American English Pronunciation PDF

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Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Tools for Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Chapter 1: Getting Started . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Chapter 2: Introduction to Stress, Rhythm, and Intonation . . . . . 16
Chapter 3: Vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Chapter 4: Diphthongs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Chapter 5: Consonants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Chapter 6: Consonant Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Chapter 7: Rhythm and Intonation: Multi-Syllable Words . . . . . 145
Chapter 8: Linking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Chapter 9: Rhythm and Intonation: Stressed Words . . . . . . . 169
Chapter 10: Unstressed Words and Words that Reduce . . . . . . 179
Chapter 11: Contractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Chapter 12: Gonna, Wanna, Gotta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Chapter 13: Putting it all Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Chapter 14: Continuing to Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Appendix 1: Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Appendix 2: Video Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Appendix 3: Audio Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Appendix 4: Sound Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
This material is copyrighted by Rachel's English LLC, 2015.

Please do not copy or distribute this file.
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Introduction
Ive been creating accent reduction videos on YouTube for over six years.
During that time Ive gotten requests for a book. I always resisted because my
ideas on pronunciation and how to teach it are always evolving, thanks to what I
learn from teaching. Im still not done learning. Hopefully Ill never be! But I
started to see the importance of writing a book for organizing my thoughts on
pronunciation, and setting up a structure for study. Many people find a video
through search and dont have any idea how it fits into the bigger picture of
American English and accent reduction.
This book presents the big picture of American English pronunciation as I see it.
It is broad, but not deep. I look forward to completing other books, videos, and
courses in the future that will go deep, that will elaborate upon the groundwork
presented in this book.
As Ive been exploring pronunciation, one thing that initially surprised me was
how much opinion comes into play. There are teachers I respect who have
different ideas than I do about how something should be pronounced, and how it
should be taught. There is no one right way to speak English, or to teach it to
non-native speakers. Truly, this is Rachels English. This is my way of teaching
how I talk, as clearly and methodically as possible.
In school, I did not study how to teach English, or pronunciation, or any foreign
language. I did not study linguistics. I did not study how to teach anybody
anything. I studied Applied Mathematics, Computer Science, and Music (vocal
and opera performance). As I became interested in how Americans speak, and
how to teach that, while living in Germany, I came to realize that what I studied
was actually very significant. What I have developed in Rachels English and this
book comes directly from those fields of study: from singing, increased body and
voice awareness, connection to rhythm and melody, a keen ear and the ability to
imitate. From applied mathematics and computer science: a linear and modular
mind, able to break down my vocal awareness into small, teachable chunks.
Developing Rachels English, from the beginning, has been about experience
and first-hand investigation more than book learning. This book is written only to
support practical experience, perhaps in ways that are sometimes
unconventional. I hope something in it will help you communicate more
effectively and confidently in English.
What are the most important things about this book? Learning pronunciation
concepts together. Most books and resources will teach sounds separate from
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rhythm and intonation. But we never use sounds by themselves. They are
always a part of words and sentences, where we cannot ignore rhythm and
intonation. So when you learn a sound in this book, youll learn what it sounds
like in stressed and unstressed syllables. Youll always be addressing the overall
character, no matter what detail youre learning.
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Tools for Learning

Before you start, get to know what tools youll find for learning in this book.
PICTURES
There are several color photos in this book. If your device does not display the
photos well, consider using an alternative.
These photos will help you understand whats going on inside the mouth for the
sounds of American English. Each photo shows:
1. The throat. It should stay open and relaxed most of the time, and the neck
muscles too.
2. The tongue. This amazing muscular structure can flip up, down, stick way
outwe want this muscle to be relaxed so it can move easily.
3. The teeth. I draw in the top and bottom front teeth, and the top teeth on the
far side of the face.
4. The hard and soft palate. The hard palate, or roof of the mouth, is in the
front half of the mouth, and the soft palate is back towards the throat. The
soft palate closes (by lifting) for all sounds in American English except for
three consonant sounds: N [n], M [m], and NG []. This is means American
English has no nasal vowels. This can be hard for students whose native
languages have nasal vowels like Bengali, French, Haitian Creole, Hindi,
Hmong, Mandarin, Nepali, and Polish to name a few.
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SYMBOLS
You will see symbols like . These are the symbols of the International
Phonetic Alphabet. It is very important to know from the beginning that English
is not a phonetic language. This means there is not a direct relationship
between the letters and the sounds. You cant look at a word and know how to
pronounce it; you cant hear a word and know how to spell it. One letter does not
correspond to one sound. For example, the letter A is pronounced differently in
these three words:
exact [gzct] here, it is the [] vowel

father [f ] here, it is the [] vowel
about [bat] here, it is the [] vowel
For many more examples, check out the Sound Chart Appendix. For people
whose native language is phonetic, this is very annoying. I apologize on behalf
of the English language! It certainly makes it harder to learn. Even native
speakers of English sometimes have to look up the pronunciation or spelling of a
word.
Luckily, the IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) is here to help. Rather than
relying on a letter to represent a sound, experts have come up with a unique
symbol for each sound. You will see me use these symbols in my videos and
this book. To introduce yourself to these symbols, watch these videos:
Video 0.1 The IPA: Vowels

This video goes over the vowel sounds of American English
with sample words. Pay special attention to the IPA symbol
for each sound. engl.io/aac
Video 0.2 The IPA: Diphthongs

This video goes over the diphthong sounds of American
English with sample words. Pay special attention to the IPA
symbol for each sound. engl.io/aae
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Video 0.3 The IPA: Consonants

This video goes over the consonant sounds of American
English with sample words. Pay special attention to the IPA
symbol for each sound. engl.io/aah
Video 0.4 The IPA: Test Yourself

How well did you learn the sounds? Quiz yourself in this
video. engl.io/aam
The IPA helps a lot when it comes to writing sounds, but its not perfect. There
are some cases in American English where the IPA symbol used does not
represent the way Americans speak, but dont worry. Youll learn about these
special cases in this book. Additionally, you can look up the same word in
several dictionaries and not see the same IPA transcription. This is due to a
difference of opinion. Dont panic. Pick the one that makes the most sense to
you, or that is in your favorite dictionary.
I use these symbols [ ] to let you know that what youre seeing is IPA.
I will stress again: In general, you cannot look at a written word and know how to
pronounce it based on the letters. When you learn a new word, you have to learn
the pronunciation as well, by looking in a dictionary or asking a native speaker.
Though there are some pronunciation rules, many of them have exceptions that
are so important, or so many exceptions, that the rule isnt very helpful.
To continue to make pronunciation complicated, some words are spelled

differently but pronounced the same. For example, the past tense of the verb to
read, I read this book yesterday, is pronounced the same way as the color red.
These are called homophones, and there are many in the English language.
AUDIO
This book comes with example audio. These are samples to illustrate the
pronunciation points, and to get you started on improving your accent. Listen
and repeat out loud many times. You can listen to each audio file online by
following its link, or by listening the files you downloaded with this book. The
links are clickable, but if your device does not support clicking, you can just type
the URL into your web browser. All of the links begin with engl.io/, and you can
type this into your browser with out http://.
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VIDEO
This book references many of the free videos on the Rachels English YouTube
channel and website. The links are clickable, but if your device does not support
clicking, you can just type the URL into your web browser. All of the links begin
with engl.io/, and you can type this into your browser with out http://. The videos
have closed captioning, or subtitles. You can turn these off or on by clicking the
CC button at the bottom of the YouTube player.
If YouTube is blocked in your country, dont worry. On the Rachels English

website, there is an alternate option. Just click the link YouTube blocked?
above the video.
PRACTICE
Wait! Practice isnt in this book. Its what you have to do. Reading this book,
watching the videos, listening once or twice to the audio filesthese things wont
change your accent very much. You have to practice what you learn. Practice
with the audio files many times. When youre working on a concept, for example,
the IH as in SIT [] vowel, drill it for 10-20 minutes a day. Practice the same set
of words over and over until theyre comfortable and roll off your tongue
completely naturally while staying relaxed. Then do the same with another set of
words. Do you still need more to work with? Dont worry, Im working hard on
developing more materials for you. To make sure that you hear about any and
all learning materials that I develop, sign up for the mailing list.
Sign up for the Rachels English newsletter to make sure you get all of the latest
news on videos, books, courses, and more:
engl.io/nl
Be patient with yourself as you practice and work on your pronunciationyou

wont transform overnight. However, with dedicated practice time, watching
videos and listening to audio, imitating and practicing out loud, you will improve.
And your listening comprehension will improve too. Make a goal: practice 20
minutes a day.
If you want guidance as you practice, Rachels English offers one-time accent
evaluations. This can be a great way to learn what you need to work on, and
how to do it. If you want a coach every step of the way, then lessons, also
offered by Rachels English, are a great option.
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Currently, teacher Tom Kelley, who youll hear on the audio files in this book and
see in some videos, offers both lessons and evaluations through Rachels
English. He has trained as a singer and professional actor, getting a Masters
Degree in Acting from Harvard University. He is an exceptional accent coach
and has been working with Rachels English students since 2012.
Lessons and Evaluations engl.io/lessons

Learn more about Tom and the evaluations and lesson
packages available from Rachels English.
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Chapter 1
Getting Started: Placement
What are the most fundamental building blocks of language? The sounds that
make up that language? Thats where most people seem to want to start. What
about the melody and rhythm? These, in many ways, define the character of
the language more than the sounds. What about the placement? What is
placement anyway?
All three of these broad topics affect the other twoto try to work on one
exclusively before moving on to the next cannot achieve the goal of speaking
English like an American.
In this book, we will begin with an overview of all three before moving on to focus
on any one of them. As you improve in one area, you should find that the other
two areas also see improvement.
Lets start with something a little unconventionallets not start with English. To
begin, were just going to imitate vocal sounds. There are two reasons for this:
1. to practice and improve imitation skills. A student with strong imitation skills
will end up sounding much more like an American than a student with poor
skills.
2. to practice and get comfortable with making new kinds of sounds. Even
students who are great imitators will only go so far with their spoken English if
theyre not comfortable using sounds and placement that feel funny, that are
outside of their native language.
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What kind of student do you want to be? Decide now, its important:
! I will be a student who spends a lot of time and energy practicing only with
sounds and feelings that I am already comfortable with, that I already know
from my native language.
! I will be a student who spends a lot of time and energy practicing with every
weird sound and feeling I can come up with. I am willing to try things that
sound and feel foreign.
English is a foreign language; it should feel foreign. If it feels a lot like your
native language, then it probably doesnt sound very American. Working with
completely new sounds and language concepts can be challenging and
uncomfortable as an adult. They can feel embarrassing. Generally, resistance
to discovering and using new sounds, and new language concepts (like
reductions), is the greatest barrier to sounding American, not actually
reproducing the sounds and characteristics of American English.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 1.1 Imitation.

Remember, this isnt English. Youll hear random vocal sounds to practice
imitation. Each sound or nonsense word can be heard once, with a pause after
for you to repeat. Try to repeat everything exactly like you hear it. Experiment.
Dont be afraid to sound crazy! Try closing your eyes and focusing on just the
sounds.
Audio 1.1 Imitation

Its not English, so you dont need to worry about how you
sound! engl.io/ab1
What is engl.io.ab1? Type it into your web browser to listen to the audio online,
or listen to the file you downloaded with this book.
Placement
Of the three topics I mentioned earliersounds, melody and rhythm, and

placementplacement is the least concrete and most difficult to teach. But its
incredibly important. What is placement? It affects the overall timbre or quality
of a sound. (If the word timbre is new to you, dont worry. I didnt hear it until I
was in college studying music!) Think of a violin: it can play a lovely little
melody. A flute can play the same melody, the same exact pitches and rhythm.
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But do they sound the same? Definitely not. Even if you cant see the
instrument, you know if its a flute or a violin. The difference is the timbre, the
quality of the sound. That sound defines the instrument more than the pitches or
the rhythm it plays. Thats important.
The instrument of the voice is the same: the vocal cords (also called vocal folds)
vibrate involuntarily as the air pushes through from the lungs below, and the body
around that shapes the sound to give it its timbre.
Video 1.1 Path of the Voice

Learn about how the voice works, placement, and how
tension lifts placement. engl.io/ab7
Through teaching, Ive learned how tension affects the placement of speech.
American English has a very relaxed throat and neck. This allows the placement
of the voice to be low. I feel it coming from my chest or the base of my neck.
Very few of my students have a low, American placement when they first come to
study with methe placement of other languages is higher in the face, or
sometimes further back in the throat.
Video 1.2 Placement

Learn more about what placement is and how to find
different placements in your body. engl.io/abf
Listen + Repeat: Audio 1.2 Placement.

Lets experiment with placement. Ill say the part of my body where I feel the
resonance, then Ill make a vowel sound from that space. First, just listen and
see if you can hear the difference. Then, imitate the sounds and try to put the
resonance in the same part in your body. Touch that part while you make the
sound: hand flat on the chest, fingers on the nose, etc. Can you feel your voice
in different parts of your body? If you can, great! Think about always letting the
voice rest low, resonance in the chest, through relaxation. Speaking from here
will sound very American!
Its important to note that speaking with a low resonance does not mean simply
lowering the pitch. If you lower the pitch but still have tension in your throat and
neck, your voice wont have the relaxed nature of American speech. Relax and
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open up your neck and throat to let the resonance sink lower never try to force
your voice down.
Audio 1.2 Placement
engl.io/abt
You can probably hear the different placements on the audio file, but maybe
youre not good at imitating them yet. Thats ok. Definitely keep working at
imitating the sound, but lets get you some other tools too.
The only thing between you and American placement is tension. Many
languages involve the use or engagement of some part of the body that
American English does not. Im going to call this extra engagement, or work,
tension. Any extra tension in the neck, throat, or tongue lifts the placement.
Remember, in American English placement is very low. That means you need to
release tension in the neck, throat, and tongue to let the placement sink down.
You cant force it.
How do you release it? If your native language involves some tension, then that
tension feels very natural to you and can be hard to identify. This is where you
need to use your body and not just your mind. To help you develop body-
knowledge and relaxation of the neck, throat, and tongue, take a look at the
following set of videos.
Do the exercises along with the videos. Try to feel yourself relaxed, even use
your imagination to picture yourself relaxed. Make some vowels sounds,
uuuhhhhhh. Then speak your native language but pay attention right before
you do. What changes in your body? Is tension added anywhere? If you noted
anything, write it down. Do this activity with all of the four relaxation videos.
Video 1.3 Neck and Throat Relaxation

Exercises to help you release tension in your neck and
throat. engl.io/abm
Video 1.4 Jaw Relaxation

Exercises to help you release tension in your jaw.
engl.io/ab2
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Video 1.5 Tongue Relaxation

Exercises to help you release tension in your tongue.
engl.io/ab9
Video 1.6 Lip Relaxation

Exercises to help you release tension in your lips.
engl.io/abx
Now lets talk about the soft palate. This is the soft palate:
Tension isnt the only thing that can lift your

placement, so can a lowered soft palate. This
puts the sound in the nose. Some languages
have a lowered soft palate on many sounds,
including vowels (for example, French,
Portuguese, Vietnamese, and Chinese for a
list, see wikipedias page on nasal vowels:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_vowel).
When the soft palate is lifted, it is closed. This

is what we want for all sounds in American
English except M [m], N[n], and NG []. When
it is lowered, its open. This allows air to go
past it and up into the nasal cavity, making the
sound nasal. This brings the placement higher,
into the nose.
Its hard to feel and move the soft palate. We

all do it without thinking about it as needed for
the sounds in our native languages. If you have
nasal vowels in your native language, youll
probably need to think about this when working
on English.
If you think your soft palate isnt closed, there

are a couple of things you can do to lift and
close it. First, think of creating more space in
the back of throat. Sometimes this thought
helps students naturally close the soft palate.
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Second, think of drinking through a straw (or really do it!). What changes in your
throat? Your soft palate has to close so the water doesnt go up into your nasal
passages. Can you identify what it feels like in the back of your throat? The
more you can identify and get used to the idea of a lifted and closed soft palate,
the easier it will be for you to speak with a low placement.
Video 1.7 Soft Palate

