouth and ctifferences between them are easy to see, students
have good control and awareness of articulation. These souncls are easv to teach and
eas) lLr letrn.
In a classroom where all students speak the same natiye language, the teacher
can focus the lesson on a specific pail (or pairs) of problem souncls. For example,
with a class of Spanish studenrs,the teacher can fbcus on /b/ and /y/.In Spanish, the
stop pronunciation [bl occurs at the beginning of a word; a bilabial fricative
[p],
which sourlds very close to English ,/y/, occurs after vowels.2 Thus, in Span ish bebir,
"to drink", the first "b" will probably be pronounced [b], brjt the middle consoflant
b, f, v, wD.

will be tpl.3 Followin!! the Spanish pattern,

Spanish students may pronounce

rob arrd, table mav sound like

Englislr words Iike aery as "berry,"while words like

- rop and t:rvcl.'

Activity

4.1

level

/b/ and /v/ (Spanish): A very big problem

lntermediate

Worksheet None

Tips

Direct students' attention to the visible clues of

consonant pronunciation.
Teach the pronunciation of communicatively useful words.

Desctiplion Students discuss problems (personal, job, local, environmental,

world, etc.) and practice the pronunciation of beginning /v/ in com_
mun icatively important words.

1.

On the board, write phrases containing words with

used to d iscuss problems.

lvl

andlu /b/ that can be

very important

valuable (tesources)

iob opportunities

a very big problem

very serious

joh security

not very important

family values

volunieel
(conti

aect

on next page)

Square brackes (l ]) aLe used to indicate that the sound in bmckets is a va anl
'z
frununciation of anothff sound, rather than a
diflerent sound. lror example, natile speake$ lronoxnc the / rn ,r e/a dlfferertlf ham thc t i.t mehic. rhe t tt nieta,
aflzp, is a
va anl |ronunclalion ol /L/ (se fla|s, /t/ llnd /d./, beloq,).

[i]rbial frcJtrre t[p]

\ l i. -r...1' ,\'

lricali\

'

r rs made $hn lhp air

l.L$es thLough the lips,
hF ,o t"prh t.. . p buLlo.n rrl.

.I

, t

rfiich an alnost, but

not quitr, closed. The labiodental

126

IHAPTER

Actiuit:y

2.

4.

consonants

1 contlnuecl

lvlodel the phrases. Exaggerate the visible articuiation of /v/ and explain
articulation if necessary (the top teeth touch the bottom lip). Students repeat.
Provide feedback on /v/.

3,

Brainstorming. Elicit from students specific problems from a particular area

(e.g., adjusting to life in a new country, job problems, school problems, world
problems), Write the problems on the board.

4.

(4-5 students per group). Each student in the group chooses two
or three problems that he or she thinks are very important and explains them to
the group. Remind students to pronounce lul carelrlly in words like rery.
During group work, provide feedback on pronunciation
Group work

5. After the group work,

ask several students which problems they chose and why.

Provide feedback on pron unciation.

g
tt

ERR0R C0RRECTIONi

Westion

Solor;'ds

Llke "Kestion" (Korean)

:X V/hen a Korean student mispronounc es question

ot language as"latgidgel'
^s"kestion"
rpeat the mispronunciation as a question:"Kestion?" If the student has difficulty selfK correcting, model the word, exaggerating the lip rounding of /kw/

E rr sonnos tbink, tttis

What the Teacher Should Know
The flrst consonants n think (/eD a:nd, this (/6D are interdental fricatives
The tip of the tongue protrudes slightly between the teeth These sounds can also
be produced by placing the tip of the tongue lightly against the back of the top
teeth (a dental place of articulation). Teaching the dental articulation is not as
effective as teaching the interdental articulation (tongrle tip between the teeth). /O/

/6/ is voiced.
Common substitutions fot tlre tlJ sounds are /s/ or /z/, as in "ze man sir rs
about zis probleml'or /t/ and /d/, as in "de man tinks about dis problem]A r.rrer
substitution is an /-like sound (for /d/) by some Chinese students, which produces
"lat man" for "that man." students from the same natiYe-language background often
prefer the same substitutions, although there is some Yariation; most Spanish
students, for example, substitute /t/ ar'd /d/ for the t sounds, while Japanese
students prefer /s/ an(l /z/.
Because of the widespreacl difficutqv with these sounds,Jenkins suggest that
is voiceless and

they be taught only receptively to students who use English primarily with
nonflatiye speakers (2002). However, the t sounds are teachable and learnable,
and, as many pronunciation teachers can attest, students are concerned about
them. In addition, we cannot predict with whom our snrdents will use English in
the future. If students ha\.e professional or academic goals that bring them into

.HAPTiR

Cansonants "127

contact with native speakers, the)' shor-lld be aware that some substitutions for ,J
sounds (for exarnple, "wif, for .,with.' ,,dem,' for .them,', and ,,tink,'for .think,,) are
stitimatized and associated with nonstandard,
English. Students can and
'neducated
do learn to pronounce these sot-lnds accurately,
so they should be adclressed in

pfonunciation wofk.
Students usually learn quickly to percei\.e the clifference between the ,/,
sonnds and their common substitutions (as in think-ti11k_sink, tben_den_Zen),
dtltough preceding sounds can influence rhe degree of perceptual similarity
bctween the tl, sounds and natiye,language substitutions.i
The intetdental articulation of these sounds is the most.lifficult tbature of
their pronunciation. Students need to be taught that the tip of the tongue protrudes
a bit between dte teeth and d1e aif passes out o]/er thc tongue. The sounds are
easiest to pronounce at the beginnings of worcls (e.g., tbanks, tbink, thing, tbis,
tbat) , morc dlfficLt lt when t is in me dial positi on (e .g. . otlzef ueather, autt\or) , and
most difficult when t ends a word (.e.g., utitb, batb, breatlJe, fourtb). In fin I
position, students may have less difficrjlty with voicele ss /e/ eB in uitb) than with
voicecl /6,r (as it1 breatbe) (see also Final Voiced and Voiceless Sounds).
Native speakers sometimes simplify final t sounds when an _s ending follows.
This is very common in the word clothes, which most Americans pronounce like
the yerb "(to) close," and ln months, which most Americans pronounce as ,,munts,,
Umants/). These simplfications in common words should be taught to students.
(See also -s endings and Native Simplifications of Final Consonants).
Students may express embarrassment about pronouncing t/, sounds as
interdentals, worrying rhat they will look rucle if they.stick out,,their tongues. The
teachef should addfess this reluctance. With stuclcnts in academic programs, it is
often enough to explain that incorrcct pronunciations of tD sounds may lead native
listenefs to conclude that the student is not wcll educated.5 Teachers can also take
the "gafden path" appfoach and ask students to clescribe what the q,pical American
or Canadian tongue looks like-is it long or short, fat or skinny? What color is it?
Since native speakers use the t sounds very frequently (jfi the, tbis, tbat, thing,
etc.), students should have a cleaf picture of how thc tongue looks if it really is
"hanging out" of the mouth. In fact, the tip of the tongue protrudes only a little, and
it doesn't "hang around" outside. Students will not look rucle if they pronounce ,/,
coffectly, but they may sound uneducirted if rhey don,t.
Pronunciation of tb citn be included with the teaching of the fbllowin[i
grammatical poiltts:
arltcle: the
demonstratives:

th i s/that/th ese/th

ose

ntrod ucer: there i s/a re/was/we re

a

Trciinovich, Gatbontin, alrd Segelowiu (2007) report that the /d/ oi 1re wits casicst for frcnch canedian ESL lexnrexj to her{,hen it
wrs preceded by a yojced fticatjre (e.g.,rutds the barr) or l,otced affricate (1lr\t.t
iudge the man).

t onll

the I 1 slLbstitution is stigm.tized Th J-.; sub\h tu tior |

[,c hc.r I d Js

romrlt|

e. not

noutandard.

128

cH^PrER

Consanant

compa ratlves: wtln than

noun clauses: with fhaf

adjective clauses: wlth that

functional language: giving opinions wrlh l

Activity

4.2

ot I don t think

Th soundsr When's yow birthday?

level

Beginn ing

wo.ksheet

None

Tips

think

Teach consonants that are difficult for your students.

Direct students'attention to the visible clues of

consonant pronunciation.
lntegrate pronunciation with work on functional language, grammar'
or otner coursework.

Bescription This activity integrates pronunciaiion of final TH in ordinal numbers

(fourth, fifth, etc,). Students ask each other when their birthdays are
and answer, using the rnonth and an ordinal number for the date
(e.g., May 30th).

Elicit from students the ordinal numbers from 1-20 as well as 30 and 31'
Write the ordinals on the board, using their standard abbreviations (1st, 2nd,
3rd, 4th). Provide feedback on the pronunclation of th Model all the ordinals

from 1-31. Students rePeat.

2. Elicit the months

of the year and write them 0n the board. Model each month

name. Students repeat.

3.

On the board, write "When is your birthday?" lVodel the question. Students
repeat. Provide feedback on the pronunciation of "th" in birthday'

4.

Students copy the months of the year as a ist on a piece of paper, leaving
enough room after each rnonth to write classmates' names and birth dates
Students circulate and ask each other about ihelr birth dates, wr ting the
information on the paper (in a room too smallto move around in, interviewing
can be restricted to smaller groups).

5.

When the interviews are finished, ask students about their classmates' birth
dates. Provide feedback on pronunciation. In a class of 23 students, for
example, there is over a 50 percent probability that two will have the same
b irthday (month and date).

cHAprER

Consonants

129

Itges l1/ a-tl /!/ (e.g., tie, die);Flapst (e.g., uetting, ueddins);
Glottalized /t/ (e.9., utritten)
What the Teacher Should Know
The stop consonants /t/
/d/ are produced by touching the
of the
"tdbehind tl.re top teeth; /t/ is yoiceless, tip
tongue to the alveolar ridge, just
and /d/ is
voiced. In some languages (e.g., the Romance languages), /t/ and /d/ are dental
stops; the tip of the tongue makes contact with the back of the top teeth.
Substitutions of dental /t/ and, /d/ for alveolar (Enghsh) /t/ arld /d/
acceptable.
^re

tie, die

V/hile the pronunciation of /t/ and, /d/ in words like tie afld. die is
difficult, both /r/ and /d/ har.e variant pfonunciations (for example, the'?lely
t in
uater), which can make words hard for students to undefstand. Variants are
discussed below

Flap* uetting, uedding. The middle consonanF in u.)etting aruI wedding are
pronounced as flaps in North American English (NAE). The tip of the rongue
quickly "slaps" the top of the mouth behind the teeth; the yocal cords yibrate.
Inside words, flaps occur when /f/ ot /(l/ follows a stressed vowel (or a stressed
vowel plus /r/, as in party) ard then is followed by an unstressed vowel.Inpotdto,
for example, there are two ,/t/ sounds; the lirst "t" is not flapped because it does
not follow the stressed yowel; the second /t,/ is a flap (phonetic symbol [D])
because it follows the stressed vowel. Compare the flapped prol.lijnciation of /t/
and /d/ In column A below (where stress precedes) with the sound in column B
(v/here stress follows) :
c

A
Attic taDtw
(an) Addicr

/aDlkv

FAtal feyDay
Adding

lal.lqt

aTTACK

latav

(to) aDDiCT /adlkY

laT Alily

ltelateciyt

aD0ition /adfan/

130

cHAPrtR

Consonants

Sincc flapped /t/ and /d,/ are both yoicecl, homorryms occur in \\ ords llke latter and
pudding, and u)etling xnd ueddings
lqddet; putting
^nd.
Fittal /t/ car. bc flapped in common words when the ne\t \l'ord begifls with:r
vowel (even if the vowel precedinti thc flap is not stressed):
at a

movie /aDa/

movie

What is he doing? /waDr/ he doing?

Get out ol here. /gDawDa(v)/ here.

oflt/ and /d/ is charactcristic ofNorth American Enilish

(NAE) but does not occur iil British English, thc dialect that man)' ESL students
learned when they lirst studied English. Bccause flaps can make worcls clifficult for
students to understand, they sl.rould be taught for recoflnition. Teachers whose students are living in the United States or Canacla may want to teach f'laps lbr pronunciation in some comtlon words or expressions, such
u)ater and What's the
^s be difficult for natiye
,ncttter? h1 thesc words, thc unfhpped pronunciations can
speakefs to undefstand. For most words, however, substitutions of"regular",/t/ and
/d,/ are acceptable, and the flap need not be ta'.iliht for pronunciation.

The flapped pronunciation

Glottalized t: urirten. When ft/ is followed by an unstressed syllable containing

/n/.as in mountain or u'ritten, it is pronounce d as a glotalized /t/ (s-vmbol td]) or
as a llbttal stop (sirmbol /? D.1 A glotttrl stop is used in the warning Ub-otr.lt is ttle
"creak" in the voice (thc yocal cords briefly closinla) that precedes eacl] of the two
syllables: ub-oh is pronounced /?a?oV.8 As /t/ is pronouncecl, thc vocal cords
(glottis) close briefly, cutting off the air. Say the following pairs of words end listen

to the differcncc in the underlired /t/s:

mounlain /maunt?er/

mainlain /meynteyn/

Salan /seyt?an/

satanic /satanak/
baton

button /hat?an/

^aton/
]'he fitst word in each pair is pronounced with a glottalizcd /t/;the secoml word is
pronouncecl with a "regulaf" l.
Glottalized /t/ ]s not a high priority pronunciation topic. Native spcakers' use
of glottalizeci / cloes not make worcls unrecognizable to students, xnd students'use
of"regular" /t/ does not make words unrecognizable to natiyc listeners.

In

these \\'ords.

/i,/

is

Uonour.ed N 1 slllabic nNxL

in Cockne) lhglish, Dr1ltu is

fuurnced

(see

\asah

page I 36)

b0?1." \{ost NAfl spexkeN

llxf

the

/y

ln

,0/l1e

hoDl ' or "boDal.

'

CHAPTIR

Aclivity

4.3

Consonants

131

Recognizing flaps

level

lntermed iate

Worksheet

Page 225

Tip

Teach students to recognize reduced pronunciations to jmprove their

listening comprehension.

Description This activity focuses on recognition of flapped pronunciations of /t/.

Write matter and material on the board, underlining t's. lvlodel the words,
asking students to listen to how the t's are pronounced. Ask student if the I's
in the two words sound the same.

2.

Explain that the I in matter is pronounced like a fast d. Ask students to say
matter, pronouncing the underlined consonants as a fast d. Explain that in the
United States and Canada, f's and d's have this pronunciation when the
preceding vowel is stressed. Students can use regular lll and ldl in their own
speaking, but should be able to recognize the flaps.

3.

Add other cornmon words wtth flaps to the board, capltalizing stressed syllables
and underlining flaps. l\4odel the words.

WAler WRIling pRElly

4.

tEACer

( !er)

tomAlo

Ask students to volunteer words they have heard where t or d has an

unexpected pronunciatlon.

@ 5. Oirect students' attention to the dialogue on the worksheet. Students ljsten

the dialogue and write the missing words in the blank. ln pairs, students
practice the d ia logue.

Sibilu.rt",

see,

to

zoo, sboe, pleasure, cheap, jazz

What the Teacher Should Know

Sibilants have an s-likc sound. Students, problems in\,olving sibilants vary
according to natiye language and usually involve pronunciation rathef than
perception difticulties. Spelling is also a source of confusion.
Pronunciation work with sibilants can be added to glammar lessons on _.s
endinis (Simplc Presenr -s Ending, Plurals, possessives), count-mass (how much,
how man)), and questions and adjective clauses witlt zrrlc/r.

"132

.HAPrrR

Consonants

/s/

a'rd /z/. The sibilants /s/ and /z/ are tiicatives ("hissr" sounds), produced by
bringing the tip of the tongue close to the alyeolar ridge Oehind thc top reeth). /s/
js voiceless and /z/ is yoiced.
Sue! Zou

w7;4

Y2
Y_-4r-^{//

The consonant /s/ occurs in maq'languages ancl is a familiar sound for students.Its
voiced counterpart /z/ i,s less common.Vietnamese, Thai, Korean. and most dialects
of Chinese lack /z/; in Spanish, /z/ occurs only before voiced consonants (e.g.,
misrnr.t) ,tncl, even in this context, may be weakene d in some dialects. Voiceless /s/
is a common substitute for ,/z/, althoLtgtr /l'/ or /dz/ may also be substituted.Japanese
and Korean students may pronotnce /s/ as /[/ in words like see, sit, sue, and pursue
(that is, before higlt vowels; see Vowels); /s/ does not occur before these \.owels in
Japanese or Korean.e

/l/

ft1 pleasure. The boldface sounds rn sbip and pteasure ([/ and /3/)
are plonolrnced by pulling the tongue back f.rom the /s/ /z/ positiot] (ro the palate)
and rounding the lips slightly. The boldface sound in sbrp is voiceless; in pleasure,
it is voiccd.
s}ei:p and

m
Y2

ship . pleasure

With the exception of a few l-rench words (e.g., gen rc'). B/ does nor occur at the
i)rgirln ing ol English word..
The specific problems involving /l/
B/ clepcncl on the student's native
^ndthe bold consonants in usualll
language. Chincse students may pronounce
or

measnre (BD too weakll', 5s that tltev sound like "uwlally" or "mayor" Greck
studcnts may substitute /s/ for [/ before high front vowels;sbaep for example, may
sound like "seep," and garage like "p;araz.'

/q / (jeep). The lip diagrams for the affiicates /t/ (as in clreck')
jeep)
iclcntical to those for /[/ a]nd /3/ ahovc. /tl/ is voiceless and
^rc
/Q/ is voiced. The affricates
/tl/ (.^s it1 mucb) and, /Q,/ (.as in major) e complex
/tJ/ Gheck)
encl

'Korqu

/4/

and

@s 1n

sludenb mar suhstitllt

/torl

3 / for /s/ or /z/ bcforc nrid-io\rcls

irs

$ellllor cvnrple.

r'r,r'rz1l

ntal sound

like

rezhult.'

CtAprER.tr Consonants

133

sounds which start as stops (/t/ or /dD and arc released as fricatives (/t or
/3D.The
stop is not heard as a separate sound but must be articulated lbr the affficate to
be
pronouncecl coffectl)'. In words witl.r flr]al /tJ/ and /S/ (for examplc.
muclJ aIILl
age), tl.e stop can be heard as a brief silence before the last sound. say tnuch vew
slowly and notice that the vowel sounds "cut off" and is followed bv a Lrief silence.
Tl.ris Occurs becluse the /t/ (.of /t[D briefly stops the airflow (ancl ihus
rhe vowelJ.

'Vtith musb, the vowcl is not

cut off because [/ is .d fricati.ve (the air flow is
obstructed but nor stopped). The same is true for /e/ and
B/, as in tnajor afld.
measure. Pronounced slowl),, the first \.owel in tnajor sounds ',cut off,,; the first
vowel in ,neasure does not.
Many students confuse pairs like much afl(l mush or major and mea.sure.
The phonetic symbols /tl and /Q/ are uscful reJchi|g ajds since they show both
pxrts of the sounds. which ordinary spellings sometimes fail to do. A Spanish
or
Victnamcse Student is less likely to n spronounce matclz as r?as, because, iS
part of the spelling of tnatcb. It words like mucb, u,lticb, and ectcb, hower.ef, it
is not.
Korean stndents nny add a vowel souncl :rfter final
[/ (as tn u,ist'), B/ @s itr
b.eige),,/t[/ (4s in uthiclt), a;nd /$/ (as in e d.ge). Vt:]ich ma! sound like .witciy,,'edge
like "edgyi'lisD like "fish).i' and Derge likc ,,beig
,

g ss, c (followed by / or e), -se latter a consonanq-r'zgl[Effi.,sr,

Exceptions:

is pronounced

/z/ in dessert, scissors, and possess.

z, -se, -$ (s between vowels), -es (e.nding): zero, dizzy, rcsi, caus.,
.ss

Exceptions: -se is pronounced /s/ , as in dose, clJctse, bouse, and erase

sb, 1i-, -ci-, -ssion, -ssure: sboe, u)asb, patient, natioiStryr4ian,

special, mission, discussion, pressure

Unusual spellings: ocean, suga4 sure, Cbicago, macbine, clicbe
-sure, -sion, -zurc: pleasure, Tneasure, decision, teletision, uisi<tn,

seizure
Unusual spellings: regime, beige, garage, equ.ttion
cb, tcb, -tu- (xnstlessed): church, catcb, nature, centuty, picture
Unusual spellings'. cello, amateur

j.

clj, g (Defore i and e), dge, z/r- (unstressed): judge, edge, Geor.qe,
gene. gradual, educa lio,t, sdJ..lule

Unusual spellings'. sold.ier, ex&ggerate

134

:HAPTIR

Activity

Consonants

4.4

Sihilants: How nuch oil?

Level

lntermed iate

Worksheet

Pages

Tips

Integrate pronunciation work wiih work on funciional language

226 227

0r grammar.
Encourage students to pronounce final consonants to improve comprehensibility and grammatical accuracy,

Description This information gap practices final ltll in How much questions
about countries that import and export oil. The substitution of f/
tor ltl is a problem ior Spanish, Vietnamese, and Thaj siudents;
Korean students sometimes add a short vowel sound after hY (e.g.,
"muchy," "wh ichy").

1.

2.

On the board, write minimal pairs contrasting

sounds. lvlodel the words, Students repeat,

watch-wash

much-mush

catch-cash

which-wish

lll

and

ll.

Underline the target

Explarn pronunciation: The last sound in the frrst word of each pa r begins
wlth a /t/ sound. In watch and catch |he /t/ is written. ln much and which iI
not written, but it must be pronounced. Students wil not hear the /t/ as a

rs

separate sou nd.

3.

On the board, write questions about the price of

How much is a gallon

r country)?

oil, using Haw much.

(4 llters) of gaso ine (in the United States/in

you

How much was a gal on of gas two years ago?

4.

lVode the questions. Students repeat. Provide feedback on the pronunciation

of much.

5.

Choose one or two students to ask classrnates the questions on the board.
Provide feedback on pronunc ation.

6.

Eljcit from students the names of oil exporting countries and wrlte them on the
board. Ask students if their countries are o I importers or exporters.

7.

Put students in pairs. Give each member of the pa r a differeni chart of oil
importers and exporters. Students complete the nformation missing from their
import/export a day?"
charts by asking "How much oil

does

B. When the pair work is finrshed, review the information with the class. Provide
feed back on pron

nciation.

CH^PIER

Consonants

135

Your student sa'.s "race" whn he wants to say ,.raise,,' or

uwass" when he wants to say'kas."
"lell the student to lengthen the vowel in "raise" and keep the last sound shoft (see also
FinalVoiced andVoiceless Consonants, page 155).
ERR0R C0RRECTI0NT

YoufJapanese student says "she" whefl he wants to say "see," and,,shoe"

when he wants to say "Sue." Youf Korean student says "pefshuade' instead of
"persuade," "rezhult" lnstead of "result," and "muzheum" ilstead of
"museum."
Model the incoffect and correct pronunciations, exaggerating the sibilant sounds. Telt
the students to move the tongue dp forward in the mouth (behind the top teeth) and
repeat the words.

Youa Spanish, Yietnamese, and Thai students say "mush" when they want to

say "much," and "sheep" when they want to say "cheap."

Introduce the phonetic symbol for "cln"t /tl/.E\plai'f, that "t" is paft of the
pronunciation even wheil it is not shown in spelling (though it is written in matclJ aj:'d
ccttch, fot example). Students y/ill not heat /t/ as sepanate sound, but it must be
" respellings of"ch" as "tch."
pronounced. Encoffage students to make "mental"

Your Chinese student says "uv/ally" when she wants to say "usually."
Tell the srudent to keep the tip of the tongue up in the mouth. The tongue lighrly
touches the top of the mouth. Contrast "uwally" and "usualry Direct students' adention
to th "noisier" middle sound in "usually'
Your students say "cheap" when they want to say "sheep."
Tell your students that the tongue does not make firm (strong) contact with the top of
the mouth for the fust sound in sreep. Students should be able to prolong (exhale
through) the first sound.
Your Korean student says "whichy" or "edgy" whn he wants to say '.which"
or "edge."
Tell your student to keep the last sound of these words very short. Work with the
pronunciation of final consonants (see Final Consonants, page 153).

136

( HAPrtR,+ Cansonanrs

I:L

rf l N-.It,

su rt. sorrre. su,,g

What the Teacher Should Know

There are three nasal consonants in English:/n/ as in sun. /m/ as in some, and
sazg. With /n/,the tip of the tongue touches behind rhe top teeth; with
the
lips
close;and with /1,/, the back of the toniue rises to touch thc vclum (the
/m,/,
back of the roof of the mouth) and the tip of the tor.rgue rests behind the bottom
teeth.With all three consonants, the air is released throulah rhe nose rather than tlre
mouth. /rJl occlrrs only in the middle or at the ends of words le.g., singing).

/l/asin

suflg

Students have few problems with

,h/

and

/m/ at

th.e beginnings

of words or

s)'llables (e.9.,fl /ce, dinnet; mice,

dimmer).The Chinese conftrsion of beginning
"right" and vice versa) is discussed ]D A/
/n/ and /l/ (pronouncing ligbt as ^nd
/t/-

"Dd

/l/,below.

nll

may be mispronounced as /r)gl or /lk/ by Polish or Russian students or as

Spanish students.lr) This problem can reflect a difficulty pronouncinli /!/ or
a spelling confusion, since the r?g spellitg represents both /\/ (as in slrrgel) and

/n/ by

/\g

(.as

s/ngle). Students should be made aware of the spelling pattcrns of the

fwo pronunciations.

n8 is pronounced
1.

,i

rll

fnal ng: long, young

?.tbe -ing efudirg

3.

10

most

othe

The pronurciation ol

nexl word begi$

wth

xg spellings

/4/Ls /q g/

e vo\\'el

nS is pronounced
1.

/!il

Con.lparatives and supedatives of

-/

longer, loungesL stronger

^djectivel
2. zgle spellings: single, tingle, ,ningle

3.finger

also occuni in son netile EngLish didects in fic lofihestelr United

Long ls[and rtty be prL\rounced l,oncu\'land.

States, especixLl! $hen the

cHAprtR

Consonants "137

At the ends of wofds, two Wpes of problems occur. Spanish speakefs may
substitute one nasal for anotheq prono\lncing someone, for example, as,,sungwung',
(Avery ancl Ehrlich 1992). These stLrdents should be instructed to pronounce nasal
consonants as the). are written. Final nasal consonants may also be .dropped,, by
Chinese and Portuguese stt-rdents and realized as a nasalization of the prececling
vowel CJuffs 1990, Averl and Ehrlich 1992). the Chinesc student who pronounces
solrleone as/s3w;/ (- indicates a nasalized vowel) needs to le,J'In to lengthen iinal
nasals oL pronounce them as consonants rathef than as vowel nasalization.
Although Spanish and Chincse students mispronounce final nasal conson,rLnts
in cliflbrent ways, the Spanish problem of nasal substitutions ard the Chinese (or
Portuguese) problem of vowel nasalization can be dealt with in the same lesson.
Correcting both problems involves getting students to pronounce worcl or syllablefinal nasals as they are writtefl:the lips close for /m/, the ton[luc tip touches behind
thc top teeth for /n/, and, the back of the tongue rises fbr /rll. Spelling is alnost
always a reliable cue for promnciation of linal nasals.r i
In unstressed syllables,like the last syll^bl.e of taken, /n,/ may be prolongecl and
pronounced as a syllabic nasal-(symbol [n]). The vowel virtually disappears and the
nasal i$elf is the last syllable.12 In connected speech,and is usually pronounced as
a syllabic nasal black and utlr/te (pronounced "black 'n white;,,see also Reductions
of Function Words, Rh]'thm). This is not a topic that needs to be coyered in class.
Activity

4,5

/q /: Present continuous and -ing

level

Beginn ing

Worksheet

Page 228

Tips

Integrate pronunciation work with work on functional language

or grammar.
Encourage students to pronounce final consonants to improve comprehensibility and grammaiical accuracy.

Bescription This activity adds pronunciation work with /1/ to course materials for
the present contin uous.

1. Before class,

choose a picture (or cartoon or picture story) from course

materials showing people engaged in a variety of activities.

2.

ln class, on the board, write the progressive form of two or three verbs which
can be used to describe the picture(s) (e.9., walking, studytng, sleeping).
l\4odel the words. Students reDeat.
(continue.l olt nexl page)

l'?

0ther consonanh

littLe voncL

ae

(slnbol lll)r

also p|onounced i]s srllabics: in ,11r1c

rn

,r1lr,r.

for exalnple. fie

lrt

forere ple,Lhel t$lllablcisprcnoltncedir.sxs,vliabic'1,"widttry

srlhble is

a sllLabic

frtll.

3B
Act

irit!

HAPrtR

4. 5

:4

Consanants

conti nae.l

3.

Present the articulation of /n/ and /q/ on Worksheet 4.5. Explain that with /n/,
the tip of the tongue is up, behind the top teeth. With /q/, the tip of the tongue
is down, behind the bottom teeth.

4.

Using the textbook picture (or cartoon or picture story), ask students to describe
what is happening. Provide feedback on the pronunciatton of lnland lql.

Activity

4.6

Level

Final nasals: I'm thinking of someone who . .

lntermediate (Spanish, Chinese, Portuguese, Russian, Polish)

Worksheet None

Tip

fncourage students to pronounce final consonants to improve

com prehensibility and grammatical accuracy.

Description This activity practices a variety of final nasals: lml and ln/ in
someone and /11 in thinking. Students provide clues about someone
until their classmates can guess the ideniity of the person.

1.

"l'm thinklng of someone . . . ." Underline the nasals.

lModel the sentence. Ask each student to say the sentence, pronouncing the

On the board, write

underlined sounds carefully.

2.

l\4odel the activity. Tell students they are going to use the sentence on the
board to play a game about famous peopJe. Choosing a famous person that
everyone 1n class knows, give a hint (e.g., "l'm thinking of someone who lives
in Venezuela"). Classmates guess the person's name (e.g., Hugo Chavez) or
ask questions to get more informatlon until they can guess the person.
lnstruct students to begin their questions with "Does/ls the person you're

thinkingof...?"
3.

Ask a student to choose a person whom everybody in class knows and give a
hint about that person, starting with "l'm thinking of someone. . . ." The rest
of the class asks questions until they can guess the person's identity. The
student who guesses the person's identity chooses a new person. Provide
feedback on the pronunciation of nasal consonants in the phrase I'm thinking

af sameone.

CHAPTER

stop"

/ld

arrd /g/t coat,

goat; theletter

Consonants

139

What the Tacher Should Know

Few students have problems pronouncing the stop consonants /k/ aJrd /g/
when they begin a word or syllable,as n coat arrd gort Ifith both .orr.o,rurrtr, th.
back of the tongue rises to touch the velum.,/V is voiceless and,/g/ is voiced.
coat, goat

Most problems involving /k/ and /g/ occur when the consonants end words,
and they can be addressed in a lesson on final consonants or on final voiced and
voiceless sounds. In Spanish, /g/ is pronounced weakly (as a fricatiye) at the ends of

words and between vowels; Spanish stlrdents may tfansfef this weakened
pronunciation into English words like beginning (which may sound like
"behinning") or dog Korean students haye difficulty pronouncing /wil (or
pronouncing it strongly enough) in the consonant clusters /kw/ and ,/gV; question
(/kfl) often sounds like "kestion" and language egwD Lke,,langidge', (see
Beginning Clusters, below).
The letter x inyolves difficult clusfers with /k/ or /g/.The pronunciations of
are largely predictable and should be taught to students.