Learn what the soft palate is, and how work with it.
engl.io/abr
Everything you do in the rest of this book should build on what you
worked on here. If you work on rhythm, sounds, linking, reductions, or
anything else without really getting this concept of low, relaxed placement
when speaking English, youll never sound truly American. Did you
watch each video and do each audio exercise once? Thats probably not
enough. Watch each video at least one more time, and do the audio
exercises several more times. Let your body and mind work together,
thinking about what youre doing, but also feeling it.
Now were ready to start talking about rhythm and sounds but dont ever stop
thinking about placement!
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Chapter 2
Introduction to Stress, Rhythm, and Intonation
Many students want to go right to the sounds. In fact, you might be skimming
this on your way to the sounds section. STOP! Go back! Start with placement,
then spend time here with stress. This book is arranged this way for a reason.
Sounds dont matter the mostcharacter matters the most. The character is
based on the placement, rhythm, and melody. We will get to the sounds, but first
lay the foundation. It is your best chance at successfully transforming your
spoken English.
In some languages, all syllables are the same length. In English, we have long
(stressed) and short (unstressed) syllables. This distinction is very important.
You can never sound American if you make all the syllables the same length.
This is something that will be talked about a lot in this book.
Video 2.1 English: A Stress-Timed Language

This video goes over the difference between a language
where every syllable is the same length and a language like engl.io/ac2
English where syllables are different lengths.
Every time you learn a word, learn the stress. Keep lists of words with the same
stress, for example, a list of two-syllable words with stress on the first syllable, or
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a list of three-syllable words with stress on the middle syllable. Practice these
groups together.
Most dictionaries will use this symbol to mark a syllable with primary stress, and
this symbol to mark a syllable with secondary stress. All other syllables are
unstressed. Syllables with secondary stress are more like unstressed syllables
than stressed syllables but well talk more about that later.
Note: Along with [] and [], you might also see a third symbol between
syllables. Some dictionaries will put this symbol [] before a syllable with
no stress thats not at the beginning of a word, like this: [bjudfl].
Other dictionaries just leave a space, which is what youll see in this book:
[bju d fl].
Often when people talk about word stress, they talk about long or short syllables,
or rhythm. But we cant talk about rhythm without also talking about intonation
and other vocal factors. They all go together. Intonation is the rise and fall of
the voice in speech, the pitch, which youll study more in later chapters.
Stressed Unstressed
symbol [] [] or no marking
length longer Shorter
intonation (or pitch or Curve up, then down Flatter pitch, generally
melody) lower than stressed
syllables
energy Full engagement of Less energy/air in the
voice, can be a little voice (can sound crackly
louder at the end of a sentence)
In the text of this book

On-screen text in videos DA Da
In many of my videos, I use the nonsense syllable da for stress: DA is a

syllable with primary stress, Da is a syllable with secondary stress, and da
is an unstressed syllable.
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Stressed syllables have a little curve up, then down in the voice. This is the
intonation of a stressed syllable. This shape, especially the curve down, defines
the stressed syllable and makes it sound really American.
Video 2.2 Introduction to Word Stress

Study Stressed vs. Unstressed syllables as a general
concept. Here, I use Praat software. You can get your own engl.io/acb
free copy here: www.praat.org.
Video 2.3 The Shape of a Stressed Syllable

If youre confused about the intonation of a stressed syllable,
the curve up then down in the voice, watch this video. engl.io/ac4
What about unstressed syllables? They will generally be lower in pitch and really
fast, and will even feel like some of the energy of the voice is taken out. This can
make the sounds in an unstressed syllable less clear.
Watch this video on the word download. In it, I compare the syllable -load in
download, which is unstressed, to the syllable load, the verb, which is stressed.
Hear the difference in length, volume, and intonation. They dont sound the
same, even though the sounds are the same!
Video 2.4 How to Pronounce DOWNLOAD

Compare load as an unstressed and stressed syllable.
engl.io/acf
Unstressed syllables should be so short that theres no time to change pitch

no time for a curve up, then down in the voice like for stressed syllables.
However, if you have a string of unstressed syllables in a row, the pitch may be
moving up towards a stressed syllable, or moving down, after a stressed syllable.
For example, in the phrase Its amazing, we have 4 syllables, the third one is
stressed. So the pattern is da-da-DA-da:

Its amazing
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Rather than thinking of the intonation, or shape of the line, like this:
Think of it like this, smoothly moving up towards the stressed syllable, then down:
Lets use a simple context to study stressed vs. unstressed syllables: two-syllable
words.
Video 2.5 Weddings and 2-Syllable Words

Study 2-syllable words by having them broken down for you.
engl.io/ac3
Video 2.6 Wedding Venue: 2-Syllable Words

Study 2-syllable words by identifying yourself which syllable
is stressed. engl.io/ace
Video 2.7 Listening Comprehension: 2-Syllable Words

Youll hear a 2-syllable word. Which stress does it have,
DA-da or da-DA? engl.io/ac5
Test Yourself: Audio 2.1 Which Syllable is Stressed?

Youll hear ten 2-syllable words. Write down the word and if stress is on the first
or second syllable. Does it sound like DA-da or da-DA? Answers in the Answers
Appendix.
Audio 2.1 Which Syllable is Stressed?

Test your listening comprehension for stress.
engl.io/acg
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Now its time for YOU to get comfortable putting the intonation, or melodythe
shape of the voiceand the rhythm together. To keep it simple, were not going
to add words yet. Dont worry, that will come! But first make sure this feels
comfortable. How smooth can you make your line? How fast can you make your
short, unstressed syllables?
Listen + Repeat: Audio 2.2 Rhythmic Patterns.

First youll hear a rhythmic pattern just on the melody, on the vowel uh. Try to
imitate it just like you hear it, including a nice, relaxed placement. Think about
your neck and throat being relaxed so the resonance is low. Then youll hear the
same pattern as separate syllables on da. Does imitating the stress patterns
feel comfortable? Does your voice easily flow forward, without ever feeling
caught? If not, keep imitating and working, thinking of a low placement and nice,
easy, forward flow of the voice. If the D consonant is difficult for you, try using
m instead.
Audio 2.2 Rhythmic Patterns

da-DA-da-DA-da
da-DA-da
da-DA engl.io/ac6
da-da-DA
DA-DA
da
da-DA-da-da-DA
da-DA-da
da-DA, DA-da
DA-da-da
da-DA-da-DA
da-da-DA
da-DA-DA
da-DA-DA-da-da
da-DA-da-DA-da
DA-da-DA
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Common mistakes:
1. Making each syllable separate. The syllables should all flow into each
other. Forward flow and the linking together of sounds are very important
in American English. Make the D very light, just a quick flap of the
tongue, to allow this to happen. Think of the Path of the Voice video from
the last section, and of your air constantly streaming forward. Dont stop it!
This is good practice for linking words together, which youll study in
Chapter 8.
2. Making syllables the same length. Chances are, you need to make
your unstressed syllables even shorter. Try it: how fast can you make it?
da, da, da.
Test Yourself: Audio 2.3 Identify the Rhythmic Pattern.

Youll hear 10 different rhythmic patterns. Identify which pattern youre hearing
on da, for example, da-DA. Write your answers down. You might need to listen
several times. Answers in the Answers Appendix.
Audio 2.3 Identify the Rhythmic Pattern
engl.io/ac7
Now that you know about rhythm and intonation and how they relate to stressed
and unstressed syllables, we can start learning sounds. Well study each sound
as a stressed and unstressed syllable where possible.
Note: ACCENT and STRESS mean the same thing. A stressed syllable
is the same as an accented syllable, an unstressed syllable is the same
as an unaccented syllable.
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Chapter 3
Vowels
Weve gotten to the point where we can put it all togetherplacement, rhythm,
and the sounds: vowels! Most people want to start with the vowels, but weve
laid an important foundation first. Build on it as you work through this section.
The vowels are where we get the length and shape of our longer, stressed
syllables, not the consonants. Keep this mind as you work. If you want to make
the word mom longer, it should be like this: moooooom, not like this:
mmmmmmommmmm.
As you look in different resources, you will see some variation in the
vowels and diphthongs of American English. Pronunciation is not an
exact science, and there are differences of opinion!
In this section, there is an important element. Back in my Introduction, I made a

promise that this book would be different from others because we would learn
concepts together. Youre not just going to learn vowel sounds here, youre
going to learn vowels in both forms: stressed and unstressed. On the audio
files, youll hear the stressed and unstressed sounds together youll quickly be
able to identify how and why they sound different. The sample words will have
examples of the vowel in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Remember
23
when its unstressed to make it shorter, flatter in pitch, and with less air and
energy in the voice. Try to imitate exactly what you hear on the audio files.
There are eleven vowels in American English.
Listen: Audio 3.1 Vowels.

Before you dive into the specifics of each vowel, listen to all vowel sounds
together. Youll hear the sequence below twice. The sounds are in the stressed
form except for the schwa [], which is only unstressed. Notice how different it
sounds from the rest!
Audio 3.1 Vowels

, , , , , i, , u, , ,
engl.io/ad1
[] The UH as in BUTTER Vowel

Lets start with the core vowel of American English, the thinking vowel (Uhh,
Um). The UH as in BUTTER vowel.
24
The jaw drops a bit for this sound, but the shape of the tongue doesnt change
compared to the mouth at rest. Its totally relaxed, with the tongue tip forward
doing nothing! If you try to do anything with your tongue, it wont be the right
sound. The cheeks, lips, and throat are completely relaxed. Because there is no
tension, the placementresonanceis low, at the base of the neck and very
upper chest. Like all vowels, the soft palate is lifted to close the passage to the
nasal cavity, letting no air through. Some students have a hard time relaxing all
the way, and this vowel comes out more like the AH as in FATHER [] vowel.
Well compare the two after learning AH.
Video 3.1 The UH as in BUTTER [] Vowel

See illustrations of the tongue position for this sound, as well
as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/ad4
position.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.2 The UH as in BUTTER [] Vowel.

Look at the picture, and repeat the sound and words, keeping total relaxation.
Just drop your jawnothing else has to move! Pay attention to what this vowel
sounds like stressed and unstressed; its not the same. What you hear on the file
is organized in this chart:
What you hear (each 2 times) Is [] in a Stressed or Unstressed syllable?

uh [] Stressed
other [ ] Stressed
much [mt] Stressed
love [lv] Stressed
uh [], uh []* Stressed, Unstressed
untie [nta] Unstressed
shotgun [tgn] Unstressed
25
Audio 3.2 The UH as in BUTTER [] Vowel
engl.io/ad8
*Notice how different the sound is when its in a stressed versus an

unstressed syllable. Apply everything you learned in the last section as
you work with the vowels and diphthongs: these sounds in stressed
syllables are longer, louder, have an up/down shape (intonation, or
melody) in the voice, use the full voice. These sounds in unstressed
syllables are shorter, flatter in pitch, quieter, and dont use the whole
voice (less air is being used). If any of this is still unclear or confusing,
work with Chapter Two again.
Youll see this sound spelled several ways in American English. oe: does [dz] o:
love [lv]
oo: blood [bld]
ou: trouble [tb l]
u: up [p]
[] The AH as in FATHER Vowel

26
The jaw drops some for this sound, and the tongue presses down in the back
while the tip stays forward. Because of this tension in the tongue, the placement
lifts a little bit. Though still connected to the chest, the resonance is more in the
open space of the mouth. The lips are relaxed. Like all vowels, the soft palate is
lifted to close the passage to the nasal cavity, letting no air through.
Video 3.2 The AH as in FATHER [] Vowel

as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/ada
position.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.3 The AH as in FATHER [] Vowel.

Look at the picture, and repeat the sound and words, keeping total relaxation in
the lips. Watch your jaw drop and feel your tongue press down in the back.
What you hear on the file is organized in this chart:

ah [] Stressed
father [f ] Stressed
body [bd i] Stressed
lock [lk] Stressed
job [db] Stressed
ah [], ah [] Stressed, Unstressed
October [kto b] Unstressed
27
Audio 3.3 The AH as in FATHER [] Vowel
engl.io/adc
Some students cant tell the difference between this sound and the sound we just
learned, the UH as in BUTTER [] vowel.
Can you hear the difference between AH [] and UH []? If they sound the same
to you, youre probably pronouncing them the same too, most likely both []. To
get a more distinct [] vowel, think of bringing your tongue a little forward. That
might help the tongue relaxremember you want total relaxation for []. Also,
the jaw will drop slightly less for [].
Video 3.3 AH [] vs. UH []

Compare the mouth position of these two sounds.
engl.io/adf
Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.4 AH [] vs. UH [].

Can you hear the difference in these minimal pairs? If not, dont panic. Listen to
this file 10-20 times a day without trying to repeat. Most likely, in a few days,
youll start to hear the difference. What you hear on the file is organized in this
chart:
28
What you hear (each 2 times) Stressed or Unstressed?

ah [], uh [] Stressed
shot [t], shut [t] Stressed
gone [gn]*, gun [gn] Stressed
boss [bs], bus [bs] Stressed
crossed [kst]*, crust [kst] Stressed
*These words can be pronounced with either [] or [] look for more
information on this in the next section, the AW as in LAW [] Vowel.
Audio 3.4 AH [] vs. UH []
engl.io/adh
Test Yourself: Audio 3.5 AH [] vs. UH [] Test.

Youll hear five words or sounds in the minimal pairs below. Youre only hearing
one of the words (youll hear it twice), which one is it? Answers in the Answers
Appendix.
Audio 3.5 AH [] vs. UH [] Test

1. [] or []
2. song [] or sung []
3. pop [] or pup []
4. crossed [] or crust [] engl.io/adk
5. robber [] or rubber []
There are several audio files with minimal pairs in this book. Perhaps
there will be some pairs where you cant hear the difference, the two
words in each pair sound exactly the same to you. Dont worry, youre not
the only one. I have had students master minimal pairs that, at first, they
couldnt differentiate. They did it by listening only. Listen to the minimal
pairs over and over, 10 minutes a day, everyday. Be patient. Theres a
very good chance that in a few days or a week youll start to hear the
difference. When that happens, start repeating with the audio file.
29
Youll see this sound spelled several ways in American English.

a: father [f ]
aa: bazaar [bz]
e: sergeant [s dnt]
ea: heart [ht]
ou: cough [kf]
o: body [bd i]
[] The AW as in LAW Vowel
This sound is interesting: many people dont really use it. They just use the AH
as in FATHER [] vowel instead. I myself dont have a very distinct AW []
vowel. Most of the time it just sounds like AH []. AW [] as a distinct vowel is
most common on the east coast of the United States (except in the Southern
states).
30
To make the AW as in LAW [] vowel, the tongue lifts up and shifts back. The
lips come forward, flaring a bit. To aid this, you can think of pushing the corners
of the lips away from the face. Feel the cheeks come in a little bit. The
resonance is in the middle of the mouth.
Video 3.4 The AW as in LAW [] Vowel

as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/adm
position.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.6 The AW as in LAW [] Vowel.

Listen to the AW as in LAW [] vowel. Watch yourself in a mirror: do the lips
look the same as in the picture? What you hear on the file is organized in this
chart:
What you hear (each 2 times) Is [] in a Stressed or Unstressed

syllable?
aw [] Stressed
saw [s] Stressed
along [l] Stressed
wrong [] Stressed
aw [], aw [] Stressed, Unstressed
recall [i kl] (noun the verb is [kl]!) Unstressed
runoff [n f] Unstressed
Audio 3.6 The AW as in LAW [] Vowel

engl.io/adp
There is something you need to know about AW []: its not quite the same when
followed by the R sound, like in quarter [kw d], war [w], and four [f].
Most people will not pronounce these words with a pure AW [] vowel. Instead,
round the lips more, and pull the tongue up and back just a little bit more, so it is
more in the middle of the mouth.
31
Video 3.5 How to Pronounce Quarter

This video points out how the AW [] vowel followed by an R
is different from a regular AW [] vowel. engl.io/ads

a: fall [fl]
au: cause [kz]
augh: daughter [dd ]
aw: shawl [l]
ough: thought [t]
[] The AA as in BAT Vowel
The jaw drops quite a bit for this vowel. The tongue tip stays forward, lightly
touching the back of the bottom front teeth. The back part of the tongue
32
stretches up. This can be a hard sound for students. One trick is to slightly lift
the top lip. When students focus on this, the tongue tends to lift as well.
Because there is some tension in the upper lip, the placement for this sound is
further forward in the face, with the resonance at the upper lip.
Video 3.6 The AA as in BAT [] Vowel

as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/adv
position.
Video 3.7 Lesson Excerpt: The AA as in BAT Vowel

In this video, Im teaching my friend how to make a better
AA vowel. Look at the adjustments he has to make, and engl.io/ady
practice doing the same.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.7 The AA as in BAT [] Vowel.

Listen to the AA as in BAT Vowel and repeat. Watch yourself in a mirror: drop
your jaw, lift your lip. Because the tongue lifts in the back, you should see a lot of
tongue. What you hear on the file is organized in this chart:

aa [] Stressed
pass [ps] Stressed
master [ms t] Stressed
bad [bd] Stressed
aa [], aa [] Stressed, Unstressed
racetrack [es tk] Unstressed
coatrack [kotk] Unstressed
Audio 3.7 The AA as in BAT [] Vowel
engl.io/ae2
33
Students who have a hard time with this sound often substitute the AH as in
FATHER [] vowel. But the tongue position is quite different: the back of the
tongue presses down for [] and lifts for []. It also helps to think of lifting the top
lip just a bit for the AA [] vowel.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.8 AH [] vs. AA [].

If you cant hear the difference, just listen frequently until you can, then repeat.

ah [], aa [] Stressed
top [tp], tap [tp] Stressed
mop [mp], map [mp] Stressed
hot [ht], hat [ht] Stressed
sock [sk], sack [sk] Stressed
Audio 3.8 AH [] vs. AA []
engl.io/ae4
34
Test Yourself: Audio 3.9 AH [] vs. AA [] Test.

Appendix.
Audio 3.9 AH [] vs. AA [] Test

1. [] or []
2. bomb [] or bam []
3. bog [] or bag [] engl.io/ae7
4. rock [] or rack []
5. lost [] or last []
If you didnt do well on the listening comprehension, remember not to worry. Go

back and listen to the minimal pairs audio file several times a day for several
days in a row, then try again.
The AA as in BAT [] vowel isnt always the AA as in BAT [] vowel. What?

When this vowel is followed by one of the nasal consonants, N [n], M [m], or NG
[], it changes (this is different from British English, where it doesnt change).
When you look one of these words up in the dictionary, you wont find this
change. This is a case where IPA hasnt caught up with the way most
Americans actually speak. So, you just have to know how the sound changes:
Sound Sequence Example Words What it really sounds like

Followed by [n] band [bnd] Two sounds: first, the AA
[n] answer [n s] vowel [], then an UH
began [bgn] sound, like []. The
Followed by [m] exam [gzm] second sound should be
[m] camp [kmp] quicker than the first.
hammer [hm ] The uh part of the
sound happens as the
tongue relaxes in the
back.
Pronounce [n] as
[n].
Pronounce [m] as
[m].
35
Followed by [] anger [ g] The AY as in SAY [e]

[] hang [h] diphthong. The
thanks [ks] beginning of sank
(Note: the letter N [sk] sounds like the
makes the NG [] sound word say [se].
if its followed by a K)
Pronounce [] as
[e].
Video 3.8 The AA as in BAT Vowel followed by N, M,

and NG
Learn how the AA sound changes when its followed by a engl.io/ae9
nasal consonant.
Video 3.9 English in Real Life: Easter

This video uses the word ham as an example to study, in
real life, how the AA vowel changes when followed by a engl.io/aeb
nasal consonant.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.10 AA [] followed by Nasal Consonants.

Youll hear each word three times. The middle time is in slow motion. Repeat
the slow motion word as well. What you hear on the file is organized in this
chart:
What you hear (each 3 times, 2nd time slowly) Sounds like
ban [bn] [bn]
exam [gzm] [gzm]
thanks [nks] [enks]
Audio 3.10 AA [] followed by Nasal Consonants
engl.io/aed

a: bat [bt]
36
au: aunt [nt]

ai: plaid [pld]
i: timbre [tm b]
[] The EH as in BED Vowel
The jaw drops a good bit for this vowel. The tongue tip is forward and down,
lightly touching the back of the bottom front teeth. The middle/front part of the
tongue lifts towards the roof of the mouth. Make the middle of the tongue wider
as it lifts. This sound resonates in the middle of the mouth, but its still connected
to the core placement in the upper chest and lower neck.
Video 3.10 The EH as in BED [] Vowel

as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/aee
position.
37
Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.11 The EH as in BED [] Vowel.

Listen to the EH as in BED Vowel and repeat. Watch yourself in a mirror: does
your jaw drop? What you hear on the file is organized in this chart:

syllable?
eh [] Stressed
ten [tn] Stressed
special [sp l] Stressed
left [lft] Stressed
eh [], eh [] Stressed, Unstressed
embrace [mbes] Unstressed
employ [mpl] Unstressed
Audio 3.11 The EH as in BED [] Vowel

engl.io/aeg
Some students have a hard time hearing the difference between EH [] and AA
[]. Can you hear it? One thing that helps is to focus on what you can see: the
lips. Let them be very relaxed for EH. You might even want to rest your fingertips
on your upper lip to help it relax. Do the opposite for AA: pull the top lip up.
Think of making a rectangle shape with your lips.
38
Video 3.11 EH [] vs. AA []

This video compares the mouth positions of these two
sounds. engl.io/aei
Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.12 AA [] vs. EH [].


aa [], eh [] Stressed
bat [bt], bet [bt] Stressed
gas [gs], guess [gs] Stressed
sad [sd], said [sd] Stressed
slapped [slpt], slept [slpt] Stressed
Audio 3.12 AA [] vs. EH []
engl.io/aek
Test Yourself: Audio 3.13 EH [] vs. AA [] Test.

Appendix.
Audio 3.13 EH [] vs. AA [] Test

1. [] or []
2. head [] or had []
3. leapt [] or lapped [] engl.io/aen
4. guess [] or gas []
5. kettle [] or cattle []

a: share []
39
ai: said [sd]

ay: says [sz]
ea: head [hd]
e: shed [d]
eo: leopard [lp d]
ie: friend [fnd]
u: bury [b i]
[i] The EE as in SHE Vowel
This vowel involves only a little bit of jaw drop. The tongue tip stays behind the
bottom front teeth, and the middle/front part of the tongue arches up towards the
roof of the mouth. It doesnt touch the roof of the mouth, but it is very close,
diminishing the space between the tongue and the roof of the mouth. Do this
with as little jaw and tongue tension as possible.
40
The corners of the lips pull a little wide, sort of like a smiletheyre not quite
relaxed. The tongue position brings the resonance up a little bit. Feel the
vibration between your tongue and hard palate. But, as always, keep it
connected to that lower placement at the base of the neck and upper chest.
Video 3.12 The EE as in SHE [i] Vowel

as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/aer
position.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.14 The EE as in SHE [i] Vowel.

Watch yourself in a mirror: do the corners of your lips pull out? Feel your tongue
arching up towards the roof of the mouth. What you hear on the file is organized
in this chart:
What you hear (each 2 times) Is [i] in a Stressed or Unstressed syllable?

ee [i] Stressed
need [nid] Stressed
thirteen [tin] Stressed
keep [kip] Stressed
ee [i], ee [i] Stressed, Unstressed
coffee [k fi] Unstressed
busy [bz i] Unstressed
Audio 3.14 The EE as in SHE [i] Vowel

engl.io/aet

ay: quay [ki]
ea: heat [hit]
e: be [bi]
ee: weep [wip]
ei: receive [siv]
eo: people [pi pl]
41
ey: key [ki]

ie: brief [bif]
i: police [plis]
y: busy [bz i]
[] The IH as in SIT Vowel
This is one of the hardest sounds for non-native speakers. Many try to make [],
but end up making [i], [], or [e] instead.
The jaw drops a bit more than for the EE as in SHE [i], which means the arch of
the tongue isnt as close to the roof of the mouth. The tongue tip is forward,
lightly touching the back of the bottom front teeth, and the front/mid part lifts up
towards the roof of the mouth. The lips, and the corners of the lips, stay relaxed.
For the EE as in SHE vowel, the vibration is along the front half of the hard
palate. For the IH as in SIT [] vowel, its more in the middle of the mouth.
42
Video 3.13 The IH as in SIT [] Vowel

as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/aex
position.
Tip: start with the EE as in SHE [i] vowel, then create a little more space
between the tongue and the roof of the mouth by dropping your jaw just a bit
more.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.15 The IH as in SIT [] Vowel.

Listen to the IH vowel. Watch yourself in a mirror: does you jaw drop a little?
Are your lips relaxed? What you hear on the file is organized in this chart:

ih [] Stressed
shift [ft] Stressed
dinner [dn ] Stressed
quit [kwt] Stressed
ih [], ih [] Stressed, Unstressed
instead [nstd] Unstressed
office [ fs] Unstressed
Audio 3.15 The IH as in SIT [] Vowel
engl.io/aez
Many students struggle with the difference between EE [i] and IH []. Can you
hear the difference? Remember for the EE [i] vowel, the tongue is very close to
the roof of the mouth and the corners of the lips pull wide. For the IH [] vowel,
the lips are relaxed and the jaw drops a little more, allowing a little more space
between the arch of the tongue and the roof of the mouth.
43
Video 3.14 EE [i] vs. IH []

Compare the mouth positions of these two sounds.
engl.io/af2
Video 3.15 EE, IH, and Vowel Length

Some people think of these vowels in terms of how long they
are. I dont think thats important. Whats more important is
whether or not the sound is in a stressed or unstressed engl.io/af3
syllable.
Video 3.16 Beach vs. Bitch

Bitch, shit. These are both cuss words in American English,
but they sound so much like the everyday words beach and engl.io/af6
sheet. This video explains the differences in these word
pairs.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.16 IH [] vs. EE [i].

44

ih [], ee [i] Stressed
bin [bn], bean [bin] Stressed
fist [fst], feast [fist] Stressed
rich [], reach [i] Stressed
ship [p], sheep [ip] Stressed
Audio 3.16 IH [] vs. EE [i]

engl.io/af8
Test Yourself: Audio 3.17 IH [] vs. EE [i] Test.

Appendix.
Audio 3.17 IH [] vs. EE [i] Test

1. [] or [i]
2. hill [] or heal [i]
3. it [] or eat [i] engl.io/afb
4. living [] or leaving [i]
5. rim [] or ream [i]
Some students make the EH as in BED [] vowel instead of the IH as in SIT []

vowel. If you think you might be making the EH as in BED [] vowel instead, try
dropping your jaw a little less, and lift your tongue more in the front.
45
Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.18 EH [] vs. IH [].


eh [], ih [] Stressed
when [wn], win [wn] Stressed
ten [tn], tin [tn] Stressed
bed [bd], bid [bd] Stressed
mess [ms], miss [ms] Stressed
Audio 3.18 EH [] vs. IH []
engl.io/afc
Test Yourself: Audio 3.19 EH [] vs. IH [] Test.

Appendix.
46
Audio 3.19 EH [] vs. IH [] Test

1. [] or []
2. strep [] or strip []
3. wet [] or wit [] engl.io/aff
4. well [] or will []
5. net [] or knit []
Some students make the AY as in SAY [e] diphthong instead of the IH as in SIT
[] vowel. In the next section on Diphthongs, youll learn how the AY as in SAY
[e] diphthong is different from the IH as in SIT [] vowel.

a: private [pa vt]
e: pretty [prd i]
ee: been [bn]
i: him [hm]
ui: build [bld]
o: women [wm n]
u: minute [mn t]
y: symbol [sm bl]
47
[u] The OO Vowel

It wasnt until I had been teaching pronunciation for a while that I realizedhold
on!the OO as in BOO [u] vowel is not a pure vowel. This vowel sounds really
American when its more about the movement into the position than the position
itself. Start relaxed, then bring the corners of the lips together so the lips round.
The tongue tip stays forward, and the back part of the tongue lifts.
The movement from relaxed lips to rounded lips is important. Lets take the word
rude [ud]. The R consonant has very round lips when its at the beginning of a
word. It looks a lot like the lip position for the OO as in BOO vowel. But if we go
from the R sound to the OO vowel without moving our lips, it sounds funny. We
have to relax them a little bit after the R, so we can have the movement into the
lip position again for the OO vowel. It can help to think of this as being a
diphthong [u], where the [] is very light. Well learn more about diphthongs in
48
the next section, but the key point about diphthongs is they involve a movement
of the mouth, not a stationary position.
The vibration for this sound moves forward a little bit because the lips move, but
you can just think of it as being in the middle of the mouth.
Video 3.17 The OO as in BOO [u] Vowel

as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/afh
position.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.20 The OO as in BOO [u] Vowel.

Listen to the OO vowel. Watch yourself in a mirror. Do your lips start more
relaxed so they can move into the more rounded lip position? What you hear on
the file is organized in this chart:
What you hear (each 2 times) Is [u] in a Stressed or Unstressed syllable?

oo [u] Stressed
blue [blu] Stressed
stupid [stu pd] Stressed
shoes [uz] Stressed
oo [u], oo [u] Stressed, unstressed
argue [ gju] Unstressed
issue [ u] Unstressed
Audio 3.20 The OO as in BOO [u] Vowel

engl.io/afk

eu: sleuth [slu]
ew: blew [blu]
o: do [du]
oe: shoe [u]
oo: too [tu]
49
ou: you [ju]

ough: through [u]
u: flute [flut]
ue: blue [blu]
ui: juice [dus]
wo: two [tu]
[] The UH as in PUSH Vowel
The tongue lifts in the back, towards the soft palate, for this vowel. The tongue
tip pulls slightly back so its not quite touching the back of the bottom front teeth.
The lips arent completely relaxed: the corners of the mouth come in a little so
the lips flare and push away from the face.
50
Video 3.18 The UH as in PUSH [] Vowel

as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/afm
position. Note: This video uses the example word pull, as
in, the uh as in pull vowel. (Its the same vowel.)
Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.21 The UH as in PUSH [] Vowel.

Listen to the UH as in PUSH vowel. Watch yourself in a mirror: are your lips
pushing out? What you hear on the file is organized in this chart:

uh [] Stressed
book [bk] Stressed
looking [lk ] Stressed
stood [std] Stressed
uh [] , uh [] Stressed, Unstressed
childhood [ald hd] Unstressed
goodbye [gdba] Unstressed
Audio 3.21 The UH as in PUSH [] Vowel
engl.io/afp
Some students make an OO as in BOO [u] vowel instead of the UH as in PUSH

[] vowel. The lips round much less for this vowel than for the OO as in BOO [u]
vowel. Listen to the minimal pairs. Relax your lips more for the first sound, then
round them more for the second.
51
Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.22 UH [] vs. OO [u].


uh [], oo [u] Stressed
stood [st], stewed [stud] Stressed
pull [pl], pool [pul] Stressed
look [lk], Luke [luk] Stressed
soot [st], suit [sut] Stressed
Audio 3.22 UH [] vs. OO [u]
engl.io/afs
Test Yourself: Audio 3.23 UH [] vs. OO [u] Test.

Appendix.
52
Audio 3.23 UH [] vs. OO [u] Test

1. [] or [u]
2. wood or wooed
3. full or fool engl.io/afv
4. cookie or kooky
5. pull or pool

o: wolf [wlf]
oo: wood [wd]
ou: could [kd]
u: sugar [g ]
[] The UH as in SUPPLY Vowel (or, The Schwa)

53
This is another vowel that is, unfortunately, not straightforward. On its own, its
very clear: the lips part but theres almost no jaw drop, and the tongue stays very
relaxed, low in the mouth, with the tip forward, lightly touching the back of the
bottom front teeth. Part your lips and make the quickest, simplest sound without
moving anything else.
This sound is only in unstressed syllables with a few exceptions, like bear [b],
where it is not the main vowel and is absorbed by the following consonant. In
these cases you dont even need to think about making a separate schwa sound,
it will blend in from sound to sound. Think of it like this: [b]. So, think of the
schwa as only being unstressed. As you know, unstressed syllables are lower in
pitch and have less energy in the voice. This may help you connect to the
placement in the upper chest.
This sound will be mentioned a lot in Chapter 10. Many words that reduce
involve changing the vowel to the schwa.
Video 3.19 The UH as in SUPPLY [] (Schwa) Vowel

as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/afx
position.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.24 The UH as in SUPPLY [] Vowel (Schwa).