Activity

4.7

Level

Ptonunciation otx: Spelling and sounds

lntermed iate/Advanced

Worksheets Pages 228-229

lip

Encourage students to pronounce the consonants in consonant cluslers.

Descripti0n This activity practices the pronunciation of words with x.

(continue.l on next page)
I
I

40

. H)FTE!'

1ctilit l.: contin

aan'onants

ed

On the board, write ta4, e4am, and 4ytophone, underlining the letter x in each
word. Explain Ihat xylophone is a musical instrurnent'

1.

2.|Vode]thewordsontheboard.AskstudentsWheihertheletterXispronounced
the same or differently in the three words.

3.

Explain that the letter x has three pronunciations (ks, gz' and z) and write them
on the board.

4.

Pass out the

first handout and go over new vocabulary'

Students listen to the words on the handout and repeat them. They listen again
and write each word under the appropriate pronunciation column'

65.

siudenis check their work. Ask the pairs to figure out ihe
pronunciation rules for x. lnstruct them to consider the position of x in the
words, whether a stressed vowel precedes or follows x, and whether a
consonant follows x. Pass out Worksheet 4.7B

6. ln pairs,

7,

Elicit from students other words spelled with x. Ask students how x

is

pronou nced.

ffil oo...t'

/t:./ (band)

V/hat the Teacher Should Know

The consonant /h/ is a voiceless fricative created by pushing air throlrgh the
glottis (vocal corcls). It is d1e sound of panting or breathing after exercise'
/h/ is a weak sound in English and may be dropped when it is inside a word
or sentence and not followed by a stressecl vowel ln history, for example' '&/ is
always pronounced because the ibllowing vowel is stressed ' ln bist'rical' A1/ is
followed by an unstressecl Yowel. It is always pronounced when it begins an
utterance (e.g., Historical figures are. . ) However, w]ner historical is inside a
"a
sentence, some speakers say "nn historical fact" (omitting /hD ancl others
historical fact" (pronouncing /hD
There are two pronunciation problems involving /h'l The first is an incorrect
place of articulation. Chinese and Spanish stuclents may pronounce /h/ at the back

of th. mo.,th (rather than the glottis) so thal At/

sounds like the German

13
pronunciation of cb in Bacb (lite a throat-clearing sound)
Spelling can also be a source of mispronunciation ln most words with D like
beauy, abeacl, han(l, beart, bartl, /h/ is always pronounced Tn other words'
est' bonor' and
mostly borrowings from French, /h/ is never pronounced, as in
'on
bour: Frenct and Italian students may "drop" /h/ when it should be pronounced

15

'l he

misprollrncialion

is a leLer

frciunciatjon

ol

/l/

CHA?TER

(.e.9.,
(.e.9.,

Consonants

141

bead is pronounced "ead") and add it when it should not be pronounced

air is"haij").

In function words that are typically unstressed (such as he, bim, lsis, lse4 l:aue,
baD. native speakers pronounce /b/ afler a pause (e .g., ,,He ,s tall,,), but
frequently omit it inside a sentence (e.g., Is be tall? is us:ual]ry pronounced .Izzy
tall?"). Students should be taught when /h/ is always pronounced and when it is
never pronounced. They should also be able to recognize the /:-less pronunciation
of function words (see Pronouns and Reductions of Function Words, Rhlthm).
lsas, and

ERROR C0RRECTI0N;

1. Explain that A/

Mispronunclatio n of /b/ as a Velar Souad (a ,,Idieatry

h)

has a soft sound in English, like the sound of breathing. Demonstrate

the sound, using bfearhs of a4 as if you were panting. Contrast the incoffect (the
hea\,'!' or thfoatdearing pfonunciation) and the correct pronunciation.

2.

Ask students to think of words for parts of the body that start with /h/ (e.g.,t
lJead, lrand, foretread, afud, trair).ptovide feedback on pronunciarion.

3.

Write a tongue twister sentence on the board that includes several,/h/ words (see
example below). Model the sentence and ask students to repeat it-

ear,

Harry heard Harrjet had heart problems.

Whtitial/t/t

Rigtrt

What the Teacher Should Know

The articulation of /r/ ya.res considerably from language to language. In
English, /r/ is a retroflexed consonant: The tip of the tongue turns or cuds up and
back.ra At the beginning of a word or sy able (e.g., riglt, arriue), the tip of the
tongue starts turned up and slightly back (the retroflexed position) and then lowers
or uncuds, without touching the top of the mouth.15
righr

W'v.r^

Wffi

r4

The body ofthe tongue a1s0 moles b11!k. som narive spea[elx do not rehofler
but insllad "bunch" the longue. rorFdagogical
purposes, explalning articuiation as rclrcflexion, atuniing up and back of the tongue, wiliprobabl,v
produce th
(A;riand

//,

Ehrlhh 1992,23).
15lhe

b;t

resuli,

lips xre also sllghtly rcunded for //. Howver, jnstructing students to rcund their lips sometimes produces misprcnunciations
llke
ght ' In ny own teaching, I ignorc lip mundjng.

"whjte" for

"

142

:HAPfER

Consonants

in rigbt) xe
Pronunciation Problems associated with beginfling /r/
a1ld should
as
in
car)
(h/
\o$
els.
frn
l
ft/
different from those associated with
^ftet
beaddressedh<lifferentpronunciationlessons(forlr,/aftervorlels'seeR-Colored
Vowels in chapter 5).The movement of the tongue also differs; At the beginning of
(uncurls); after a vowel'
a word, the tongue moves out of the retroflexed position
the tongue moves into the fetfoflexed position (cuds back)'
Student mispronunciations of beiinning /r/ include substitutions of native
language /r/ or interrnediate sounds (Bcebe 1980) At the end of a word' students
m"y eiift.r dr,rp /r/ or substitute a different sound Japanese problems with /r/ and
/l/ are discussed in the following sections Onitial /l/, and Contmsting /r/-/l/)'
Retroflexionofthetonguetakesplaceinsidethemouth,anditsexternalvisual
cues are minimal. Although some students are able to pick up the retroflexed
pronunciation through exposure to spoken Eflglish, many will need to be explicitly
('as

taught how to make

Activity

4.8

Level

/t/.

Beginning

h/:

The R

gane

lntermediate

Worksheet Page 230

lip

Use hand gestures to reinforce the articulation of /r/'

Desc]:ption Students learn the articulation ot hl and practice it in a guessing

game featuring questions that can be answered with common /r/
words. By choosing /r/ words suitable to the vocabulary level of
students, the teacher can tailor this game to any level ln addition'
the game can also be a means of practicing question formation if the
teacher asks students to write their own questions'

1.

4.8. Model the words right and wrong'

up and back and ihen lowers The tip
starts
tongue
of
the
the
tip
Explain that
gesture below
of ihe tongue does not touch the iop of the mouth' Use the hand
to reinforcle articulation and for feedback. ln the gesture, the hand represents
the tongue; the fingertips represent the tip of the tongue'
Present the diagram of /r/ on Worksheet

HA?TER

Consonants

143

ActiuiA 4.a conhnued

2.

Model right and wrong again. Students repeat together and then individually.
Provide feedback on articulation (Japanese, Arabic, and Spanish students may
ircorrectly touch the tip of the tongue to the top of the mouth; French and
German students may use ihe back of the tongue, rather than the tip).

3.

On the board, add other words containing beginning /r/ for practice. lnclude
some of the answers to the guessing game questions. Ask students to volunteer
other words with beg nning /r/. l\4odel the words, using the hand gesture to
reinforce articulation. Students repeat.
right

round

wr0ng

road

roof
Jetrigerator

4. The guessing game. Divide the class into two teams. Team members should sit
together, facing the opposite team. Give the teams different sets of questions.
5. Team members first decide the answers to their questions.
6. Play the game. Team A starts, wjth each member in turn choosing a player
on
the opposite team to answer one of Team A,s questions. The team member

asking the question must pronounce it clearly enough for the opposing team
member to understand (this is the most challenging part of the game, and
several repetitions of a question are often necessary). The Team B player
answers the question with a word containing /r/. The answering team earns a
point for a correct answer, with a correc|y pronounced /r/.

lnttlal /U (ligbt); Filn l /V (att); Cotftrastjflg

Qigbt and nigl:t)

/l/

and

/n/

What the Teacher Should Know

/1,/ is produced by toucltinfa the tip of the tongue to the top of the mouth just
behind the teeth; the air passes out latenlly oyer the sides of the tongue. Since it is
difficr t for students to feel the lateral passage of air, articulatory information abour
the placement of the tip of the t()ngue is more useful pe dagogically.

like

144

;HAPTER

Consonants

Light and Dark /V. English /l/ has two pronunciations. depending on its position
in a word. "Light," or "clear," /1/ occurs at the beginninE! of a word or syllable, as in
like, loue,
aliue."Dark" A/ occufs at the end of a word or s,yllable , as inatl, cold,
^nd.
andll. With
light ,/l/, the back of the rongue is relaxed and down;with dark /I/,rhe
back of the tongue is nised. Perceprually, dark /V sounds as if it is preceded by a
short /a/ sound (e.g., coalr/).
Lis,ht /1/

D^tk /1/

Different pronunciation problems occur with beginning (light) /l/ and final (dark)
/U, and the two types of /l/s should be addressed in separate lessons. Native
speakers of Japanese, Korean, and Mandarin may conftlse beginning /r/ wirh /l/.
These two sounds may be both difficult to hear (especially for Japanese students)
and difficult to pronounce. funeJ', Takada, and Ota suggest that teachers point out to
t]:rat
Japanese sb,rdents that they are more likely to mispronounce A/ thafi /r/
^nd
pronunciation work with /l/ be addressed bcfore work with /r/ (2OOO,731,).
Howeye! the /r/ l/ contrast should also be addressed, since students for whom it is

difficult invariably ask about both sounds.

A common substitution for final (dark) /l/ is clear Oeginning) /l/. This
" not need to be corrected.
substitution does not interfere with inrelligibiliry and does
A more serious problem is the pronunciation of dark /1/ /o/, /u/, or /w/
^s
(vocallT,ation of /1/);old l)eople,lbr instance, sounds like "ocle peopo,"
beautiful
^nd,
sounds like "beautifo." This mispronnnciarion is common with native
speakefs of
Brazilian Portuguese and Chinese, but may occur with other students, as well.16 The
most impoftant goal fof students wh<t yocahze A/ is to pronounce it as a consonant
(light or dark), rather than as a vowel.
and. /rt/ (Ctrtnese). In some Cantonese dialects /l/ ancl /n/ can be substituted for
each other at the beginning of a word, and Cantonese studcnts may make the samc
substitutions in English words: /as, may be pronounced lil<e "nast" or n lglr, like "light"

/U

16ln

Br^zilian Po uguese, final/y is Iocxlized 10 a /$y' 0r /u/ sound. ln Chinese, /1/ dos not occur ln find losjtion. \bcalizeuon of/y
isalso common.nrong chiidrcn leallrirgEnglish aJ
guagc (who ln a,v s,ry 'lilto peopo" instead of littie people') andh2l
occuned as asoundchange in other lalguages.

aliNtl

CH^prER

Consanants

145

(Avery and Ehdicl.r 1992, 1 15). t - Mosr students are not aw2lre that
they are making this
substitlrtion. Even if the conirsion of /1t/ and A/ does nor fesult in uninteligibilitl
it is
odd sounding to listeners (nati.!.e and nonnadve) and draws attention away iiom
what
the student is saying. This is a persistent but impor-tant problem, since
there afe manv
minimal pairs in English involving ,i nl .Lnd A/ (-Atfotd 1987).

Peopte is pfonounced ,.peopo,'

1. Explain to students dlat they are not pronouncing /l/ at

ERR0R C0RRECTI0N :

ttre end of a word (or after

vowel) strongly enough. Model the mispronunciation and tlt correct pfonunciation' exaggerating the final /1,/. Ask students to listen to thc difference between
the
inco[ect ancl correct pronunciations of the word (e.g.,',peopo,, and.peopte,,).
Instruct students to touch the tip of the tongue behind the top teeth when a
word is spellcd widr / (there are, howel.er, silent /'s in wolds like ualk, salmon,
a

2.

nd

calm).

3. Ifrite

some commonly mispronounced pfuases with final ,4/ and ask students
to
repeat them. The plrases below are some that I have colected from m',
students-

people
a helpful article
old

snalt children
a

lit

e bit

useful results
meanwhile

Zrgrt is Pronounced .,Ntglt" ot Nigbt is pronounced ,.Light,,

1. Tell student that they arc sa,ving // instead of /n/ (or vice versa). Students are
usually unaware that they are confusing the two sounds. Model the mispronunciation and thc correct pronunciation, exaggerating both the /fl/ and /y (e.g.,,,night,,
and "light").

2.

3.

Explain that if the wor<l is spelled with n, air comes out the nose.l)irect the student to touch her nose as she says ,'nighrt, If the word is spelled with /, the air
comes out the mouth. Direct rhe student to lightly touch her lower lip as she
says "light."
For intermediate and aclvanced students, writc this short poem on the board

fof pmctice

You've no need to lrght a night-lieht

On a ntght like tonight,
For a night-light's light's a s ight light,

And tonight's a night that's light.rs

t7

,/-1l

Aldlough
subsuluti0ns afir relofed t0 be uoblens l0r cantoncse stu.lerb. I har, had studeDb tl,ho
natir, sFake.s of l\{xndarin u'ho hare the samc problem.
13

idertif,

then]sei\es es

This is the llNt half of a tongue t$isler

foem thal cm be folrnd on htDi//$$'$i.dfs org and other tonglre hvisier \feb sites.

146

:HAPTER

ffi

Consanants

aon .u", ing /t/ and /l/: Rigltt-Ligltt

\Iahat the Teacher Should Know

The contrast of / and /l/ (^s in right afld /rgrt) is notoriously difficult for
riative speakers of Japanese. It is also djfficult for native speakers of Korean,
Mandarin, and Vietnamese. The Japanese /r/ is a flap (the tip of the tongue "slaps"
the top of the mouth) but can be pronounced like /l/ in some contexts.
Research on the perception elfid pronunciation of the /t/-/l/ confta:st by
Japanese ESL leaxners shows that even good pronouncers of /r/ and /l/ may h^ve
difficulty hearing the difference between these two sounds (Goto 1971, Sl.reldon
and Strange 1982, Riney et al. 2005). In addition, English /r/ may be perceptually
more different from Japanese /r/ than English /l/ and, therefore, easier for students
to hear and pronoulce (Flege, Takagi, and Mann 1995; see also Riney et al. 2000).It
is important forJapanese students to leafn to pronounce /t/ and /V lccurately since
their mispronunciations are stereotyped (e.g., "flied lice" for "fried rice") and are
strongly related to a heary accent (Riney et a1.2005).
In spite of lingefing pefceptual difficulty, students can learn to pronounce /r/
and /y, likely basing pronunciation on how the sounds feel when they are correctly
pronounced. It is helpful to point out that with /r/, the tip of the tongue does not
touch the top ofthe mouth, and with /l/, it does;substantial practice of these sounds
is impoftant and helptul.

right

light

/*-\
rc
:

W---u?7a-d

t/2
\zt</1

Activity 4.9

Practicing the /r/-/U contrast. How do you spe tight?

Level

Low lntermed iate/lntermed iate

Worksheet

Page 231

Tip

Use hand gestures to reinforce the articulation of /r/.

Description

This activity focuses on the perception and pronunciation ol

/l/ in minimal pairs.

lrl

and

:HAPTER

Consonants

147

ActiolA 4.9 continued

1.

Direct students' attentjon to the djagrams on Worksheet 4.9. Model "right" and
light, " and explain articulation:

"

.
.

"L" is a contact (touch) sound. The tip of the tongue touches behind the
top teeth.
Use the hand gesture below to show the articulation oI Al. fhe upper hand
represents the top of the mouth. The tips of the fingers of the upper hand
represent the teeth. The lower hand represents the tongue. point out to

students that the tongue tip touches behind the teeth.

.
.

"R" is not a contact (touch) sound_ The tip of the tongue does nof touch
the top of the mouth.
Use the hand gesture illustrated on page 142 and explain:

The tip of the tongue starts up and back.

The tip of the tongue lowers without touchlng the top of the mouth.
Write two sentences on the board, one containing only words beginning with
/l/ (e.g., "Lovely Lisa loves Luke") and one containing only words beginning
wilh lrl (e.g., "Ray Rivers reached Rome"). Ask students to say the
sentences slowly, focusing on the different articulations.

2. Minimal pairs. lvlodel the /l/ words. Students repeat. Ask each student to choose
three /l/ words and say them out loud. provide feedback on pronunciation. Repeat
with the /r/ words. Then model the rows. Students repeat. Ask each student to
choose three pairs and say them out loud. provrde feedback on pronunciatjon.
Read one word from each pair. Students circle the words they hear.

4. Go over each word on the card, asking the class whether you read that word
and how ii sounds.
5. 0n the board, write a model dialogue for pair practice of the minimal pairs.

A: How do you

spel right

B: R-l-G-H-T
6. In pairs, students take turns choosing one member of a minjmal pair from the
second part of the handout and asking their partners how to spell the words.

148

cltAPrtR

Consonant

uffdcs:

/y/ ,et

^nd,

/w/

VA.v

What the Teacher Should Know

The glides (dso called semivowels) /y/ and /w/ are consonants when they
begin a word or syllable, as in 1,eq young, uineyard, u.ny, and auoke. After a. vowe|
they function as part of the vowel, xs in boy and nou.
\fith /y/ (e .9.,:rc.t, the body of the tonlaue pushes up through an /iyl posirion
(,/iyl is the vowel sound in see).The lips may be spread.Wtrh /w/ (e .g.,ulr?),the lips
start rounded and then unround ro the vowel that fbllows.le The back of the tongue
is raised witll /w/, but tltis infomation is not pedagogically important.

way

]'es

The glides pose few difficulries for students generally, although students from
certain native-language backgfounds malr experience pfoblems with some wofds.20
Spanish students mal,' pronounce let and J,tolk like "jet" and "jokej" a srereot\ped
pfonunciation which shoulcl be addressed in class. Japanese and Korcan srudents

have difficult]. pronouncing / ,v/ in year and J,,edst when the following .i.owel is /I/
or /iy/; year ma.v sor.rnd like "ear" 2Jtd least like "east." There are very few words
with this sequence Q)i.eld is nnotlj'ff example). Since the onl1. comrnon problem
word is leaI, its mispronunciation can be addressed through error corrcction.
A similar problem ifl.olves the pronunciation ot /w/ in uould/uoo4 u.nman,
uo$ and uool.This is a problem primarily for Japanese and Korean speakers, who

find it difficult to say /w/ when the vowel /u/ follows, pronoun cing ruoman and
Loould llkc"'omarl" and "'ould." Again, since there are yery fbw Entilish words where
this difficult sequence occurs. the problem can be dealt wirh through error
coffection. The confusion oflw// and /v/ (pronouncing ,e?, as "wiuy"), cliscussed in
Labial Consonants, eadier, is more widespread.

(as in zzr1)

'0 !'or Chiiese studentr prorunciation

ofrir?simil,llto lbnt,

sec

liphthongs, page ]90.

CHA?TER

For Spanish students, the pronunciation of /y/ in yesterday

added to work on the past tense or present perfect.

yet

can be

Mispronourclflg "Yet/

yesterday

young

ii6sterday

iiSng

Add some other words beginning with /y/ to the board, writi.rg pro{mnciation
spellirigs below the words. Ask the student to say them, stretching out the fust
sound and spreading the [ips.
yes

ii5s

year
ii6ar

Mispronouncing
1.

a:nd,

"l49

as "Jet" (Spantsh Speakers)

On the board, write the mispronolnced wold with its normal spelling, and below
it, a pronunciation spelling in which the double lttefs r7 are substituted fof/ and
the following stressed vowel is written in lar8e ltters. Model the coffect pronunciation, spreading your lips for /y/. Tetl tlle student to pronounce ? as a long /V Gn the
pfonunciation spellings, the letter / has the same yalue that it does in Spanish),
stressing the second r.owel. The student repeats.

ERR0R C0RRECTI0N:

1,

Consonants

you

ii6u

''O:dd" Oapanese and Kofean Students)

On the boa.fd, write the mispronounced wotd with its nofmal spelling, and below
the wofd, a pfonunciation spelling in which the double lelters ut are substituted
Jor zu. Tell the student to start tlle word tl,oman with a long /u/ sound that moves
into the following stressed vowel.
would
u u

2.

6uld

Alternative feedback:

Tell the student to imagine he is stretching a rubber band as he says the first
sont\d of uould.

?ell the student to prepare to say u,ould wil}] the lips tightly rounded. As he says
tlle word, he unrounds his lips.

3. Add

these words for practice:

would woman wool wolf

wooden

Mispfonounclng "Yeaf" as "Eaf" Oapanese and Korean Speakers)

On the board, write the mispronounced word with its normal spelling. Below it, write a
proflunciation spelling in which the double letters ll are substituted fot !. Contt^st )Ear
alfd eatt prolo/lg;tflg tl'.e /y/ of year'leU the student to statt lear wilt' a long /i,/ sound
that mo\'es into the following stressed vowel.
year

ii6ar

150

:HAPTER

Consonants

.lroiceless stops: p ea, tea, key

ffi t*,trt
What the Teacher Should Know
when the yoiceless stops /p/, /t/, ot /k/ are followed b}' a stressed vowel,
the stop is pronounced with a puff of ai! aspiration. In textbooks, this may be
represented as a small stlperscript "h" after the consonant or by a small
superscript "<" after the consonant (e .g., pt'ea, f ea, kh e1t, ot p<ea, t<ea, k'e!).
Aspiration occurs when the buildup of air behind the stop is released suddenly.
ln pan, fot example, the treginning /p/ is held while air builds up behind the lips.
When the lips open, the air is suddenly released.In a language like Spanish, stops
are unaspirated;the stop closure is not helcl as long as it is in English and less air
builds up.
If /p,t,k/ are insufficiently aspirated, native listeners may hear them as
their voiced counterparts, /b, d, g,/;prg may sound like"big," tie like "die," and coat
like "goat."
Aspiration of /p,t,k/ occurs only when a stressed Yo,wel follows.ln apb^ ,
decb6.y, fot example, the consonants are aspirated because a
atfAck,
^nd
stressed \.owel follows. In dpple, 6ttic, and ddcadent, the bold consonants are
not aspirated because a stressed vowel does not follow2t Voiceless stops are also
scrool Because of the role of
unaspirated in /s/ clusters, such as spot, stop,
^nd
stress, the rule for aspiration is complex and students do not have time to apply
it when they are dealing with stops inside a worcl (for example, decbdy versus
(lecad.ent).If your students' pronunciation of Pig, tie, and cold sounds like "big,"
"die," and "gold," address aspiration in monosyllabic words beginning with these
consonants. The vowel that follows is ?rlways stressed in this context, simplifying
the rule.
ERROR CORREBTI0N:

Pie sounds rjke Buy

On the board, write the mispronounced word together with monosyllabic words
begnning with other voiceless stops.Write a small superscript "h" after the Yoiceless stop to fepfesent aspiration.
pnie

thie

kney

ffist sounds are pronounced

with an e-xplosion or puff of air
3. Demonstrate aspiration. llold a sheet of paper or a tissue so that the bottom edge is
2- Model the words. students repeat. Explain that dle

iusa a tittle below your mouth and about 2 inches a$/ay from the mou:h. Turn sideways to your studnts and say each word in tum. The bottom edge of the paper
should blow out when you say the words. Students may notice that the papef
less for /t/ and /k/. This occurs because with ,/p/, the
mo\.es fafthest for /p/

"nd

21

The

/t

in

rd.

diffe$ fmm lhe /V tn atta&

flonuncixtion of/y

is dscussed in

/t/ and/d/

\r

al\alhet way:

l1eps, abolc

Illdtlic, /tJ \sirPped

bccause stres precedes

jl

The flapped

cHAPr[R

buildup of air is closest to the paper;with

back in the mouth.

/t/

^1td

Consanants

151

/W,tlae buildup occurs farther

4. students repeat ttre demonstration in pairs. Remind students to hold the sheet of
paper up, about 2 inches away from the mouth, so that the bottom edge is just
below the mouth (if the lower edge of the paper is at neck level, aspiration is not
sroog enough to move it). One student watches for movement of the paper as the
other student says the words. If the paper doesn't move, the speaker has not aspiratd the consonants sufficiently.
). on the board, add minimal pairs that contr.rst voiceless and yoiced sounds. Explain
that there is no aspiration v/ith the second word in the pais. Studnts repeal the
words, strongly aspirating the flrst word of each pair

pay-bay
pill-bill
pack-back

too-do

coat-goat

tie-die

c0me-gum

town-down

card"guard

trrnr.t Consonant Clusters: Pxtbkm

ffi

Vihat the Teacher Should Know

The worcl pl"oblem contains two initial consonant clusters: /prl begins the
word (and the first syllable) nnd All begins the second syllable. English allows a
large number of two-member begiruing clusters (for example, s'zake, sIoP, ploud,
glass

ln

n, tbree, txuin, and music). Three-mcmber clusters are more restricted; all

begin with /s/ followedby /p/, /t/, or /k/, followed by /r/, /l/, /y/, or /u,/,as in string,
square, and speut (/sJlutr/).
Most students are able to recognize pefmissible and impefmissible clusters in

English (e.g., /ml/, /bn/, ancl /pt/ are impcrmissible). Altenberg reports that
beginning to advanced students had a good sense of permissible and impcrmissible
English clusters, though they could not alw,tys pronounce the pemissible clllsters
accurately (2005).

Difficulty with a specfic consonant cluster depends ot.t what is permitted in

the native language.22 Spanish, for example, does not permit cluster sequences of
/s/+ Consonant (as in scbool). Spanish students often add a vowel before these
22

Fincri tr'lininaLSonodft lli$ance model (199i) pledicts that sto| + liquid

difficuit than fricatilc + liquid clu$ers (e g.,tr.?i. H rcin Bhatt end Bhatt's slud! oi]apanese xnd
ljstrne$ pxrti,llh corllflned this prediction (1991, 341).

Dive6al facto$

clu$e6 (e.g,
Sfanish ESi.

also

4r4 eill

ir

luence difficuLn. Broselou and

be morc

"152

:HAPTFR

Consonants

words (e.g., "eschool") so that they conform to Spanish patterns. Some languages
Oapanese, Cantonese, and Vietnamese, lbr example) do not permit any beiinning
consonant clusters.
Adding a vowel to separ4te the consonants in a cluster or deleting one of the
consonants also occurs. Japanese students may pronounce s/,tss like "tiurassl'
Egyptian Ar':rbic students may pronouncefZoor as "filoor'."Vietnamese students may
pronounce problem vs /pabam/ ot Sreet 'd:s "geetl' As mentioned above, Korean
language,
students have difficulty with /kw/ and /glw/ in words like cluestion
^nd
pronouncing ,/w,/ too weakly of not at 2ll.
There afe a yariety of techniques that can be used to correct beginning
consonant cluster effors, depending on the type of error, but none works in all
cases. Students who add vowels in front of clusters (e.g., "eschool" for "school") can
be instructed to prolong the flrst consonant of the cluster ("ssschool"); this helps
them avoid starting the word with a .\rowel. This tecl-mique does not work when the
first consonant is a stop (/p, b, t, d, k, g/) because stops cannot be prolonged.
When studei.lts separate the consonants in a clustef (e.g., "filoor" fot flootr
"gurass" for grass) or delete a consonant fiom the cluster (e.g.,"geen" for green),the
first technique to attempt is tbe simplest. Students who pronouncefloor as "flloor"
should be instructed to pronounce both consonants close together Students who
pronounce green as "geen" should be instructed to prorloullce /r/. The simple
approach sometimes works.
If the simple technique tails, teachers c2!r1 tell students to prepare to say the
second consonant in the clustcr (n/ ir floor or /r/ n Sreen) ?'nd then say the whole
word. This technique works well in words like grc?r?, Jloot pla!, break, afld cloud.
In these clusters, the tip of the tongue is inYolved in pronoLrncing the second
consonant (A/ or /r/) but not in the first consonant (/p, b, f, k, g/). The vocal organs
can therefore be in position for the second cor.rsonant as the first is pronounced. This
technique, howe\.e! does not work when both the fust and second members of the
cluster involl,.e the tip of the tongue (in words like tee, clriue, three, snou, d sleet).

Activily 4.10 Extrene weather

level

lntermediate

Worksheet

None

Tip

Encourage students to pronounce the consonants in consonant clusters.

Description This activity provides practice with beginning consonant clusters in

the context of weather and can be added to the topic of climate
change or global warming.

words or phrases used to describe the weather or effects of

ihe weather and write them on the board (not all of the words need to contain
beginning consonant clusters). Underline beginnlng ciusters. Add a few new

1. Elicit from students

CIIAPTER

Actiuit!

4. I

Consonants

153

0 continaed

words, The words below cover a range of weather conditions; the teacher
should choose vocabulary that is appropriate for the studenis' level as well as
for the types of weather they are lrkely to talk about.
Weather Words
sleet
!!ow
extreme weather hlizzaft
hazy sunshine drought
blistering heat
tornado
spreading tires
slush

2.

st0tms

thunderstorms

cloudy

bright sunshine

hunicane

cyclone

Eeeze

drizzle

climate

sprinkles

Go over new vocabulary. lvlodel the words. Students repeat. provide

pronunciation feedback on consonant clusters.

3.

Students work in pairs and make two lists, one for words describing extreme
weather (or weather effects) and the other for words describing mild weather
(effects).

4.

Following the pair work, ask students to volunteer words from their lists.
Provide feedback on pronunciation of consonant clusters.

5. ln small

.
.
.
6.

groups, students use the words to discuss questions about weather.

Have you ever experienced extreme weather? Explain.

Has the weather in your country changed with global warmjng? How?

What type of climate do you prefer?

Following the group work, ask several students to answer the questions. provide
feed back on consonant clusters.

ffi

taut

consonants:

iece, ask

What the Teacher Should Know

Consonants at the ends of words and syllables are more difficult to pronounce
than those in bellinning position.In English, all consonants except A/ can occur in
final position (e.g.,rob, lip, bead, bat, dog, pick, kiss, rose, eaclr, eclge, laugb, loue).2.
Tri'Gmember final consonant clusters are common (e .g.,ask, barut, heaft, betp, l.efD,
as arc three-member cluslers. especialJy when grammarir.al ending,
,at.t.O, u, i'

text (/kstD, uorks (/rkst), oJld launcbed (/ntftf.

'?3lfhen 4y' aud

4t

occur in

iiialposition, the!

arc considered pert

olfie

vowel.

Becar.rse

"."
many languages
place

154

(H^PILR4

Cansanants

gfeeter restrictiolts on fi]lal consonants than English does. errors;rre widespreacl and
less depcndcnt on the stlldent's native language than those il]|olyinla bcgifliing
consonants (and beginning clusters). Japanese, for example. permits only /n,/ in final
position; Sparish permits or.rly /d, s, n, r. l/. Languages F'hich do permit a Lu.ger r4nge
of final consonants ((icrman, Russian, and Polish, for examplc) ma| not allow the final
\.oiced stops and fricatives that are :rllowed in English: (e.Ei.. rr1re, lJafld, rttb, dog).
Universal factors ancl narkedness (linguistic naturalness) interact with and

feinlbrce natiyelangu:rge festrictions (see krtroductior], page 5). Final voiced

obstruents (stops and fricatives, ns rn dog or bate) are more clilficult than final
voiceless obstruents (as in dock antl half). They occur less tiequently in the
$'orlcl's languages, and in langurges where they do occur', like English, thcy are
acquired later by cl.rildren learning their lirst lan1 uage.
Most errors involving final consonants have the eflect of making English words
and syllables more like thosc in the speaker's native languagc, thereby simplifiiing
pronnnciation for the leaflrer 'l'wo common rypes of errors afe delction (e.9., big
pronounced as "bi") and cpenthcsis (thc addition of a vowel; e.g., rrg pronounced
as "bigo").2t
.Pronouncing
final voiced stops ;mal fiicatives as their yoiccless collnteryafts
(i.c., clcvoicing) is another comrnon error (e.g., Drg sounds like "bickl' lsr.tue sounds
litri:e "half'and u6ts sounds like "wass"). Less fiquently, final consonants may be
changed to other consonants (e.9., pocketbook pronounccd as "pocke(t)boor").
The tvpe of efrof studcnts make depends on native language, the level of
formality in speaking. the learner's level of proficiencl', the specilic final consonant
or cluster. and the soun':ls preceding or folk)wing it (Tarone l980,Weinberger 1987,
Hansen 2001, Hansen 200.1).weinberger found that his Mnndarin EsL lcarners r\.ere
more likely to pronounce lrlt as "bit)" (adding an epenthetic vowel) when they
were feading wofds in a list, out of context (1987). When thc same words were
used in context (such as in paragraph reading or speakiflg), both deletion (c.1.,"bi"
for bit)
epenthcsis (c.9., "bit'") occurred. In list readinli, clcletion of the final
^ndintroduces ambiguity-is "bi" big, bit, or bid? 'flre addition of the yowel
consonant
(as in "bita") allows the listener to "rccor,'cr" the $'ord more easily than deletion of
the final consonant.
Both types of errors (deletion and epenthesis) shoulcl be a.ldfessed in

pfonrnciation work. Whilc deletion cxr difectly lower intelligibility of a word

(because part of the wold is missing), cpenthesis (addition of a linal vowel) can
lowcr it inclirectl_v, by creating an unnatural rh1-thm; sl.llablcs that should not be
present are pfesent. Epenthesis efrors can be addressed by teaching the
pronunciation of final consonarts as part of linking (scc Linking Words Togethe!
Rhythm). Deletion can be addressed throulh error corrcction by focusing students'
attention on missing final consonants, and in lessons on -el and -s endings.

consoliadls,

lle

unrcle.Lsed

ir

nixnr contc

in llnglish

(scc Linking

[rords lbged]er Rh\1hln).

cHl\pfti

ConsDnants

1Ss

Native English simplifications of Final consonants. Not an deretions of

final
consonants are effors. Natiye English speakers do not always pronounce
all the
consonants in final clustefs. Some simplifications are specilic enough
to teach to
students (for example, simplification of f\n I tb souncls before an _s encling).
Others
follow rules which are too complex to be of much use to stuclents. Howevet
if
students use the same simplfications that natiye speakers clo, they should
not be
corfected and required to produce consonants that the teacher himself does
not.

ZII Simplifications before an -s Endiarg. h nonths /mens/ and clotlres

/klowz/, common plurats, the /, sounds are rzrely pronounced by native NAE
speakers, even in citation word pronunciations. since the tr, sounds ar.e difficult,
students will be grateftll to leam this.
In other words, interdental //: is often dropped and the _s endin| mav be
lengthened ("holding the place,'of /r).
two fifths

lfs/

She bathes /beyzl the baby.

earth's /ars/ orbit

Sequences of Consoflant+Stop+Consonant. Nati\'e speakers often delete the

middle stop consonant in sequences of consonant + stop + consonant, as long as
,,fa_x,,) (Avery
the stop is not a grammatical encling (e .g., aske.l /ast/,
and
facts
Ehrlich 1992, 87).25
kindness /kaynaY
softness

/sofnev

textbook /tksbuk/

next month /nks meno/

past policies /pas polasiyz/

left side /ll sayd/

Middle stops are not omitted when rhe next wor{l begins wirh /h/ (.e .?,..left
d, not " lef h^nd,e(|,, ).
The simplilication of consonant + stop + consonant clusters should not be
taught to students. Most students have at best only a vague nodon of what a stop is
and would not be able to apply this rule in actual speaking. In addition. because
students do not pronormce many final cons()ltants thdt should be pronounced. it is
unlikely that teachers would feer comfortable presenting a .- e which cannot be
b ande

applied in real speaking and whiclt might encourage more inappropriate

simplification offinal consonants.It is, however, appropriate to reach simplifications

of common words like "ast', for as&ed and ,,gifs" for gqflg on a word_by_wofcl basis.

Final Voiced afrd Voiceless Consonants. Students may clevoice final voiced
stops and fricatiyes, pronouncing them with theif voiceless counterpafts; for
example bag may sound like ,,back,,' and peas may souncl like ,,peaci.,, Some
?t

Temperley cites some crses $herc th slof is oj)litted even $hen it i, a grammdicaL
etding 0987. 80).

156

cH.\PrtR

Consonatlts

like German or Russian, do not permit voiced obstruents (stops 'ind

fiicatives) in final position; in these langualacs, devoicing is r rule. Cliltlren leaflring
their first language also have more difficulqv with final \ oiced obstruents. Stampe
describes the de\.oicing of final obstrucnts as a natural process of language (1979).
Eckman describes linal voiced obstruents as more marked (diJ}icr-rlt) than final
voiceless obstruents (1981).Thus,there can be both universal and language-specfic
reasons lbr a stuclent's pronunciatioll of Drzg as 'back" or /:al e as -halJ. "
Researchers have invcstigatecl several issues involving tinal voiccd :urd
voicclcss obstments. Yivas reports that his Portuguese, .Japanese. :rnd Mandafin
learners werc more likely to devoice final /<I/ and /g/ than linal /b/, bid antl big
were more likel]-to lle pronounced as "hit" and "bick," and r/1, s?s less likely to be
pronouncecl like rip (1997).2'; M.rgcn rrl')rtcd thxt devoicitrg errors did not appear
to bc an impoftant contfibutor to accent (1998).
Tcxcling students to voice final obstruents is diilicult tbr r$o reasons. First,
students have little awareness or control over the articulator responsible for
voicing the vocal cortls. In general, articulatory awrrcncss is higher with
articulators closcr to the front of the mouth (for example, the lips, the teeth, the tip
of the tontiue); thc vocal cords, howe\rr, arc the articulators lArthest fiom the tiot]t
of thc nouth. Sccond, devoicing errors are rnost cornrl1on when the obstruent
occurs in fiml position, an already difficnlt position fbr consonant pronunciation.
A pedagogical stratclay thet sidesteps these dilliculties is teaclting the vowcl
iength clift'erencc that occurs betbte final voiced and voiceless cousonants, rathef
than Voicing (or together with \.oicing).Vowels before voiccd cOnsonants are longe;'
than vowels bcfbre voiceless consor]ants. In thc mininal pairs beloq the vorvels in
the first column (coming before voicecl sounds) are longer than the vowels in thc
seconcl column (coming before voiceless stLtnds).
languages,

Vowel + Voiced Consonant

vowel + Voiceless Consonant

raise

race

feed

feet

pig

pick

When studcnts learn to lengthen gowcls befbre voiced consonants, the finxl consonant sounds mofe \-oiced, even if it is not.

26

l)clolcing 0l linrl /d/ flrd /g/ w,r\ nost

Likely whn dre

consonlnt \rr lteceded b! high r o$'eh

CHAPTER

Cansonants

157

Activity 4,11 Recognition and production of final consonants, finat cons.,nant

clusterc, and final voiced consonants

level

Intermed;ate

Worksheet Page 23I

Tip

fncourage students to pronounce final consonants to improve com_

prehensibility and grammatical accuracy.

Description This activity targets deretion errors with finar consonants and vower
Iength differences before voiced and voiceless sounds.

t.

StuOents listen to the pairs in part 1 and repeat them.

@ 2. Students ljsten to the pairs in part 2 and repeat them. 0f you model the
words live, exaggerate the length of the vowel in the first member of each

pair and pronounce the final consonants normally_do not overpronounce

the final consonants.) Ask students to describe the difference jn vowel
length in these pairs. Explain that the fjrst words in part 2 end in voiced
sounds (the vocal cords vibrate), and the vowels are longer. The last words in
Part 2 end in voiceless sounds (the vocal cords do not vibrate), and the
voweJs are shorter.

@ 3. Students iisieil to

one word from each of the pairs in part 2 again and circJe

the word they hear.

4. ln pairs, students practice

the words in parl 2. Then each student reads a word

from each pair and the partner identifies the word.

5. After the pair work, ask each student to select a pair and say one of the words.
The class will decide which word was said.

6.

Ask each student to choose a pair of words from the handout and write a
sentence containing both words. Students read their sentences to a partner.

158

]HAPTER

Consonants

Activity 4.12 How woultl you use 2.7

tti

ion dollars?

Level

Advanced

Worksheet

Page 232

Tip

Encourage students to pronounce final consonants to improve comprehensibi lity and grammatical accuracy.

Description This activity targets final voiced consonants, such as in advise, (to)
use, and raise (faxes). Students work in small groups io decide how
best to use money in a budget. The sample shows how U.S. tax dollars ($2.7 killion) in 2OO7 were spent (and overspent). Any budget,
however, could be used, such as a typical lamily's yearly income,
your school's budget, or your city's budget. The budgets of many
organ izations are available online.

1.

On the board, write minimal pairs ihat contrast final voiced and voiceless
consonants. The words below are useful for discussing budgets.

advise-advice (to) use-a

use

raise-race halve-half (to)close-close(adi")

2. l\4odel the words. Students repeat. Explain that the vowels in the first word
of each pair (i.e., before voiced consonants) are longer than those in the
second word.

Distribute Worksheet

4.I2.

Make sure students understand the categories.

4. Ask students to describe how federal tax dollars were used in 2007. Encourage
the use of use as a verb. Provjde feedback on final consonants (lengthening the

vowel in use).
5. Ask one or two students how they would advise the government to spend
tax dollars. Encourage students to use advise and use. Provide feedback

on pronunclation.
6. In srnall groups, students advise the government where to spend more or less
money. Remind students to pay attention to final consonants.
7. After the group work, ask a representative from each group to report on their
decisions. Provide feedback on final consonants.
8. Ask students whether the federal government spent more or less money

than it took in (since the percentages add up to more than 100 percent,
the governrnent spent more money than it collected). Ask the class how
the government should close the budget gap. Try to elicil raise taxes as
one possibility.

CHAPTER

ffi

Consonants

159

-rrf .na -s Endings

V{hat the Teacher Should Know

Pronunciation work with -ed and, -s endings reinforces gmmmar and focuses
attention on final consonants.
-ed endings. The pronunciation of the regular past tense -ect ending <Iepends on
/t/ ot /d/,the -e,/ ending is pronounced

the last sound of the yerb.If the last so];tr;rdis

as a syllable Uad/ or /tdD.
ended

reminded

invited

ledl

ledl

ladl

If the last sound of the verb is voiceless (as in /p, k, 0, t,s,l,t[D,the -ed ending is also
voiceless and pronounced as a single final consonant, /t/.
kicked

washed

laughed

tfi

tkv

lltl

With these verbs, the -ed ending always creates a final consonant cluster. If the
student simplifies the cluster by dropping f:trjlal /t/, ttre pronunciation error will

sound like a grammar errof.

If the last sound of the verb is a vowel or a voiced consonant (such as ,/b, g, 6,
f z, 3,q, n, m, l, f V),the -ed ending is pronounced as a single final consonant, /d/.

robbed
lbdl

showgd
ldl

saved
luU

planned

tnd!

When the base verb ends in a consonant, the ending creates a cluster (e.g.,
planned /ndD.
With most adiectives ending in -e4 the pronunciation of rhe ending follows
the rules for regular verbs above.

interestqdstudents
ladl

scarqdchildren

a lockgd dool

tdt

In some adjectives, the -ed ending is pronounced as an extra syllable (/ad/)

even when the sound preceding it is rrot /t/ ot /d/.
the wicked witch
/3dt

a thlee-legged dog

ledl

a learngd genlleman

ladl

Including these adiectiyes in a pronunciation lesson for advanced students can

add interest to the topic (other similaf adjectives are xaretcbed, naked, and, rugge^.
In some -ed adjecri]',es, the ending has two pronunciations (for example, beloued
/btlevad/ and /btlal"df).\n learned, the two pronunciations ha.t'e different meanings:

160

:HAPTIR

'1

Consonants

learned /latnd,/ bcbctuior a:nd q learned /larna(l/ gentletlt4,t (Celce-Mufcia et al.

1996). The -eri ending is also pfonounced /a.l/ jn aclverbs fi)rmcd from ed adiecrives
(e.9,., sul )posedl.|, allegedly).
-.s Endings. -s endings include plurals, third-person singular present endings,
possessives, and contractions of bas antl l'.s. Likc the ed endings, thc pronllnciation
of an -s endin[i depends on the last sound of the word to which thc cndir]g is added.
wlren the word encls in a sibilant (slike sounds, see Sibilants. above), the ending is
pronounced as an extra svllable, /az/ or /t7/. After other words. it is pronounced as

conson.rnt. /s/ tt /L/:

Thc -s ending is pronoundcccl /az/ ot /tz/ when the last sound of the word is
a sibilant (/s, z,l,3.tf, d3D.

r firal

The

ki99-kisses

r0!g-r0ses

wi![-wishes

garagg-garages

match-matches

age-ages

-.s e

nding is pronouncccl

as r'-oicclcss ,/s/ whe n

the last sound of thc word

is voiceless.
writes

/tY

The lock's /ks/ broken.

ending is pronouncecl
a vowcl or voiced consonant.
The

-.r

Sue's /z/ sister

Vhen

as

lips /pV

voiced /z/ when the last sound of the worcl is

pigs

lgzl

John's /nzl here.

to words encling in t/, sounds, nxtive speakers ma1'

sound; the -.! ending may be lengtltened to "hold the plece"

-s endinpls are added

simplify or delete thc

of the th sound.'l'his is a simplification that can be taugl]t to students (sce Final

cor.rsonants. Native Spcakcr Simplifications of Finxl (i)nsonants, page 155).
The rules fbr when -ed or -s cndings arc pronounced :rs sin[ilc consonants (/t/
peclagogicall_v complex. nr apply the rules, students must know
or /d/,/s/ ot /z/)
^re
the invcntory of voiced and r-oiceless sounds in English, an unrealistic expectation.

Further, evcn if students have this knowle.lge . it is r-[rlikely that thev wjll have time
to apply it in normal speakilrg. A pedagogically si|tpler approach is 1o focus on
['hen the ending is pronouncecl as a separate svllatrlc (,/ad/ or /azl.).With the past,
the ending is a syllable wben the verb encls in /t/ ot /d/, otherwisc, it is a final
consonant (/t/ or /dD. For the -s endings, the ending is a s1.llable when the word
ends in a sibilant sound: otherwise, it is a final consonam Us/ ot /zD.

'this simplified approach also focuscs students attention on thc

most
noticeable mispronunciation of the er./ endiflg-the inappropriate use of ,/ad/ with
r,-erbs like listened. The simplificd n-rle does not capture YOicing distinctions; tltat
is. it does not speciti'when -ed, for exanple. is pfonounced /t/ or /d/.yoicrng of
the cnding mav be either left to yoicing assimilation (a natural ten.lenc-y for a

following sound to takc on thc voicinli of the prcccding sound) or resolved

through errof cofrection.

CHA?TER

Consonants

161

Research on final consonants suggests that when a grammatical ending

is the
only final consonant in a word, as in bols or shoue4 it is tess likely to be cleleted
than single final consonants that are not endings, as in lose or zrke (Saunders
19g7,
Hansen 2001). In addirion, the deleti(xt of -, endings scems to depend
on the
function of the -s ending, with verb enclings (e.g., pay) more likely to be delered
than noun endings (c.g., daJLls). The larger number of errors witlt the present tense
ending (compared to plural or possessive) may reflect the fact tltat the meaning
addecl by the yerb ending is alnost always redundant: Mandarory subyect
nouns oi
pronouns clcarly iodicxte the person and nurnber ofthe subiect (,lhrone and pafrish

1988).' Lightbown and Spacla suigest that vigilant error coffection may be
necessary fbr accurate use of the present -s cnding (1999, 151).
Pronunciation of grammatical endings is especially important for students who
will use English in academic or pr,,fessional settings. Mf,ny grammar ancl course
books for beginning and intermedinte students cover prorr.rrii"tion of the _ed nnd
-s endings; thesc exercises have the bcnefit of using vocabulary and topics
that
studenb afe aheady co\.ering in class.
Course and grammar books for advanced students, on the other ltand, may not
address the pronunciation ofendings. Teachers should not assume that their
advanced
students know these pronunciation mles. Deleted endinlls may indicate only the
general diffic.lty with final consonants and can bc dealt with as such.
Howeyer.
pronunciations like listen-ed, as a three-svllable wor.1, or toatclt-ed, as a two_s),llable
word, probabl,v mean that the sh.rdent does not know hos/ to pronounce the enclings.

Activity 4,13 Past endings: Montlay noming wam-ups

Level

Beginn ing/lniermed iate

Worksheet None

Tip

Encourage students to pronounce final consonants to imorove com_

prehensibility and grammatical accuracy.

Desctiption As a regular part of Monday morning classes (once the past tense has
been taught), ask students to describe what they did on the
weekend, using the past tense.

1.

Ask students to describe what they did on the weekend, using the past tense.
Provide feed back on pronunciation.

2.

List all past tense verbs on the board.

(continued on next page)

2t

Vith

some irrcgulat plural sirbjects, the J ending is not rcduJr{lant

rc lollorving senlences, onlvthe ve$ending
re subjct as pluttl at sit.rg\tlxt:7he [hee\ llohs sick,,Jl)e sheel) llak sick.

identifis

In

(orlackoiit)

162

cHAPrtR

ActiuitJ' 4.I3

Consanang

contin ed

3.

Ask students to divide the past verbs into three categories: verbs where the
-ed ending is a syllable, verbs where the -ed ending is a stngle sound, and
irregu lar verbs.

4.

Students check their lists and ask questions if necessary. Ask individual
students to read the verbs from one of the categories. Provide feedback on
pron u nc iation.

CONCLUSION
Pefhaps mofe than any othef afea of pfonunciation, stereotyped
pronunciations involve mispronunciations of consonants. For this reason, as well as
to improve comprehensibility, it is important to address them. Teachers can often
pro\'ide visual clues to the pronunciations of consonants by exaggerating the shape
of the mouth, using hand llestures, or providing simple diagrams.
The most pervasive and persistent errors with consonants occur when they
are in final position. Errors with final consonants can lower students'
comprehensibility as well as their grammatical accuracy. Teachers can use both
pronunciation actiyities and frequent error correction to help students pronounce
consonar"iis in this difncult position.
Although controlled practice of consonants is important for students to gain
skill, they also need the opportuniry to use their new skills in connected speech,
in activities that mo.t'e them bevond the domain of the word.

CHAPTER

In a discussion of TV shows and entertairlers, a low_intermediate French

student said that he likecl Joe pardee. I asked who Joe pardee \fas, ancl he said, .No,
Joe Pardee." I was puzzled and wrore ,Joe par<lee,' on the board. He said no. the

show .Joe Pardee. 'I'he student meant the game show

Jeopar(ty. Although my
misunderstanding involved more than rhe effof in the first vowel, I might
have
understood the intended word if that vowel had been closer to its English
pronunciation (of I might have guessed ,Jay parclee').
Pronunciation difficr tics with English vowels are widespread, in part because
English has a relatively large number of yowels. The diagrim below shows
the
vowels of North American English (NAI. spokcn in the Unired States and
Canada)
and their relative positions in the mouth.r Bebw the diagmm are the three
diplrthongs (complex vowels): ,/aV (as il.t houD, /ay/ (as in bigb), .and
/oy/ (ds jn
&oJLl). Because of dialect yariation, some native speakers, vowels
may differ
somewhat from those shown below

[:] bought

Diphthongs

lawl how

/ay/ high

loyl boy

In contrast to consonants, vowels are procluced with little obstfuction of the

airflow.Vowcls also havc longer durations than consonants (Mehler et al.1996).
English vowel differences are procluced by varying the height of the body
of the tongue (high, mid, or low); the frontness or. backness of the tongue (froni,
t

These positions dfti altered sont\|h at

bl

adj accnt

consonants
1

63

164

(HAt'rER

Votlels

central, back);the degree of muscular tension (tense or lax): antl the rounding of
the lips (rountlecl or unrounded). The grid imposed o\er the mouth in the
diagram above shows how vowel height, frontness,/backness. and tension/laxness
are reflected in NAE \.ow(jls. All English b;rck vowels are rounded, xs they are in
most languages.

VOWEL PERCEPTION AND PRONUNCIATION

BY ENGLISH I.EARNERS
Like most unfamiliar features of a ner' language. vowels and vowel contrasts
that do not occur in the student's nativc languale are likely to be difficult. However,
both perception and pronunciation of English vowels improve as proficiency,
exposlrre to English, and use of English increase (Bohn ancl Flegc 1992,Ingram and
Park 1997, Flege and MecK:ry 2004).
Cenoz and Lecumberri report that practice with listening ancl discriminatiofl
improyes the accuracy with whicll students hear unfarniliar vowel contrasts (1999).
lVhen vowels and vowel contrasts are heard more cleadl', students haYe more
accurate "perceptual models" on rvltich to base pronunciation (Flege, Ilohn, and
Jang 1997,Ing$m and Park 1997).The /il/'/r/ conrrlst (as in lealte'liue) is a new and
difficult contrast for many students.If a student is unsure of how the vowel in /lae
sounds (e.g.,1/lre in NeuY('rk),he fiq- substiture his closcst native-langlrage vowel
(especially if he is a beginner) or pronounce the vowel ofle Na) orl ollc occdsion
and another way on another.Itrithout a clear perceptual model of the Yowel. he will
not have a clear tafget for pronunciation. An example from onc of my students is the
pronunciation of the last yowel in democrctt (/a/).The student, ;r native speaker of
Mandarin, was talking about the two-party system in the llnited States. He used the
word clemocrctt six times in two minutes, and pronouncecl the tlird Yowel in that
word in five different w.rys: "democrease" (once, also nispronouncing the final
consonant), "dcmocrit" (once), "dcmocrate" (twice), "dcmocrais" (once), and
"den.rocr.rt' (once, with the third vowel pronounced correctll). Almost all of his
substitLrtions were frot.tt vowels (like English /a/). One explanation for his variable
pronunciation is that he wasn't sure llow /e/ sounds and thereforc didn't have a
clcar pe|ceptual target at v/hich to aim his pronunciations.
Since accumte perception of vowels is linked to more accurate Pr,)nunciJtion,
work with vowel perception is important. Ilowever, vowcl perception develops

with pronunciation can still be cffcctiYe cven when the vowel

(contmsl) is not clexd)' perceived. Many students who cannot hear a vowel
particularly well can nevertheless lexrn to pronounce it more accurately once tbey
understand how it is made, ancl more accurate pronunciation may lead to more
llraduall,v. 'i9ork

accurate pefception.2
(see
'] Perceltion lna-r aho lag production $ith consonxnl\

Colronalb f4e

146).

CHAtrtR

Vo\,\/els

165

Vowel Pronufrciation
In general, front ]/owels (/iyl beat, /r/ liue, /ey/ bait,
// bet, /E/ bat) and
central vowels (/a/ bltt, /o/ potr r are peclagogic;rlly more
important than most
back vowels (/Dw/ boot, /u/ book, /ow/ t:ia|,
bought),
/Ji
since many of the
front and central rrowel contrasts are both clifTicult foi students
;rnd liequent
in English words.
Tense-ktx aoluel contrLtsts are also diflicult for students,
in particular the
pronunciation of lax vowels.a

Tense
/lyl leave
ley/ lale
/uw/ Luke

Lax

hl five
kl bt
lu/ toak

The terms tense afld lax tefet to the muscular tension fequifed
to produce
the vowels. With tense vowels, the tongue is positioned farther
fiom the center of
the mouth (the center is the rest or relaxecl position for the tongue),
thus
requiring more muscular tension to reach and maintain these positions.When
the
tension is relaxed a little, the tongue mo\.es toward a more
central position in
the mouth, producing the lax \.owel counterpatt. For example,
with /iy,/ (as in
leaue),the body of the tongue is high ancl front in the
wh.r, rhe tongue
-or.,h.
drops down and back a lirtle (more toward the center of the
mouth), the lax
\owel / r/ (Lts iit liue) is produced. Differences in lip shapes are also present
with
tense-lax pairs. The lips are generally more relaxed
lless spread or lcss roundecl)
for lax vowels.

@rcaYe/i,/ @''"""

(
i.,---------,-_

Wr;,

@tarc/ev/ @*,n,

r""u,
/

I Ir sone dialecl!.
/q/ 0ol)
{relc"\1.
.i ,t,r

ii

!t

Jp

$eluke/uv @

is a Lrack or centmlback \,0$r1 (rte$,and

ir,-'d\\o*el.

t,,,U,

rl

lhrlich

1992, J0).

bok/u/

166

IHAPTER

Vowels

Vowel Spellings
The sound-spelling correspondence of Entilish vowels adG a ler-el of difficr ty to
pronunciation. My student's mispromurciation of the first \-o\\ el i-fr.leopard! was
probably the result of its unusual spelling in that word (i.e.. a -spelling pronunciation)
Sound-spelling correspondences are complex partlv because there are only
slx vowel letters (a, e, i, o, u, y'\ used to spell more than a dozen vowel sounds. In
addition, English has "borrowed" many words from other languages along with
their spellings (suite, for example, is a French borro\r'ing). Finally, linguistic
changes in the vowel system, most notably the Great Vox'el Shift, produced new
pronunciations. bul old spellings were relained.i
Students should be aware of both the common spellings of !-owels and the
exceptions to the conrmon patterns; spelling is coYered in many textbooks,
especially at the beginning and intermecliate levels.6 Intermediate and advanced
students who hn\'e learned the comlnon spelling patterns ma still need work with
the exceptions.

Phonetic Symbols
Phonetic symbols are used in pronunciation tertbooks and in ESL dictionaries.
Thcy proyide a means fo| representing sounds unambiguously and are especially
useftll when teaching vowel pronunciation (because of the complex spelling rules
for vowcls).7 It is not necessary for students to memorize a phonetic alphabet. Most
textbooks do not assume or require memorization of a phonetic alphabet, and
symbols are always accompanied by sample words.
Different phonetic conventions sometimes give rise to diffefefit symbols for the
same sound. Some textbooks, for example, use ,/ayl to represent the boldface vos/els
in time or iron; ot]l'erc use /ail. rvith ,/ayl, the second part of the vowel (the glide
ending) is represented with the consonant symbol /y/; wilh /ai/, it is represented
with the vowel symbol /i/. For some pronunciation problems, one sltnbol is
pedagogically more useful than another. In helping Chinese students correct
mispronunciations of time as "Tom," the symbol /ail is more useful because the
second part of the vowel iri tlnxe sounds like /i,/. HoweYer, the symbol /ay/ is rnore
nseftrl when showini the pronunciation of iron,,/ayarn/, because the second part of
the vowel sounds more consonantal.In this book, alternate symbols (to those shown
in the diagnm on page 163) are explained and suggested when pedagogically
appropriate. A comprehensive list of phonetic symbols and their alternates is
provided inside the front cover of this book.
5

The lowel aLlemafons in sane satll\,, u'lie Lidlh,lt]ld metetmehic, ior ti^mple, arc resuliJ 0l the Crcal \b$l Shift.
6l,rator
and Robinelt (1985) inclLrde ayery cornplete |st ofWelLings for $ressed vowels. The rules are aLranged br lclte4 rathet than by
sound.
1

In the Silent

val

lovels are ilrsocieFd wifi pafiicular colon to represent theni unamblguousL,v;

sce Gattegno (1912).

cHAprER

Vowels

167

Dialects and yarieties of English

English dialects r'ary more in pronunciation than they do in grammar
or

vocabulary, and vowels show more dialect variation than consonants (Ayerv
and
Ehdich 1992). Spoken English includes many yarieties, some natiye
lOiatectj anO
others nonnative (fofeign accents). EsL teachers whose stuclents speak different

natiye languages are faniliar with the difficulty students have understanding
classmates from other language backgrounds, especially at the beginning
of thi
tefm; as the semestef progresses, mutual undefstanding improves, even though
accents remain (see also Gass and Varonis 19f14 for the role that familiarity ptays;
intelligibility). since many of our students will use E'glish to communicate with
other nonnative speakers, it is impoftant to expose tltem to clifferent yarieties of
English.Thcre are

number of web sites that provide recordings of different dialects

and accents; see, for example, the American Dialect Society,s .Web site,
www.ameficandialect.org or the University of Kansas,s International Dialects
of
English Archiye, http:/ /web.ku.edufid,ea/.

Bringing dialect infotmation into the classroom not only adds variety and
intefest, but sometimes provicles stuclents with "dialect altematives', that
make
pronunciation easier. For cxample, many speakers of NAE use the sane yov/el
(/o/)
in pairs like caugbt-cot. The pronunciarion of cougbt with /o/ (as opposed to
n,/, a
vcwel used by native speakers in the Northeast) is acceptable and often easier fof
Students to learn than,6,/. It does no harm for stuclents to speak English with
features from different dialects of \.arieties as long as thc features are intelligible
and
n()f stigmatizr(l
Natiye English reachers should teach their ow1.r dialects, pointing out
differences between their vowels and textbook \.owels. Nonnative English teachers
will probably not pronounce all English vowels like a native speaker and ma,v prefer
to focus on vowel contrzsts they feel confoftable teaching. In addition, tapes and
other recordings should be used in class.

Interactiofl of Vowels and Other Areas of pronunciation

Vowel pronunciation can be affected by neighboring sounds as well as bv
of how a following
consonant can affect vowel pronunciation.
Voiced and voiceless consonants can alter the length of preceding stressed
vowels. A following voiced consonant (as in peas ot bad) lengttrens the vowel; a
following voiceless consonant (as In peace or Z2at) shortens the vowel (see Final
Voiced and Voiceless Consonants, page 155).
The vowels in some words (e .g., and, can, or) are reducecl to /a/ in connected
speech unless the speaker giyes them special emphasis. The conjunction arz4 for
example, is pronounced /an,/ in normal speaking: I'll hatte bacon ,n eggs (see
stress. R- ancl /-colored l.owels, discussed bektw, are examples

Reductions, page 72).

168

:HAPTER

vowels

TIPS FOR TEACHING VO\VELS

The si-x tips listed below provide some general suggestions for helping
students improye their pronunciation of vowels.The tips are based on how yowels
afe pfonounced and on how they are learned by nonnative speakers.

The remainder of this chapter presents the specific vo$/els and

vor',sel

contrasts listed below. The six tips above are further explained and reflected in the
context of specific Yowels.

[]

sprctrtc vow+s
t.