Listen to the schwa. Just part your lips and make the quickest, simplest sound
without moving anything else. What you hear on the file is organized in this
chart:

syllable?
uh [] Unstressed
again [gn] Unstressed
China [a n] Unstressed
extra [k st] Unstressed
visa [vi z] Unstressed
54
Audio 3.24 The UH as in SUPPLY [] (Schwa) Vowel
engl.io/ag1
The above examples all have a clear schwa. The schwa is different when its
followed by an M [m], N [N], L [l], or R [] sound. These are called syllabic
consonants, which means they take over the whole syllable. That means you
dont need to make a schwa sound at all. Youll see it in the IPA, but all you have
to do is make the following consonant, M, N, L, or R. Examples: system [ss
tm] go straight from the T to the M. Open [op n] go straight from the P
to the N. Pencil [pn sl] go straight from the S to the Dark L. Mother [m
] go straight from the TH to the R.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.25 Syllabic Consonants.

Listen to the examples on the audio file. Notice there is no separate sound for
the schwa, it gets absorbed by the consonant after it. Practice the unstressed
syllable on its own, not just as part of the word. What you hear on the file is
organized in this chart:
What you hear (2x) Is [] in a Stressed or Unstressed syllable?

-tom [dm], bottom [bd m] Unstressed
con- [kn], control [kntol] Unstressed
-ple [pl], people [pi pl] Unstressed
syr- [s], syringe [snd] Unstressed
Audio 3.25 Syllabic Consonants
engl.io/ag3
Syllabic consonants and the schwa will come up a lot in this book. Many words
that reduce involve changing the vowel to the schwa sound. Be prepared to dive
into this concept in Chapter 10.

a: about [bat]
ea: ocean [o n]
e: anthem [n m]
eu: chauffeur (verb) [o f]
55
i: possible [ps bl]

o: bottom [bd m]
ou: jealous [dl s]
u: autumn [ dm]
y: syringe [snd]
[] The UR as in BIRD Sound
This vowel is interesting because its basically the R consonant acting like a
vowel. It is always followed by the R consonant, but you never make first the
vowel then the R consonantits all the same sound! So here we have two
56
symbols in IPA, but you just need to make one sound: rrrrr. This is different from
British English, where it is a sound that is independent of the R consonant.
The most common mistake with this sound is not lifting the tongue enough. Then
it sounds like a vowel sound plus the R consonant, but remember we just want
one sound for these two symbols, rrrrr. It should be quite high in the mouth,
pulled back and up so the tip isnt touching anything. For some people, the sides
of the tongue touch the sides of the roof of the mouth, or the side teeth, at about
the front-to-back midpoint. Feel the vibration in the front of the mouth, between
the front of the tongue and the roof of the mouth. The corners of the lips come in
so the lips can flare and push away from the face.
Video 3.20 The UR as in BIRD Vowel

as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/ag5
position. Note: This video uses the example word her, as
in, the ur as in her vowel. (Its the same vowel when her
is stressed.)
Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.26 The UR as in BIRD [] Vowel.

Listen to the UR vowel. Hold it outit should be just one sound. Watch yourself
in a mirror: Are your lips flared? What you hear on the file is organized in this
chart:

ur [] Stressed
bird [bd] Stressed
early [ li] Stressed
Nurse [ns] Stressed
ur [] , ur [] Stressed, unstressed
research [ri s] Unstressed
thirteen [tin] Unstressed
Audio 3.26 The UR as in BIRD [] Vowel

engl.io/ag8
57
If this sound is still confusing, dont worry. Well be studying the consonant
version of it, R, in the next two chapters, Consonants and Consonant Clusters.

ea: learn [ln]
eu: chauffeur [of] (noun)
i: bird [bd]
ou: journey [d ni]
o: word [wd]
u: burn [bn]
y: myrtle [m dl]
I am not an expert in British English pronunciation. The standard is known as RP

(Received Pronunciation). But I have pointed out a couple of differences
between American and British pronunciation in this chapter on vowels. If you
want more information, watch this video I made with a British English teacher on
the difference in vowel and diphthong sounds.
Video 3.21 Differences between British and American

Vowels
engl.io/agb
58
Test Yourself on the Vowels of American English
Test yourself: Non-Audio 3.1 Match the Sound with the Symbol.
Make sure youre familiar with the symbols of the American vowels. Answers in
the Answers Appendix.
1. UH as in BUTTER a. [u]
2. AH as in FATHER b. [i]
3. AW as in LAW c. []
4. AA as in BAT d. []
5. EH as in BED e. []
6. EE as in SHE f. []
7. IH as in SIT g. []
8. OO as in BOO h. []
9. UH as in PUSH i. []
10. UH as in SUPPLY (schwa) j. []
11. UR as in HER k. []
Test Yourself: Audio 3.27 Vowel Test.

What vowel sound do you hear? All of the vowels are on the audio file once.
Write down the vowels below in the order you hear them, then listen again to
check yourself. Remember, its not important to have a distinctly different AH as
in FATHER and AW as in LAW sound, so dont worry if they sound the same to
you! Answers in the Answers Appendix.
a. UH as in BUTTER
b. AH as in FATHER
c. AW as in LAW
d. AA as in BAT
e. EH as in BED
f. EE as in SHE
g. IH as in SIT
h. OO as in BOO
i. UH as in PUSH
j. UH as in SUPPLY (Schwa)
k. UR as in HER
Test Yourself: Audio 3.27 Vowel Test
engl.io/agc
59
Test Yourself: Audio 3.28 Stressed or Unstressed?

Youll hear 10 vowels. Is each stressed or unstressed? It doesnt matter what
vowel you hear, just identify if it seems longer and more fully pronounced, with an
up-down curve in the voice (stressed), or shorter and flatter, with less energy in
the voice (unstressed). Answers in the Answers Appendix.
a. Stressed b. Unstressed
engl.io/age
Good for you youve studied the American English vowels while keeping
stress in mind. Lets move on to Diphthongs.
60
Chapter 4
Diphthongs
A diphthong is two vowel sounds together. Some of the sounds are American
English vowels on their own, like [] and []. But, Ive found theyre not quite the
same in diphthongs as they are when they are pure vowels.
The mouth position matters: what defines the diphthong is that there are two
different sounds. This means there has to be a movement, going from a starting
position to an ending position. We talked about this a little already with the OO
as in BOO [u] vowel, which isnt quite pure but involves a moment into and out of
a mouth position.
Listen: Audio 4.1 Diphthongs.

Before you dive into the specifics of each diphthong, listen to all diphthong
sounds together. Youll hear the sequence below twice. The sounds are all
stressed in this audio file.
Audio 4.1 Diphthongs

o, a, a, e, , ju
engl.io/aha
61
[o] The OH as in NO Diphthong
The jaw drops for the beginning position, and the lips round for the ending
position (with the jaw being less dropped). The lips might round some for the
beginning position, but whats important is that they round even more in the
ending position. The tongue shifts back a little bit at the beginning, and the back
lifts in the ending position. The back of the tongue is more lifted here than in the
pure [] vowel (like in the word push [p ]). Focus on the movement of the jaw:
62
drop it more for the beginning of the diphthong, and let it relax up for the ending
position as the lips round.
Video 4.1 The OH as in NO [o] Diphthong

See illustrations of the beginning and ending positions for
this sound, as well as up-close, slow motion speech. engl.io/ahd
Listen + Repeat: Audio 4.2 The OH as in NO [o] Diphthong.

Does your jaw change from more dropped to less? Do your lips round for the
ending position? What you hear on the file is organized in this chart:
What you hear (each 2 times) Is [o] in a Stressed or Unstressed syllable?

oh [o] Stressed
go [go] Stressed
know [no] Stressed
below [blo] Stressed
oh [o], oh [o] Stressed, Unstressed
borrow [b o] Unstressed
yellow [jl o] Unstressed
Audio 4.2 The OH as in NO [o] Diphthong
engl.io/ahf
When students dont round their lips enough, this diphthong can sound like the
AW as in LAW [] or AH as in FATHER [] vowel instead. Work with the
following audio file and take your time rounding your lips. Slow it down.
Remember, its the movement of rounding the lips that defines this diphthong.
Exaggerate it a little bit.
63
Listen + Repeat: Audio 4.3 OH [o] vs. AW [] or AH [].

Remember, if you cant hear the difference, dont panic. Listen several times a
day for several days in a row. Practice with the two different mouth positions:
unmoving for the vowel, moving for the diphthong. What you hear on the file is

aw [], oh [o] Stressed
nod [nd], node [nod] Stressed
ball [bl], bowl [bol] Stressed
called [kld], cold [kold] Stressed
mop [mp], mope [mop] Stressed
Audio 4.3 OH [o] vs. AW [] or AH []

engl.io/ahg
Test Yourself: Audio 4.4 OH [o] vs. AW [] or AH [] Test.

Appendix.
64
Audio 4.4 OH [o] vs. AW [] or AH [] Test

1. [o] or []
2. toad [o] or Todd [] engl.io/ahj
3. taupe [o] or top []
4. boast [o] or bossed []
5. toast [o] or tossed []

o: go [go]
oo: brooch [bo]
ou: soul [sol]
ow: row [o]
oa: oat [ot]
oe: foe [fo]
ough: though [o]
au: chauffeur [o f]
eau: beau [bo]
[a] The OW as in NOW Diphthong

65
The beginning position of this diphthong, [a], is not a vowel in American English.
It is similar to the AA as in BAT [] vowel. Unlike the OH as in NO diphthong,
the lips should not round at all for the beginning of this sound. You can think of
the shape of the mouth as a rectangle rather than a circle. Drop your jaw, the
tongue will be wide and flat. Just like the OH as in NO above, move positions by
rounding the lips, relaxing the jaw up, and lifting the back of the tongue.
Video 4.2 The OW as in NOW [a] Diphthong

this sound, as well as up-close, slow motion speech. engl.io/ahm
Listen + Repeat: Audio 4.5 The OW as in NOW [a] Diphthong.

Does your jaw drop for the beginning position? Do your lips round into the
ending position? What you hear on the file is organized in this chart:
What you hear (each 2 times) Is [a] in a Stressed or Unstressed syllable?
ow [a] Stressed
now [na] Stressed
sound [sand] Stressed
power [pa ] Stressed
ow [a], ow [a] Stressed, Unstressed
letdown [lt dan] Unstressed
blackout [blk at] Unstressed
66
Audio 4.5 The OW as in NOW [a] Diphthong
engl.io/ahp
Just like the OH [o] diphthong, this diphthong can sound like the AW as in LAW
[] or AH as in FATHER [] vowel instead when students dont round their lips.
Remember, the OW [a] diphthong is made by a movement, you must round
your lips to get the right sound.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 4.6 OW [a] vs. AW [] or AH [].

Work with these minimal pairs and take your time rounding your lips. Exaggerate
it a little bit.

ow [a], aw [] Stressed
down [dan], dawn [dn] Stressed
pound [pand], pond [pnd] Stressed
mouse [mas], moss [ms] Stressed
spout [spat], spot [spt] Stressed
Audio 4.6 OW [a] vs. AW [] or AH []
engl.io/ahr
67
Test Yourself: Audio 4.7 OW [a] vs. AW [] or AH [] Test.

Appendix.
Audio 4.7 OW [a] vs. AW [] or AH [] Test

1. [a] or []
2. out [a] or ought []
3. mouth [a] or moth [] engl.io/ahu
4. foul [a] or fall []
5. brown [a] or brawn []

ou: round [and]
ow: cow [ka]
ough: bough [ba]
[a] The AI as in BUY Diphthong

68
This diphthong has the same beginning position as the OW as in NOW [a]
diphthong, but the ending position is quite different. To begin, the jaw is more
dropped, and the tongue is flatter. To end, there is no lip rounding. The corners
of the lips should be totally relaxed. The tongue tip stays down so the tip touches
the back of the bottom front teeth, but the top, front part arches up towards the
roof of the mouth. If youre not sure what to focus on when working on this
diphthong, focus on arching the tongue while keeping everything else relaxed.
Video 4.3 The AI as in BUY [a] Diphthong

this sound, as well as up-close, slow motion speech. engl.io/ahw
Listen + Repeat: Audio 4.8 The AI as in BUY [a] Diphthong.

Does your jaw change from more dropped to less? Are your lips relaxed? What
you hear on the file is organized in this chart:
What you hear (each 2 times) Is [a] in a Stressed or Unstressed syllable?

ai [a] Stressed
buy [ba] Stressed
united [juna dd] Stressed
mind [mand] Stressed
ai [a], ai [a] Stressed, Unstressed
idea [adi ] Unstressed
exercise [k ssaz] Unstressed
69
Audio 4.8 The AI as in BUY [a] Diphthong
engl.io/ahy

y: my [ma]
ai: aisle [al]
ie: lie [la]
ye: bye [ba]
uy: buy [ba]
igh: sight [sat]
eigh: height [hat]
aye: aye [a]
i: time [tam]
[e] AY as in SAY Diphthong

70
This sound begins with the [e] vowel, which is not a vowel on its own in American
English. To make the position, the jaw drops some. The tip of the tongue stays
down, touching behind the bottom of the top front teeth. The mid-front part lifts
slightly towards the roof of the mouth. Think of making the top of the tongue
extra wide. For the ending position, the jaw should drop less. The front part of
the tongue arches up towards the roof of the mouth, just like the ending of the AI
as in BUY [a] diphthong.
Video 4.4 The AY as in SAY [e] Diphthong

this sound, as well as up-close, slow motion speech. engl.io/ah2
Listen + Repeat: Audio 4.9 The AY as in SAY [e] Diphthong.

Does your tongue move up into an arched position? What you hear on the file is
What you hear (each 3 times) Is [e] in a Stressed or Unstressed syllable?

ay [e] Stressed
play [ple] Stressed
stay [ste] Stressed
late [let] Stressed
ay [e], ay [e] Stressed, unstressed
highway [ha we] Unstressed
always [l wez] Unstressed
71
Audio 4.9 The AY as in SAY [e] Diphthong
engl.io/ah5
Sometimes when students are trying to learn the IH as in SIT [] vowel, which you
learned in the last chapter, they substitute this diphthong instead. Below is a
complicated audio fileyoure comparing three different sounds. Remember, for
the AY as in SAY [e] diphthong, your mouth should be moving from a beginning
position to an ending position. The other two sounds are vowels, so the mouth
shouldnt move as youre making them.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 4.10 AY [e] vs. IH [] vs. EE [i].

Your jaw will go from most to least lowered: Lower the most for the beginning of
the [e] diphthong, then lower just a bit for the second half of the [e] diphthong.
Keep the same jaw position for the [] vowel, then drop the jaw even less for the
[i] vowel. The tongue will change from further away from the roof of the mouth
for the beginning of the [e] diphthong, to arching up closer for the ending of the
diphthong. Keep the same position for the [] vowel, but then move the arch of
the tongue closer to the roof of the mouth for the [i] vowel.
ay [e], ih [], ee [i] Stressed
shape [ep], ship [p], sheep [ip] Stressed
tame [tem], Tim [tm], team [tim] Stressed
sane [sen], sin [sn], seen [sin] Stressed
ate [et], it [t], eat [it] Stressed
72
Audio 4.10 AY [e] vs. IH [] vs. EE [i]
engl.io/ah8
Test Yourself: Audio 4.11 AY [e] vs. IH [] vs. EE [i] Test.

Youll hear five different three-word sequences, like shape, ship, sheep, each
two times. Write down the words in the order you hear them. Answers in the
Answers Appendix.
Audio 4.11 AY [e] vs. IH [] vs. EE [i] Test

1. hail sequence
2. Nate sequence
3. whale sequence engl.io/aib
4. grain sequence
5. nail sequence

a: age [e]
ai: aid [ed]
ay: say [se]
eight: eight [et]
ey: they [e]
73
[] The OY as in TOY Diphthong
This diphthong begins with the AW as in LAW [] vowel. As a part of the

diphthong, the lips round more than they do for the pure vowel by itself, like in
law [l]. The tongue lifts, front and back, and the tip might pull back just a bit so
its not touching the back of the front teeth. The jaw will drop some, and the lips
will flare and round. To move into the second position, the IH as in SIT [] vowel,
relax the lips. The corners will move out into their natural position again. Let the
74
jaw close some. The tongue tip stays down so the tip touches the back of the
bottom front teeth, but the front part arches up towards the roof of the mouth.
Video 4.5 The OY as in TOY [] Diphthong

this sound, as well as up-close, slow motion speech. engl.io/aie
Listen + Repeat: Audio 4.12 The OY as in TOY [] Diphthong.