Front yowels:/iyl an(l

/r/

Front vowels:

/e/ (Jaait-u)et)

,/e1y' afld

(leaueJiue)

J.
4. Front vowels:
5.

/a/ (bad), /a/

^nd

/E/ (had-bead)

Front and centnl vowels:/e /, /E/, /a/,and

6. Central vowels: /3 / a'nd

7. Back vowels:/u\V,/
8. Back

^nd

(kept-cap-cup-cop)

/o/ (not-nut)
/u/ (boot-book)

vowel:,/ofl (go)

9. Back vowel:

A/ (cauglit)

10. Diphthongs:/ayl 1tigb), /a'gg/ (hotr), dnd

11. R-colored vowels and /-colored vowels
'We

/o/

/oy/ (boy)

discuss what the teacher should know about each of these topics and
provide suggestions for teaching most of them. In some cases, the suggestion is a
classroom activiry In other cases, it is error correction. Suggestions for error

cHAprER

Vowels

"l69

correction are short enough to use when students are engaged in nonpronunciation
actiyities.They are also useful for addressing pronunciation problems that only one
or two of your Students experience.

ffi

u"on, Vo*.ls:

/iy/

atd

/r/

(I.eaue-kae)

\Xlhat the Teacher Should Know

The vowel conrrast in leaue-liue is difficult fbr most students to hear ancl
pronounce. Since there are nany minimal pairs like leaue_liue, and each vowel
occurs in many words, the vowels and the contrast afe pedagogically important.

Perception of /iy/ alrd h/. ln many languages a single pure vowel ,/i/ (e.g., the
vowel in Spanish s/, "yes") corresponds to English /iy/ and / . Many students
identiry the tense \.owel /iyl as ,,similar,, to their natiye-language vowel. Some
students report that //re sounds llke lectue, suggesting that /iy,/ and,/r/ are heard as
the same vowel (like the native language vowel). Other students say that liae and,
leaue sonnd. diffbrent, but rhat they are nor sure v/hat the difference is. st l orher
students say that sometimes

/r/

sounds similar to,/i)y' and sometimes different.

Although most students feel that /r/ is more difficult than /Iy/,
improyements in pefception and production may be greatef with,/r,/ than with
/iy/ (Lax.e 1994), perhaps reflecting diflerent amounts of attention paid to rhe two
vowels by learners. Str-rdents are likely to direct learning efforts toward a vowel
they perceive as new or different from their native-language vowel (hence.
something to learn); a vowel like /iy/, ss'hich is often pefceiyed as similaf to the
native-laniuage vowel, may receiye less attcntion, since the student feels she
already "knows" it (Flege 1987).
The lax vowel /r/ is easier to hear when it is followed by a yoiced sound (as in

kicl and is), which adds length to the vowel. Following yoiceless stops and nasals
make the yowel more difficult to hear (Lane 1994).8
Easier

io hear: his, live, fish, big

Harder to hear: sit, quick, th n, I p

Pronunciation of

/t/

and /ry/. Tbe diagram on page 170 shov/s the relative

heights of the body of the rongue for /iyl and /t/.The rdised part of the tongue is a
little higher and farther front for the tense vowel /iy/ (teaue) rlT n for /t/ (.liue).For
,/r,/ the tongue is a litrle lower (i.e., the mouth opcns a little) and more central than
for /iy/.'fhe lips
rclaxed for /t/ and spread (requiring muscular tension) for /iy,/.
The difference in^re
lip shapes for /iyl and /r/ is a secondary difference. Many students
3

lbiceless stops are /p, I,

srrg

v.

the iiIxt sounds in

l/e, /ra */e. Engl ish nasals ilclude /li. n, rl /, the last soLrnds in .ro4 Jrrre, and
p/i*) .rn r rnder tlrrn thosr to loued bv rorced stops (ar )npeas pig);see also

\bwels lollo$d by I'oiceless stops (as inpaltl1

C0n'onan6. n !"
.

170

IHAPTER

Vowels

afe able to rclax their lips and produce a tense vowel. (This is not difficult. Try
keeping )'our lips relaxed and say eat; then spread your lips afld say /t) The glide
ending ol /iy/ Uy/) is created by a short front gliding motion ofthe tongue and iaw
A pure (steady state) /i,/ lacks this front gliding motion.

leave

/ly/

/---:\
(*i#t,7

li]ie

/r/

EFL students may be taught to pronounce /I/ as a short version of /iyl.

Although /i)y' is sornewhat longer than /I/, native listeners pay more attention to the
difference in vowel quality (the sound of the vowel) than to vowel length; /I/ is not
just a short l'ersion of /iyl (Flege, Bohfl, and Jang 1997, Escudero and Boersma 2004,
Cebrian 2006).The difference in tongue position for /iy/ and /r/ is what creates the
difference in \.owel quality, and students must learn the tongue positions for the two
vowels in order to pronounce pairs like liue-leaue correctly.
Because the /iy/Jr/ contast is important and difficult, it should be taught to
students at all leyels and usually needs to be reviewed. with beginning and
intermediate students. classroom work should focus on /I/. the "new" vowel.
Beginning and intermediate students are concerned about this vowel and ready to
work on it. Adyanced students who pronounce /I/ accurately in common words like
big ot kitcben benefit from practice with words like indiuidual or ambiguous,
where stressed /r/ is not the flrst r'owel in the word.These words may also have
cognates in the natiye language pronounced with the pure vowel /i/.9

Most advanced students need work on the glide endlng (/y/) of /iy/.

Perhaps because /iyl is heard as a "similar" vowel, students often substitute their
native-language pure vowel /i/.The use of a pure vowel in words Iike beacb and
sreet creates the embarrassin! pronunciations that many students are familiar
with. The glide cncling of ,/iyl is also important when /iyl is followed by another
vowel, as in uideo or pis.no.In these words, the glide ending joins to the next
vowel, creating a new syllable and functioning as a linking sound:videvo, pivano.
This also occurs across word boundaries (as in see vit), and therefore has an
impact on word-to-word linking, which is part of rhythm (se e Linking Adiacent
rwords, page 54).

'

Cognates are pain ol

*'ods lrcm diftircnt lengueges that

have similar soun& and meanings (e.g., English

4aa1d, and,lrench

tluahq

CtlAtrcR

Vo\\,els

171

Spellings of /iy/ and /t/. The spelling of /r/ is consistent ancl a good clue
pronunciation of the vowel, althougl.r there are somc important exceptions.

Exceptions: busy, business, buil<l, guilry gym, women, pretty

/i]y' is spelled in a varieqv of ways:

Exceptions: key, people, techniqr-le, medium

5,l
level

Activity

/iy/-/

: Presenting pronunciation

Low lntermediate

Worksheet Page 232

fip

Direct students, attention to vowel characterislics that they can see.

Description Students use diagrams showing both lip shape differences and
tongue height differences. Since differences in lip shape are
secondary pronunciation differences, students may still
mispronounce the vowels even though they use appropriate lip
shapes. The procedure

ou tned

below focuses more on

hl

lhan hyl.

1. Model the words live and leave, lengthening both vowels, exaggeratrng ljp

relaxation with live, and spreadjng the lips with leave. Ask siudents to describe

the d jfference they see.

2.

3.

Ask students individually

lo

say live and leave.

Direct students' attentjon to the cross,sectjonal diagram showing the two

vowels on Worksheet 5.1. Ask them whether the tongue is higher for

tor liyl.

4.

Tell students to start with

liyl

and leI their tongues drop a

lit

/r/

or

e to pronounce /r/.

172

.H^PIER

Activily

vowels

5.2 /iy/-/r/: How Do You Spe Live?

Level

All

Worksheet

Page 233

Tip

Provide students with controlled praciice to develop skills with vowels.

Description This spelling activity practices both /iyl and h/ and the pronunciation
of letter names, necessary for spelling.

1.

the ist on Worksheet 5.2,

select minimal palrs involving /iyl and

which are appropriate for your students' level of vocabulary.
From

2. Present the pronunciaiion ol liyl and A/ (see page 171).

3. Write the selected minima pairs on the board in two columns; number

/r/

the

coLumns "1" and "2." The samples below are appropr ate for beginning to
low lntermed iate students.
1

eat

ir

seat

sit

leave

live

reach

rich

4. ]\4odel the / y/ words. Students repeat. Then model the

/i/

words. Students repeat.

5. Say a word from each palr and ask students to tell you the column number of
the word you said. Repeat if students have difficu ty.
6. Ask each student t0 choose a word for the c ass to identify. Provide feedback
on pronLrnciatlon. For errors with /]yl, wr te "r i" on the board and tell students
to say /i/ twice without break ng the voice and stressing the flrst /i/ (see page
1.73 Ior beach and sheet). For errors w th /r/, tel students to lower the tongue;
reinforce the verbal instructions by lower ng your hand.
7. lvlodel the pa r work. Choose a word from one of the pairs and ask a student
"How do you spe I nch?" (For low level students, write the questlon on the
board: How do you spell-?) The student should spe I the word he heard.
Choosing a different word, ask another student the same quest on.

work. lf possible, pair students who speak different nat ve anguages.

Students who speak the same nat ve language can sometlmes recogn ze the
ntended word even if it ls mispronounced. Students take turns asklng about
the spelling of words on the board. Instruct thern to pronounce the words
carefully so their partners know whlch words to spell. Circu ate among the pa rs
and prov de feedback on pronunciation.

B. Pair

After ihe pair work, review the activity with the whole class. Provide feedback
on pronunciation of the vowels.

cllAPrER

Activity

5.3

Level
Tp

Vowels

173

Ptoblen words: Beach ard sheet.

lntermed iate/Advanced
Base communicative practice with problem vowels on words or
groups of words which contain the vowels.

Worksheet None
Description This activity focuses on pronouncing /iyl tn beach and sheef, two
words of concern to ESL students. When students use a pure vowel
(/i/) in these words, English listeners are likely to hear the lax vowel
h/ (and the lax vowel counterparls ot beach and sheef). For these
words, which end in consonants, the symbol /iil, with stress marked
on the first "i," is more helpful than /iyl.

7. Wrile beach and sheefon the board and pronunciation spellings below the
VOWEIS:

beach sheet
ll

2.

lVodel the words, lengthening the vowels. Explain that in English, /iyl is not
single sound. Students should pronounce this vowel with two /i/ sounds,
stressing the first. The voice does not break between the two vowels.

3.
4,

Ask each student to say the two words.

Ask students to volunteer expressions involving beach or sreef (for example,

beach blanket, beach party, beach ball, a sheet of paper, spreadsheets, and

sheet music).

5.

ln groups, students plan a beach party, describing the place, food, games, and
other activities thai will create a good beach party.

6.

After the group work, ask selected students to report on their beach party.
Provide feedback on the pronunciation ol beach.

ffi

nront Vo*e

lsz

/ey/

and /e/ eoait-u;et)

What the Teacher Should Know

The vowel contrast in u,ait-uet (/ey/-/e/) is a new contrast for many students.
The native language vowel corresponding to English /eyl may also be a pure vowel
/e/ (as in Spanish pe.so). For most students, tr.e /ey/-/E/ contrast (as trit u,ait-uet) is
easief to hear and pronounce tban the /iy/-/r/ contrast. The glide /y/ in /ey/ (as tn
Laait) is also easier for students to hear than the glide ending in /iyl (as in ubeat).
/eyl is a tense vowel and /e/ is a lax yowel. The body of the tongue is higher
and farther front for /ey/ than for /x/.In addition, the lips for /eyl are more spread
(requiring more muscular tension) th'ln for /E/.

174

cuAPr[R

vawels

With Spxnish students, the symbol ,/ci,/ (rather than /evl) should be used since
el is the nomal spclling of this vowcl ir Spanish.
Chinese students have persistent problems pronouncing the glide ending of
/ey,/ wlren it occurs beforc /n/ or /m/, prollouncini errplain and ndmq for example,
like "explen" and "nem" (see also Diphthongs bclow).

Spellings of /ey/ ajnd /e/. There is ovcdap in the spellings of /cy/ and /x/,wlricl]
can be a source of mispronr.lncirltion. Tbe letter sequence ed, lbr example, is a
spclling for /e1y' Qts in break) as well as /e/ (as iD breakfast).

babl', papcq fatnous, table, vacatior]

(word ends in sitent e) late, take, mistake, plane, strange

tr41n, rain, wait, afraid

play, say, today, maybe

glght, vqin, nqlghbor

the-v, convey

break, great
Exceptions: gauge, b4ss (low note)

e (followed by a consonant)

h4!{, ak, f4i!, chair

breakfast, he a\,y, wcather

Excepdons: many,4ny, says, again, friend, guess

( HAprtR

Aclivity

5.4 /iy/-/ey/-/tl Sotting sound

level

t/owels "l7S

and spetting

lntermediate

Worksheet page 233

Tip

reach exceptional or confusing

spellings associated with vower
sounds,
Description This activity focuses
on overlapping spellings of /iyl, ley/,
and k/.
1. Direct str.tdents'attention to the
tist of words on Worksheet 5.4.
Students
listen to the words and repeat
@2.
them.
3. ln pajrs, students decide whFther t.he
underjined letters are pronounced
/iyl,
tey/, or /tt and write each word
rn tnu
,o;;i;;;r;i, rhe teacher
circulates and models words as
"pp.p,iui
needed.

5.

Wj;T:ir;[

i."|,,i],Jj:lsd1"0,

add the pronuncjatjon corumn

headings from

Ask a volunteer to come to the^board..Classmates

w/ll tell the volunteer which
words beJong in the columns
When all the-worJuru * i,'l.'OJuro,
practice saying the words, pronouncrng
UrO"nU
each word in a corumn with the
same vowel.

uron, Vowels;

/r/

and /e/ (tticl_heatl)

\I/hat the Teacher Should Know

When students first lc,
conruse ir \\.ith /t/,,,;
;1,',i;:i;';,.liffi,,j':",",:l:l#,:'i.glil,:t:";ffi

$::t'6'h,l',:*::

7.l rn"

"r,',.,.i.1i:;;

i'i*,I",.

:1:l 1* t-u t "," ;.' r'v'jl

ff #:-::n#:*i'l1ll,

ERR0R C0RRECTt0N | /iy/ -/r/_/e/

Problem: your student pronounces
beqt
/r/ \ounJj' irr succcssion {s(,c prrtbtcrn

*"r0'.

l.ll<e

b/t

si

tion l see /,. 1. 1 1 o n

;l',:.:X,1.::iil,

jll:,,ilX*;i

LNtruct ],oul student ro sar.ftro

o-- r,,u'il). li or*. ,_r,

i::ffi:::H:tudent

pronounces Dir like beat. rasttuctthe

student to lower

llJ#fi,.T""

"tudent

pronounces 6rlr like ,er. Instruct

the student to raise the

l;J.ltfi*},,"

"tudent

pronounces ,er like br?. Instruct

the snrdent ro lower the

ffLm:1ru:HTj-|?:iil:es

!,,e'rike u''tit' rnsttuctthe student to

drop

"176

:HAPTER

Vowels

the problem is one of pronunciation and does not persisr long. Natiye speakers of
Arabic may produce a vowel that is midway between the Yo\l'els of / an(l /E/.

[R

n"orrt Vo*"lsz

/a/

(tcad),

/e/

and

/e/ (batl-head)

\T/hat the Teacher Should Know

The vowel in bad, /a/, is the lowest front vowel in English.The body of the
tongue is low and front in the mouth. and the lips are spread.The tip of the tonLue
rests behind the bottom teeth and pushes down and fors'ard. For most students, /a/
is a new vowel. It may be confisecl in perception and pronunciation with // (as in
bed) ot /o/ (as in body), <lepending on the nati1'e language of the student. Native
speakers of Hindi,Vietname se , Korean, Chinese, Portuguese, and Polish, for example,
may pronounce bad with a vowel closer to that in Zred Native speakers of French,
Japanese, Spanish, and Greek, on the other hand, may pronounce words like &ad
with a vowel closer to th^t n bod! Uo/) ot buddy Ua/).

Students who haye been taught British English may use the British
pronunciation /o/ in words like laugh or can't, a \owel that sounds closer to NAI
/o/. This pronunciatiofl should be corrected if it makes the word harder to
recognize (which may occur when there are other errors in addition to the
unexpected British pronnnciation).

Spellings of /e/. The spelling of /a/ is very consistent. Once students are familiar
with the common pattern, spelling is rarely a source of mispronunciation.

a (followed by a consonant)
Exceptions: laugh, plaid, auntlo

Activity

5.5 /E/-/E/;

levels

Presenting

/a/had

and

/e/nead

All

Worksheet Page 234

Tip

Djrect students' atlention to vowel characteristics that they can

0escription Guided by mouth shapes for the two vowels, students learn to
pronounce the difference between /ai and //.

1.
r0ln

Present the diagrams ol

some dralects

arzl

is prcnounced

bny.

lal

and // on Worksheet 5.5.

|HAPIER

5 Vowets l//

Actiuitf 5.5 contnued

2.

lVodel had slowly, exaggerating the openness of the mouth and the spreading of
the lips. Ask students whether the mouth is more open or closed Ior had. Ask
students whether the lips are spread or relaxed.

3.

lVodel head,Iollowed by the same questions: Are the ltps morc open or closed?
Are the lips more relaxed or spread?

4.

Ask each student to say the pair had,head. Provide feedback on pronuncjation:

.
.
.

lel sounds like head ltl: Open your mouth more.

cap lal sounds like cop lolt Push your tongue front. Spread your lips.
cap lel sounds like cup lalt Open your mouth more and spread your lips.
had

Push your tongue down and front.

Activity

5.6 /a/-/th

level

Staying healthy

High lntermediate/Advanced

Worksheel None

Tip

Base communicative practice with problem vowels on words or

groups of words which contain the vowels.

Description The sample activity is taken from Focus on Pronunciation 3 (Lane

2005c, 20) and provides communicative practice with words related to
health issues, containjng the vowels /a/ and /e/. After studenls have
practiced the two vowels in conirolled activities, they discuss possible
causes for becoming overweight or obese, using words like fat, calories,
fast food, exercise, and genetic propensity, which contain these vowels.

1. The list shows some of the causes cited for overweight and obesity. Check the
three that you think are most responsible for these problems. The bold leiters
are [a] or [].
a. eating too much

fat

b. taking in too many

h. genetic propensity

c. eating too much

sugar
d. eating too much fast food

i. poverty
l. wealth

e. lack of exercise

Other

f.
2.

calories

g. lack of information

watching too much TV

Compare the causes you checked with your classmates, Do you agree? Talk
about your choices and listen while others explain their opinions. Look at the
list again, Would you check the same three causes now?

178

cHAPr[R

vowels

Front and Central Vowels. /e/ , /e/ , /a/,

/a/ (kept-cap-cup-cop)

atd

l*/hat the Teacher Should Know

The vowels 1n kept-cap-cup-cort are pronounced in the lower front-central
region of the mouth.'lhe vowels in kept UE/) and cap (/e/) are fror]t vowels (see
/E/-/E/ on p|rge 176), and the votvels in cup (/a/) and cop (/a/) are central vowels.r I
Diaflrams of the lip shapes associated with these vowels are very ellbctive in
teaching their pronunciation. Most students who can duplicate thc lip shapes can
usually pronounce the \.owels accumtel)'.
Some combination of these four vowels is a problem for most students. The
quartet of vowels can be presented as a review alter coverinp; specific pairs, snch as

/t/-/a/

(bed-bad)

Activity

5.7 /zl /al /al

/a/-/o/

aJrd

and

(.^s it7

/o/

(kepl-cap-cup-cop): What hugs you?

Level

Adva nced/l nterm ed iate

Worksheet

Page

Tips

nut-not).

234

Direct students' attention to vowel characteristics that they can see.

Base communicative practice wlth problem vowels on words or
groups of words which contain the vowels.

Description This activiiy can be used to review pairs of vowels already practiced.
lf you prefer to use three rather than four vowels, choose the three
that calse your students the most difficulty. In many classes, these
are lel (as in cap\, lal (as in cup), and /o/ (as in cop). In groups,
students discuss things that "bug" them.

1.

Prepare a llst of phrases of bothersome behavrors (e.g., stand ng in l ne).

Choose phrases that include words wiih some of the vowels (/:/, lal,lal, or /o/).
The examples below are common complaints.

What bugs

you

kept
cell phones
tests

cap /a/ Words: cup

stqnding in line muggy weather
iraffic Jams
studying
telemarketers my landlord rny brqther
ltl

Lr

The

vovrl in

t'Sonre

Words:

.ol /o/

lal

Words:

is also dcscribcd ru a central-bxck r,orcl (Avc[ rnd

speaken pronounce the vo\reLtrr

rr.$

as

b/

lihrlich

1992)

lal Words: cop

hot weather
my boss12
rny jqb

.HAPTER

Vov/els

179

Actiri1' 5.7 contlnued

2.

In class, present the dragram of the four vowels on Worksheet 5./. Dernonstraie
ihe vowels, starting wiih kept and cap. Far kept, keep the opening of the
mouth small and spread the lips a little. For cap, exaggerate the lip spreading
and openness of the mouth, Students repeat. l\4odel cup and cop, keeping the
lips very relaxed. Students repeat. Explain that the lips are relatively spread for
kl and lal; for /a/ and /o/, the llps are relaxed.

3.

Demonstrate djfferences in the openness of the mouth. l\lodel cup and kept,
keeping the opening of the mouih small. Students repeat. lvlodel cap and cop,
exaggerating the openness of the moLth. Students repeat. Explain that for /e/
and /e/, the mouth is relatively closed. For lal and lal, the mouth ls open.

4. ln addition to the lip diagrams, you can present the dlfferences

5. Ask each student to

using a grid.

say the four words: kepi, cap, cup, and cop. Provide

feed back on pronunciation:

.
.
.
.

Cop sounds too close to cupi Open your mouth more for cop.
Cap sounds too close to copi Spread your lips more for cap. lVove your
tongue front.
Cap sounds too close

to kept; Open your mouth more Ior cap.

Cop sounds too close

to cap: Move your tongue back for

cop.

6, On the board, write "What bugs you?" Below that, make four columns
conesponding to the four vowels. Then write the preselecied phrases containing
the target vowels (or use the phrases above) in the columns, underlining the
targei vowels. Explain vocabulary (e.g., "bug" is slang for "bother"). Tell the
class that the phrases on the board describe things that bug people.
7. lVodel the words and phrases in each column. Students repeat. Provjde
feed back on the vowels.
8. Students list on a piece of paper three things that bug them. Encourage them
to use words and phrases frorn the board or add their own pet peeves (whether
they contain the target vowels or not).
9. Students work in small groups and compare the things that bug them.

10. After the group work, ask several students what bugs them, Provide feedback
on pronunciation of the target vowels.

180

cHcPrER

[6]

vo\^els

C.nt"ul vo*.lsz /a/ and /a/ (nut-not)

What the Teacher Should Know

/e/ nut. Thc

vowel ln nut (/a/,"sc]n:wa") is a mid-central r.'orvel.The tongue is in the

center of the mouth, neithef high nor low, front nor back.The lips are sLightly open
and relaxed.The tongue position for ,/a,/ is close to the rest position of the tongue.
nu.t

/a/

-=.-\
(H{
\

,-/

This vowel occurs as a stressed vowel in words like nut and nrtmber and, as
the yowel of most unstressed s)4lables, as in "ag6" (ago) and, "jlz,las" Cjealous),
makinEi it the most cofirmon yowel in English (see Unstressed Vowels, Word
Stress).1l It is also the pronunciation of the English hesitation word rzl:, used when
speakers need time to think.
In this book, the symbol /e/ is used for both the stressed vo\rel in number an(I
the unstressed yowel in cfgo (see also I)auer 1993), Other authors use the symbol
/A/ for tbe stressed vowel (as j.n n mbet m6ther) and /a/ for unstressed vowels (as
rn !!Eo, jealous).In some NAE dialects, the tongue may be slightly lower for the
stressed version /A/ and slightly higher for the unstressed version ,/a/. These
differences are unimportant for ESL students.
For many students, /a/ is a new vowel.Japanese, French, and Spanish students
may conflise lt with /o/ (as in not). Polish students may confttse it with // (as in
net). Greek students may confuse it with /a/ ot /o/.

father (/o/) is a low central or lorn back-central

^nd,
vowel (Avery and Ehdich 1992,30).The
tongue is in the center or back center of
the mouth;the mouth is open, and the lips are relaxed.

/o/ not. The l'owel in not

not /o/

HAprER

Vov,tels

"lB1

Students who haye first learned British English may pronounce

/o/ with an
"o" sound, especially in words where the .!.owel is also spelled
with the letter ,,o,,
(^s in poL lock, sbot, bot, possible, and, moclern). Native
speakers of languages
like Spanish or Polish, which are spelled phonetically, ma1, use rhe ,,o,,
pronunciation because of spelling. Students may also confuse the yowcls
in pol
| /0/ ) rnd bought \ /J/ t.
Iyhen native speakers ofromance langualaes lenrn that the vowel in worcls
like
po' lock, and moclern is /o/, they may substirute their native_language
vowel,
producing a sound that is close ro English ,/a/ (a vowel that is farther
forward in the
mouth than English /o/), so thatpot sounds close to pat.

Spelling of /a/ arrd /o /

Spelling is a sonrce of mispronunciation fof
well as for ,/o/.

,/a,/,

which is spellecl in nanv ways. as

mother, brolher, monel', love

182

.HqPIER

Aetivity

Yore/s

5,8 /a/ and /o/: Prcsenting /a/ and /o/(nut'noo

Levels

All

Worksheet

Page

fip

Direct students' attention to vowel characteristics that they can see.

234

Description Guided by mouth shapes lor lal and /o/, students learn to pronounce
the difference between the two vowels.

1.

Direct students' attention to the mouth shapes of the two vowels on

Worksheet 5.8.

2.

l\4odel nut, keeping your mouth almost closed and your {ips relaxed Students
repeat. Ask students whether your mouth is more open or closed.

3.

lVodel not, exaggeratlng the openness of the mouth and keeping the lips relaxed.
Students repeat. Ask students whether your mouth is more open or closed

4.

Ask each student to say nut and noi. Provide feedback on their pronunciationsr

ivut sounds too close to nof: Close your mouth. (Or, keep the inside of your
mouth small.)

Not sounds too close to nutr Open your mouth

Activity

5.9 /a/:

Luck or skill?

Level

lntermediate/Advanced

Worksheet

Page 235

Tip

Base communicative practice wiih problem vowels on words or

groups of words which contain the vowels.

Description This activity practices the pronunciation of /a/ in the word luck.

1.

lVlake sure students can pronounce the vowel

in /uck (see Presenting /a/ and

/o/, above).

2.

Write s0me expressions that include the word /uck on the board. lVodel

the expressions.
good

3.

luck

lots of

luck

try your

luck

down on your luck

Ask students to volunteer other expressions that include the word /ack, and
add them to the board.

CHAPTER

Vowels

183

Actiuw 5.9 continued

4.

Read the quotations on Worksheet 5.9 to students. Go over vocabulary, but do not
paraphrase the quotes. Students will do thjs in small groups. Ask each student to
choose a quotation and read it. Provide feedback on the pronunciation oI luck.

5.

ln groups, each student chooses one or two quotations to paraphrase. The

group discusses the quotation and students agree or disagree with it. Students
also d iscuss this questionl

.
6.

Do you think you are a lucky person, an unlucky person, or that luck isn't
very important in your life? Explain.

When the group work has finished, ask individual students to explain the role
luck plays in their lives. Provide feedback on the pronunciation oI luck.

lffi

Back vowelst

/rw/

arld /o/ (boot-book)

V{hat the Teacher Should Know

/rtw/ booL

The vowel in boot /u.w/ is a high, back-tense yowel. The body of the
tongue rises up ;Lnd back; the lips round for the beginning of the yowel and
continue rounding to the glide ending (/w/).

boot /uw/

Many languages have a pure vowel /u/ that sounds similar to English /uw/ (as
in bool).The glide ending of /uw,/ is difficult for students to hear, and they are likely
to substitute the native-language pure vowel /u,/ (as in French tort meaning "a11").
In vowel-vowel sequences in which,/uw,/ is the first vowel (as in ruin),Ihe
glide ending (/w,/) links to the follov/ing voweL (ru*in) and is easier to hear than
when a consonant follows /us/ (as in root)-The glide ending is important when a
vowel follows because it creates a new syllable.This occurs both within words (as
'1n
ruin) and acrcss word boundaries as in do- i/).The glide ending of /uw/ is rarely
reflected in spelling.
ruwin

Do" ii.

184

.HAPTER

Vo$'els

does not
The vowel n book (/u/) is a ncw vowel for most students '/u/
such as
words'
common
very
occru in many English words but does occur in some
uctukl. cottltl, sltttuld, good, book' look, ar'(l lL'otnan'
is more cenftalized
/u/ is a high back lax vowel Comparecl to /uw'/' the tongue
for
/uw/; the lips are
its
from
forwarcl
Position
dropping slightly down ancl
with

/u/ book.

/u/,

less roundecl than thcy are for

/uw/ (^s rt]. boot)'

book /u/

and /u ' making

Although students may Lrse a pure tcnse vowel '/u'l for both /u/
few minimal pairs
little difference befween pairs ltkc Luke ttnd lortk' therc are
topic'
a""f"i"g ,f-tata two vowels, and the contrast is a low-priority pronuflciationof
/c/ lhat
On the other hand, there are some odd-soundiflg Pronunciations
precedes
the
consoniu.rt
/w/
.cd.In
vvhere
uvol'
uromdn' lttoul(l, lttld
should be acldress
sometimes Korsm' may om.it the inidal
of
speakers
JaP:mese espcciall-v and
/u/, natiYe
distracting mispronunciation' which
/w/, pronorncinli uotnalt ^s 'oion ftut is a
of tllis problem)'
t e adciresied (see Glicles, page 149, fbr error correction
stroirt'O

In some
There is native English diatect variation involving /ww/ antl /u/
ancl rootn with the /uw/ vowel'
clialects, natiYe speakers pronounce rooJ; hoof'
There is also dialect
while others pronounce some or all of these worcls with /u/
speakers
yariation in /u/: in the word s.fu , plt ' and bull ' fbr cxample' some native
rrse a vowel close to /a/.
uniaersit!' the Yowel
unit'
h.tw/ music. IL music, cute, bedut!.
' union' who ,^nd
ti
British English
learned
hale
Students
spelle.t with ,r is pronouncecl /yuw'/
NAE /nuwz/
(instead
of
the
iluy pr.rno,ln.. nins ^nd tune ^s /nyo\vz/ and /t)'uwn/
long as the word is
and /tuwn/). The British pronunciation is acceptable as
lecognizable.

problem associated with

Integrating Gramrnar and Pronunciation' A common
may use the afticle an
stu'leflts
the letteru involves gramntar an'l pronunciation
the words start with
becanse
unique
befofe words like unitn' uniuersit\' LtTtit' arrd
beginning with
words
is usecl before
x vowel leffef. Students need to learn that arz
in words
first
sound
the
a vowel sound (regardless of the beginning lctter) Since
(see
Articles'
article a must be used
like union ot urliuersity is /y / (v consonant)' the
page 61).
li

(/]y' +
Although the seluence /lLl\y' is a consonxnl plLrs vorelscqlrerlce
()
\'i'1'
versll
sLudenlrj lo co use is pr)nLlncidion witll /u$y'

/u\t)

il is includcd herc becal$c its qtlling oltcn leads

cH^prER

Spelllngs of /tuw/ (boot),

Vowels

"lBs

/u/ (book),

alad /lrrtw/ (music)

/uw/ is the letter sequence oo (as in book
and boot). This oveflap in spellin!! makes it difficr t for students to predict

A common spellir.rg of both /U/

and,

pronunciation.

boot, shoot, root, noon, food, school, soon, too

oo (word ends in silent e)

choose, loose, soothe

student, truth, iunior

u (word ends in silent e)

June , rule, true , include

do, who, movie , whose , lose, move

you, ItqUp, through

lev/, grew, threw, flew

sg!t, juice,

frqit

book, look, foot, good

push, fr.rll. put. sugar

would, coulcl, should

cute , pure , confuse, music

beaury beautituI

186

(H^PIFR

vowels

Activity 5.10 Integrating Gammat and Pronunciation: lndetinite Articles beforc

Level

lntermed iate/Advanced

Worksheet None

Tip

lntegrate vowel pronunciation with grammar practice.

Descr:ption This activity can be added to grammar work on indefinite articles. lt

provides practice choosing between a and an with words beginning
with the letter u.

1. 0n the board, write

nouns or noun phrases in which the first word begins with

the letter u. lnclude words where u is pronounced /yuw/ (e.g., unit, union)
and words where u represents a vowel (e.9., umbrella, uncle). Before each
noun phrase leave a blank for the indefinite article. Sample words are

provided

be low.

umbrella
university

2.

unique

idea

unusual

day

unit

usual

useful tool

day

uncle

Ask students to say the words on the board. Write the pronoun you on the board.
Ask a volunteer to come to the board. The volunteer will record the class's
answers to questions 1 and 3 below. Ask the class the following questions:

.
.
.
.

ffi

Look at the words beginning with the Ietter u. Circle words where the letter
u sounds like the pronoun you.

ls the first sound of the pronoun you and the circled words a consonant
or vowel?
When the circled words require an indefinite article, should
Write an indefinite artlcle before each phrase.

it be a or

an?

What is the rule for choosing between a and an? Does it depend on the first
sound of The word or ihe Ii\I lettet?

Back vow el:

/ow/ (go)

what the Teacher Should Knoqr'

The vowel in go (/ow/) is a mid-back tense vowel. The body of the tongue
pushes back and up a little and the lips are rounded; the lips continue rounding
through the vowel to create the glide ending /w,/.

CHAPTR

go

Votyels

187

/ow/

+
In many languages, the vowel corresponding to /oIv/ is a pure vowel, /o/ (as in
the Spanishpo.4 meaning "little"), $'hich lacks the glide ending /w/. Substitutions
of /o/ fot /ow/ arc a maior source of mispronunciation of this vowel.r5 In words like
folk and focus, the pure-yowel proriunciation produces pronunciations that can
embarrass students.

Most students do not have difficulty hearing or pronouncing the glide ending

of /ow/, once it has been pointed out. They may have difficulty,

however,

remembering to pronounce it since it is rarely reflected in spelling. Spanish students

may be better able to notice the glide ending if the symbol /ou/ (rather than ,/ow,/)
is used to represent the yowel.The glide ending of /ow/ is important to teach.
Students may confuse the vowels in boat (/ow/),pot (/o/), anrJ bougltt (h/),
pronouncing all three words with a similar vowel. This niay occur because of
spelling (the letter o can represent all three vowels, as in home /ow/, sbot /a/, afld
/oss D/) or because they have learned British pronunciations ofthese vowels, which
have a more "o"-like sound thafl the NAI versions. If the ,,o,:like pronunciation of
/o/ words (such as lrot, k)ck, sbop) is not distmcting and does not reduce
intelligibiliry students do not need to "unlearn,' the British pronunciations.
Some students, however, do use conftlsing pronunciations with specific pairs
of vrords involvin g /o/ UJ/) and /ow/,like uant and uon ? When both words sound
the same, pronunciation should be addressed.

15

The pure

Iowel/o/

writttn 'Uh-oh,"

and

does nol exist in NA! xcepl

"uh"

is pnnounced with

in

/e/.

,r

few erpresions. such as d rc

fi$tpaft al0h

oh

/a'tau/. This warning is also

188

IHAPTER

Vo\rels

Activity 5.'!1 /ow/ or

/o/;

"o" Spellings

level

lntermediate/Advanced

Worksheet

None

Tip

Teach exceptional or confusing spellings associated with vowel

sounds.

Descript:on This activity targets words where ihe letter o is pronounced /ow/ or
/o/. Students sort the words according to the pronunciation of the
vowel. Teachers should look through past readings or vocabulary that
studenis have covered and select words where the stressed vowel is
spelled with o (as in possible, stolen) and pronounced either /ow/ or
/o/. The activity can be made more challenging by including words in
which the letter o is pronounced lal (as in moneD.

1.

Prepare a list of words where the stressed vowel is spel ed with o and
pronounced either /ow/ or /o/. The sample words below, where the o spelling
is pronounced /o/, are ones my students often mispronounce.
possible
cold
potent

2.

nqtice
modern
gr0celres

folk

shop

most

hold

gone

lone

bone

lost

bother

m0nster

problem

college

rotten

stole

Write the words on the board or present them ln a handout. Add two column
heads to the board that corresponds to the two pronunciat ons.

/oM (go)

/o/ (father)

cuAPrER

Actiui1t

5. 1

Vowels

189

I continue/l

lAnswers: /a/ wordsr p6ssible, m6dern, shop, gone, bother, pr6blem, r6tten,
lost, m6nster, college; /ow/ words: cold, p6tent, folk, most, n6tice, groceries,
hold, bone, a lone, stolel

3.
4,

IVodel the words. Students repeat.

Using the handout (or copying the column headings onto a piece of paper),
students write each word under one of the columns, according to the
pronunciation of the vowel. This can be done singly or in patrs.

5, Ask a volunteer to come to the board, The class tells the volunteer which words
belong in the two columns.

6. Elicit from the class other

words spelled with o and clarify questions about

pronunciation. Your students may volunteer words that are pronounced with
vowels other than /ow/ or /o/. ln that case, model the pronunciation and
explajn that lowl and lol are common pronunciations of this spelljng but not
the on ly ones.

ffi

BackVowelt

/t/

(caugttt)

Y/hat the Teacher Should Know

The vowel /r/ (as in caught, bought, and lala) is a low, back, slightlv rouncled
vowel.There is a great deal of dixlect variation in how native speakers pronounce
this yowel, what words thcy pronounce it in, and whether they pronounce it at all.
Many native speakers do not use /1,/ at alljinstead, they use the yowel in cot (/o/).
These speakers do not make a pronunciation distinction between paks Like caught_
cot and lctn-la (the musical note). In NAI dialects that distinguish caugbt and cot,
h/ m y have more or less of an ',o,' sound. In addition, speakers who contrast D/
,Ind /o/ (as in cauglJt-cot) do not alwa_vs pronounce /J/ in the same words; some
speakers, for example, use /J/ (as in dog) y/hile others use /o,/.
Students who have learned British English may pronounce this vowel so that
it sounds close to /ow/ (i.e., lau sounds like *low"). if this pronunciation is
confusing, instruct students to liil/e this yowel more of an .,ah,' sound.
Teachers whose dialects do not include ,/J/ need not teach this vowel. Students,
however, shor:ld bc aware of its use in dialects in the Northeast and in other pafts of
the United States and Canada. Reco(lings of dialects can be fourd on the American
Dialect Society's Web site, www.americandialect.orfa, or on the University of Kansas's
International Diale cts of English A-rchi\.e Web site, http://web.ku .eclu/ideal .

190

cH^PrER

vowels

Spellings of

/r/

pause, author, caution,

llqndry

law, jaw, dawn, draw

coffee, off, on, song, cost
t4!k, always, salt, call

ERR0R C0RRECTION: zarz sounds like "low"i bougltt sounds like "boat"'
Instruct students to pronounce lau (or bougllt) with an "ah" sound instruct them not
to round their lips too much when they say words like bougbL lalu, ot Pquse

otnn norrgs, /ay/ (bigtr), /aw/ (hont), and /oy/ (boy)

ffi

v/trat the Teacher Should Know

The vowets in rrgh /^v/,hou /alv/, and boy /oy/ are diphihongs;these vowels
are also known as the pain Yowels-Ay! ow! oyl
Although both diphthongs (/ay/,/'dw/,/oy/) and glide vowels (,/iyl [see], /ey/
is
tstryl, /ow/ [so], xnd /\w/ [sue]) encl in glides' the glide ending in diphthongs
in
travels
easier for students to hear than in glide vowels.The distance the tongue
moying between the two pafts of 2 diplrthong (for example , between /^/ and /y/ in
glide vowels (for example, between
,/a,y/) is greater thari the clistxnce involYed with
a larller perceptlral difference,
creates
greater
distance
/i) and /y/ in /i)'/). The
making the two patts of a diphthong easy to hear'

clide Yowrls /iy.

Diphthongs /ay, aw, oy,/

ey. ow.

ttw/

Lvi\

rY"

t5

The consonalls /s, z, r,/ arc eraltplcs 0l contln,lan$.

\iifi

conti ltutls. thc

,rir is obstructed but nol

comllerly

blocked

cH^prrR

Vowels

19'l

There are some dialect differences in the pronunciation of diphthongs. Some

Southemers pronounce the glide ending of diphthongs weakly in informal speech;for
example, o/ may sound similar to "ole" or ,,all,', and time may x]iltnd a little Iike .Tom.,,

Few students have problems hearing or pronouncing English diphthongs.

Chinese students may weaken the glide ending of ,/ay,/ (and to a lesser extent

/aV)

when these vowels are followed by nasd consonzurts, as in time or count. Therpronnnciation of time, fot example, may soru]d close to Tont (similar to the
Southerners' pronunciation). The phonetic symbol ,rai,/ is more effective than /avl ir.r
efrof coffection of this problem.
Diphthongs pfoyide an oppoftunitF ro pfactice r'owel-r'owel sequences and
the correct s]4labification of words liirie science (sci|ence). The lilicle ending of the
diphthong acts as a linking sound, joining to the following vowel to create the next
svllable'. scilence.

Activity 5,12 Vowel-vowel sequences: Fields of Etudy

level

lntermediate/Advanced

Worksheet None

Tip

Base communicative practice with problem vowels on words or

groups of words that contain those vowels.

Description This activity practices joining diphthongs Uay, aw, oyl) or glide vowels
(/iy, ey, ow, uw/) to a following vowel (vowel-vowel sequences) in ihe
context of fields of study: biology, psychiatry, meteorology. Because
of its connection with science, this topic is appropriate for lTAs or
students in academic English programs.

1. 0n the board, write words containing a diphthong or glide vowel fo lowed by

another vowel: soctety, psychiatry, zoology.

2.

l\4odel the words and ask students how many syllables are in each word
(there are four syllables in socivety, zo*ology, and psychlatry). Students rnay
erroneously identify soclety a foursyllable word, as a three-syllable word because
they fail to hear or pronounce the glide /y/ which creates the additronal syl/able:
socttety. lxplain that when two adjacent vowel letters represent different vowel
sounds, the two vowels are in different syllables and the syllables are joined wjth
an unwritten lyl (e.9., socivety,
or twt (e.g.,

3.

Write a superscript y or ry between the vowel-vowel sequences on the board and

model the words again, emphasizing the dtfferent syllables. Students repeat.

rylr!9u

e-ggCI

4. Elicit from students

names of other scientific fields and/or terms (for example,

meteorology, geology, nuclear medicine, sociology, political science, radiology)
and add them to the board. Not aIl words must have vowel vowel sequences.

5.

In pairs, students discuss which fields are lrkely to have the hlghest paying

1obs.

192

:HAPTER

Vowels

ERR0R C0RRECTI0N:

Chinese students pronounce tirne like "Tor ," arrd explain

as

'explen."

1.

Chinese students are unaware that they are weakening glide endings befofe

/n/ or

/n/
2.

3.

("s in time, explqin\.

Write the mispronounced word on the board, underlining the problem Yowel ( e.g ,
tlme, fi,nd, exptglln, trqln).under the Yowel write the phonetic symbol /ail (for
time an<lfinD or /ei/ (fot exptain ?;nd train).^lelJ the student that she is not proflouncing dre second part of the vowel sound strongly enough whef' /m/ ot /,/ fol'
lows. Model the correct and incorrect pronunciations.
Alternatively, model the word without the final nasal consonant; say "tie" instead of
"dme," "tray" instead of "tlain," and "explay" instead of "explain." Ask the student
to repeat the shortened word seYeral times, iust as you said it.Then ask the student
to say the shortened word (e.g., "tie") and add,/na/ or / .

ffi

"-aoto..d

Vowels and z-colored vowels

strat the Teacher Should Know

,R-Colored Vowels. R-colored vowels ere Yowels followed by /r/ (e 8., are, or, ber)'
The tip of the tongue cuds up and slightly back (retroflexiofl) at the end of the
vowel and alters (colors) the sound ofthe vowel These vowels are difficult and their
mispronunciation can make wortls unclearThey should be taught at all levels

There are clialect differences in the pfonunciation of some r-colored vowels'

Some speakers from the Noftheast pfonounce merry and Maryl with the same
vowel (/meriy/) btt many with a different Yowel (/meriy/) A sm2tller number of
speakers nake a three-way clistinction:J44ry /meyrry/ ' merry /meriy/' and marry
/meriy/. Most spezLkers of NAE, however, pronounce all three words the same, with
the vowel of merry.
Teachers may wonder whether retroflexion with these Yowels must be taught,
since there are r.less dialects of Engtish (British English ancl some dialects of NAI)'
Howeyer, native speakers of these dialects do not simply "drop" /r/'so that four atTd

.HAprcR

Vowels

193

ifog for

example , sound the same. The vowel which remains in r-less dialects is
different from its counterpart before other sounds.Thus, to achieve an accurare /less pronunciation of thc vowels ii hear /ft/, bait /Er/, trer /ar/. haftt /o , more
/or/,a'17d tour /ur/, tlte student needs to alter her pronunciation of six vowel sounds
(the r-colored versions of /r, r, a, o, o, u,/). Learnin!! to pronounce a following /r,/ is
an easier task itnd produces the reqrdred "cok)ring" of tlte l.owel. In addition. even
in rless dialects, final /r/ is pronounced as a linkir]g consonant when a vowel
follows, as rn heq_ansuter. .lenkins (2002) irlso recornmends teaching the
pfonunciation of /r/ aftcJ these six vowel sour]ds, rather than their r-less

cor-lnterparts (see Lingua Franca Cofe, page 9).

Pedaliogicall,v, the three mosr important and difficult r-colored vowels are /ar/
(.as in lser), /or/ (as in bard), and, /or/ (^s in rzore). Mispronunciations of these
vowel sounds are especially distorting. For many students, the vowel in lter is the
most difficult.This \,.owel is really a unitary yowel eyen tlroulah it is represented wirh
two phonetic symbols (,/arl).r7 The spellings ot /ar/, /or/,and, /arl also o\Iedap and
afe anotlrer source of mispronunciation. R{css pfonunciations of thc vowels in t,eat,
bair, and tour (/n/, /tr/, /ur/ ) are not as difficult to understand.
Certain sounds following /r/, especiallv /n/ and /1/, can make the r-colored
vowels more difficult. Students who ltave learned to pronolmce the r-colorecl
\.owels in words like lJurt and first may still ha\.c difliculty q/ith learn, burn, and
turn. One of the most difficr t sequences of sounds is that in u'ort(l and girl.'Ihe
pronunciation of these words is learned morc easily when thel/ a1e presented as

two-syllable words: ,/warald,/ and ,/garal/. 'the word squirrel, with the same
sequence, is spelled as a two-syllable word. Pronouncing u.torld ,,nLl gid as t:wo
syllable words gives students more time to m'tke the articrjlxtory chanlle from/r,/ to
/l/. Early has a similar sequence, but is easier to pronounce because ,/l/ begins the
last syllable.

Spellings of

/a

/ar/, and /ot/.

Spellings of /arl.

her, were , serve. alelt

hurt, turn, mulder, chqlch

filst, circle, dirty, birrhday

rt

Other slnbols for this rowel lnclude

4-/

$,hen the lo\rcI rs gressed ({s in

,?)2,

and

/a-l \rhen fie

vo$,el is unstrssed (as in

,1qqa).

194

:HAPTER

vowels

SpellJngs of

/crl.

Spellings of

/orl.

com, store, wore, moming

dgq1,

floor

four, mourn

The r-colordd vowels /at/, /a ,^nd /or,/ are acqlrired gradually They warrant a
lesson, in addition to error correction and review. R-colored
pronunciation
fllll
vowels should not be taught as part of a lesson on beginning ,/f/ (for example, the
13

Sonre speaken pronoun ce Ihe 'tawel

n loumtlnent

?s

lat/

cHAprER

Vowels

195

/f/ in rou,

red, and correct).Teaching approaches for,/r/ alter vowels (i.e., r-colored

vowels) and /r/ in beginning position (as in rou) atf. different. and the
pronunciation problems associated with the two positions of
h/ arc also different

(for teaching beginning

see Consonants, page 1.i1).1e

^/,

Z-colored Vowels. Vowels that occur before ,4/ at the end of a wo rd, (as it all) ot
syllable (as ln allaays) are /-colored vowels. The vowel is pronounced with
a short

glide ending, /a/.2o

feel

fiifv

sell

lseeV

cold

/kow.ld/

Z-coloring of vowels is a topic for accent reduction and polishing, and does
not have to be covered in most classes. Howeye! students may notice that a vowel
before /l/ sounds different from irs .rcgular,' pronunciation before other
consonants. When working with minimal palrs like
feet_Jill, where yowels occur
before ,/l/, students may comment that the vowels sound different from the
vowels
in leaue-liue. The teacher can explain that the vowels sound a little different
because of the /l/ sorurct. In some textbooks, /l/ coloring may be part of a
lesson
on "diltk /l/" (see /l/,page 144).

Activity 5.13 R-Colored vowel* presenting r-colorcd vowels

and /or/ (o.)

level

/ot/

(arc),

/at/

(he.),

Ail

Worksbeet Page 235

Tip

Use hand gestures to reinforce the pronunciation of /r/ after vowels.

Description Students learn to pronounce /r/ after vowels by using a combination

of diagrams showing articulation and hand gestures that mimic
retroflexion of the tongue"

1.

Using the diagram on the worksheet, direct siudents,attention to the crosssectional diagram of /r/. N4odel are. Explain the pronunciation of /r/: The tip of
the tongue turns up and back a lit e.
(continued on fiext page)

19ltaching

rchoflexion h-ihe pedagogical locus for the /-colorcd vowels. for beginring
betwen the tongue tip and the top of the mouth arc both impoftnt.
,'dark
'zo A1temativel11 tlrc /a/ glide can be consjdercd part of the
/,, (see /l/, Consonants).

//,

rchof]exion and the absence ofconta.t

196
Actiuit!

:HAPTER

5.

vowels

3 continued

2.

Use hand gestures to reinforce the retroflexed movement (up and back) of the
tip of the tongue. This gesture is also useful for feedback and error correction.
As you say are, start with your hand flat, palm facing up, and curl your
fingertips up. Tell students that your hand represents the tongue.21

3.

Tell siudents to make a long "ahhhh" sound and then slowly turn the tip of the
tongue up and back (this is the pronunciation of are). Use the hand gesture as
a visual model. Students may be able to pronounce /r/ more easily if they close
their eyes and visualize the tongue tip turning up and back,

4.

Ask each student to say are. Use the hand gesture to re nforce pronunciation.

lorl (are),
lorl (or). Remind students that inside the mouth, the tongue tlp

5. Direct students' attention to the diagrams of the mouth shapes for

larl (her),

and

turns up and back a little.

6, IVodel are again. Explain that the rnouth is open. Inside, the tip of the tongue
turns up and back. Students repeat. Use the hand gesture to reinforce

pronunciation of /r/.

7.

IModel her. Explain that the mouth is nearly closed. lnside, the tip of the
tongue turns up and back. Students repeat, Use the hand gesture to reinforce

pronunciation of /r/.

8.

l\4odel or. Explain that the lips are rounded, Inside, the tip of the tongue turns
up and back. Students repeat. Use the hand gesture to reinforce pronunciation

oI lrl

9.

214

Ask each student to say are, her, and or. Provide feedback on pronunciation.

n:riewer suggests thalneadng a rcd milten adds an eLement

oifun lo

the prcscntxtlon.

CH \PIER

V,,$els 197

Activity 5.14 fhe Herc and Now

level

Eegjnning

Wotksheet None

fip

Use hand gestures to reinforce the pronunciation of /r/ after vowels.

Description This activity practjces /r/ after vowels in words referring to classroom
objects. The act,vity should follow presentation of /ar/,larl, and lorl
but js not restricted to words containing only these vowel sounds.

1.

Ask students to look around the room and volunteer words for the things
they see.

2.

Write the words on the board and circle those that have /r/ after a vowel;
examples include door, floor, blackboad, purse, paper, shirt, skirt, chair, and
water (bottle). Students practice the words.

3.

Provide feedback on pronunciation of /r/, using the hand gesture described

on p. 196.

CONCLUSION
The pronunciation ofyowels is difficr t for students partly because English has
relatively large number of vowels.Teachers should focus on high-frequency vowels
and vowel contrasts, such as the front and central vowels. Among those, nonnative
Engish-speaking teachers should select vowels that they pronounce accurately and
feel comfoftable teaching. English vowels are also diflicult because of confusing ancl
inconsistent spellings. \We have provided some examples of actiyities which help
a

eliminate "spelling mispronunciations,', by focusing students on exceptional

spellings. Finally, vowel articulation is difficult for teachers to describe and for
students to yisualize.We haye proyided some vowel presentation activities in which
teachers provide visual clues to vowel pronunciation. Hand Flestures that mimic the
pfonunciation of ,/r/ after vowels are effective in presenting and giving feedback on
these clifficult vowels. The distinctiye mouth shapes associated with some yowels
also simpli8. the task of presenting pronunciation.
In the classroom, students shoulcl have enough opportunity to gain skill with
a particular vowel (or yowel contmst) in controlled activities. Once students are able
to pronounce a vowel reasonablv accurately in contfolled practice, the teacher can
mo\.e to mofe communicatiye practice by selecting a key word or set of words
containing the vowel to establish a context fof less-scripted speaking.

ACTIVITY WORKSHEETS
The following pages provide directions for
using the worksheets with the activities

in Tips for Teaching

Pronunciation. The x/orksheet numbers
match the activity numbers; if an activity
suggested

is

not listed below. no worksheet is needed

for that activity. If a worksheet has
qustions for students to answer, th
answers follow the directions. In order to
save pape! teachers may elect to use the
blackboard, slides, or transparencies to
present worksheets intended for the entife
class. Materials intended for only one
member of a pair (or one team of students)
should be provided as paper handouts.

Activity

l.L

Make a copy of Worksheet 1.1

class. Have students
read along as they listen to the paragraph
on the audio CD (trdck 2). Then have
students complete the trivia quiz.
Ans.oers: 1. a; 2. c: 3. d;4. c; 5. b; 6. a: 7. c: B. d.

Activity 1.7: Make enough copies of

Worksheet 1.7 for half the studeltts. Cut the
sets apart and distdbute Set I to half the
class and Set 2 t() the other half'

Activity 1.8: Make a copy of Worksheet 1.ll

for every student in the class. Have students
read along as they listen to tlte audio CD
(track.1).
Ansuters: 1.f (tbe);2. c (tbe);.). b (the);4..1 (the);
i.b (the):6..i (notbing):7.k (the);8.I (Jout);9. g
(your); 10.d (an); 11.e (an); 12.i (a).

Actiyity 1.9: Make

a copy of W'orkshet 1.9

for every student in the

class. Have students

read along as they listen to the words on
the audio CD (track 5).

for each student in the

Activity 1.10: Make enough copies of

Activity 1.2: Make

\Vorksheet 1.10A for evcry student. Have

students read along as they listen to the
audio CD (track 6). Nlake enough copies of
Worksheet 1.10B for half the studeqts. Cut
1.108 ir half so every student gets one set
of questions. The answers are part of the

a copy of Worksheet 1.2

for each student in the

Actiyity 1.3: Make half

class.
as many copies

worksheet.

of

each schedule as there are students in the

class. Give half the students Schedule A and
half Schedr e B. Pair up students with
different schedules. If ]'ou choose, you can
substitute different programs for those on
the schedule to reflect TV shows vour
students like to watch.

Activity 1.4: Make half

as many copies

of

each map as there are students in the class.

Give half the students Map A and half Map

B. Pair up students with ditTerent maps.

Activity 1.6: Make

a copy of !trorksheet 1.6

for each stuclent in the class. Have students
read along as they listen to the audio CD
(track 3). Have students work jn pairs to

decide which came first.

Arasuters: cell pbones, coml.)utcr games, desktops,
e-mail, bard dir.Jes, searclr engines, confbtence

calk, liuer tu'anspl"1nts, ftnperprinting.

Actiyiry 1.11: Make

a copy of Worksheer

1.11 for cveq. student. Students work in

pairs to answers the questio[s.

Ans.4)ers: L the I95Os;2.tbe 193Os:3.tbelate
192os and earl! 193Os;1. the 1910s; i. tbe
1960s;6. the 1930s and 191Os;7. tlre 199Os;
B. tbe 196Os;9. tbe 198Os: lO.tlte 1970s: 11.tbe

l92Os:12.the 1950s.

Activity 2.1: Make

a cop_v of Worksheet 2. I

for each student in the

class. Haye students

read alonEi as they listen to the audio CD

(trdck 7).

Activity 2.4: Make a copy of Worksheet 2.4

for each sudent in the class. Have students
read along as thy listen to the audio CI)
(track 9).
A su)ets: 1. h;2. c; 3..l;4.f;5. e;6. a;7. b; a. g.

Activity 2.6: Make

a copy of Worksheet 2.6

for every student in the

class. Have students

"199

200

AppENDtx

Activity worksheets

read along as they listen to Part A of the

audio CD track 10. Pause the audio, then
continue listening to Part B (track 1 1)

Actiyity 3.8r Make

when ready.

for each student in the

Activity 2.7,

Marke enough copies

of

Worksheet 2.7 for half the class. Give half

the students Grid A and half the students
Grid B. Students with different grids will
pair up and work together

Activity 2.9t Make a copy of \trorksheet 2.9

for each student in the class. Have students
read along as they listen to the audio CD
(track 12).

Actlvity 2.10: Make

a copy of worksheet
2.10 for every sudent in the class. Have
students read along as they listen to the
audio CD (track 13).
Ansuers: 1. utben;2. and; 3. Or;4. if;5. that;
6. tbat 7. hut; B. than;9. as; lO. as; I 1. wben;
12. wben.

Actiyity 2.13r Make

a copy of Worksheet
2.13 for each student in the class. Hayc
students read along as they listn to th
audio CD (track 14).

Actiyity 3.1: Make

a copy of Worksheet 3.1

for each student in the class. Have students
read along as they listen to the audio CD

(track 15).

a copl' of Vorksheet 3.8

for each student in the class

Activity 4.3: Make

copl of Wo*sheet 4.3

class. Have students

read along as they listen to the audio CD

(track 18).
Answers: pretU) ; ma tter: rneeting; inrlted: Wbat
A geftinll; later; betler;W)at do.

Activity 4.4: Make half

Vorksheet 4.4

as many copies of
as there are students in the

to hall the class and

Chart B to the other half. Students with
different charts will pair up and work
class. Give Chart A

together.

Actiyity 4.5: Make one copy of Worksheet

4.5 for each student in the class.

Activity 4.7: Make

a copy of worksheets
4.7A. J.n(I1t.7B for each student in the class.

Distribute Workslleet

4.7,4. before the

activity; have students read along as they
listen to the audio CD (track 19). Distribute
\trorksheet 4.78 at the conclusion of the
activity. Explain that students may want to
keep the rules where they can easily refer
to them.

4nsrrers.' r=ft\ t uo rd s. fi.( e.\pe n si ue. m k.

Xerox, expdnd, tdxes, experl, dxiom,
tttd.ximuln, context; x=gz uords: exhibit,

evtminq

eltist, exbibition, execLrtiue,

Activiry J.2: Prepare half rs mdn] copie\

exhausted, exdtn, execute; x=z uords: Xerox.

as there are students in the

class. The categories of comparison in the

Activity 4.8: Make half

of each chart

charts can be changed to reflect )'our

students' situations. For example, if most of
your students work, the information under
"Location" might be specified as closeness
to work rather than closeness to school.

cive half the students Chart A and half the

students Chaft B. Students with different
charts will pair up and work together
Activity 3.3: Make a copy of \t9orksheet 3.3
for each student in the class. Have students
read along as they listen the dialogue on
the audio CD (track 16).

Activity 3.7: Make

a copy of Worksheets
3.7A and 3.7B for each student in the class.
Students will read along as they listen to
the dialogue on the audio CD (rack l7).

Vorksheet 4.8

as many copies of
as there are students in the

class. Give half the class

'Itam A questions

and half the class Team B questions.

Tedm A Ansuters: L relnember: 2. rwle:
3. fural; 1. red; 5. ra.lio; 6. riuers; 7. rug;8. utritu.
Tearn B arrswers: L rlgbt; 2. relatiues; 3. repdif;
1. (d) ring: 5. (a) rcoJ; (). roses;7. retunx;8. to
a copy of worksheet .{.9
for each student in the class.

Actiyity 4.9. Make

Activity 4.11: Make

a copy of Worksheet
4.11 for eaclr student in the class. Hav
students read along as they listen to the
audio CD (track 20).
P.t t 2 Anstuers: 9. aduise; 10. pig; I 1. rice;

12.peas; 13. b.1ck; 11. (a) use; 1 5. haqe; 16. set.

AppENDtx

lr(fivity 4.12r Ma.ke a copy of Worksheet

4.12 for ezch student in the class.
Actlylty 5.1: Make

a copy of Vorksheet 5.1

for each student iri the

Activity 5.2: Make

a copy of \forksheet 5.2

the class, or simply

a copy of Worksheet 5.5

for each student in the

class.

Activiry 5.72 Make a copy of Vorksheet 5.7

class.

Actiyity 5.8: Make

a copy of Worksheet 5.8

for each student in the class.

for each student in the class.

(track 21).
uords: bead, steal, kq,, cheap,

receiue, people, beliew; /eJ//

utor*: break,

tbq, take, eigbt, baw

/e/ unds: brcakflst

stays;

201

Activity 5.9: Make a copy of \forksheet 5.9

Lcttulty 5.4r Make a copy of Worksheet 5.4

for each student in the class. Have students
read along as they listen to the audio CD

/A/

Activity 5.5: Make

Activity worksheets

for each student in the

class-

for each student in

pfesent minimal pairs relevant to
students'leyel.

Arrswers:

instead, medl.lne, says, /tta/rJ), egain, frierul.

Acttvtty 5.13: Make

a copy of !florksheet

5.13 for each student in the class.

202

AppENDtx

Activity wotksheets

($ wonrsrnnt r.r

PRTMARY sTRESS: Travel season

Trlvla

Shoulder Season
The cost of traveling depends on when you trayel and where you travel. High season is
the most expensive time to travel. Low season is the least expensive time to travel. Shoulder
season is in between.
If you don't want to spend a lot of money, shouldet season is the best time to travel.
Airfares and hotels aj:e not so expensive, and the weather is not usually too hot or too
cold. Fof example, if you'rc tfaveling to Japan from the United States, the shoulder season is
in winter

1. You want to go to South Africa. v/hen is the shoulder seasofl?

c. October and November
a. January to April
d. $finter
b. Summef

2,

You want to go to Australia. When is the shoulder season?

c. Spring
a. Summef
d. Octobef
b. May to July

3.

You want to go to Turkey. when is th shor der season?

c. July and August
a. Winter

b. March
4.

d. Fall

You want to go to Rio de Janeirc in Brazil. when is the shoulder season?

a. February
b. Winter

c. Summe r
d. September to December

5.

You want to go to Italy. When is the shoulder season?

c. June and July
a. Summef
d. January to March
b. Fall

6.