Does your jaw drop for the beginning of the sound, then relax up as the lips
relax? What you hear on the file is organized in this chart:

oy [] Stressed
toy [t] Stressed
employs [mplz] Stressed
voice [vs] Stressed
oy [] , oy [] Stressed, unstressed
steroid [st d] Unstressed
envoy [n v] Unstressed
Audio 4.12 The OY as in TOY [] Diphthong
engl.io/aig

oi: moist [mst]
oy: boy [b]
75
[ju] The EW as in FEW Diphthong
I said at the beginning of this section that a diphthong is two vowel sounds
together. Yes but the Y [j] sound isnt a vowel (see the box below). I still
call it a diphthong! Start with the top, front part of the tongue touching the roof of
the mouth. Press the tongue against it with a forward motion. The tongue tip
stays down, so the tip touches the back of the bottom front teeth. Then move
into the OO as in BOO vowel [u] shape. The lips have to round and the tongue
76
lifts in the back. The front part of the tongue pulls away from the roof of the
mouth.
Video 4.6 The EW as in FEW [ju] Diphthong

this sound, as well as up-close, slow motion speech. engl.io/aik
Listen + Repeat: Audio 4.13 The EW as in FEW [ju] Diphthong.

Do your lips start relaxed, then round? What you hear on the file is organized in
this chart:
What you hear (each 3 times) Is [ju] in a Stressed or Unstressed syllable?

ew [ju] Stressed
few [fju] Stressed
beauty [bju di] Stressed
view [vju] Stressed
ew [ju], ew [ju] Stressed, Unstressed
U. S. [jus] Unstressed
January [dn ju i] Unstressed
Audio 4.13 The EW as in FEW [ju] Diphthong
engl.io/ain

u: use [juz]
eu: feud [fjud]
ew: few [fju]
eau: beauty [bju di]
77
How many diphthongs are there? That depends on who you ask. Some
resources do not consider the EW as in FEW [ju] diphthong a diphthong.
I have chosen to. It makes sense to me that in the word music, for
example, the [j] sound goes with the [u] sound to make a diphthong,
rather than with the M consonant to make a consonant cluster. Some
resources list additional diphthongs that I did not include here, like [],
as in bear [b], or [], as in ear []. I think its confusing to think of
these as diphthongs because theres not really a schwa sound; it blends
into the R sound. The point is, different labels make sense to different
people! If you see a different set of diphthongs in another resource, its
not wrong. Its just what seems right to someone else!
Test yourself: Non-Audio 4.1 Match the Symbols with the Sound.
Make sure youre familiar with the symbols of the American diphthongs. Answers
are in the Answers Appendix.
1. OH as in NO a. [a]
2. OW as in NOW b. []
3. AI as in BUY c. [o]
4. AY as in SAY d. [a]
5. OY as in TOY e. [ju]
6. EW as in FEW f. [e]
Test yourself: Audio 4.14 What diphthong are you hearing?

All of the diphthongs are on the audio file once. Write down the numbers below
in the order you hear them, then listen again to check yourself. Answers in the
Answers Appendix.
a. OH as in NO
b. OW as in NOW
c. AI as in BUY
d. AY as in SAY
e. OY as in TOY
f. EW as in FEW
Audio 4.14 What diphthong are you hearing?
engl.io/aip
78
Test yourself: Audio 4.15 Mixed Minimal Pairs, Vowels and Diphthongs.
Each set is written alphabetically. Is that the right order or wrong order, based on
what you hear on the audio file? Answers in the Answers Appendix.
1. hale [hel], heal [hil], hill [hl]
2. lane [len], lean [lin], Lynne [ln]
3. ought [t], out [at]
4. fond [fnd], found [fand]
5. bag [bg], bog [bg]
6. sap [sp], sop [sp]
7. fond [fnd], fund [fnd]
8. stock [stk], stuck [stk]
9. bad [bd], bed [bd]
10. had [hd], head [hd]
11. fell [fl], fill [fl]
12. pet [pt], pit [pt]
13. wooed [wud], wood [wd]
14. fool [ful], full [fl]
Audio 4.15 Test yourself: Mixed Minimal Pairs, Vowels

and Diphthongs
engl.io/ais
79
Chapter 5
Consonants
Now we get to complete the sounds. In the sample words from the previous two
chapters, you may have noticed a few things that surprised you. For example
why is there a [d] in beauty? In this section, youll find out why.
This section does not give two audio versions of each sound, stressed and
unstressed, like the Vowels and Diphthongs chapters. This is because the shape
and length of a syllable generally comes from the vowel or diphthong sound, not
the consonants.
With vowels and diphthongs, you learned that English is not a phonetic language.
One letter can represent various sounds, and you have to learn the pronunciation
of each word as you learn the word. This is true of consonants as well. The
letters CH, for example, can make the CH [] sound like in chance, the SH []
sound like in machine, or the K [k] sound like in choir. To know which
pronunciation goes with which word, youll have to look the word up in a
dictionary.
Consonants fall into two categories, voiced and unvoiced (all vowels and
diphthongs are voiced). Unvoiced sounds are made with just the breath, no
sound from the vocal cords. Voiced sounds involve a sound from the vocal
cords. Its almost like your throat is making the uh sound while the rest of your
mouth takes the position of the consonant. Look at, for example, the [s] sound.
This sound is unvoiced. When you make it, place your hand on your throat.
Nothing in your throat moves, the vocal cords are not engaged. Now make the
80
[z] sound, which is just like the [s] sound in position, only the vocal cords are
engaged, making sound. Hold out the sound touching your throat. You should
feel the throat vibrating.
Video 5.1 Voiced vs. Unvoiced Consonants

See the difference in these sounds explained, and hear the
difference. engl.io/ak2
Some consonants are paired, where there is just one mouth position for both
sounds. One is voiced and the other unvoiced.
Paired Consonants:
Voiced: Unvoiced:
B [b] P [b]
G [g] K [k]
D [d] T [t]
V [v] F [f]
Z [z] S [s]
ZH [] SH [ ]
TH [] TH []
J [d] CH [t ]
Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.1 Paired Consonants.

Each of the pairs in the chart above are on the audio file, in order. Youll hear the
sequence twice.
Audio 5.1 Paired Consonants
engl.io/ak4
The rest of the consonants are unpaired. That means they have a unique mouth
position. Of the unpaired consonants, there is only one unvoiced sound, H [h].
M [m], N [n], NG [], Y [j], W [w], R [], and L [l] are all voiced, with the vocal
cords buzzing with the sound.
81
Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.2 Unpaired Consonants.

Youll hear the sequence twice.
Audio 5.2 Unpaired Consonants

H [h], M [m], N [n], NG [], Y [j], W [w], R [], Light L [l], Dark
L [l] engl.io/ak7
Section 1: Paired Consonants

The first three pairs of this section are stop consonants, for six stop consonants
in total. These consonants are different from all the others in an important way:
you cant hold them out. They all involve a stop of air, then a release. As youll
learn, its common to skip the release of stop consonants.
The B [b] and P [p] Consonants

82
The jaw may drop a little bit for these sounds, but the lips remain closed. The
tongue is forward. Because they are stop consonants, there is a stop of air and a
release of air. The stop happens when the lips close. Then the lips part and
release into the next sound, if there is one. If the word is bye, the B releases
directly into the AI as in BUY diphthong [a], there is not a release of air followed
by the diphthong. The P sound is unvoiced and the B sound is voiced.
Video 5.2 The B [b] and P [p] Consonants

See illustrations of the tongue position for these sounds, as
well as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/ak8
position.
Stop consonants can be tricky because many Americans only pronounce the first
half of the sound, the stop. For these sounds, that means putting the lips
together, but not releasing the air afterward. We do this often when a word ends
in B or P and the next word begins with a consonant (I cant help myself.).
When the B or P is at the end of a sentence, the release will be dropped, or the
release will be light (Stop!, I havent heard from Bob.).
Stop Consonants: Why skip the release? In American English, we like

everything to be smooth and for all the words in a sentence to flow
together. Stop consonants, in full with their release, chop up and
separate words. When we leave out the release and go right into the next
word, it sounds smoother.
83
Video 5.3 Stop Consonants

Now that youve learned a little about Stop Consonants, see
more examples and watch how the mouth stops the sound engl.io/aka
without the release.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.3 The B [b] and P [p] Consonants.

Youll hear these consonants at the beginning, middle, and end of words. What
What you hear (each 2 times) Is the stop consonant released or unreleased?
bb [b], pp [p] Released
put [pt] Released into vowel
boss [bs] Released into vowel
shopping [p ] Released into vowel
subway [sb we] Released
stop [stp] Released
job [b] Unreleased
Audio 5.3 The B [b] and P [p] Consonants
engl.io/akd
Youll see these sounds spelled several ways in American English.

[b]
b: bought [bt]
bb: wobble [wb l]
[p]
p: put [pt]
pp: happy [hp i]
gh: hiccough [hk p] (this is an unusual spelling, its usually spelled hiccup)
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The G [g] and K [k] Consonants
These sounds are made by lifting the back of the tongue so that it touches the
soft palate, then pulling down to release the tongue and the air. The tip of the
tongue and the lip position do not affect this sound. That means they can start to
take the shape of the next sound. For example, the word great [get]. The tip
of the tongue can pull back and up and the lips can flare for the R [] sound while
you make the G [g] sound. The G sound is voiced, and the K sound is unvoiced.
These consonants are stop consonants. The air is stopped when the tongue
touches the soft palate, and released when it pulls away from the soft palate.
Though they are stop consonants, it is less common to drop the release of them
at the end of a sentence (Ill have a little snack) than for other stop consonants.
This is also true when they are followed by a consonant (I think my watch is
broken). Sometimes youll hear a stop, and sometimes youll hear a light
release.
85
Video 5.4 The G [g] and K [k] Consonants

well as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/akf
position.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.4 The G [g] and K [k] Consonants.

gg [g], kk [k] Released
cut [kt] Released into vowel
go [go] Released into vowel
location [loke n] Released into vowel
ugly [g li] Released into consonant
click [klk] Released
dog [dg] Released
Audio 5.4 The G [g] and K [k] Consonants
engl.io/akh

[g]
g: go [go]
gg: wiggle [wg l]
[k]
c: can [kn]
cc: occur [k]
k: skip [skp]
ck: tick [tk]
ch: character [k k t]
x: extra [k st]
q: quite [kwat]
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The T [t] and D [d] Consonants
T is one of the hardest consonants. This is not because the sound is especially
hard to make, like R [] or TH []. Its because there is more than one
pronunciation for T [t].
First, let me clarify that were talking about the sounds [t] and [d], not the letters T
and D. The word future has the letter T in it, but not the T sound. Here it
represents the CH [t] sound, [fju t]. Were talking only about words with the
letter T, where the dictionary says the pronunciation is [t].
The thing to know about the True T [t] is that when you look up a word in the
dictionary and see [t], it might not actually be the way Americans speak. The IPA
in most dictionaries is not rightmost Americans use lots of Flap Ts and Stop
Ts, which most dictionaries ignore. Dont worry, in this section youll learn the
rules for how Americans pronounce [t] (and [d]).
87
The rules below outline how Americans speak most of the time in conversation.
However, sometimes they will make a True T instead, especially if trying to speak
slower and more clearly. I suggest as a student, that you try to integrate Flap
and Stop Ts as much as possible to make your speech smoother.
Video 5.5 Contractversation

Want to know what American English sounds like with no
Flap or Stop Ts (and no contractions?) It doesnt sound engl.io/akj
quite right, does it? Topic: Going to Starbucks.
Ways to pronounce [t]
1) Stop T [t]
Make a Stop T:
When the next sound is a consonant.
cutback [ktbk]
put my [pt m]
At the end of a thought or sentence.
I knew that. [ nu t]
Neat. [nit]
In the T-schwa-N sequence.
important [mp tnt]
mountain [man tn]
How to make the Stop T [t]

The Stop T is made when you stop the air and dont release it before starting the
next sound (skipping the release). You dont need to bring your tongue tip to the
roof of the mouth. As a shortcut, try leaving the tip down behind the bottom front
teeth and touching the roof of the mouth with the middle of the tongue as you cut
off the air in your throat. See the photo below: on the left is the True T position,
and on the right you can seen an alternate tongue position for the Stop T, where
you leave your tongue tip down. As you practice words and sentences with the
Stop T, exaggerate the stop. Hold the air for two or three seconds. Of all the
stop consonants, the T is the clearest and strongest.
88
Some people think the Stop T is the same as dropping the T, but its not. The
Stop T changes the vocal shape of the word. Words without the Stop T ending,
like way [we], go down in pitch at the end. The sound falls off. Words with a
Stop T, like wait [wet], end more abruptly. The melody shape isnt as curved.
In the photo below, you can see the volume of the voice in black, and the pitch in
blue. Way is on the left, and wait on the right. Notice how way tapers more at
the end. Its longer, and goes down to a lower pitch. Wait, on the other hand, is
shorter and more abrupt, with less taper. Keep this in mind as you listen to the
audio file.
89
Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.5 Stop T vs. No T.

Can you hear the difference between words with a Stop T and words that are
exactly the same except that they have no Stop T? What is different about these
words? Listen for the shape: words without the stop T go down in pitch at the
end. Words with the Stop T end more abruptly. The first time, just listen. Then
listen and repeat, imitating the shape of the voice.
Audio 5.5 Stop T vs. No T

way [we] wait [wet]
bay [be] bait [bet]
engl.io/akm
day [de] date [det]
fee [fi] feet [fit]
she [i] sheet [it]
pow [pa] pout [pat]
2) Flap T [d]
Make a Flap T:
When the T comes between vowel sounds.
pretty [pd i]
about it [badt]
When the T comes after an R before a vowel sound.
party [p di]
sort of [sdv]
How to make the Flap T [d]

The Flap T, and the D between vowels, which youll learn about soon, are the
same sound. I use the symbol [d] in my videos and this book because in these
cases the T sounds like a D between vowels. But, it sounds like the R [] in many
languages (not the American R []!), including Japanese ( ), Korean (),
Portuguese (prato), Spanish (caro), and Arabic (). If one of these is your
native language and it makes sense to you to think of the Flap T as your R, go
ahead and do that.
To make this flap sound, the very front of tongue bounces against the roof of the
mouth quickly. The air does not stop, so it doesnt interrupt the flow of the word.
The position of the tongue when it flaps against the roof of the mouth can be the
same as the position for the True T, with the tongue all the way forward.
90
However, its also possible to make this sound with the tongue flapping a little
further back in the mouth.
Many people mispronounce the American R, making instead a Flap T. Youll

learn how to make the American R soon.
Video 5.6 The Flap T like in PARTY

Study the Flap T after R, before a vowel.
engl.io/akp
Video 5.7 The Flap T like in PRETTY

Study the Flap T between vowels on a beautiful spring day
in New York. engl.io/akr
3) No T at All
Drop the T Sound:
Between consonants. Note: dropping the T altogether, as in both of these
cases, is not as strong of a habit for Americans as using the Flap and Stop T.
exactly [gzk li]
kept my [kp ma]
After the N sound.
internet [n nt]
wanted [wn d]
Video 5.8 On the Farm

Study T pronunciations, including dropping the T, in real
American conversation. engl.io/akt
Video 5.9 T and D between Consonants

See examples of dropping the T and D between two other
consonants. engl.io/akv
4) True T [t]
Make a True T:
At the beginning of a stressed syllable. Note: this rule overrides previous
rules. For example, in until, the T comes after the N, which is often dropped.
91
But, since it starts a stressed syllable in this word, it will be a True T. Also, in
attain, the T sound comes between two vowels, which would be a Flap T. But
since it starts a stressed syllable, its a True T.
until [ntl]
attire [ta]
In consonant clusters. Note: this rule does not override previous rules.
Americans may drop the T in a consonant cluster when the next word begins
with a consonant, like in kept my.
connect [knkt]
stop [stp]
How to make the True T [t]
The True T is a stop consonant. The stop is made when you stop the air in the
throat, close your teeth, and bring the tip of the tongue to the roof of your mouth,
behind your front teeth. The release happens when you lower your tongue, let
your teeth part, and release the air, beginning the next sound. The release is a
92
burst of air; you should be able to feel it if you put your hand in front of your
mouth.
Video 5.10 The T [t] and D [d] Consonants

well as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/akx
position. This video goes over how to make the True T, but
also touches on the Flap T and Stop consonants.
Exceptions
Even though these rules are pretty strong, there are some exceptions, including:
into [n tu]: the T comes after an N and doesnt start a stressed syllable, so
the rules say we can drop it. But, we make this a True T.
seventy [sv n di]] and ninety [nan di]: the T comes after an N and
doesnt start a stressed syllable, so the rules say we can drop it. But, we
make these Flap Ts.
politics [pl tks]: the T comes between two vowel sounds and doesnt
start a stressed syllable, so the rules say its a Flap T. But, we make this a
True T.
Video 5.11 The Word SEVENTY

This T doesnt follow the rules.
engl.io/amz
Do these rules seem confusing? Dont panic. The more you study them, and the
more you pay attention to and imitate native speakers, the more natural they
become.
Test yourself: Non-Audio 5.1 How should the Ts be pronounced?