You want to go to Mexico. Vtrefr is the shoulder season?

c. Fall
a. June and July

b. February to April

d. Winter

7.

You want to go on a safari* in Kenya. When is the shoulder season?

c. June to Septembr
a. Spring
d. Wintef
b. February and March

8.

You want to go to Costa Rica. When is the shoulder season?

c. Winter
a. Srunmef
d. Mid-october to mid-December
b. July and August

* A trip to see wild animals lik elephants and lions.

App[Nr?/\

WORI(SHF,F,T

-I.2

A.tiyit!, tyL]rlsh.r/s

PRIMARY STRESS: Integrating Stress,

Vocabulary, and Reading

Reprinted from rvorthstal 1, Rea.liltg qndr ritil?g

20Oc). pagc I ti. Uretl with pcrmi.iion.

b,v

Joho tseaunont, Pcarson Longllran,

lind[ergn Did It!

Paris Exprcss Ng'ys-May 27, 1927

PARIS, FRANCI,

One week

most famous man in the world and the

most importart man

he heard was the sound of the wind and

the noise flom the engine of thc plane.

ago,

Charles Lindbergh was just a handsome,

zs-year-old ainnail pilot from a small
town in the United States. "Ibday he is the

in the history

He was in the air all alone \,\'ilh his

of

flying.
Last week, Lindbergh flew solo iiom
New York to France. He i4'as the first

offon his historic flight

30

about l-indbergh. When he got out of h:s

plane and saw all the excjtemcnt, hc

kneh' that his life $'ould never be the

on May 20th at

7152 A.M. People called

him "'lhe Flying Fool." On that day, other

pilots in the contest waited in New York

because the weather was bad. Lindbergh
did not wait. He took flve sandwiches, a
bottle of water, a notebook, a pen, and a
compass. He didn't even have a radio. All

After 3,610 miies, 33 hours and

international media wcre also there.

Photographers and newspaper reporters
wanled lo be the flrst to tell the story

the longest non-stop flight.

Lindbergh took

thoughts, his hopes, and his fears.

minutes, and no slcep, Lindbergh landcd
in Paris on May 21st. At that mornent, his
life changed forever. Thcre wele 15U,000
excited people waiting to greet him. The

pe$on to Ily non-stop across tbe Atlantic

Ocean alone. He also set the record for

.l

203

same again.

When he beSan lhis dangerous tlight,

he was a quiet young man from a quiet
town. Thjs mo.ning, "Luck,v l-ilid\"' letl
I)arls as an international hero.

204

ApptNDtx

Acriv/tt' vvorl-sheets

WORI$HEET

1.3

AIID VOWEL REDUCTION:

Today, Tonigltt, and Tomor"rou

L]I\ISTRTSSED VO\I'EI-S

TONIGHT
8:00 Ios,
g:OO

5:O0 Live coverage

of

Ameican ldol

TOMORROW NIGHT
8:00 l'r'ler2d.,i (rerun)
9:OO

10:00

the presideflt's addrss

TOMGHT
lron Man

(novie)

8:00

3:00 Enro Cup

Firals:

9:00

1:O0

TOMORROW NIGHT

Germany vs. Spain

10:00 NBA

Play-of1s:

Nets versus Suns

1O:OO

2O/2O

AppENDrx

Activity Wotksheets

SECOI\DARY STRESS IN 1\[[]MBERST How Many

People Live at 44Maifl. Street?

WORKSHEET 1.4

lAll

StudentA map

Ilne and First Street.The numbers in rhe

buildtng shov how mary popl live ln tlat buildtng. If a building is empty, ask lour prrlner the
qusdon below aid wite the answer on the map.
The map shows apaitnent buildings on Mdn Stret, Park

How many people liv at

(address)
44 Mah Stret
42 Main Strt
36 Main Street
35 Main Street

IA2l Studot

tr
tr

EI

46Pal*Lane

tr

!:1

Et

@ z

32

Pr* Ilne

30 PaIt

Irne

24 Pffk

Iln

E
E

43 First Stret

z
rl

ll

37 Flrst Stieet
33 Fkst Street
22 First Street

n
tr

n
n

F
e
'4
FT

tr

B map

The mrp shows aparunnt buildings on Mah Stet, Palt Ilne ard l1lst Shet.The numbers in the
buildiry show how
people li! Ln that builalha. IJ a buildiig is mptt ark your partner the
questton blow and mite the ans*,er on the map.

tuy

Hoq/ many people live at

(address)
44 Main Stret
42 Main StrEet
36 Maln Stret
35 Main Stret
20 Mdn Street

tr
tr
tr

tl

46 P,rk

lr

F
Fl
Fl

&

32

30 Park

?arklane

Iae

n
@

n
n

43

II
&

37

Fist Sheet

Fist

Stret

33 First St eet
22 First Street

2l First

Street

tr

E
tr
E

F
Fi

F
!r

205

206

Appr:NDix

Activity worksheets

@ womsrmrr

r.6

coMporlllDS: v4rich came Flrst?

which came first?

.
.
.
.
.

cell phones-iPods
computer games-Web sites

laptops-desktops
e-mail-podcasts

.
.
.
.

YouTube-search engines
conference calls-webcams
heart transplants-live r transplants

Ilingerprinting- blood typing

hard drives-flash drives

WORKSHEET

1.7

\'ERBS AND NOTTNS WITH PREPOSITIONAL

PREFD(ES: Why Do Women Outlive Men?

women outlive men because thy experience less work-related strss than men.
rfomen have a more positive outlook and more practical goals than man

Men are more likely than women to underestimate the dangers of risla behavior
In most societis. men oute?rn women and are the main source of farnily income

AppENDtx

(f

womsnnnr r.s

Activity Wotksheets

2O7

ABBREVIATIONS: Integfating
Pronunciation and Grammar

1.

US is

a. "modus operandi," a Latin tefm used in police work fof

the method a particular criminal uses in his crimes.

2.

UK is

b. the tax collecting agency of the United States

goYefirment.

3.

FBI is

c. a sovereign state that includes England, Scotland,lvales,

and Northern Ireland.

4.

CIA is

d. the intelligence gathering agency of the United

Stares

goYernment.
5.

IRS is

e. a machine that giYes cash.

6.

IBM is

f. the country located between Canada and Mexico.

7.

UN is

g. the date and year a person was bom.

8.

EIA is

h. the police force of the United Stats govefllmenr.

9.

DOB is

i. a "Yery important person."

10.

MO is

i. a large producer of computefs and other technology.

11.

ATM is

k. an international organization that aims to maintain

wodd peace and solve wodd problems.

12.

\{P

is

l. the time a flighr is expecled to arrive.

208

AppENDtx

Activity wotksheets

@ womsunnr

r.9

srREss

wlfir

suFFD(ES: wtrat's Presidential?

-lty

-ical

-iaU-wal
presidential

responsibility

T.logical

2. intellectual

8. identical

14.

integdty

3. controversial

9. ecological

5 .

passivity

-ian

-ic

1.

4.

politician

10.

3 .

-ious/eous
16.luxurious

idalistic

5. musician

11. realistic

17. iunbitious

6. academician

12. energetic

18. courageous

@ womsrmnT

1.104

DrsAppEARrNG SvLLABLES: came

aspfin

chocolate

evening

farnily

tempefature

Yegetable

federal

general

interest

miserable

separate (adj)

every

laboratory

beverages

favorite

cornfortable

naturally

practically

accidentally

awtully

AppENDtx

WORIGHEET

1.108

Activity worksheets

DISAPPEARING SYLI-{BLES: came

1. What are coffee, tea, sodas, and iuice?

2. What's a singular adiective that means "all"?

fid of a headache?
4. $fhere do scietrtists work?
5. What's a word for "early night'?
3. What do you take to get

6. Your mother, fathef, bfothers, and sisters-what are they?

7. Iphat's a word tha: means "the thing you like best"?
8. Bfoccoli, peas, carrots-what are they?
9. ll(&at's a wofd that means "very"?
1O. What's a word that means "almost"?

lAnss'ers:
6.

1.

bevreges; 2. evry; 3. aspran; 4. (in) labr3tories; 5. e\.ning;

8. vegtables;9. awfly; 10. practaklyl

(youf) fafi y; 7. favret;

1. State government is one leyel of govffrment. What's rhe highest ievel?

2. $fha:'s a s/o:d that means "very unhappy"?
3. What's a word for the money you earn on your sayings?
4. What's an adiective that means the opposite of"together"?
5. What's a word that means the opposite of 'on purpose"?
6. The weather report tells you about this.
7. What's the opposite of"artificia1ly"?

8. What's th opposite of"specific"?

9. This is ahe traditional candy ofvalentine's Day.
10. This is how your favorite chaif feels.

lAnswers: 1. (the) fedral (level); 2. misreblet 3. intrast; .1. seprat;

5. accadently; 6. (th) temprature; 7. natchraly; 8. genral; 9. choclat;
10. comftarbal

2O9

21O

A?pENDIX

A Activity

WORKSHEET

Worksheets

1.11

STRESS SWTTCHING:
199Os?

What Happened in

the

The 1900s: Name the decade when these events occurred:

1. The Soviet Union launched the first spacecraft (Sputnik 1)-

2. The fiIst Wodd Cup

3. The Grat Depression
4. The fust mas$produced automobiles
5. The fust time man walked on the moon
6. v'odd war II

7. Nelson Mandela was elected president of South Africa.

8. The first successfirl human-to-human heart transplant
9. The first diagnosed case of AIDS in the United states
10. The Oil Producing afld Exporting Countries (OPEC) embargo on oil shipmeflts to
'West
the
11. The word robot was first used.

12. The plastic bag was inYented.

ApptNDtx

($ womsrunr

z.r

Activity Worksheets

PRESENTING STRESS-TIMED RIIyTTIM:

Limericks

Natural tree line

Apple orchard

The BIRDS aBANdoned the FORest.

They BUIIjI their NESTS in the ORchard.

There once was a man with a beaxd,

Who said,"It is just as I feared!
Some owlsr and a hen,
Some larks2 and a wren,

Are building their nests in my beard!"3

towl:

a large night bird with big eyes

'I-arks and wrenst r''pes of birds
rlimerick bv Edqrard I err

There once was a man with a beard.

as I feared!

Who said,"It is iust

da DA
da

DA

and

da

DA

da da

DA

d^

Are building their nests in my beard!"

211

NNNN

2"12

AppENDtx

A Activity

@ womsurnr

Warksheets

2.4

LII\IKING ADJACENT WORDS: JObS

Matchlng
1. dotrom

a. an event where businesses looking for new employees can

meet people lookng for iobs

2. Web site

b. an employment agency (usually for well-paid jobs)

3. outsourcing

c. cyberspace location

4. cuttluoat (adj)

d. the practice of hiring employees located in other countries

5. job market

e. available jobs

6. job fair

7. headhunter
8. pink slip

g. a notice that

very competitive

youte been laid off

h. technology business

Discusslon
1. What kird of work

do you do or are you interested in doirg? How do people find

jobs in that area? Do they go to job fairs? Web sites? Headhunters? What's the iob
rnarket like in that area?
do you think of outsourcilg? Is outsourcing an issue in your country? How
can it hurt a country? How can it help a country?

2. V/hat

AppENDtx

@ wonxsuErr

2.6

Activity Worksheets

213

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES: Good Manners

Part A: Table Manners

There aren't as many opportunities to practice table manners as there used to be. In the
United States, most families at meals together only once or twice a week. Howel'e! on
holidays or at dinner pafties, families afld friends still gather rogetfier at the same table to
share a meal. These are occasions when we can show off our table manners-if we can
remembef them.

Part B: The Do's and Don'ts of Table Manners

W ultlr plrra;tes on tlJe liglrt.

Match pbrases on tbe

Don't fight

with your hands

Don't play

on your lap

Don't talk

with your mouth firll

Don't lean

at your brother

Don't shoot peas

at the table

Chew

on the table

Put your napkin

with your food

Keep your elbows

with your mouth closed

Don't eat

off the table

214

,rr/'rNrrr

Activifl, ltbllsheets

WORKSHEET

2.7

ARTICLES: Food

)
1o

-r--.- X
t-_;) ( )

I. ,t:l

Lr

lU ldD
,i.

5i

\,i

6.

.t

13

14

t5
s]L/-l
lZ.$$\ l--l

\:,tr' ([/

u,...:.:,:l
8.

16.

Appf t'iDtx

Aclivity Warkshects

'f,

.D?

tw,'
IE
__'1

14.

ti

'gg

215

216

AppENDtx

Activity Worksheets

S womsrnnr2.9

PHRASAI !'ERBS: Don't Put irff Until Tomorrow

What You Can Do Today

Ai \?hat are you reading?

B: An article about chronic procrastinators.
A: That sounds like me. I put evertthing

ofi

B: No. Cfuonic procrastination is more serious. Chronic procrastinators put off filing
income taxes, cashing checks, even using gift certificates.

A: That's like throwjng money away. That's not me.

B: Yeah. They wind up losing their iobs because no one can put up with them. They
let down their friends and familySpeaking about putting things gq, have you made up your mind about going back

to school?

No.I'm still up in the air about that.I don't know if I want to trade my iob in for
student life.

AppENDlx

Activity worksheets

217

@ womsnrrr 2.10 NorrcrNcuNsrrnssED co{fuNCfioNS:

Medical Etlrlcs

Hov/ truth.frI should doctors be (1)

is dying, (2)

(3)

they know

patient

there's no cure? Should they tell the patient

iust his family? What (4)

you'd iust heard

your eldedy father had teminal cancer? Would you tell him?

(5)
Imagine (6)

(7)

two people need heart transplants to

there's only one heart

li.t.e,

ilable. One person is a father

of

three young children;the other is a conyicted criminal. The convict is a tjttle higher
on the transplant list (8)

(9)

the father. But is the convict

worthy (10)

the father? Who should get

the heart? Who should decide?

How long should patients remain on Iife support (11)

there is

Little hope fof recoyery? In the United States, the parient, thfough his instrucdons or his

family usually determines (12)

the "plug should be pulled:'Who

should make this decision?

Dlscusslon
How would you answer these questions? In your country who makes these decisions?

218

AppENDIx

1. v4mddaya

\I4lerja

see?

go?

3. Whatcher

4.

Activity worksheets

name?

\Vherdaya wanna go?

5. I'll letcha know rqhen I can

6. vftadia

see?

7. V4ratcher phone

flumber?

8. Whydy ,/waydiy/

come?

9. I wantcha to go.

10. I can readjer mind.

come.

AppENDtx

6 womsnnrr3.r

Activity worksheets

219

HIGHIIGIITING: Breakfast ln the ReaI Wodd

Ordering Breakfast

Waiter:

What would you IIKE?,

)C I'll have EGGS.

Waiter: How would you LIKE them?
X: SCRAMBLED, please.
Waiterr Anlrhing ELSE?
X: Just COFFEE, with MILK.
*The waiter might
also say,'Are you ready to ORDER?".CaI I iake your ORDER?,,,Ar. you READY?,,

220

/\PP.Ntr,\

Activiry la/orksheets

WORI$HEET

3.2

CONTR4.STI\'aE STRESS:

Wtrich Apartment is Better?

$)\U/mt'ntn

s750/month

20-min. bus ride to campus

5-min. walk to campus

AppENDtx

(9 womsrmnr t.:
Ar

Finished?

B:

Yes.

,4,: Dinner?

B: Sure.
Ar Italian?
B: No.
Ac

Sushi?

B:

Yeah.

A,: Where?

B:

Tomo's?

A,: OK.

Activitv Worksheets

FINAI INTONATIONT Minimal Dialogues

221

222

APPEND:r

Activity Wotkheets

womsrrnnr 3.7A

PARENTHETTCATS: You r.ook Pretty Happy, Luke.

Dialogue 1:

Julian:
Luke:

Julian:
Luke:

Jullan:
Luke:

Dialogae

You look pretty happy, Luk. What happened?

This is from the law school. I got accepted, it says.

Congratulations.

Tharks. Now I'ye got to find a way to pay for it, though.
You'll be up to your eyeballs in debt, you know.
Yeah,

but I'll be able to pay it back, I hop.

2z

Julianr
Luke:

Julian:

Luke:

Julianr
Luke:

How's law school,

It's OK,

Luke:

Julian:

The f1lst yeaf's the worst,

I'm not suq)rised,

All I do is read and memorize,

Have you decided what kind of law you

vant to go into?
But I haYen't had time to think

Public interest law:

about it,

Jullan:

It's a lot of work,

what brings you arorurd here?

I wondered if I could borrow your car this weekend,

Sure. Where are you going?

Well, Sue loves to hike so we're going hjking. It's an easy hjke,

^PPrNDil

.WORKSHEET

3.7B

A.lA,/Iv l4/ork-sheels

PARENTHETICALS: YOrl LOOK PfCttY

Happy, Luke.

NAMES AND FORMS OF A,DDRESS

REPORTING E)PRESSIONS

names

it

sir, miss

they said

mal-l

she says

says

they say
EXPRESSIONS TIIAT SHOW YOTIR

DGNXSSIONS OF EXAMPLE

EVALUATION

I think

for instancc

I'm aftaid

lbr example

I guess

ancl so on

I'm sure
You know
it seems
ADVERBS

POLITE E)GRESSIONS

actually

plcasc

luckil-v, fortunately

unfortunately

thank )'ou
if you could

thoutih

if rhat's oK

in fact

223

224

AppENDtx

Activitv wotksheets

WORKSHEET 3.8

ATTITT]DES A]i[D EMOfiONS:

Amblguous Dialogues
Dialogue

A:
B:

Let's go for a dfiye.

OK, but I have to do something fust.

Situatlons

1. It's an extremely hot and humid sumner

day, and A and B, husband and wife, don't

have air conditioning in their apartment or car. They're both exhausted from the
heat. They think that maybe the breeze coming in the car windows will make them
feel bette! but they re not very hopeful.

2.

motherfather B is teaching A to dfiye. B beliyes that A is a terrible driver

and always dreads helping A practice. A loyes to driye and nevq refuses an
opportunity to practice.
B is As

3. A and B are

newll.weds, very much in love. They're going to one of their favorite

spots, a secluded lake whefe they fifst met and fll in [oye.

AppENDrx

(9

woRKsrfiET

4.3

Activity

Worksheets

225

REcocr\[zrNc FrAps

You look

woffied. What's the

B: I'rn
me to

Alex's parerits tomoffow. They

dinner-to their

they

house.

don't like me?

A: V/hy would you thinl tlnt?

You and Alex have been talking about

married.You'fe going to have to meet his parents sooner

B! I suppose so.I

guess

I'd

bring

a present.

you thifk, some flowefs?

226

/\PPEND:r

'1ctir,if

WORIGHEET

IMPORTERS

4.4

l,Vork5heers

SIBIIANTS: How Much OiI?

MILLIONS OF

E)(PORTERS

BARRELS PER DAY

1. The tlnited

MILLIONS OF
BARRELS PER DAY

1. Saudi A-rabia

States
..

2. Japan

t.l

J. Cl.fna
/r. Gefmany

Russia

6.7

J. Norw.rv
2_5

5. Sonth Korea
(r- France

2.

.i. Iran

'2.6

5. Vnezuela
2.O

6. The United

2.3

Arnb Emirates
7. Ital\'

8. Spain

7. Kuwait

r.6

'' I

2.2

9. Mexico

9. Inclia
'IO. "laiwan

8. Nigeria

1.0

10. Algctia

1.7

hc clxlx on oil impor'ts comcs lroln the I J.S. Enerll.i lnfornatiolr Administration for 200.1: the export
2005 dxle (source: $.\\.$..eia.doe.go\').

intornxti(n reflects

APTEND/.\A A.tiyit!'|l/crrksheefs

IMPORTERS

1. The United

MILLIONS OF
BARREIS PER DAY
11.8

E)(PORTERS

227

MIIIIONS OF
BARREI,S PRR DAY

1. Saudi Arabia

8.7

States

2.

2. Jap^,

3. China

2.9

3. Norway

2.9

4. Iran

4. Germanv
5. South Korea

Russia

2.t

5. Venezuela

2.1

6. The United

6. France

Arab Emirates

7. llu'ly

t.7

india

O- Taiwan

2.2

8. Ni{aeria

8. Spain

f.

7. Kuwait

1.5

9. Mexico

l.B

10. Algeria

*'fhe data on oil imports concs fiom thc U.S. Efleryt Informatior Adn]inistratio[ lbr 200'1; llle cxporr
infolmation rcflects 2005 data (sourcer www.eja.doe.go\').

228

AppENDtx

Activity worksheets

WORKSHEET

4,5

/4/:

Present Continuous a'ral -ing

sung

wonxsrrnrf 4.7A pRoNrNcrAfioN oF x..spelling

and sounds

Decide how "x" is pronounced in the words below. Write each word under the first, second,
or third column below the words.

fL'(
expensiye exhibit
examine mix
Ierox exhibition executive exhausted exam
taxes expect
maximum
execute axiom

r-&s

t4=gz

exist
expand

context

AppitiDtx

At tivtt'/

Workshee'

229

WORI$HEET 4.78 PRONf]NCIATION OF r.'Spelling and Sounds

1. li. at the beginniflg of a word is prono'rnced /z/ (there are vcry 1ew of these words
in Bnglish).

xrox

xenotl

2. X at the end of a word

box
l.

is pronounced /ks/.

tax

X preceded by

a stressed vowel and

followcd by another vowel is pronounccd

/ks/.1
exercise

(eksercise)

4. x followed by

raxi (taksi)

a stressed vowel is pronounced /gzl.

exemple(egzample) exdggemte(eg:zaggerntc) ex,ct(egzact)

5. X

is pronounced ,/ks/ before most consonants.

explain

(eksplair) extinct

lsome speakers pronounce exl,

both pronuncilrtions.

as

(ekstinct)

"eksitt" while othcrs pronourcc it as 'clzit." Some speakers usc

230

rpprND/.!

,1

,l.tir,/r|

WORISHEET

Diagtatn of

i1.'orlrheets

4.8

BEGINNING

/t/:

The R Game

/t/

Questiofls for Team A:

What s th opposite of./oryet?

2. V4nt's the opposite of polite?

3. \I{ut's the opposite of urb(Ln?
4. Mix blue with this color to get purple.
5. Befbre TV, pcople listenecl to lhe
6. Wlar are thc Mississippi and rlte Nile?
7. lgl.lat's a synonyrn fot cqrpet?
3. fise a pencil or pen to do this.

Diagran of

/r/

Questions for Team B:

1. What s the opposite ()f a,ror?g?
2. \'ouf lrncles. cousins, grandparents, and nephew

are yoru

3. This is a \\''old that neans "fix."

,1. X)u wear this on your lcft hand when )'ou get married.

i.

Thls is the top of a building.

6. These flowers are a sign of love.

7. 'l'his yerb means "!ao back."
8. \{&at's th.. oltpositc of

to

J.tlll

_.

APPENDI{

Activity Worksheets

PRACTICING THE /V-lV CONTRAST: How

Do You Spell Right?

WORKSHEET 4.9

Diagtarn of /U

Diagan of /t/

Iight

right

Minimal Pairs

light-right

low-row

glass-grass

alive-arrive

late-rate

list-wrist

fly-fry

play-pray

long-wrong

led-red

womsrrunr 4.11 RECocMrroN Ar\rD pRoDucrroN oF

CLUSTERS,

P?.rt

^l

FrNAL

FINAI CONSONANT
AND FINAI VOICED CONSONANTS

CONSONANTS,

1. beU

belt

2. shore

short

3. fax

faxed

1. dog

dogs

5. pick

picked

6. watch

watched

7. thant

thanked

8. plan

plant

9. advise

advice

10. pig

pick

11. rise

rice

12. peas

piece

13. bag

back

14. (to) use

(a) use

15. have

half

16. said

set

P^rt 2

231

232

AppENDtx

Activity worksheets

WORIGHEET

4.12

HOW WOT]LD YOU USE 2.7 TRILLION

DOLIARS?

How U.S. Taxpayers' Money was Used tn 2oo7

retirees
care for the eldedy)

Social Security payments to current

2O'/.

Medicare (health

l9o/.

Aid to the poor (Medicaid, food stamps, housing subsidies,

etc.)

payments)
security

16%

National debt (interest

lo'/o

Military Hometand

30%

Other (federal highways, medical resarch, FBI, etc,)

a'

This sample shows the fedeial budget for 2007.

VORKSHEET

5.1

Diagram of /1y/ ard

/iy/-/t/z Presentlng Pro unclatlon

/r/

@
leave

/iy/

llve

/t/

AppENDtx

5.2 /ty/-/r/.

WORKSHEET

Activity Wotksheets

How Do you Spell Liae?

Choose minimal pairs for this actiyity that are appropriate for your students'level
(B = beginning level; LI = low-intermediat;I = intemediate; HI = high-interme diate;
A = advanced).

(B)-it (B)
,,/ seat (Ll)-sit (B)
"/ eat

cheap

/ leaye (B)-liye (B)

reach

feet
v/

(Ll)-rich

GD-still (LI)

/least

(lD-list (LI)

(B)-slip (I)
green (B)-grin (I)
reason (B)-risen (I)
each (B)-itch (HI)

beaten

(I)-bitten (I)

heaL/heel

seek

(I)-hi[

(I)-sick

(B)

(I)-birter (I)
relieve (I)-relive (I)
beater

(I)-pit (HI)
asleep (I)-a slip (HI)
meal (I)-mill (A)
dep (I)-dip (A)
Pete

(I)-filled (Il)
heat (I)-hit (B)

(B)-fit (LI)

@ wonxsnrnf S.<

steal

field

@)

sleep

(B)-chip (I/HI)

(LI)

(Hl)-fisr (HI)
seed (Hl)-gdd (A)
peel (A)-pill (LI)

feast

/iy/-/ey/-/e/z Sorting Sound And Spelling

brg4k

st94

feceiYe

b94d

kgy

eight

breakfast

rhgr

b4bv

instead

ch94p

p99ple

medicine

m4ny

stllS

says

take

friend

say

a94n

believe

/,/ words

/eyl ]trords

/iyl

Words

233

234

APPENDIr

Activity worksheets

5.5 /e/'/e/;

\VORI$HEET
Diagram of

Presenting

/e/ (IIad) and

/e/ (Ilead)

/r/ had artd /e/ head

bad

WORI$HEET

he^d /E/

/r./

5'7 /e/, /e/, /a/, AND /o'/

(KEPT'CAP-CUP-CoP):

What Bugs You?

Diagram of /e/, /n/, /a/,

WORKSHEET

/a/

/o/

cap

kept /E/

Diagram of

a'Jld

kept-cap-cup'cop

/r/

cnp

cop /o

/a/

5.8 /e/ AND /o/: Presenting /a/ a'Jid /o/

arl'd

(Nut-Not)

/o/

nut, t ot

fi /e/

not

/o/

.
WORKSHEET

5.9

/a/: Luck or Sk

AppENDtx

Activity WorksheeE

235

l?

Quotations about Luck

1. "People always call it luck when you'ye acted more

sensibly than they have."

(Anne Tyler)

2. "I'm a great

believer in luck, and I find the harder I work, the more I have of it:,
Cfhomas Jefferson)

3.

"1 say

luck is when an opportunity comes along, and youte prepared for

it.,,

(Denzel

\vashington)

4.
5.

"The only thing that orr'ercomes hard luck is hard work:, (Harry Golden)

"Luck always seems to be against the man who depends on it." (authof unlmown)

Sou/cei www.quotationspage.com

WORI$HEET 5.13 R-COLORXD VOWEIS: presenthrg

R-Colored vowels /st/ (Are), /at/ (Her),
and /oil (Or)
Diagram of

Iip

Shapes

her

npPENDtx

PROBLEMS OF SELECTED LANGUAGES

On page 10, we list features of English pronunciation thxt are difficult for most students,
:egardless of natir,'e-language background. In this appenclix, we describe problems that are

]pical of stuclents from

sclected nativeLanguage backgrorxlds: Ajabic, Chinese, Irrench,

Haitian Creole, Japanesc, Korean, Poftuguese, Russian, South Asian languages, Spanish, Thai,
lnd victnamese. Togethcr with the list of common problems on page 10, the information in
Ihis section car.r be usecl by teachers who want to anticipate the types of pronunciation
problems their students are likely to have. The teacher should also bc awa.re that the
problems described below are q?ical but are not experienced by every native speaker of
rhat language.

ARABIC
Anbic belongs to the Semitic family of languages, which also includes Hebrew, Ammaic,
and Assydan.It is spoken in Algcria, Bahrain, Chad, Diibouti, Eg)-pt, Eritrea, Iraq, Israel,
.lordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, C)man, palestinian territories, eataq
Saudi Afibia, Somalia, Sudan, S,yria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, Western Sahara, and
.l?mert.
aS well as in smitllef communities in othef countries aS a native or second language
(L2). Because Arabic is the language of the Koran, many Muslims around the world are
fxmili'Jr s\ ith \omc Arabic worcls and phrases.
Moclern Standard Arabic is a "pan Arabic,,dialect used in schools, by journalists, and for
ollicial purposes (swan and smith 2001, 19i). h addition, there are marry colloquial \.arietics
of spoken Anbic, which can differ substautiau,v from each other. 'l'he problems describecl
below are comrton to most varieties of A1?bic.

Word Stress
Since stress placement in Arabic is regular anal predictable, Anbic students may be
unfamiliar with the varied stress placement in Enlalish and misplace stress when the,y speak.
Arabic students should be taught predicrable stress associated with clir.sses of English words
(begiming on page 30), and new vocabulary of more than one syllable shoul<1 be presented
orally. Arabic str.rdcnts may also be unfarniliaf with tlte English use of stress ro disringuish
meaning ir pairs like a rdcorcl-to rec1rd or Appb-aI)pdll.
Although Arabic and English are both stress-timed languages, unstressed syllables in
Arabic arc not as shofi relative to stressed syllables as they arc in English, and vo\lel qualiq.,
in unstesscd sfllables is not as reduced as it is in English @enrabeh 199j . Zutalq and,
serrcno 2007). studerlts should be encouraged to n.rake a greater length distinction bern'een
strcs.etl rnJ UnstrcsscLl \owcl: (.(c page ,25).

Rhlthm and Ifltonation

ln connected speech, Arabic students may insefi a glottal stop (the sound separating
the two parts of uboh) trelbre words beliinning with a vowel, creat tg a choppy soundhg
rhlthm. Students should prnctice linking final consonants to beginning voweG (see
page 55). Students may also stress more words in uttennces than native speakers would,
resulting in oyedy emphatic speech. Students should work with highlighting, focusing
emphasis on just one or fwo words in an uttennce (sce page 96). Likewise, students should
wolk on givinEi less prominence to ftlnction words (see page !0).

237

238

rrrrND/,\

Prtl:lens

ti

Stlcctcd lang,uagc's

Consonants
for
1. /p/. h/:Tb,ere is no /p/ in nrost dialccts of Al'abic, so students ma) substitutc
'beoble.'
pronounce
Teach
stLldenls
to
\l'ords
pronouncing
like
as
wor.ls
^/
/p/.
I)eople
beginning with the letterr' wilh a puff of xir (aspiration. see page 150)
2. / . /v/tThese arc variaDts of the sanrc sotlnd in Arabic. Focus on Ay' .tt tlle
bcginnings or i1l the miclclle of$'ords (see palie l21r)
l. /ll,/: ,\mbic has no /!/. so studcots maY substitute /n/ or /\g/ fttt /\/ (.see page 136).
1. /r/:1he /r/ in Artbic is a flaPPcd /1/ ancl students ma\-substitutc this sound for the

/r/ of Erglish.

Teach the retroflexed articulation of English /r,/ (see page 141)

5.

Consonant clustcrs: In ntost dialects of A1'abic. consooaot clusters do not occuf at

the beginnings of $.(]rds. Studcnts lnay ioscrt vo$'els bcfore or betwccn beginning
Elrglish cltlstcrs. Pron()uncing a wortl likefToor as if]oor' or "Iiloor" (sce page 15I)
Final two membel consonant clusters tlre permittcd. Sttldents should work with
past ancl prcsent el-Idings to practice tjnal chlsters with two of nrore meflbcrs
(sce page 159).

l/r sounds: These sounds occur in Modetn Standatd Anbic bu1 not in some of thc
colbquial languagcs. SOme students havc no problem pronolrncinla the tJ sounds,
br.rt others may substitute /t/ or /.1/ fot lhese sounds. a stilimatized pronLrnciation
(see pagc 126).

Vowels
/I/ . /E/: k1\b:1c students mit\' conftlsc these two vowels, prononncilf'g becl llke bid or
vice Yersa lsee pagc 175).
'2. /x/ , /T/ , /a/. /o/: Arabic has only one lo$' 1'owcl. so all of thesc Yowcls ma.v be
difficult fbr stuclenls to pcrccive:rnd prorlollllce (scc palie 178)

\.

orthography

'Ihcre is [o similarirr._ bet$-een thc Elrglish ancl Ar.rbic \t'ritinl] systcms, Arabic is written
liom rillht to leli ancl flequeutll omits vowels. E\rn aclvancecl Al'abic stuclents have
difficulty reading aloucl, often halting rtnnaturalh- and transposing letters;these studcnts
should practicc reading aloud.

CHINESE

Chinesc is ;t collcction ()f languages ard dialccts trnificd b]' a comnon $'riting s1's1c11
The sharetl \vriting s,vstcm allows written Chinese to be understoocl b,v Iitefatc speakers of
all varietics, cven s'hen the spoken varicties are mutualh' uDintelligible (lhincsc is spoken in
the People's Rcpublic of China (Clrina), the Republic ol Chira (Tai$'an), Hong Kong,
Singaporc. \{ala}-sia. Macau, thc Philippincs, Australix. tndonesia, Maurititrs. Peftr, Ciurada, the
Ilnited St:rtcs, and othcr reliions $'ith Chinesc communities.
There are substanti,tl linguistic clifterenccs betwcen Chinesc, a Sino-'libctan langtlage,
'rnd English, an Indo Elrropcan languag;e. one of the most important Phonological
dillerences betwccn Enlilish and Chincse is the trsc of pitch Chilcse is a tonc language:
an essential part of the pronunciation ol a par(icular worcl is a particuliu lcrel of pitch
(or dircction of pitch). Pitch, thcreforc, clistingttishes worcls liom each other' Ilrr
examplc. Chjnese r1li. spoken on a high-level pitch (tonc), means "to hang over
something;" spoken on a pitch that irlls sharplJ', r/.r mcxns "big.' (Stress iD Elglish
pertbrrus tlris frnction in the pair (a) r'cud (to) tec6rel, for e-\arnple.) In English, pitch

AppENDtx

Prcblems of Selected

Languages

239

patterns (intonation patterns) occur ovef phrases and utterances, structruing and adding

discourse meaning.
In this section we focus on two varieties of Chinese: Mandarin and Cantonese. Mandarit
is the standard form of spoken Chinese, used in journalism, education, and government.
Cantonese is the ofticial language of I-Iong Kong and the mother tongue of many Chinese
speakers overseas. A major phonolotiic;rl difference between Mandarin and Cantonese is
rhlthm. Mandarin is a stress-timed language , like English, while Cantoncse is a syllable-timed
language. Thc rhltl.rmic dissimilarity betweer.r Cantonese and English makes Englislt rhlthm
mofe dilTicult fof Cantoncse speakers than for Mandarin speakers. Most of the other
problems described below are comnon to both Mandarin and Cantonese.

Word Stress
Most Chinese words are monosyllabic;as a result, Chinese speakers are likely to lrave

difficulty with stress placement in polysyllabic words (see page 37).

Rhythm
Because Cantonese has syllable timed rhlthm, Cantonese snldents may pronounce every
English q'llable with equal length and shess, creating a staccato or choppy eftitct (see Chapter
2). Mandafir-speaking srudents have less difliculry with this aspect of English rh).thm.

Linking Adjacent Words

Most Chinese students have difficulty linking adjacent words appropriately. They may add
word that ends in a consonant to separate it from the next word or add an
extra sound beforc words that begin with vowels. These ,,separation', strategies make their
English sound choppy (see page 54).
a vowel after a

Intonation
Because Chinese is a tone lanfauage, where pitch is an integral pa.rt of each word, Chinese
students may have difficulq'with the English use of pitch and intonation to structure the
meanings of phrases, utterances, and discourse. problems with intonation are varied: Students
may use high pitch at unexpected places in a discourse, their. intonation mav sounci ovcdy
flat, they may overuse falling intonation, or thcy may sound singsong (see Chapter 3).

Consonants
1. t sounds: See page 126.
2. /v/, /w/: Chiaese students may
(see page 124).

sub

stitrte

/w/

for /v/, pronouncinla rrer1, like.wery',

students may pronowce /S/ so that LLsuall! sottDds like ,'us'ally', or

meqsure llke ?nayor (see Wge 112).
/r/, /w/, /l/: Chinse students may pronounce riglJt llke u)bite or ligbt. Instruct
students who substitute /w/ for /r/ not to round their lips when they say /r/. t (Tor

3. /3/: Chinese
4.

/r/-/l/, seE page 116.)

5. /l/-/rt/:Some Cantonese

speakers substitlrte h/ fot /l/, creating odd,sounding

pronunciations like night fot ligllt and vice versa (see page 1441.

tl-ip rounding crcates

/w/. Although many narir-e speake$ prcnounce /r/ $,ith lip rounding, a1.l
acceptable /r/ can be produced withour lip rounding. Alter learning ro rerroflex Englisll /t/ (see page
141), students who substitute /W for /r/ shoutd be instructed to.keep their lips flat,'when they iay /r/.

24O
6.

APTFNDIr

Problems

ol

Seleclccl I atlgua1es

,4l/: (lhinese studcnts lnav substitutc a Yelar /h/ for Erglish gbttal /h/, prolouncing
/h/ with a noisy sound (like the Gernan pronurciation of c,b in Bdcl,) Explain that
English,/h,i is a soft sound,like the sound of heav) bretrthing (see page 140)

C(xrsonant clusters: (ihinese cloes not allow collsonant clusters at thc beginnings or
cnds of words. Studcnts ma]- simplif,v clusters b)' dcletin!! a consonant (.e.9 'problem
sounds like "poblem" or eve[ /poban]/) or bY separating consonants (e !a .2/e4.se
sounds like'palease') (see page 151).
8. Final consonants: Chinese allo$,'s a yery linitccl number rlf finlrl consoralts Final
consonants may bc dcleted, or a vo$'el 1nay be added fter the consonant (see
page 153).
9. Irinal Voicecl stops ancl fricativcs:In addition to the general problelns posed bY final
consonants, Chinese students ma,v "dcvoice final voicecl conson rtrts pronouncing
bag ljke b6ck, or lJ like "iss"(see pagc 155)
10. Final ,/1/: Chincsc students often clrop /1,/ xt the end of a word or s)'llable, or
pronounce it like /w/ ot /o/ (e.g.. r'rld souncls like ode, ?-nd /lttle sounds like "litto")
(sec page 1'14).
11. Final nasals (/n /, /m/, /l / ): ("bfiese stuclents ma-Y omit linal res,ll consonants ancl
ftrsalize preceding vowels (e .g.. uirerr /go rna-r'' sor.lnd like /wJ,/ 1go) (see page 136)'

7.

Vowels
1. Frcnt vowels (/r,\'/ rneat, /l/ \llitl, /eJ-/ lltote, /E/ fiet, /E/

/,7171): Chinesc students

confuse most of these vowels and r1eed extensive practice with them They
nray pron()unce st?at as greet (or rice versa) and el'en s4ld as seerl (sec

pages 169- 179).

2.,R,coloreclvowcls:chineseEsLstudenrs$4rofirstlearnedanr-lessvafict-YofEnglish

dillicultv with /r/ colored l'o$'els (sce pale 192)

3. /ey/,/^w/,ar.1 /a:'/ before /n/ or /fl7/: Chiftese students may omit the lalide
erclings (/w/ or /y,D of tllese voq,'els whe n the-v occlu be fore /n/ or /r1/
(e.g., train mav sound like "tren." toz{.", likc /ton/ (ot /t\/),and tlme llke Tou)
(sec palie 192).
l]aYe a great deal of

FRENCH

French is a Romance language, rclated to SPanish, It,rlian, Poltuguesc. Catalan, and

Romanian. Because English has bornlwed man) s''ords from French, rnany English words
look si iler to French words,which sometimes leads students to use their Frcnch
pronunciation in English.
\Vest Indies,
French is spoken iativcly in Francc, Bclgium, S['itzedand. I-uxembourg, tbe
problems
Haiti. anal (lar.rada, and as an L2 in man-Y of thc f<rrmer colonies of France The
described bekrw are common to lnost varieties of French

wof d Stress

A major differcncc betw-een Frcnch ancl English lies with $-orcl stless and fhythm. Ffench
words (and phmses) are usually stressecl on the last syllable, wlrich is also p'o'o'nced with
a rising pitch;stress placement in English $''ords is much rnore varied Frencl] students
sl.roulJbe taught predictabte places of strcss associated witll classcs of English words
(beginning on page 30), and iew vocabulary of morc than one slllable should be Prescnted
because Frcnch is a s_yllable timed language. where the lcngths of stressed
u."iiy. fr.,
"aaitior.r,

AppENDiX

B Problems of

Selectec|

Languages

241

and unstressed syllables are approximately the same, French-speaking students need to learn
to lengthen stresscd syllables (see page 21). Because the qualit_v of unstressed vowels in
French is not reduced, Ftench students may have difficr ty hearing the short, reduced
vowels of unstressed s,vllables in English.

Rhlthm and Intonation

French-speaking students need to learn to make sfessLength distinctions between
content and frmction words (see page 50). They also have dilficulty recognizirg the reduced
pronunciations of fttnction words.

Consonants
1. t sounds:These sounds do not exist in Frencll. French-speaking students may
substitute several sounds for the th so:und,st /s/ or /z/ (preferred by students from
Fmnce), and /t/ or /d/ (preferred by French Canadians). Swan and Smith (2OOl)
report that /f/-/v/ slrbstitutions also occur (sce page 126).
2. /t[/, /d3/:'lhese consonants do not cxist in lrench. French-speaking students may
substitute /t ior /tf, pronouncing che.tp llke sheep. for example, and /3/ for /d3/,
pronouncingJu./ge like "zhuzh" (see page 132).

3. frt/:-lLle letter/, is nct-er pronounced in French. French-speaking students may drop

English /h/ when it should be pronounced (for example. pronouncing DearrT as
"'eaq'"). Ol1ce they leafn that A,/ is pronounced in English, they may add /h/ to
4.

words beginning with vowels (for example, pronouncing aluays ltke bqllu'als).
/r/:French /t/,pronounced witl.r the back of thc tongue, may be substitutd for
English retroflexed /r/, which is pronounced wirh th front of the tongue (see
Page 711L).

Vowels
1. /iy/, /l/.See page 169.
2. /a/, /o/, /a/tFrcnch-speaking students often confuse these vowels

(sec page l7g).

HAITIAN CREOII
Haitian Creole is an official languagc of Haiti (together with French) and is also spoken by
Haitian emigrants living in the Ilnited States, Canacla, and otl]er Caribbean. Central
American, and South American countries. Haitian Creole is a mixtlue primarily of French
and West Afiican lanlllrages, but also has influences liom Central African lanliuages,
Portuguese, Spanish, and English.

Word Stress
In Haitian Creole, as in French, the last svllable of a wofd or. phrase is stfessed, a pattern
which can interfere with irtelligibility and be disrracting to listeners (pclez-Applc 2001).
Teachers should point out the differcnt stress patterns of English word classes (beginning
on page 30) and introduce new vocabulary orally, emphasizing the sffessed syllables. Haitian
Creole speakers sl]ould also be instructed to lengthen stressed vowels.

Rh]-thm and Intonation

Haitian Creole speakers may transfer their native language pattern of stresshg the last
syllable of a phrase and pronouncing it on a higher pitch into English. This pattern disrupts
expected English rh]-thm and intonation patterns. Haitian Creole spcakcrs should work with
highlighting (see page 96) and with final intonation patrerns (sce page lO0).

242

ApprNir/,\

Prohlcns

ai sele(led t anguaies

Consonants
1. t sounds: Scc page 126.
2. /t/.ln Haitiai (lreole, thc letter / is prollonDced /\ry' before back vo$'els (for
cxalnple, /uw/ an<1 /ow, and elsewhere like a French /r/ (see Frcnch. Page 240).
Stuclcnts should lbcus on the retroflcxed plomnlciation of English /r/ (sce page 141)
J. /n/rln final position, /n/ rua] be olrittccl and pronotrllced as a nasalization of the
lrrc<rrling \o\\'cl {\cc P.lgc lto'
Vowels

l.

/i\'/. /\/:

Sec Page 169.

2. /e/, /J/, /o/:Tbcse

arc new Yo\lrels tbr Haitiao Creolc speakers (see pagc 178)

JAPANESE

Japallesc may be related to Korc.rn and lllso to Mongolian. Manchurian, and'I'urkish

diflers liom English in almost all linguistic irspects.

lt

Word Stress

js a pitch accent language:pitch placemcnt, rather than stress as in English, can

Japancse
diiltrcntiate one word fiom anotherJapanesc stLrdents need to learn to lengthen stressecl
vowels. Ilnaccented syllables in Japanese worcls are not s'eakencd as the,Y are in Englislt (by
shortcning thc sylhble and reducing the yowel), and Japanesc students need practice in

hearing and proclucing the short, redtrced s-vllables of English (see page 25)

Rhlthm and Intonatiofl

J;ipanese studcnts tend to prollounce all words

$'ith equal prominencc and necd practice

using pitch to highlight ne$'or important information (sce pagc 96) Ttre)-may also haye
difliculty recognizinll tlte reduced pronullciatiolls of nrnction worcls like cdn of at (see
pagc 72).

Because D)ost sl'llables in.Japanese crcl in vo$'cls,Japanese students have difficulry

linking Enlilish words that clrd in consonants to fbllo$'il]l words (see pagc 5'1).

Japarcse students also have di1ncult]' learning English intonation; thcir pitch range
sometines souncls too flat, and pitch changes fla,v scen too abrupt They maY also be
unfamiliar s'ith the use of intonatiol-r to strtlcturc meaninla and discolrrse in English; in
(e.9 ,
Japanse. particles and adverbials Perfornl some of the discourse ftuctions
distinguishinEi ne$'frorn gil'en ifformation) that intonation does in English Japanese
students should ltave ample pr.rctice listening to English inlonation as it occufs in autllentic
spcccb to gain a better understandinll of its discoursc functions (see Chapter l)

Consoflants
l. /t/. /l/:Th..

Dnglish /r,/-/l/ contrasl is one of the most clifficult firrJapancse speakers

to learn. Their mispronunciiltions of /t/ aliLd /l/ are stereotl'pecl (e g ."flied lice")' and
.lapanese students are yeflr concerl]ed abolrt leiuilin!l to prollollnce the two sounds'
The.Japarcse coLrlltcrpart to tsnglish /t/ an(l /V is describcd as a flap collsonalrt'
similar to the North American English (NAE) pronunciation of t in zrrrlel
Perceptually, English /r/ may sound more dilTerent from its.Japanese counterpart
than /1/.leachers shollld tcach the articulation ol /r/ and /l/ and Provide ample

practice with botll sounds (See pagcs 1/+l-117).

2.

/D sounds: See page 126.

AppENDtx

Problems of Selected

Lanfluages

243

3. /wu/:Japanese students have difficulry pronouncing the,/w/ in /wu/,as in uould

rnd uoman (see the error correction techoiques on page 149).
1t. /v/:Jap^nese does not have a /v/ sound. Students ma], substitute /b/ or a voiced
bilabial fricative (,ip, where the lips are almost closcd as the air passes between
them). (See page 12.i.)

5.

/s/, /[/, /7,/: ln Japanese, /s/ is pronounced /l/ before /i/, and learners may transfer
this pronunciation into English words, pronouncing see lile ,!re for example; with
the word c/41 this pfonunciation can be very embarmssing (see pages 132 and 135).
Japanese /7./ is pronounced like /dzl before /i/, ancl Japancse students may transfer
this pronunciation into words like museutt or zlppex A similar phenomenon
occurs with Japanese /t/ before /t/,which is pronounced /{/ (like the clr 1.n cheap).
In ESI- settings, the mispfonunciadon of /ti/ as /tfi/ d:\s ppears quickly, while
problems with words like sce are more persistent.

6. /y/:In

the word lcar; where /]y' is followed by a high front vowel,Japanese studenrs
may omit /y/, pronouncing J.,ea,, like ear (.see pa.ge 149).

7. /h/

before h/tJapanese stude nts may substitute an /f/-like sound for /h/ when
occurs before the vo\r'el /u/, so tlrLJt ubo. for ex,.ntple. sounds like "foo."

8.
9.

it

Consonant clustefs:Japanes allows very few consonant clustefs. Beginning students

may add separating vowels between tl-re consonants in a clustef, pronouncing grrrst
for example, lile "gurass" (see page i51).
Final consonants. Final consonants (except for a nasal) are not permifted in
filal consonants or adcl a short vowel alter a final

Japancse. Students may drop

consonant (see paie 15J).

Vowels
1. /er/:Japanese

str.rclents have persistent problems pronouncing /arl, often

pronouncing zr.,o/ft, for example,like ualk td vlce versa. They should work both
on /ar/ and on the contrast of /a/ ard /o/ (ot /a/ and /J/, depending on the

teacher's dialect). (See page 192.)

2. /a/, /o/, /E/:Jrtpanesc

students confuse ,/a,/ and /o/, using almost the same

pronunciation for words like n,/t and l?ot Tl]ey may also confuse /e/ with /a/ or

/e/ with /o/.

KORNAN

Korean may be an isolate (not linguistically related to any other language), part of
the Ural-Altaic family (Tr.rrkish, Mongolian, and others), or related to Japanese. Most
Korean speakers live on the Korean pcninsula or surrounding islands, or in smaller
communities abroad.

vord

Stress

Korean does not have word stress. The tirst syllable of a wotd in a phrase is often
pfonounced on a higher pitch, to function as a phrase boundary markef, but otherwise,
syllables are more nearly equal in length, loudness, and pitch. Korean-speakinli students,
thefefore, nccd to learn to lengthen stressed s1'llables il English (see page 21).

Rhythm and Intoflation

The use of supraseimentals in Korean and English is very different. Korean students
benefit from practice with English rhlthm and intonatiolt.

244

App[Nu/{

Pft)blems

al

selected Lanluages

Korean is usuall] classified as a sl'lhble-timed language, ancl Korean srudents shoulcl be

taught to make lergth distirctions between contcnt and function $'ords in English (sec
pagc 50).
Korean students may need instruction on th use of pitcll to highlight inportant words in
discourse, a ftrnction which is accomplished in Korean b-y adding x suffl\ or ending. Thc,Y
may also use high pitch on the first word of a phrasc, creating an odd-sounding intonation.
Korean students may also speak Enlilish with an overlv narroN'pitch ranlie. naking then1
sound uninterested or botecl.

Consonants
1. tD sounds:See page 126.
2. /p/,/ -, /v/:There is no /b/,/f/,orlv/in K(xean Korean students need to lcarn the
articulation of these sounds (see page

12.1).

has voiceless aspirated stops and voiceless ur.Iaspirated stops

Korean learners ma1-have problcms producing and llearing tlle loiced stoPs of
English, especially ir1 the middle or at thc ends of rvords (see page 155).
/s/,[/:lnKore \./s/ af'd /f/ arc yariants of the same sound.4,/ occurs bcfore higl)
and mid-front vowels (as in se and sa1), ?:nd /s/ occuts elscwhere. Korean students
may pronounce words lik see as -sre and need practice pronouncing /s/ belbre
these vowels (see page 135).

3. Voiced stops:Kore;Ln

1.

5.

/7,/:voiced, /z/ (as In zoo) aloes not occru in Korean. Korean students may substitute
/dz/,/d3/,ot B/ for /z/ in words lLke museutn ald result (see page 131).
English sounds are variants of the same sound in Kore,rn. Korean
students may substitute /1,/ fbr beginnjnla /r/, pronouncirg rigbl. for example, like
ligtJl, and, h/ for /l/ btween vowels, pronouncing collectillg, tbr example. like

6. h/, /l/:Thesc two

7.

correcliug (:ee !)agc l4t)).

Fhal /t[/, /d3/,4'/,and /3/:Kore^n stlrdents may add a sh()rt

/i/ vowel whcn these

consonants end words, pronOunci:ng uhich, for example , Iike "whicl4 " or.larlge like
"iuclg_y" (see page 131).

Vowels

1.

/iy/, /IL

See page 169.

2. /at/: Korean students have persistent problems Pronouncing /Jrl, olien pronouncing
ttork likc ualk i\tLI vice versa. The)' should work both on the /arl and on tllc
contrast ofla/ and /c/ (ot /e/
/J/, depending on the teacher's dialect). (See
pages 192 ancl 180.)

^nd

lacks /a/, so students tcnd to sobstitute /E/ for this vowel,

pronouncing bod so tbat it sounds close to bed, for example. Sttldents should
be instructed to open their nouths more when the,Y say words with /ze/ (see

3. //, /e/tKorc^n
pJge 1

lr

PORTUGI.,IESE

).

Portr.rguesc is a Rornance language closely related to Spanish. There are two major
varieties of Portuguese: European Portuguese (EP) and Brazilian Portuguese (BP)
European Poftuguese has stress-timed rhythm, like English, while Brazilian Portlrguese
bas syllable-timed rh)'thm.

AppENDtX

prablems

oi Selected Languales

245

Word Stress
Stress placement in portuguese is very regulat so str.ldents may
have difficulty with the
\-aried placement of stress in English. students should become familiar
with word classes
Ihat have predictable stress, and new vocabulary should be presented orally,
with thc
stressed syllables emphasized (see pages 30-3g).
Because BP is a syllable-timed language, Bp students may pronounce
unstressed syllables
$,'ith too much length. Ep students may pronounce unstfessed syllables too
weakly and may
nced to gi\c them more prominence.

Ithlthrn and Intonation

tsP stud-ents may have difficulty perceiying the reduced function words
of English and
may give function words too muclt prominence in spaking (see page

72).

In Portuguese, fbcus words (highlighred words) teld to be ptaied at the end of

a
sentence, so Portuguese students may harve difficulty perceiving and producing
higltlighted

words in non-final positions (see page 96).

Consonaflts
1. Final ,/l/: Portuglrese

students may pronounce /4/ after vowels as /w/ or /u/; for

example,people may sound like ,,peopu" (see page 144).

2.

Final nasal consonants /m, n, r]l: Final nasal consonants in words like soz
e an(l sun
may be omitted and the preceding vowel nasalized;soze may be pronounced
/se/
(sce page 138).

3. /tl/, /d3/:Ep lacks rhese consonants. /tfl

may be pro noltnced, [/ (.e.g., che4p sourds

bke sbeep), a.nd. /d3l may be proflou niecl 13/ G.g-iust n.ny bd pron-ouncei,,zhust,,).
(See page 135.)

4. t

sounds: See page 126.

5. /s/ + consonant clusters: portuguese

6.

speakers may add a vowel befbre,/s/ +

consonant clusters, pronouncing steam, for example, like esteem (see p^ge 151.).
Final consonants: Fewer nnal consonants are permitted in portuguse than in
English. Portuguese studer.rts may drop final consonants or weakin them. making
them hard to heal or they may add a vowel after final consonanrs (see page 1i3).

Vowels
I

2.
3.

/iy/ , A/ . See page

/E/,

169

/e/,/a/,/o/:See page

178.

Unstressed final vowels: Unstressed final vowels may be prono'nced so *.eakh-that

thel secm to hc omiltcd.

RUSSIAN
_ Russian is a Slavic language, part of the family of Indo_European languages, of which
English is also a member.

Word Stress
Stress placement in Russian is varied, as it is in English. Russian students mav nor
sufficiently lengthen Engrish stressed syllabres and shourd work on trre English length
distinction between stressed and unstressed vowels (see pages 21_27). Thiy shoLrl-d also
learn to pronounce vowels with secondary stress with morJ length.

246

AppLi'it)tx

Pft)blems

oi

Sele( t--d

L,lnguagcs

Rhlrhm and Intonation

Russian students appear to givc ncarl,v equal stress to content 1lnd ftlnction words. They
should \\.()rk on lengthening the stressed syllablcs of content \\,ords and shortening thosc of
ftrnction words (see page 50).
In Russian. final consonants are morc forcefull,v articulated than they are in Enfilish. wllen
this is ca1-ricd over into English. Russian speakers may sccm to be aclclitrg a short vowel to
the ends of \\'ofds cndirlll io consonants, especialll stop consonants. Russian speaking
studcnts benetit frorl $rork on linking adjaceDt wo|ds and kecping final consonants short
(sce prge 5,1).
In lltrssi:rn,Jre.r-ro qucstioDs end with a sharp rise fbllos'ed bl' a stecp fall. Thc use of
falling illtonation on jrcs"/ro questions can sound ulfricndl,v or rucle? (see Page 101).

Consonants
1. tJ soun(lsi See page 1 26.
2. /w /. /v/:'lhcse l rc not separate sounds in

Russian, so Russi.rn students have

clifficulq' distinguishing between them; ,rr"l,

1'or

example, ma) be pronounced .,et

and \'ice versa (sec page 12,1).

a. /\/: /\/ (the final sound in arltg) clees not occur in Russian. Russian students may
substitutc /n/ (pror]oLl1lcin!! ?.r,/rg like uii?t). /lg/ (pronoLtncing sl[g with a "hard g"
at thc end), or even /g/ (pronouncing u'itlg llke arrg). (Sce page 116.)
l. (lonsonants beforc front vowels (/i]', I. cl', ,8/) a\\d /ar/ (as in./ir'.st): Russian
cortmsts "palatalizcd" or "soft" consonants \\'ith unpalatalizeal or "hard"
consonants ($'ith palatalized consonants, the middle part of the tongue rises
toward the hard palate). When speaking Englisb, Russiltn students may
palatalizc Erlglish consonants which occur before front vowels. Sometimes this
pronunciatior sounds xs though a /!y' sound has been added aftcr the consonant
(c.g., dee\ ma,v sound like 'd-vcep"), in other cases, the consonant ma,v souncl like
a diffcrent sou]nd (deep n]a-y sound like "dzeep" or cvcr' Jeep). Students are often
unaware that they are palatalizing English consonants and thc error shor.rld be
pointed out to the!n.Instruct students to use the "hard" Russian equivalents when
pronouncin!! Englislt consonants.
5. /h/;Russian students may substitute a velar /h/ for English glottal /h/, pronouncing
/h/ with a noisy souncl like the (ierman pronunciation of c/:, in Baclr. Explain that
Elrlilish ,/h/ is a soft sound.like thc sound of hcavy breathing (see page 140).
6. /r/: Rnssians ma), substitutc a rollecl /r/ for English retrol'lex,/r/ (scc page l'il).

Vowels
1.

Russian lacks tlrc tense-lax vos,'el conffast of Englisl]: /iy/-fi/, /ct'/'/e/ xnd /v"\/-/1J/.
Russian stlrdcnts' pronunciation of the tensc vowels maY sound too short or
clil)pccl. Students should focLrs on pronolrncinla thc glidc cnding of thesc vo\r'els
(see pages 169-17i and lti3):rnd o{r lengthening sttessed vowels generall)'.

/Jrl: 'l his vo\r'el sound is particularl] difficult fbr liussian students, who
mx)' pronounce

rff

ltke

flur

rIt should be notcd that 1lative'Eoglish

questiors (see pagc 101).

or.feqr (see page 192). English v-ords spclled

spexkcrs use fal'ing intonation F'ith some types ofJ]e.s-ro

AppE.\Dtx

Ptoblems

of Selected Lanlua+es

247

u,o/ + consonant (e.9., uord, uork, worlcl, worth) are particularly difficult (see
page 194).
lacks /a/,so students tend to substitute ,/t/ 1br tlis vowel,
pronouncing Zra4 1br example, so that it sounds close to bed (see page 176).

3. /t/, /e/:Rttssiar

SOI]TH ASIAN IA.NGUAGES: HINDI, URDU, BENGALI' PLIryABI

Hirdi, Urdu, Bengali and Punjabi are languages spoken in lndia, Pakistan, Bangladesh and
other areas of south Asia. They are members of the kldo-Aryan family of Indo-Eulopean
languages. A characteristic accent feature for speakcrs of these languages is the retroflexed
pronunciation of English /t/ ard /d/ (the tip of the tongue turns up and back when
pronouncing /t/ and /dD. Another source of accent is intonation. which has a singsong
effect when transfirrrcd into Entilish.
Indian English is a dialct of English spoken mostl,v as an L2 in South Asia but b)' sonle as
a first language (L1). The dialect developed durirg the tsritish colonial period, and its
pronunciation has been influenced by the indigenous languages of the ;Lrea. Teachers should
be sensitive to the fact that Indian English speakers may feel that their pronunciation
reflects a different dialect of English rather than a foreign accent.
Given the largc areas in which thcse languages are spoken, tltere is a great deal of dialect
variation in each of these lan{auages, as well as across languages.

Word Stress

In English the stressed s]'llable of a word is usually pronounced on a high pitch.In Hindi
and Urdu, the stressed syllable bcgins on a low note and then rises. Carricd oYer into
English, this pattern may sound as though stress has been misplaced and will also contribute
to a singsong effect. \Vord stress in Hindi, tlrdu. tsengali, and Punjabi is not contnstive as it is
in English, so students may be unianiliar with the use of stress to distinguish pairs like (a)
rdcord-(to) reca.,rd. ln H\r.di, a.nd Urdu, word stress is regulaq which creates difficulty with
correct stress placement in En[ilish. Students should be taught the placement of stress in
different classes of English words (see pages 30-3{J), and new vocabulary of more than one
syllable shoulcl be presented orall-v. Students should also learn to pronouncc stressed
syllables with greater length tlnn unstressed sl'llables (sce page 21).

Rhythm and Intoflation

Hindi, tlrdu, Bengali, and Punjabi are syllable-timed languages, so students

ma-Y

have

difficulty recognizing the reduced pronunciations of furtction words (see page 72). ln
llengali,les-no question end with tallhg intonation; the use of falling intonation with
English iues-zo questions may make the speaker seem mde (see page 101).

Consonants
'1. /t/, /d/:Hindi,Urdu, Bengali, and Punjabi have si-x to eight t/d sounds, whercas
English has two. Native speakers of these languages often substitute their
retroflexed /t/ and ,/d,/ for English alveolar /t/
/d/ (.for a retroflexed /t/, the tip of
^t'tdof the tongue makes contact with
the tongue turns up and back and the underside

the top of the mouth).

2. /,1: sounds. See page 126.