Based on the rules above, how should you pronounce these Ts? Answers in the
Answers Appendix.
a. True T b. Flap T c. Stop T
1. not alone
2. thought about
3. wait for
4. country
93
5. time
6. what
7. exact
8. part of
9. attack
10. football
Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.6 The Three T Sounds.

The first time, just listen to all of the words. Do you hear how the T is different?
Then practice. The True T has a sharp escape of air. What you hear on the file
is organized in this chart:
What you hear (each 2 times) What kind of T is it?

tt [t] True
time [tam] True
attain [ten] True
party [p di]] Flap
city [sd i] Flap
might [mat] Stop
definitely [df nt li] Stop
Audio 5.6 The Three T Sounds
engl.io/anb
Video 5.12 T Pronunciations

This video clarifies some of the rules you just learned about
when to make which T. engl.io/anc
Video 5.13 T Pronunciations Test

This video gives you examples can you identify which T
pronunciation you should use? engl.io/ane
94
Test Yourself: Audio 5.7 What T do you Hear?

Youll hear eight words or phrases. Each word either has a True T, Flap T, Stop
T, or No T at All. What word or phrase do you hear? What kind of T? Answers
in the Answers Appendix.
Audio 5.7 What T do you Hear?

engl.io/ang
Note: As youve learned, the pronunciation of a final T depends on the

context. Is it the end of a thought, or followed by a consonant? Americans
will make that a Stop T most of the time. Is it followed by a vowel or
diphthong? Americans will make that a Flap T most of the time. Is
someone speaking extra clearly, maybe into a microphone to a larger
group? Then maybe that person would make it a True T. In this book,
when were just studying words by themselves, I put the True T symbol.
But remember, in a sentence, youll likely want to make it a Flap T or Stop T
to make your sentence smoother.
The D Sounds
That was a lot of information on the T sound. What about the D sound? The D
sound [d] is similar to the T, but there are fewer rules and students naturally have
an easier time with it.
95
This it the same photo as above, for the True T sound. To make the [d] sound,
stop the air in your throat and bring the tongue tip to the roof of the mouth. You
can close your teeth, like for the T sound, but you can also make this sound
without the teeth closing all the way. Release the tongue with your voicethis is
a voiced consonantand go right into the next sound.
Like with the other stop consonants, the release is often skipped if the next
sound is a consonant or at the end of a thought or sentence. Some people ask
me the difference between the Stop T and a D thats not released. Great
question. They sound almost the same. With the D, however, there is a bit of a
voiced sound in the throat, even in the stop. So hid [hd] and hit [ht] sound
different to native speakers, even when the stop is not released. Another tip:
when two words are the same but one ending is voiced and the other unvoiced,
the vowel before the voiced ending is just a little longer. So hid is a little longer
than hit, buzz is a little bit longer than bus, and so on.
If the D comes between two vowels or diphthongs (body), or after an R and

before a vowel or diphthong (hardy), the air doesnt stop. These are the same
rules for the Flap T, and it sounds just like the Flap T. Its no longer a stop
consonant! The tongue simply flaps against the roof of the mouth. Because the
Flap T and the D between vowel sounds the same, these words sound the same:
matter [md ] madder [md ]
writer [a d] rider [a d]
Also because the Flap T sounds like the D between vowels, some phrases sound
the same:
Video 5.14 Homophone Phrases

Learn how phrases can sound the same even though they
are made up of different words. engl.io/anj
96
Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.8 The D [d] Consonant.

Youll hear D [d] at the beginning, middle, and end of words. What you hear on
the file is organized in this chart:
dd [d] Released
do [du] Released into vowel
die [da] Released into vowel
lady [le di] Released into vowel
medicine [md sn] Released into vowel
need [nid] Released
add [d] Released
Audio 5.8 The D [d] Consonant
engl.io/anm

[t]
t: tap [tp]
tt: attain [ten]
[d]
d: dog [dg]
dd: add [d]
That was a lot of information on the stop consonants. Now were getting
into consonants that arent stop consonants. These are sounds you can
hold out until you run out of breath. Its good to hold the consonant for
several seconds as youre practicing it to get your body used to the mouth
position and airflow.
97
The V [v] and F [f] Consonant Sounds
These consonants are fricatives, which means we pass the air through a narrow
channel made by the lips, tongue, or teeth. In this case, we bring the bottom lip
up to touch the bottom of the top front teeth and pass air through this pressed
space. The F is unvoiced, and the V is voiced.
A common mistake students make with these sounds is to curl in the bottom lip.
We dont want it to curl in, just lift. Its the inside of the bottom lip that should
touch the bottom of the top front teeth. The lips have to be loose, without
tension, so they can vibrate with the air. These sounds have no stop like the
consonants we studied so far. That means you can hold them out for several
seconds as you practice, to fine-tune your mouth position.
98
Video 5.15 The V [v] and F [f] Consonants

well as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/anp
position.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.9 The V [v] and F [f] Consonants.

What you hear (each 2 times)

vv [v], ff [f]
fail [fel]
vest [vst]
delivery [dlv i]
differ [df ]
leave [liv]
leaf [lif]
Audio 5.9 The V [v] and F [f] Consonants
engl.io/ans
In the audio file, pay special attention to the last two words, leave and leaf.
There are two things to notice:
1) The [v] at the end of leave is weak. Its not as clear or a strong as a
beginning V, like the [v] in vest. In these pairs, the voiced consonants are
weak at the end of words, and they sound almost unvoiced. But that doesnt
mean leave sounds just like leaf. Leaf has a strong voiced sound at the
end, where leave has a weak voiced or unvoiced sound at the end.
2) Leaf is a little shorter. As we said above, words with a final unvoiced sound
can be a little shorter than words that end in a voiced sound. So, bet will
sound shorter than bed.
These two points are true of all the paired consonants.

99

[f]
f: fun [fn]
ff: stuff [stf]
ph: phone [fon]
gh: laugh [lf]
[v]
v: love [lv]
vv: savvy [sv i]
The Z [z] and S [s] Consonants
These sounds are also fricatives. Here, the air passage is made narrow with the
teeth. The teeth come together, and the tongue can take one of two positions. It
can either point down, so it presses against the back of the bottom front teeth
100
(thats how I make it). Or, it can point up, where the tongue tip doesnt touch
anything, but is close to the roof of the mouth. The S is unvoiced and the Z is
voiced.
Video 5.16 The S [s] and Z [z] Consonants

well as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/anu
position.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.10 The Z [z] and S [s] Consonants.


zz [z], ss [s]
sun [sn]
zoo [zu]
dressy [ds i]
Brazil [bzl]
lays [lez]
lace [les]
Audio 5.10 The Z [z] and S [s] Consonants

engl.io/anw
Some of my students, especially Spanish speakers, make a very clear S [s]

sound for every S they see. But many Ss are pronounced as a Z: busy,
business, husband, cousin, as, these, president, always. Youll learn about when
the letter S is pronounced [z] for plurals in the next chapter. But there are lots of
words that arent plural nouns where the letter S makes the [z] sound, and you
just need to learn the pronunciation of them as you learn the word. There is no
rule.
101
Video 5.17 Letter S as the [z] Sound
engl.io/anz

[s]
s: sun [sn]
ss: mess [ms]
x: extra [k st]
cc: accept [kspt]
c: cell [sl]
sc: scent [snt]
[z]
z: zoo [zu]
zz: buzz [bz]
s: busy [bz i]
ss: dessert [dzt]
The SH [] and ZH [] Consonants

102
These sounds are also fricatives. Just like with S and Z, the teeth come together
for these sounds to constrict the air passage. The tongue tip lifts so the tip and
the front part of the tongue are very close to the front part of the roof of the
mouth, but not touching. The lips flare out. SH [] is unvoiced and ZH [] is
voiced.
Video 5.18 The SH [] and ZH [] Consonants

well as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/an2
position.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.11 The SH [] and ZH [] Consonants.


sh [], zh []
shame [em]
genre [n ]
official [f l]
Asia [e ]
stash [st]
beige [be]
Audio 5.11 The SH [] and ZH [] Consonants
engl.io/an4
103

[]
sh: ship [p]
sch: schwa [w]
ti: action [k n]
ci: crucial [ku l]
ssi: mission [m n]
s: sure []
[]
s: usual [ju u l]
ge: beige [be]
z: azure [ ]
The Two TH [] and [] Consonants

104
These sounds are also fricatives. Here, the air passage is constricted by the
tongue and the teeth. To make these sounds, the tongue tip needs to come
through the teeth, just a little bit.
These sounds are not in many common languages, and their unique tongue
position can make them a challenge. Students often substitute the F and V, the
S and Z, or the T and D sounds. Dont do that, get comfortable with these new
sounds. Know their position and how theyre different from F and V, S and Z,
and T and D.
If you usually substitute F and V: relax your bottom lip down. Lightly bring your
tongue tip through the teeth.
If you usually substitute S and Z: your tongue tip is in the wrong place. Youre
probably putting it behind the bottom front teeth. Instead, lift the tongue tip and
push it lightly through the front teeth.
If you usually substitute T and D: your tongue tip is in the wrong place. Youre
lifting it too high. Lower the tongue tip just a bit so you can lightly push it through
the front teeth.
Common mistakes: aside from the substitutions, one frequent problem is that
students put too much of their tongue through the teeth. It should just be the tip.
Also, some students make this a stop sound, with tension that releases. This
should not be a stop, there should be a continuous flow of air. The tongue has to
be relaxed for the air to flow freely.
Video 5.19 The Two TH [] and [] Consonants

well as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/an7
position.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.12 The Two TH [] and [] Consonants.

105

th [], th []
think [k]
this [s]
something [sm]
brother [b ]
with [w]
loathe [lo]
Audio 5.12 The Two TH [] and [] Consonants
engl.io/ap2
These two sounds are only spelled with the letters th:
[]
th: theme [im]
[]
th: this [s]
106
The CH [] and JJ [d] Consonants
These sounds are stops and fricatives, combining the tongue position of T [t] and
D [d] with the lip position of SH [] and ZH []. The tongue tip is at the roof of the
mouth, the teeth are together, and the lips flare. Because they are stop
consonants, you cannot hold them out the way you can hold out SH [] and ZH
[]. Stop the air in the throat with the tongue tip at the roof of the mouth, and
release the air by pulling the tongue down. Unlike the stop consonants, you
cannot skip the release on these words.
Video 5.20 The CH [] and JJ [d] Consonants

well as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/ap5
position.
107
Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.13 The CH [] and JJ [d] Consonants.


ch [], jj [d]
cheap [ip]
job [b]
kitchen [k n]
major [me ]
much [m]
age [e]
Audio 5.13 The CH [] and JJ [d] Consonants
engl.io/ap8
Some students have a hard time making CH [t] and SH [] sound different.
Remember that CH [t] has a stop in it. The lip position is the same, but for CH
[t] there is a movement of the tongue: it starts at the roof of the mouth, the
position for [t], then pulls down.
108
Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.14 SH [] vs. CH [].


wish [w], which [w]
chin [n], shin [n]
batch [b], bash [b]
ditch [d], dish [d]
Audio 5.14 SH [] vs. CH []
engl.io/apb

[]
ch: change [en]
tch: match [m]
[d]
j: jam [m]
g: gell [l]
dg: budget [b t]
di: soldier [sol ]
dj: adjective [ k tv]
Section 2: Non-Paired consonants

The next three consonants are nasal consonants. A consonant is a nasal
consonant when the soft palate is lowered. This allows air to pass through, into
the nasal passages. Many languages (Bengali, French, Hindi, Polish, Mandarin
Chinese, Portuguese, to name a few) have some nasal vowels, but English has
none. Just these three nasal consonants.
109
The M [m] Consonant
The M consonant is rather simplemost students dont have a hard time with it.
The lips press lightly together, and likely the jaw will drop just a little to get ready
for the next vowel or diphthong sound. You can hold this sound out continuously.
When you practice, hold it for 5 seconds and feel the buzz of the voice. This is a
voiced consonant.
Video 5.21 The M [m] Consonant

as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/apd
position.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.15 The M [m] Consonant.

Youll hear the M consonant at the beginning, middle, and end of words. What
110

mm [m]
my [ma]
human [hju mn]
some [sm]
Audio 5.15 The M [m] Consonant
engl.io/apf
Youll see this sound spelled two ways in American English.

m: man [mn]
mm: yummy [jm i]
The NG [] Consonant
111
This nasal sound is a little different from [m] and [n]: it doesnt start any words in
American English. It only comes in the middle (singer) or at the end of a word
(ring). Its made by lifting the back part of the tongue to touch the lowered soft
palate. The tongue tip stays down in the front, but it might not be quite touching
the back of the bottom front teeth. Jaw drop and lip position dont affect this
sound, as long as the tongue is in the right position.
Because of the -ing [] form of verbs, this is a very common ending sound. In
some regions of the US, people often change the -ing ending from [] to [n]. I
suggest my students stick with the [] pronunciation, except in the most casual
and common phrases (What are you doing? Whatcha doin? [wdo n]).
The letters ng can be confusing. We call this the NG [] sound, but the letters
ng often make different sounds. Also, n with k can make the NG [], but not
always:
ng = [nd]: change [tend], angel [en l]
ng = [ng]: unglue [nglu], engaged [nged]
ng = [g]: angle [ gl], English [ gl]
nk = [k]: ankle [ kl], bank [bk]
nk = [nk]: unkept [nkpt], unkind [nkand] (un is a prefix)
As with all words in English, youll have to learn the pronunciation as you learn
the word.
Video 5.22 The NG [] Consonant

as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/aph
position.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.16 The NG [] Consonant.

Youll hear the NG consonant at the beginning, middle, and end of words. What
112

ng []
song [s]
English [ gl]]
young [j]
Audio 5.16 The NG [] Consonant
engl.io/apk

ng: thing []
n: thank [k]
The N [n] Consonant

This is the hardest of the three nasal consonants for many of my students. When
it comes at the end of a word, many students (for example, those from China or
Brazil), want to make the NG sound instead.
113
N is very different from NG. It is made with the front of the tongue at the front of
the mouth. Lift the tongue so it is flat and widethis means the rest of the
tongue is relaxed. The top of the front of the tongue, not the tip, will touch the
roof of the mouth. The tip of the tongue will be just behind the top front teeth.
N [n] at the end of a word gives students the hardest time. Sometimes students
make the N [n] the right way, with the front part of the tongue at the roof of the
mouth, but it still sounds like NG []. Why? This happens because the back part
of the tongue lifts too. Think of keeping the back of the tongue as wide as
possible. That will help keep it lower. It can also help to think of the tongue
position for the D [d] when making the N [n].
Video 5.23 The N [n] Consonant

as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/apm
position.
114
Video 5.24 How to Make N [n], Relating to D [d]

This method often helps students relax the back of the
tongue. engl.io/app
Video 5.25 N [n] vs. NG []

This video explains the difference in tongue positions for
these two consonants. engl.io/aps
Video 5.26 N [n] vs. NG [] Tes

In this video, we test your ability to identify the ending sound
based on the position of the tongue. engl.io/apv
Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.17 The N [n] Consonant.

Youll hear the N consonant at the beginning, middle, and end of words. What

n [n]
need [nid]
down [dan]
undone [ndn]
Audio 5.17 The N [n] Consonant
engl.io/apx
Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.18 N [n] vs. NG [].

Youll hear minimal pairs for the N and NG consonants. What you hear on the
file is organized in this chart:
115

n [n], ng []
lawn [ln], long [l]
sun [sn], sung [s]
rain [en], rang [] (which sounds like [e])
Audio 5.18 N [n] vs. NG []
engl.io/apz
Test Yourself: Audio 5.19 N [n] vs. NG [] Test.