3. /p/, /t/, /k/:Native speakers of Hindi, urdu, Bengali and Puniabi nlay not pronounce
/p/, /t/,or /k/ with enough aspiration beforc stressed vowels;for example,ptg may
sourld like big, tie like .lie, and come like g&t

(see page 150).

248

APPENDII

Problems

oi

Selectecl Languages

in
/w/. /v/:Tilere is only one consonant that corresponds to English '/w/ and /v/
aet
uet
and
pairs
like
confttse
often
HinJl, ttrdu, eengali, and Puniabi, so students
(see pagc 124).

consonant
). Consonant clusters; Students may insert vowels to make unfamiliar
"silip"

llusters easier to manalie; for example ,.sllp may be pronounced

or "islip" (see

page 151).

consonant of a clllste\ mixed

6. Final consonant clustefs: Students may omit the final
(see
page
153)'
mlJr
pronounced
be
may
for example,

Vowels
1

// , /e / : Sludents may substitute

(see page 176).

2. /eyl:

// for /a/, Pronoun cirrg bdd llke bed' fot example

Students may pronounce this as a pure vowcl /e/ (see page 173)

SPANISH

Spanisll is spoken in many

Spanish is a Romance language, closet)-rel3tcd to Portugues
described below are
problems
Tht
l
ariJtion.
corirtrics ancl thcre is substantial diatecr
of
SPanish
varieties
most
of
coflrmo1l to speakers

Stress
word
'
ifta fngfith,

(e'g amo /emol' meaning "I

Sp^nish uses worcl stress to contrast meanings
'
in Spanish is much
placement
stress
However'
"he
loved")
meaning
lovc" versr.rs am6 /ffi6/,
orthogmphicall-v'
than in English, ancl irregulirr stress Placemcnt is marked

iore

.egular

;;;;-t"rd";,.

;"y -is.t..ss th.

second worcl ol compounds llke Siruriend xnd

bolfriend (see P ge 33).

vowels do not differ
iit. rnori syliable-timed languages, Spanish stressed and unstressed
th r'owel
rcduc
not
gr.",ly ii; length, as they do in En;lish ln lddition, Sp;rnish does
of
pronunciation
their
bxse
nmy
vowels, so Sfanish studelts
[""ri(

"rr.ttiit.*etl
lto*.rt on spanish
Joriii"r.a
Rh]-thrn and Intonation

spilling-sound correspondences (see page 25)

lianish-speaking students may not pronounc highlighted words with enough may also
They
prominence and may pronounce ftlnc'tion words with too much prominence
of
a sentence
beginning
the
toe'ard
occur
that
words
ilave difficulty highligirting content
(see pages 96, 98 and 72).
' if]'. io. of iinal rising ancl falling intonation with sntence rypes is very similar in Spanish
-of
intonation in Spanish, however, is narrower than in EngLish' ancl
and fnglish. The range

srlrdenis sound bored

the traisfer of Spaniih pitch range into cnglish nlay make Spanish

or disinterested.

Coflsonants
1. t sounds:The Preferrecl substitution for thcse English sounds is /t/ ot /d/'a
stigmatized pr;unciation in English (see page 126)'
students
,/b/ and /v,/ are variants of the same sound' so Spanish
-2. /b/, /v/:ln Spanishl)er!
"howy"
(see
page
124')'
like
little
a
ltke bert'J) afrd hobbr-"y' p..r,1o.t,r."
muclt (/tl/) like mush (4D This is a stereotypd
3.
' /t[/, /l/: Stu<]enrs may pronounce
(see page 131). tugentinean students may
ad<lressed
be
shoultl
pion ,-n.i"tiotl -hicir
like cheap'
ir.rake the rel'erse substitution, p{onouncin!! 'tl'eep

AppENDtx

Problerns

of

Selected

Languages

249

/y/, /d3/: Sp"\'tish-speaking students may substitute /d3/ tbr /y/, pronouncing.llLles like
/ess', a stereotyped promrnciation (see pag 149).
5. /s/, /z/.Ifi most varieties of Spanish,,/2,/ is a l'ariant of /s/, occurring only before
voicecl consonants. spanish students rnay pronounce Ia4/ like loc! or He is a
student hke "lf.e iss a student." Speakers of Castilian Spanish may pronounce the
letter z as ,/e/ (see page 155).
6. /f/: Spanish stuclents may substitute a tapped or trilled /r/ for English retroflex,/r/
This iubstitution disappears rather quickl-v in ESL settings (see page 141).
7. /s/ + consonant clusters: Consonant clusters be[iinning with /s/, as in stdte or special,
are not permitted in Spanish. Students oftcn add a short /e/ vowel at the beginning of
the clustet pronouncing st lle like estdte, and special lite "especial" (se page 151)'
8. Final consonants: Because Spanish permits few final consonants and consonant
clusters, Spanish students may drop final consonants in English words (see page 153)'

4.

9.

Final nasal consonarlts /n/, /m/, and /r)l: Students may substitute final nasals for each
other. Final /m/ especially may be replaced with final /n/ or /!/, or even vowel
flasalization (e.g.,someone sotLncls lite "sungwung") (see page 1]6 )

10. Regular past tense:spanish stuclents may ovcrgcneralize the /ad/ pronunciation of
the -ed endlng in verbs, pronouncing words like listened a\d ansu)e7'ed as "listen-ed"
and "answer-ed" (see page 159).

Vowels and Spelling

Because of the spelling irregularities of English vowels, spanish stlrdents need 1(] be aware

of both the reg'lai sound-spelling corfespondences in English and the unusual spellings of
vowels (see Chapter 5).

THAI

Thai, a member of the Tai family of languages, is the national language of Tl.Eiland
Althor.rgh thre are important regional varieties of Thai, Central Thai (also the language
spoken by most people in tsangkok) is considered the standard \?riety

Word Stress

Misplaccd word stress is an important source of efrors for Thai-speaking students who
tenci tb stress the last syllable of English words. Teachers should present classes of words
whre stress is predictable and present new vocabulary orall]', emphasizin!! the stressed
sytlables. Thai si'dents, wh' tend to pfonounce stressed and unstressed syllables with equal
length and stress, should also practice lengthening stressed vowels (see Chapter 1)'

Rhlthm and Intonation

Tirai students olten insert a glottal stop (the sounal separating the two parts of uh-ob)
before rvords beginning with aYowel, creating a choppy sounding rhlthm Students should
practice linking words enciing in final consonants to words beginning with vowels (see
55). Stuclents sho.ld also practice lengthening the stressed syllables of content words.
bage
' in Thai,
function of pitch is to
a tone lang'age witli mostly monosyllabic words, the
'.rain
particles
to
express politeness
distinguish one s/ofd liom anothef. Thai uses sentence linal
Beca.se they
intonation.
English
by
in
conveyed
and iiieractional functions which are oftcn
Tl.ni
students
sometimes
intonation,
English
of
use
and
meanillg
are unfamiliar with the
sound abrupt. 'Ieachers should provide students with opportunities to listen to English in
context and call attention to its functions (see Chapter 3).

250

AppENDtx

Ptoblems

of

Selected Languagcs

Consonants
1. tl, sounds: Thai students often substitute /t/ ot /d/ fot

tlTese sounds.

which are

stigmatized pronunciations (see page 126).

consonants do not exist in Thai. At tlte beginninll of a word, 'I'hai
students nray substitute /tl/ fot /l/ and ,/dsl, pronouncing srlp like chip or Jeep Llke
cheap. At the end ofa word,[/ and /d3/ may be pronounced /t/ (e.g., rr.,rs, sounds
li]de ui\ and age sounds likc dte). (See crror correction techniques fbr sibllants on
pag 135.)

2. /l/, /(B/:These

3. /gJ:yoiced /gJ ls not a Thai consonant and may be pronounced as /k/ (e.g.,g4me
sounds lite c,7nx e). Students should practice voiced voiceless minimal pairs likc
game-came, goat-coa, and gum-con1e (see page 155).

.{. A'l:Thai students often substitute /v{/ for /v/. prono\ncing

r]st like u)est (see

page 124).
spoken Thal, h/ is being replaced by /l/
,/r/ in English (see pages 141-147).

5. /r/, /l/:In

, ttn<1

stlrdents may substittfte

/l/ fot

6. /s/+coosonant clusters:Thai

students nlay add a vowel to separate the consonants,

pronouncing .s/eep, for example, as sdleep (sce page 151).

7.

8.

Beginninla clusters: Thai students may deletc the second consonant in the clustcr;
sounds like 2 ay, antJ glass sounds like gas (see page 151).

p/at

Final consonants: Thai students may drop or change final consonants. f'hey necd
both focused pronunciation work on prol.rouncing final consonants and frequent
correction of linal consonant errors. fhc,v should also work on final consonants in
the context of linking adjacent words (see pages 54 and 153).

Vowels

/ey/ ."fhai students often substitute a pure 1'owel /e/ or // for /eyl, proneuncing
bait like bet. Enphasize the Eilide ending of,/e)y' (see page i73).

2. /e/:This
like

3.

is

anew vowel for Thai students, who often substitute /s/,e.g.,bad sounds

Z2ed (see

page 176).

,?-colored vowels:See page 192.

\IIETNAMESE
Vietnamese is a member of the Austroasiatic language family, spoken primarily in Vietnam
but also within communities in the tJnited States, Australia, xnd other countries.

wofd Stress
Most Vietnamese words are rnonos,vllables. As a result, Vietnamese students haI'e clifficult_y

with stress placement in polysyllabic words.In addition to learning about word classes
where English stress is predictable, new vocabulary should be presented orallv (see pages
3o- 38). Vietnamese students should also be taught to make length distinctions bet$-een
stressed and unstressed syllables (see pages 21 27).

Rhlthrn and Intonation

Because Vietnamese stlrdents often gi\''e equal prominencc to all syllables, their English
rhlthm may sound staccato. They should be instructed to make length distinctions betrveeil
stressed content words and unstressed function words (see page 50).

ApptNDtx

Problens

ol Selected Lanluages

251

Vietnamese students should also practice linking words ending in final consonants to
both following vowels and following consonants (see page 54).
A primary function of pitch in Vietnamese, a tone language, is to differentiate words,
rather than to structure discourse meanin!1. As a result, students need pmctice listening to
English intonation in contextualized speech to learn the discourse meanings structured by
pitch. Students should work with highlighting imporrant words (see page 96) and final
intonation patterns (see page 100).

Consonants
1. Final consonants: English final consonants are a majer source of pronunciation
errors forVietnamese students. A linited number offinal consonants (/p,t,k/) are
permitted in Vietnamese, but they tend to be pronounced very weakly. Final
/f/ and /s, are not permitted inVietnamese. When speaking English,
Vietnamese students often appeaf to omit final consonants (.e.g.,bank card may
sound like "bah kah"). Both focused promrnciation work on final consonants and
frequent error correction are useful (see page 153).
Final voiced and yoiceless stops: Final voiced stops (^, d, g, are not permitted in
fricatives (e.g.,

2.

Vietnamese. Sh.ldents should practice lengthening the vowels prececling Englisl.r

voiced stops (see page 155).

3.

Final sibilants /s,l tf:These consonants in final position are a source of many
problems. Students may substitute /t for final /tt, prono djacing catclr L]ldie casb, for
example. Sometimes /t is substituted for finaI /s/ (e.g., krss sounds like "kish")
(see page 131).

4. Beginfling /p/: /p/

does not occur in begtuning position inVietnamese Q)et, for

example, may sound like ,er). Students should be instructcd to pronounce words
spelled $.ith beginningp with a puff of air (see page 150).

5. t

sounds:Vietnamese studenrs usually substitute

stigmatized pronunciation (see page 12ar).

/t/ or /d/ for the

t/? sounds, a

6.

Consonant clusters: Consonant clustefs afe not pefmitted invitnamese, so students

may omit one or more members of a clusterj for example, green may sound like
"geen;'and street may sound like "seat" or "steat" (see page 151).

7.

Letter Jc.'Vietnamese uses a modified Roman alphabet and the letter r in is

pronounced as /s/.Vietnamese students' pronunciation of words like expldin as
"esplain" or "espain" may reflect both transfer of the Vietnamese letter-sound
correspondence of tr and difficulty with consonant clusters (see page 139).

Vowels
I

Tenselax vowels: Although Vietnamese has a complex vowel system, it does not
distinguish vowels on the basis of tenseness, so pairs like sedt-.r/, are difficult for
studcnts to pronounce (see pages 169, 173, and 183).

/E/: /e/ is not a vowel inVictnamese, so students may substittte /e/ for /E/,
pronouncing b.td, for example, so that it sounds like bed (see page 176).

2. /e/,

SUFFIXES AND ASSOCIATED STRESS PATTERNS

-ee

employee, trainee, en{aineer, career, volunteer

Exception: cornmittee , c6ffe
Chirese, Japanese, Portuguese

-ain (uerbs

onb))

enteftain, maintain, obtain

cassette, kitchenette
Excef)

-esque/ique:

tion.

'tiqLtette
picturesque.grotesque,antique,unique,techniquc
millionaire, doctrinaire, billionaire

-tiav-ual

trivial, presidentlal, artificial, commercial, contro!'ersial.

confidential, substantial, individual, intcllectual, factual

-ian/-cian/-si^n

pedestdan, sectarian, agrarian, musician, politician, physicjan,

-i?'U-cia'l/'sial/

{sian. lndone\ian
companio11, opinior.r, production, deceptior.r. occasion. cohesion,
possession, pef mission

Exception: t'tevision

-ious/-cious/-eous/ cufious,mysterious,deliciol"ls,superstitious,ambitious,

-gious/-eous/

prestigious, couragous, outrageous

-geous/-uous
effi cient, omniscient,

-ic/-ical

ilnpatient

comdic, geognphic, psychological, technological

Exceptions: p()litics, linatic. -Arabic, rh6toric
abiliqv, opportuniq',

originaliry

solidi$., identify, disquali4

254

AppENDtx

sut'fixes

and Associated slress Prtlerns

impressive, possessive, obsessiYe

fepetitive, sensitive, competitiv

attitude, multitude, rectitude
geology, astrology, archeology

-graphy

-ale

Uett/ ?pith

photogaphy, ofthogaphy, telegraphy

uerbs,

duplicate, associate, appreciate

/aV xattlr nouns/adjectiues)

apologize, rationalize, recogflize
-ary Q)ronounced

or

/ariyD

/efiy/

secretary vocabulary scol1dary

Exceptions: elem'ntary supplem6ntary

accuracy, intimacy. legitimacy

category, allegory, salutaf Y

adaptable (adapt), defensible (defense)

ExcePtions: c6mparablc (comPare), dem6nstrable
(demonstrate), idmirable (admire), pr6femble (prefer)
sleepiness (sleepy), politeness (polite)

goyemment (govern), amusement (amuse)

beautiful (beauty), mastrtuI (master)
merciless (mercy), mothedess (mother)
Cotnnxon sulfixes like -y,-ly,er/o{are and uerb endings do nol cbqnge stress.

DIAGNOSTIC TEST
Students should record a one-minute description of the picture story below Students should
tell the story in their own words.

The fofm on the next page can be used to make a broad valuation of pronunciation,

256
Name

APPENDI{

DiagnosticTest

GENERAL CI.{RITY

_
_

SPEAKING RATE

Mostly clear

Too fast

Unclear in parts

Appropriate

Mostly unclear

Too many pauses

RIIrIIIM

AND FLUENCY

INTONAflON

Natural sounding: clear phqses

Natural sounding

and clear linking of words

Flat sounding

Some unnatural pausing/choppiness

Some uflnatural

sounds choppy, halting

rises/falls in pitch

Other problems (errors with word suess, errors with sounds, mispronounced words):

INSTRUCTI ONS FOR RECORDING AND

SENDING A SOUND FILE

RECORDING
1. Plug in the microphone.

2. START J ALL PROGRN.MS -+ ENTERTAINMENT J SOUND RECORDER,

3. with the microphone plugged into the computer, click dre red RBCORI) butto[

,mcl speak

intothemicrcphone.'fherccorderrecordsoneminuteofspeech.ClicktheredRECORI)
button again to continue rccordingSA\TNG

4.

Open rhe FILE menu and cllck SAVE AS. Compress the file if it is large: On the SAVI AS
window. click the CFIANCE button.In the SOUND SELECTION window urder FORMAT,
select MPegla).er 3 (MP3). Close the SOUND SELEC'IION wiidos'. Nane the file and save it.

SENDING
5.The file can now be attached in an email and sent.

RECORDING AND SAI'ING

l.
2.
3.
4.

Plug in the microphone.

Sli\RT

--+

AIL

PROORAMS

-r

ACCESSORIES

SOUND RECORDIR

Click the red START RECORDING button arid speak into the microphonc.
Click the STOP RECORDING buttor when you firish. A Sal-e box \!'ill appear. Name the file
and save it-

COMPRESSING AND SENDING

l
2.

Right click on the saved souod ile. SEND TO J COMPRtsSSHD (ZIPPED)

A,ttach the comprcs$ed file to an email and send it.

Open any existing Sound Recording applicafion on your NIac. If you do not have a Sound
Rccording application installed, dovnload and install the ftee version of Audacit)'lM sound
recorder (httpr//audacitlsourccforge.net/dowdoadr. lt is very easy to use.
2. After the iastallation of Audacity, open the application liom )'our desktop and then use the
recording tools to Record, Stop, Rewind, Pause, or Fast'forward.
3. To save the recorded file, click on the FILE mellu and then c]ick on ExPoRT AS MP3.
.1. Choose the location to saye the file and then click on SAIE.

1.

257

Affricate consonants

dveolar consonants
Alveolar ridge
Appositives

A.fticulation

complex consonants consisting of a stop consonant and

fricativejin English, the first sounds in ihair andjazz
consonants produced when the tongue appfoaches of touches
the alveolar ridie (rhe top of the mouth just behind the top
teeth); in English, /t/ and, /s/ are alveolar sounds
the top of the mouth just behind the top teeth, before the loof
of the moutlt rises
phrases fbllon'ing a noun providing additional information: for
exanple, in the se\tence Rudy GiutianL one_time nqlor of
Neu York CitJt, ran unsuccessfullJt.for president in ZfiOS. ti,re
plTrase one-time mayor of Neu york Cit! is an appositive
movements of the vocal organs that produce consonants
and vowels

Aspiration

audible puff of aif that accompanies pronunciation of some

consonants;in English /p, t, k/ are aspirated wlten a stressed
vowel follows

Assirnilations

modification of soulds so they become more similar to adjacent

sounds;for examplc, in the phfase ,/ aa n't belieae
!ou, ma;y
speakers assimilate rhe last sounds of can't (/nt/)io the
/bf of
belieue ("I camp believe you,,), modf(ing /rt/ so rhat botl.r
souncls are pronounced with the lips (like ,4ril)
Audiolingual approach method for teaching language based on behaviorist vic,w
of
language learning as habit formation; strong rliancc on pattcrn
drills and dialofis

Back rzowels

Bilabid

Vowels produced with the body of the tongue pulled back in the
mouth;in Engtish, these inchtde the vowels rn i,uke, took, boat,
cougb, and in some dialects,lot
Consonants made by moving the lips togetherj in English,

/p. h. m. w,/

Blends

ovedappinti pronunciation of the encl of a word and the

beginning of a lbllowirlg word; for example,,,didj a.' for (lid

Centfal vowels

vowels pronounced with the body of the tongue in tlte center of

the mouth, rdther front or back;in English these include the
vowels in crr, and, in some dialects. the vowel in cot

Citation fof(n
Cleat /V
Closed syllables

pronunciation of a word in isolation

pfonunciation of /1/ at the beginning of a word (toue)
syllables that end in one o[ more consonants;for example, the
words 4og and 4uck consist of one closed syllable
wofds from tx.o different languages with a com]Iron ancestfy; for
cxample, English 4ualit!
Sp nish cati.tqd are cognares

Cognate words

!ou.

^ttd,

259

260

ck,ssarv

Communicative
approach

approach to thc teaching of second languages that emphasizcs

Cornpounds

worcls conrposecl of two words; the rneaning of compounds

often differs from the meaning \a.hcn the two \41)rcls do not
ftrnction as compounds ((r greenlJouse \s.6 green ltouse,

Consonant clusters
Consonants

groups ol c<rnsonanls (bclt, speqk)

me,rningftrl language use as both thc means and goal of

languagc learning

sounds like

/p/ or /s/ that

are produced b,v obstnrctinli the

flow

of air

Content wofds

with cle1Ir lne aning, usuall,v nouns, r'crbs, adjective s

ancl adr.'erbs (.table, run. big, sloul!): cofilent $'ords are

worcls

usuall) stressed and contrast with functioll words (usuall)

grammar words) w'ith more abstract meanings (.the, lo) alf'd

without stress
Continualrts
Contrastive stress

consonarts

tlut

can be prolonged (non-stops)

use of stress and pitch to contrast t$'o words (ls

it BIG or

SM4LLh
Da,tk

/V

pronunciation of /l/ at llrc end of a word or s'vllable (c.9., rrell,

o/d); tlre back of the tonliue rises to creatc this pronunciatiur
then applying thcD to Particular cases

Deductive rule
learning
f)evoicing

learninli general rules

Diphthongs

complex vo\r,elsj in English, /aw/, /ay/

how, biglJ, and Do:).! respectiyely

Discourse markers

linguistic expressions showing thc rclatio0ships of differcnt

parts of discourse to each othcr; linking words like Bat or Well
Jrc c\!ntPlcs uf discottrsc ntrtrlcrs

Epenthesis

insertion of a vorvel

Flap

North American pronunciation of /t/ and /d/ in $'ords like

uctter irttd ladde\ flaps have thc sound of a /d/ prorouncccl

ar.rd

pronouncing yoiced sounds as !'oiceless sounds (.c.g., b.rue

prononnced like bu[)
a]nd

\s

/oy/,the vowels in

rcry quickJlFricati\.e coflsonaflts

consorants producecl by obstructina the air but not completely

stopping it, examples of linglish ftrcatives arc /s/ afld /z/

Front Yowels

Yowels procluced with the b(xh of the tonllue pushed fror.It in

the mouth;in English, thes includc the vo$'els in leqLe. liue,
late, Iet, utd cat.

Full yow-el

an unrcduced rro\\'cl;lbr txample, the volvel in con in thc word

Function words

consul.ult ts a ftlll vowel: in thc $ofd col1t1rl tl is rcduced

words with abstftrct lirammatical mcaning, Iikc articlcs (a, on,
llle) and short prepositions (4-t to): function words are usuall-v
unstresscd ancl coDtfirst with contcrt worcls that have clcar
meanini (e.9., t/rle, rttn, big, sktu,ly)

Gtossary

Functional

load

vowels
Glides
Glottal consonants
Glottal stop
Glottaltzed /t/
Glottis
Heary syllables
Glide

High

vowels

Highlighting

261

the frequency of linguistic features in a language;for example,

the vowel contrast in liue-leaue h^s x higher functional load than
the yowel conttast rL Luke-look because there are many more
word pairs like liueJeaue in English than pairs like luke-look

vowels ending in

/w,/ and

/w/ or /y/

/y/ in English

consonants produced at the vocal cords;in English,,zh,/

the sound separating the two parts of ub-olt

the sound

oflt/

in ,nountain

the space between the vocal cords

syllables that are often stressed;in English, closed syllables
ending in two of more consonants; syllables with long vowels

vowels produced with the body of the tongue high in the

mouthiin English, the vowels it1 leaue, Iiue, Luke, and look
use of pitch,length, and/or loudness to make a word more

salient to listeners

Inductive
learning

rule

Intefdentah

infefring general rules from particular

cases

consonants produced with the tongue between the teth;in

English, the "th" sounds of tbink
tben

Inteflocutef
Intonation
Intonatlon contour
Isolated fh)'thm
patterns

^n(l
conversational partner;person with whom one speaks

IIAS

international teachini assistants

Labial

consonants

meaningful use ofmelody in speech

melody or tune of a phrase
English phrases whose syllables are replaced by nonsense
syllables (e.g., daDA is the isolated rhlthm pattern of at home),
rhl'thm patterns are easier for students to hear when both the
phrase and its isolated rhlthm pattern are nodeled together

consonant articr ation than involves the lip(s); in English, /p, b,

v,m,w/

Labiodentals
Larynx
I-ateral consonant
Lax vowels
l-colored

vowels

Consonants made by contact of the teeth and lips;Lr English,

/i v/

cartilage structures containing the yocal cords (Adam's apple)

air passes out over the sides of the tongue;in Englisli, /1,/
Vowels produced with less muscula! tension causing them to be
slightly centralized compared to their tense counterparts; in
Engllsh, the lax vowels include the vowels in liae, let, afld look.

vowels followed by s1'llable final

/l/ (e.g.,uell)

kxlcal

pertaining to words (vocabulary)

Lxical stress
Light /U

pronunciation of /1/ at the beginnini of

Stress

within words
a

word (/ore)

262

clossary

Liquid consonants
Low vowels

/l/

and

h/

in English

vowels produced with the bod,v of the tongue low in the mouth;
in English, these include the vowels ir.r cat, cot, and cough

Major stress
syllable with hcaviest stress
Marked, less rnarked, pairs of linguistic firatures that differ in ease of learning or
natrfalnesst "more marked" rnexns 'morc dificult/4ess natural"i
more marked
for example, a consonant at the end of a word (oat) is more
difficult to prononflce (or learned later by first language
learners) than the same consonant at the be[iinnini of a word
(roe), making word-final position for consonants more marked
than word-initial position
r.orvels produccd with the bod,v of the tongue in the middle of
Mid vowels
the mor.rth, neither high nor low;jn English, these include the
\owels in mate, ntet, cttt, l'j].d boat
pairs of worcls that differ in or y one sound (fot example,go4,
Minirnal pairs
a$d co.tt ?rc a mininal Pair)
Mfuror stfess
vowel that is stressed but not the most heavily stressed (pitch is
low on vol\'els with secondary stress); secondary stress

Monosyllables
Nasal consonants

words consisting of one s,vllable (.e.g.,man)

consonants prodlrccd with air going out through the nose rather
than mouthjin Enilish, the last sounds ir some, son, ancl sung

Nasalization

air passes through the nose as a sound (often a vowel) is

prolouncecl, crcating a "nasal" solrnd

ifltonation
Obstruents
Opefl syllables

intonation ovcr

Non-final

a phrase

which does not cnd an utterance

in English, stop, tiicative and atfricatc consonants

s_yllables that end in \-owels;for example, both syllables in

.so;fa

are open svllables

numbers inclicating ordcr (t/.st, second, tlrird, etc.)

Ordinal numbers
Pvl^t^\, pa,latallzed consonants pronollnced with the bod,v of the tongre near the palate
the bonl, front part of the roof of the mouth
Palate, hard palate
widning of pitcll range at thc bcginning of a new discourse topic
Paratone

Pafefltheticals

expressions set apart f1'om thc rest of a scntence; in the sentencc

that follows,l gres-r is a parenthetic^l: It's time to start uorkinS,
/ g//css.

Phonetic

symbols

Phonology
Pitch
Pitch leYel
Pitch range
Polysyllabic

symbols usecl to represent one and onl,v onc sound (e.g.,

represents thc v()wel so:ufld in lneet, brief, and key

/iyl

study of the sound s-Ystem of a language, languages

a notc (hiih

pitch,lo{' pitch)

average pitch

dilferencc bcts'cen the highest and lowest notes in an uttrance

words with nlore than one syllable

Clossary

263

Pfilrrary stfess

prominence given to a syllable/vowel by length, loudness and

sometimes high pitch; healy stress

Pronunciation
spellings
Prosody, prosodic
Pure yowel

respellings of words to mak their pronunciation clearer; .g.

respelllng pbilosopr:l as "filosofy"

rhlthm or intonation

r-dropping

vowel produced withour a glide ending Uw/ ot /yt)

vowels followed by /r/ (c..r; four)
not pronouncirg /r/ after vowels

Reduced voweV

unstressed vowel that has an indistinct sound (often /a,O; for

r-colored vowels

syllable

h rcd\ced;in the
not
words pronounced with less prominence (with less stress andlor
length, with low pitch, with reduced vowels);grammar words
like a ot the typically have reduced pronunciations
the front of the tongue turns up and back; in English, /r/ is a
retroflexed consonant
example , the vowel in con in the word control

wotd consonan' it

Reduced words

Retroflex
Rhy.thm

Ls

alternation of strong and weak syllables/words in connected

speech; pausing; linking of wof ds

Schwa

reduced vowel sound /J/ (e.g., the pronunciation of the bold

letters in ago, Iesson, jealous)

Secondary stress

vo$/el that is sttessed but not the most heavily stressed (pitch is
low on vowels with secondary stress); minor stress

Seglnentals

consonants and vowels

Sibilants

"s" like sounds; the bold sounds in the following words are
sibilants:so, zoo, sltoe, tneasure, chair, jazz

Spelling
pronunciations
Stop consonant

mispronunciations of words because of confusing spellings;

pronunciations based on spellilg

Stf ess-tirned languages

languages with a large variety of sllable rypes; stressed syllables

are usually longer than unstressed syllables; vowel reduction in

consonants produced by a complet stoppage of ah; English stop

consonants are /p, b, t, d, k, g/

unstressed syllables may also occur

Suprasegmentals
Syllable structure

pronunciation features involving stress, rh]'thm, or intonation

types of syllables (e.9., open syllables, closed syllables) that are
permitted in a language

Syllables

units of spoken language that consist of a vowel, possibly

surrounded by consonants; ?lslt has two syllables

Syllable-tirned

languages

languages
Tense vowels

with few closed syllables; syllables are often neady

equal in length, regardless of sifess
vowels produced with greater muscular tension; in English, these
include the vowels in leaue, late and sr?on.

264

clossaty

Thought groups
Tone languages

meaninllful groups of words pronounced together (phrases)

languages which associate a particular pitch or pitch pattern
with individual words; i11 tone languages pitch is an integral
element of each word; Chinese is a tone language

Universals

features of language that are found in many languages and are

learned early or morc easily [r]- first-language learners

vowels/
syllables
Uttera{rce
Uttefance boundaries
Velars

in English, vowels/syllables that ar short and often indistinct;for

example, the iirst \.owel in ago is rn.rstresscd
speech prececlecl and followed by pauscs
beginning or end of an utterance
consonants produced by moving tlte back of tlte tongue up
toward the soft palate;in English, the first sounds in oo4t and
8o4t ltld t]|re last sound in s/l?g
soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth
structrJres used to produce speech sounds (fo[ example, the

Unstressed

velum
ofgafls

Vocal

tongue, thc vocal cords)

Yocal tract
Voic quality

nouth

features

ancl upper throat

pronunciation features that are generally present in native

speech, such as average level of pitch (some languages are
spoken with a relati\''ely higher overall level of pitch, others

with

a relatively lowcr ovemll level of pitch)

Voiced

sounds

Voiceless

sounds

sounds produced with vibration of the vocal cords;/z/ is a

voiced sound
sounds producecl without vibration of the vocal cords;/s/ is

voiceless sound

Yowel

quality

vowels

sound of a vowel;in this book vowel quality rcfers to whether

vowel is reduced or not
sounds like /o,/ produced with very little obstruction of the
air

Vowel-vowel
sequences
Word list

pfonuflciatiofl
word stfess
\Yord-to-word

flow

sequencc of two adjacent vowel sounds (e.g., the bold vowels

i\.t

rideA

pronrurciation of

$'ord in isolationi citation forn

prominence given to one or lllore syllables in a word, realized in

English as length, loudncss, levcl of pitch, or quality of the vowel

linking

the way in which final sounds and beginning sounds of adjacent

words are pronounced

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