Appendix.
Audio 5.19 N [n] vs. NG [] Test

1. [n] or []
2. keen [n] or king []
3. sane [n] or sang []
4. gone [n] or gong [] engl.io/ar1
5. run [n] or wrung []

n: no [no]
nn: inn [n]
kn: know [no]
gn: gnaw [n]
116
The H [h] Consonant
The H consonant is unique because it will never end a word. Though there are
words in American English that end in the letter H (fish [f], with [w], high [ha],
which [w], though [o]), no words end in the [h] sound. It only occurs at the
beginning of a word (happy) or in the middle (unhappy).
The H sound is simply made by passing air through a slightly constricted throat.
If you ran hard, you would be breathing hard, panting. This sound is a very light,
easy pant.
Video 5.27 The H [h] Consonant

as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/ar3
position.
117
Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.20 The H [h] Consonant.

Youll hear the H consonant at the beginning and middle of words. What you
hear on the file is organized in this chart:

h [h]
hi [ha]
ahead [ehd]
neighborhood [ne bhd]
Audio 5.20 The H [h] Consonant
engl.io/ar5

h: hi [ha]
wh: whole [hol]
The Y [ j ] Consonant
118
This sound is unique because its a part of the EW as in FEW Diphthong (use),
but its also a consonant sound (yes). This consonant is a glide consonant,
which is actually considered a semi-vowel. The glide consonants help in linking,
which youll learn about in Chapter 8. No words in English end in this sound,
though many end in the letter Y (they [e], by [ba], say [se]). This sound is
only at the beginning of a word (your) or, rarely, in the middle (unyielding).
To make this sound, the tip of the tongue pushes the back of the bottom front
teeth. The jaw drops just a little bit and there is a little tightening in the throat.
The middle part of the tongue lifts and presses against the roof of the mouth in
an up and forward motion.
Video 5.28 The Y [j] Consonant

as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/ar8
position.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.21 The Y [j] Consonant.

Youll hear the Y consonant at the beginning and middle of words. What you
y [j]
yes [js]
year [j]
unyielding [njil d]
Audio 5.21 The Y [j] Consonant
engl.io/arb
119
This sound is only spelled with the letter Y:

y: yes [js]
The W [w] Consonant
W [w] is the other glide consonant in American English. No words in English end
in this sound, though many end in the letter (know [no], new [nu], law [l]). This
sound is only at the beginning of a word (water), or in the middle (unwind).
To make the W [w] consonant, the lips must round. There is a little tightening in
the throat, just like the glide consonant Y. The tongue tip is forward, lightly
touching the back of the bottom front teeth. The back part of the tongue
stretches up towards the soft palate.
120
Video 5.29 The W [w] Consonant

as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/are
position.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.22 The W [w] Consonant.

Youll hear the W consonant at the beginning and middle of words. What you

w [w]
west [wst]
walk [wk]
unwind [nwand]
Audio 5.22 The W [w] Consonant
engl.io/arf

w: was [wz]
o: one [wn]
121
The R [] Consonant
This is one of the hardest sounds for non-native speakers to make. Its also very
hard to teach, because the sound is mostly defined by the tonguebut because
of the jaw and lip position, you cant see the tongue.
If you stick your tongue out as far as you can, youre making it long and skinnier.
For the R, you want to do the opposite, making it short and fatter. Do this by
pulling the tongue back and up. The jaw only needs to drop a little bit for this
sound: more of a relaxation than a drop, really. The middle part of the tongue
can touch the middle part of the roof of the mouth, or the teeth on the upper sides
of the mouth. Corners of the lips come in so the lips can flare.
If youre having a hard time with this sound, try starting with the mouth at rest.
With your mouth closed, lift the tongue so its touching the roof of the mouth, but
leave the tongue tip down so its touching the back of the bottom front teeth. You
122
should feel two contact points: the tongue tip touching the back of the bottom
front teeth, and the middle part of the tongue touching the roof of the mouth. Let
your jaw relax to drop a little, and slide the part of your tongue that is touching
the roof of the mouth back. Its still touching the roof of the mouth, just further
back now. This will pull the tip up, so its no longer touching the back of the
bottom front teeth. It wont be touching anything. Hold that position, feel it.
Then, flare the lips, and try the sound.
There is another position that can make the R sound. Compare the positions
below. The one on the left is the one you just studied (this is the way I make the
R). The one on the right is also a correct way to make this sound.
To make the R sound this way, curl the tip of the tongue up. It still shouldnt
touch anything. Flare your lips to help shape the sound.
123
Common mistake: Some students just make the R sound in their own
language, and for many languages this sounds like the D or Flap T in
American English. Its made by bouncing the front part of the tongue
against the roof of the mouth. This is a sound that cant be held out, but
the American English R [] can be held out. Try to make the R sound.
Can you hold it out continuously? If not, you might be making it by
flapping the front of the tongue on the roof of the mouth. This will affect
the character of your English, making it more choppy and less smooth.
This will make it sound accented. There will be some exercises for
holding out the R in the next chapter on consonant clusters. If you tend to
flap the tongue for the R, always practice the R by holding it out in any
words youre working on.
Video 5.30 The R [] Consonant

as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/arh
position.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.23 The R [] Consonant.

Youll hear the R consonant at the beginning, middle, and end of words. What

r []
right [at]
area [ i ]
car [k]
Audio 5.23 The R [] Consonant
engl.io/arj
124
Sometimes people make a W [w] sound instead of an R []. This happens when
the front of the tongue stays down and the back lifts. To make the R sound, do
the opposite. Lift the tongue tip so it doesnt touch anything.
Video 5.31 R [] vs. W [w]

See the difference in position and hear the difference in
sound. engl.io/arm
Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.24 R [] vs. W [w].

Youll hear minimal pairs for the R and W consonants in the beginning position.

r [], w [w]
rest [st], west [wst]
rag [g], wag [wg]
ray [e], way [we]
Audio 5.24 R [] vs. W [w]
engl.io/arp
125
Test Yourself: Audio 5.25 R [] vs. W [w] Test. Youll hear five words or
sounds in the minimal pairs below. Youre only hearing one of the words (youll
hear it twice), which one is it? Answers in the Answers Appendix.
Audio 5.25 R [] vs. W [w] Test

1. [] or [w]
2. rut [] or what [w]
3. raid [] or weighed [w] engl.io/arr
4. ring [] or wing [w]
5. rail [] or wail [w]

r: run [n]
rr: array [e]
The L [l] Consonant

126
The L consonant has two types, Dark and Light. Unfortunately, dictionaries use
only one IPA symbol [l] for the two kinds, so youll need to learn when to make a
Light L and when to make a Dark L.
If an L comes before the vowel or diphthong in a syllable, then its a Light L. This
applies to the L in lie [la], because it comes before the AI as in BUY diphthong.
It also applies to glass [gls], because it comes before the AA as in BAT sound.
It also applies to allow [la], because it is in the second syllable, and comes
before the diphthong (OW as in NOW) in that syllable.
The Light L is made by lifting the tongue so the tip is pointed up, touching the
roof of the mouth just behind the top front teeth. Alternately, some people make
this by pressing the tongue tip up against the bottom of the top front teeth. Then
it looks like a TH. In the photo below, the position on the left is the L with the
tongue tip at the roof of the mouth. On the right, you can see the tongue tip
coming through the teeth so it can press against the bottom of the top teeth.
Both will make the same L sound.
The L is a Dark L if it comes after the vowel or diphthong in a syllable. This

applies to the L in feel [fil], which comes after the EE as in SHE vowel, and both
L sounds in syllable [sl bl]. In the first syllable, the L comes after the IH as
in SIT vowel, and in the last syllable, it comes after the schwa.
The Dark L can get a little confusing because it has two parts:
Part 1: The Dark Part.

This is made by pulling the back part of the tongue back. The tip stays forward,
so the tip is touching the back of the bottom front teeth. Its also flat in the mouth,
127
not lifted. But the back part stretches back. This might feel a little funny, and it
makes a funny sound. This is the dark sound.
Part 2: The Finish.

This is made just like the Light L, lifting the tongue tip to the roof of the mouth.
Most of the time, Americans will leave this part out and just make the Dark
part. The Dark part defines the Dark L more than the finish. I do this, for
example, with my name. I just pull the back part of my tongue back, the tongue
tip stays down, Rachel [e tl]. Leaving out the finish and just making the Dark
part of the Dark L will help you make this sound more simply and quickly.
Remember, as you learned in Chapter 3, the L is a syllabic consonant. That

means that when its in a syllable with the schwa, you dont need to make a
schwa sound, just make the dark sound (mumble [mm bl], able [e bl]).
Video 5.32 The L [l] Consonant

as up-close, slow motion speech to study the mouth engl.io/aru
position. In it, I discuss both the Light and Dark L.
128
Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.26 The L [l] Consonant.

Youll hear the L consonant at the beginning and end of words both light and
dark. What you hear on the file is organized in this chart:
What you hear (each 2 times) Light or Dark L?

l [l], l [l] Light, Dark
lean [lin] Light
lip [lp] Light
pull [pl] Dark
feel [fil] Dark
Audio 5.26 The L [l] Consonant
engl.io/arw
When trying to make a Dark L, some non-native speakers make the OH as in NO

[o] diphthong instead. The OH as in NO diphthong is made at the front of the
mouth, with the lips rounding. For the Dark L, let the lips relax. This sound is
made at the back of the mouth, when the back of the tongue pulls back.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.27 L [l] vs. OH [o].

Youll hear minimal pairs for the L consonant and OH diphthong in the ending
position. There are not many of these minimal pairs in English that involve real
words so the last one is not a word in American English, but a
mispronunciation. What you hear on the file is organized in this chart:
129

l [l], oh [o]
real [i l], Rio [i o]
kneel [nil], neo- [ni o]
special [sp l], speci-o [sp o](not a word!)
Audio 5.27 L [l] vs. OH [o]
engl.io/arz
Another common mistake is mixing up L [l] and R []. This happens at the
beginning of words, end of words, and in consonant clusters. These sounds look
different from both the side and the front, so you can check your mouth position
in a mirror.
As you work with words with Rs and Ls, focus on the tongue position. Both of
these sounds can be held out, so always hold them out for 3 or 4 seconds as
youre working on complicated words. This will solidify the correct position.
Sometimes it even helps to hold your finger up to your cheek and make the
shape of the tongue with your finger. Make the connection between the sound
and the correct tongue position strong.
130
Listen + Repeat: Audio 5.28 R [] vs. L [l].

Youll hear minimal pairs for the R and L consonants, at the beginning of words,
in clusters, and at the end of words. What you hear on the file is organized in
this chart:
What you hear (each 2 times) Light or Dark L?

r [], l [l] Light L
wrong [], long [l] Light L
road [od], load [lod] Light L
flame [flem], frame [fem] Light L, cluster
ply [pla], pry [pa] Light L, cluster
title [ta dl], tighter [ta d] Dark L
male [mel], mayor [me ] Dark L
Audio 5.28 R [] vs. L [l]
engl.io/as2
Video 5.33 Comparing R [] and L [l]

See the different positions for making these sounds.
engl.io/as4
Video 5.34 Listen and Repeat, R [] and L [l]

Test yourself: Can you identify the right sound based on
what you see? engl.io/as7
Test Yourself: Audio 5.29 R [] vs. L [l] Test.

Appendix.
131
Audio 5.29 R [] vs. L [l] Test

1. [] or [l]
2. rake [] or lake [l]
3. fry [] or fly [l] engl.io/as9
4. green [] or glean [l]
5. litter [] or little [l]

l: love [lv]
ll: really [i li]
132
Test Yourself: Non-Audio 5.2 Match the Symbol to the Sound.

Make sure youre familiar with the symbols of the American consonants. Match
the sound with the symbol. Answers in the Answers Appendix.
1. B
a. [t]
2. P
b. [l]
3. G
c. [s]
4. K
d. []
5. D
e. [d]
6. T
f. [m]
7. F
g. [h]
8. V
h. []
9. S
i. [b]
10. Z
j. [k]
11. SH
k. []
12. ZH
l. [v]
13. Unvoiced TH
m. []
14. Voiced TH
n. [p]
15. CH
o. [g]
16. J
p. [w]
17. M
q. []
18. N
r. [d]
19. NG
s. []
20. H
t. [t]
21. Y
u. [j]
22. W
v. [f]
23. R
w. [z]
24. L
x. [n]
Test Yourself: Non-Audio 5.3 Which are American English IPA

Symbols?
Which symbols do not represent a vowel, diphthong, or consonant sound in
American English? Answers in the Answers Appendix.
1. [] 2. [o] 3. [] 4. [] 5. [ ] 6. [f] 7. [] 8. [] 9. [] 10. [i]
11. [] 12. [] 13. [] 14. [q] 15. [H] 16. [] 17. [] 18. [e] 19.
[] 20. [ ]
133
Test Yourself: Audio 5.30 What Consonant do you Hear?

Youll hear fifteen consonant sounds, each twice. Can you tell which one your
hearing? Answers in the Answers Appendix.
Audio 5.30 What Consonant do you Hear?

engl.io/asc
134
Chapter 6
Consonant Clusters
Consonant clusters (also called consonant blends) are groups of two or more
consonant sounds together with no vowel or diphthong between. They can occur
at the beginning (street [stit]), middle (extra [k st]), and end of a word (exact
[gzkt]).
Its important to note that were talking about sounds, not letters. Thin does not
begin with a consonant cluster even though it begins with two consonant letters,
T and H. Those two letters make just one sound, [].
Beginning Consonant Clusters
Beginning clusters can have two or three sounds.
Initial two-sound consonant clusters:

[bl] blow [blo]
[b] break [bek]
[dw] dwell [dwl]
[d] drip [dp]
[kl] clean [klin]
[k] crib [kb], Christmas [ks ms]
[kw] quick [kwk]
[fl] flow [flo]
[f] friend [fnd], phrase [fez]
135
[gl] glass [gls]

[g] great [get]
[pl] please [pliz]
[p] price [pas]
[sf] sphere [sf]
[sk] ski [ski], score [sk], school [skul], square [skw]
[sl] slip [slp]
[sm] smell [sml]
[sn] snow [sno]
[sp] speak [spik]
[st] stem [stm]
[sw] swift [swft]
[] shred [d]
[t] tree [ti]
[tw] twin [twn]
[] three [i]]
Initial three-sound consonant clusters:

[st] street [stit]
[sp] spring [sp]
[sk] scream [skim]
[spl] splash [spl]
[skw] square [skw]
If any of the clusters are difficult for you, break them down into their two separate
sounds and practice them with a pause, for example, ss ff. Do this several
times, and think about what you have to change in your mouth during the pause
to make the second sound. Continue to make the sounds, shortening the pause
between. Hold out each sound longer than you should. Then practice making
the transition with no pause. Do it in slow motion. Its important to always
practice tricky transitions slowly, holding out the sound before and after.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 6.1 Beginning Clusters.

Imitate all of the beginning two-sound and three-sound clusters. They are in the
same order as above, followed by the example word given.
Audio 6.1 Beginning Clusters
engl.io/at1
136
Focus: R-Clusters
R [] is one of the hardest consonants for non-native speakers, so it follows that
R-clusters can be challenging. When you begin working with the R-clusters, hold
out the R in the word as you practice. That will give you time to adjust if
necessary, and feel the right position. Practice holding it out while you slowly
count to three in your head: prrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrize. Remember, if you cant do it
right slowly, you wont be able to do it right quickly. Slow it down until its right;
give yourself time to prefect the tongue movement and lip rounding.
Another cluster that gives especially my Chinese students difficulty is the TR

cluster. The teeth are together and the tongue tip starts forward for the T, then it
pulls back for the R as the teeth part. If the tongue doesnt move, it doesnt
sound right.
Video 6.1 Holding Out the R Sound

You will make a better R sound if you practice holding it out.
engl.io/at3
Video 6.2 How to Make the SHR Cluster

Practice the [] cluster slowly to solidify your R tongue
position. engl.io/at6
Video 6.3 How to Make the TR Cluster

A lot of students, especially from China, tend to drop the R
sound in this cluster. engl.io/at8
Tree, trial, train. When Americans say these words, they often sound like chree,
chrial, chrain. Drip and drop can sound like jrip and jrop. Why? It has to
do with the lip position of the R. The tongue position for [t] and [d] is very similar
to the tongue position for CH [t] and J [d]. The lip position for the [] is similar to
the lip position for [t] and [d]. So when we round the lips for the R early, as we
often do, it changes [t] to [t] and [d] to [d].
Video 6.4 TR Sounding like CHR

This video shows you why train sounds like chrain.
engl.io/ata
137
Listen + Repeat: Audio 6.2 R Clusters.

It helps, when working with the R sound and R clusters, to hold out the sound.
Hold the R sound for several seconds. Theres no such thing as too long! Youll
hear each word three times, the second time with a long R. Practice every word
with an R this way.
Audio 6.2 R Clusters

brag [bg]
credit [kd t|] engl.io/atc
problem [pb lm]
free [fi]
Focus: Voiced or Unvoiced Consonants?

Students ask about consonant clusters where the second sound is unvoiced
(street [stit], speak [spik], ski [ski], for example). The question is, is that second
sound really unvoiced? Sometimes speak can sound like sbeak. My answer:
Its ok for it to sound a little voiced. Thats because the voice of the next sound
is blending with that consonant, so it no longer sounds like a clear unvoiced
consonant. I tell my students to keep that sound light. If you make a clear,
strong B sound, instead of P, then it wont sound right. This concept is discussed
in the second half of the video above, TR sounding like CHR.
Focus: [kw] Cluster

Just like with the R-clusters, you really have to round your lips for the second
sound of this beginning consonant cluster. Some students skip this step, and
words like quick [kwk] end up sounding like kick [kk]. The tongue tip does not
need to move between these two sounds, so you only have to focus on rounding
the lips. Exception: its ok to drop the [w] sound in quarter [kw d] so it
sounds like [k d]. Most Americans do!
Video 6.5 How to Make the [kw] Cluster

Take the time to round your lips.
engl.io/atf
Video 6.6 How to Pronounce Quarter

Learn the shortcut of dropping the [w] sound but dont do
it for other words! engl.io/ads
138
Focus: S-Clusters
Speakers of Spanish and Portuguese can have a tough time with S-clusters.
These combinations dont exist at the beginning of words in those languages,
and so those students want to put a vowel sound before. If Spanish or
Portuguese is your native language, try to break that habit. Words that begin
with S + a vowel sound are not uncommon, so I know you can do it!
Video 6.7 How to Pronounce S-Clusters

Begin with a clean S sound, no vowel before it.
engl.io/atk
Middle and Ending Consonant Clusters

Though we can list the beginning consonant clusters, there are too many
possibilities for clusters in the middle of and at the end of a word. They can be
two-sound clusters (felt [flt]), three-sound clusters (restroom [st um]), four-
sound clusters (offspring [f sp]), five-sound clusters (silkscreen [slk skin]).
You can see how, especially as we get into compound words like offspring and
silkscreen, the consonants can really add up.
What makes them even more difficult is that some of these clusters involve stop
consonants. As you learned in the previous chapter, we often leave off the
release of these sounds, especially [t], so they sound like stops of air more than
actual sounds. The rule is, if the stop consonant is followed by another
consonant, we tend to not release it. So meltdown will sound like mel[quick
stop of air]down. Theres no clear L-T-D cluster there.
Ive not seen a complete list of all possible middle and ending consonant clusters
in American English in any resource I checked. Below is a list of many, but
surely not all.
[d] width [wd]

[dv] advance [dvns]
[kp] backpack [bkpk]
[kt] fact [fkt]
[ft] left [lft]
[lb] bulb [blb]
[ld] hold [hold]
[ld] bulge [bl]
[lf] self [slf]
[lk] milk [mlk]
[lm] film [flm]
139
[lp] help [hlp]

[ls] pulse [pls]
[lt] melt [mlt]
[lt] mulch [ml]
[l] filth [fl]
[lv] solve [slv]
[mf] triumph [ta mf]
[mp] limp [lmp]
[nd] mind [mand]
[nd] change [en]
[nt] mint [mnt]
[nt] pinch [pn]
[n] month [mn]
[nz] lens [lnz]
[nzm] transmission [tnsm n]
[k] pink [pk]
[gl] English [ gl]
[] length [l]
[b] yearbook [jbk]
[] fortune [f n]
[ps] snaps [snps]
[p] depth [dp]
[] birth [b]
[sk] risk [sk]
[sp] grasp [gsp]
[st] least [list]
[s] question [kws n]
Video 6.8 Practice Tip: NTH Cluster

Tom teaches you how to work on this cluster.
engl.io/atm
Video 6.9 How to Make the TS Sound

Learn a shortcut to make these two sounds together, like in
the words: lets, whats, thats, its engl.io/atp
140
Video 6.10 Dropping T and D between Consonants

Have you ever noticed how most people dont say the D in
grandma? engl.io/akv
Video 6.11 Study: Ending T Clusters in Real English

Notice when the T in an ending cluster is dropped and when
its pronounced. engl.io/atu
Listen + Repeat: Audio 6.3 Middle and Ending Clusters.

Youll hear all of the middle and ending consonant clusters in the list above.
They are in order, followed by the example word given.
Audio 6.3 Middle and Ending Clusters
engl.io/atw
Plural Nouns & -ed Endings

Making a plural noun, or adding an -ed ending to make a regular verb past tense,
often makes a consonant cluster at the end of the word. Very few concepts in
American English pronunciation have clear rules, but here, youre in luck. We
have firm pronunciation rules for adding -s/-es and -ed.
Regular Plural Nouns

When is the s pronounced [s] and when [z]? There are three cases to know.
The chart below separates the word endings by voiced, unvoiced, and special
cases. Remember that all vowels and diphthongs are voiced, so they all
follow the rule for a voiced ending, where the plural adds a [z] sound.
Were talking about final sounds, not final letters. Whats important is that the
word tube [tub], ends in the consonant sound [b], not the vowel letter e.
141
If the final sound is Then the plural pronunciation is

Voiced s = [z]
[b] cube + s [kjubz]
[d] bed + s [bdz]
[g] egg + s [gz]
[v] executive + s [gzk j dvz]
[m] bomb + s [bmz]
[n] son + s [snz]
[] song + s [sz]
[l] pill + s [plz]
[] flower + s [fla z]
[] lathe + s [lez]
Unvoiced s = [s]
[p] tip + s [tps]
[t] bit + s [bts]
[k] trick + s [tks]
[f] roof + s* [ufs]
[] month + s [mns]
Special Cases s or es = [z]

[s] glass + es [gls z]
[z] size + s [saz z]
[] wish + es [w z]
[] garage + s [g z]
[] match + es [m z]
[d] page + s [pe z]
* Note: Plurals of words that end in -f or -fe usually change: drop the -f or -fe,
add -ves. Example: leaf [lif] leaves [livz].
In the Special Cases category, notice how the ending is not just a consonant
sound [s] or [z], but a vowel sound as well: [z]. This means that the plural
ending does not just add a sound, but a new syllable. This syllable is always
unstressed, so make it very short.
Video 6.12 How to Pronounce Plural Nouns

The rules for regular plural nouns.
engl.io/atz
142
Listen + Repeat: Audio 6.4 Plural Nouns.

Youll hear example words from each of the categories above, twice. Notice how
the ending in glasses and sizes adds an extra syllable. Notice also how the [z]
ending is not a strong [z] like at the beginning of a word, but a weak sound.
Audio 6.4 Plural Nouns

[z]: cubes, beds
[s]: tips, bits engl.io/au2
[z]: glasses, sizes
Remember these rules are for regular plural nouns, where you add -s or -es.
There are, of course, some irregular nouns that do their own thing. For example:
child children
man men
moose moose
nucleus nuclei
mouse mice
Test Yourself: Non-Audio 6.1 How is the Plural Ending Pronounced?

Using the rules above, figure out the right plural ending. Answers in the Answers
Appendix.
a. [z] b. [s] c. [z]
1. rose
2. track
3. town
4. plant
5. plough
6. bath
7. sofa
8. wage
9. house
10. room
Regular -ed Endings

Youll notice this chart looks similar to the chart above, but some of the sounds
have moved. Again, all vowels and diphthongs are voiced, so any verb ending in
those sounds will follow the rule for voiced sounds, and the -ed ending is
pronounced [d]. The rules here are based on the final sound of the verb in
infinitive form.
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If the final sound is Then the regular -ed ending is

Voiced d or ed = [d]
[b] rob (+ b) + ed [bd]
[g] wrong + ed [d]
[v] love + d [lvd]
[m] claim + ed [klemd]
[n] lean + ed [lind]
[] long + ed [ld]
[l] stumble + d [stm bld]
[] dare + d [dd]
[] bathe + d [bed]
[z] gaze + d [gezd]
[d] manage + d [mn d]
[] camouflage + d [km fld]
Unvoiced ed = [t]
[p] camp + ed [kmpt]
[k] pick + ed [pkt]
[f] sniff + ed [snft]
[s] miss + ed [mst]
[] snatch + ed [snt]
[] wash + ed [wt]
[] sleuth + ed [slut]
Special cases ed = [d]

[t] hunt + ed [hn td]
[d] land + ed [ln dd]
Again, the Special Cases category has a different ending. Here the -ed is not
just a sound, [t] or [d], but an additional syllable.
Video 6.13 How to Pronounce -ed Endings

The rules for regular verbs in the past tense.
engl.io/au4
144
Listen + Repeat: Audio 6.5 Regular Past Tense.

Youll hear example words from each of the categories above, twice. Notice how
the ending in hunted and landed adds an extra syllable.
Audio 6.5 Regular Past Tense

[d]: loved, robbed
[t]: camped, picked engl.io/au7
[d]: hunted, landed
Test Yourself: Non-Audio 6.2 How is the -ed Ending Pronounced?

Based on the rules above, figure out the right -ed ending for these words.
Answers in the Answers Appendix.
a. [d] b. [t] c. [d]
1. stuff
2. wish
3. stay
4. hand
5. lift
6. care
7. rush
8. wander
9. match
10. bunt
Weve covered a lot already, but now its time to dive into my favorite part of
American English pronunciation: rhythm and intonation!
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Chapter 7
Rhythm and Intonation: Multi-Syllable Words
So far we have covered only very basic words, mostly 1-2 syllables. Many of the
most common words in English are only 1-2 syllables. (Actually, in that last
sentence, only syllables had more than two syllables!) Even so, being
comfortable with longer words and saying them smoothly and with the right
rhythm and intonation is important for being easily understood and
communicating in American English.
Youve already seen this chart in Chapter Two, but its important. Remember,
stress is more complex than just long and short syllables.
Stressed Unstressed
symbol [] [] or no marking
length longer shorter
intonation (or pitch or Curve up, then down Flatter pitch, generally
melody) lower than stressed
syllables
energy Full engagement of Less energy/air in the
voice, can be a little voice (can sound crackly
louder at the end of a sentence)
In the text of this book

On-screen text in videos DA da
146
As you start to practice your pronunciation on longer words and sentences, its
important to keep in mind the idea of intonation and flow. The pitch of an
unstressed syllable should flow into the stressed syllable, and vice versa. So a
three-syllable word, with stress on the second syllable, should feel like this:
not like this:
Smooth and connected. Some languages are angular, but English is not. Think
instead of softness. The voice is always moving up or down, never flat. Thats
where exercises like the uh patterns from Chapter Two come in handyto
practice a smooth vocal line.
Lets start with three-syllable words. As you already know, multi-syllable words in
English can only have one syllable that has primary stress. That means we have
three options for stress: DA-da-da, da-DA-da, da-da-DA.
First syllable stress: DA-da-da
Middle syllable stress: da-DA-da

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Last syllable stress: da-da-DA
You can see the intonation of the voice rises smoothly towards and falls away
from a stressed syllable. Have these images in mind as you practice 3-syllable
words. When I have students that tend towards choppy and disconnected
speech, I have them move their arm in this smooth gesture as they practice
words out loud. It really does help!
Video 7.1 Three-Syllable Words

Study the three kinds of three-syllable words, and hear
several examples for each. engl.io/av1
Video 7.2 Three-Syllable Words Listening

Comprehension
When you hear a three-syllable word, can you identify which engl.io/av3
syllable is stressed?
Some words have syllables that have secondary stress, marked by this symbol:
[]. These arent nearly as important as the syllable with primary stress. The
syllable with primary stress anchors the word. A syllable with secondary stress
will have a little of the up-down shape of the voice, but its not so different from
an unstressed syllable. If youre not sure what to do about them, just make them
like the unstressed syllables.
If you come from a language where every syllable is the same length, it will help
to practice stressed and unstressed syllables separately. You already know from
Chapter Two how to stress a syllable: a little curve up then down in the voice,
more length, more volume.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 7.1 3-Syllable Words.

Youll hear the words on the UH pattern and da. Then youll hear the stressed
syllable on its own, and the unstressed syllables on their own. Notice how the
unstressed syllables are much shorter, less clear, and quieter. At the end, put all
of the parts together for a perfectly pronounced word! Practice all of the words
below the same way, separating out the syllables. Make sure your stressed
148
syllables are clear, and your unstressed syllables are very fast. This will mean
simplifying the movements of the mouth, allowing the unstressed syllables to be
less clear.
Audio 7.1 3-Syllable Words

1. absolute [b slut]
2. everyday [v ride]
3. computer [kmpju d] engl.io/av5
4. beautiful [bju d fl]
5. comfortable [kmf d bl]
da-da-DA 3rd syllable da-DA-da 2nd syllable DA-da-da 1st syllable

(or Da-da-DA)
absolute [b slut] burrito* [bi do] beautiful* [bju d fl]
eighty-one [e diwn] computer [kmpju d] comfortable* [kmf d bl]
everyday [v ride] December [dsm b] definite [d f nt]
fiance [fi nse] imagine [m n] general [dn l]
overcook [ov kk] important [mpt nt] graduate* [g du t]
overflow (v.) [ov flo] November [novm b] interview* [n t vju]
recommend [k mnd] October [kto b] neighborhood [ne b hd]
referee [f i] procedure* [psi d] president [p z dnt]
thirty-nine [ dinan] September [sptm b] privacy [pa v si]
understand [n dstnd] tomorrow* [tm o] probably* [p b bli]
volunteer [vl nt] vacation* [veke n] yesterday* [js t de]
Note: All words in this chapter followed by * are part of the Word of the
Week series. This means there is a video that goes over, in depth, the
pronunciation of each of these words. See the chart at the end of the
chapter for links to those videos.
When I work with advanced students, one of the final adjustments that we make
is making their short syllables really short. Often that is the last thing they need
to do to sound really natural when speaking American English. Keep this in mind
every time you drill a multi-syllable word. How short can you make the short
syllables? How simple? Remember, the more relaxed your mouth and neck are,
the more easily and quickly you can make these unstressed syllables. Practicing
the unstressed syllables on their own, like in Audio 7.1, is valuable.
149
Test Yourself: Audio 7.2 3-Syllable Words Test.

Which syllable is most stressed in the ten 3-syllable words you hear? Youll hear
each word twice. Answers in the Answers Appendix.
a. first DA-da-da b. second da-DA-da c. third da-da-DA
Audio 7.2 3-Syllable Words Test
engl.io/av8
Now that you know how to practice the rhythm of words by breaking down the
syllables, lets learn some rules to help you know which syllable has primary
stress in a word.
Two-Syllable Words
Most two-syllable nouns and adjectives will have stress on the first syllable:
Nouns: present [p znt], coffee* [k fi], money [m ni], Google* [gu gl]
Adjectives: present [p znt], sorry* [s i], funny [f ni], awkward [k wd]
Most two-syllable verbs will have stress on the last syllable:

Verbs: present [pznt], decide [dsad], arrange [end], divide [dvad]
Did you notice how present was listed for all three? There are words that can
be a noun, verb, and sometimes an adjective too! Stress helps determine which
meaning is correct. Other examples:
Address noun [ ds]

address verb [drs]
produce noun [po dus]

produce verb [pdus]
object noun [b dkt]

object verb [bdkt]
record noun [k d]
record verb [kd]
perfect noun [p fkt]

perfect verb [pfkt]
150
project noun [pd kt]

project verb [pdkt]
This is not limited to two-syllable words. Did you notice that above, for three-
syllable words with stress on the last syllable, I put (v.) after overflow? Thats
because the stress is different for the noun:
overflow verb [ov flo]
overflow noun [ov flo]
These are heteronyms. Heteronyms are words that are spelled the same, but
have different meanings and pronunciations.
Video 7.3 Heteronyms

Study other heteronyms to get used to this concept.
engl.io/ava
Listen + Repeat: Audio 7.3 Verbs vs. Nouns.

Listen to the two examples on the audio file below. Youll hear each set twice.
Can you hear the different stress?
Audio 7.3 Verbs vs. Nouns

present (noun - first syllable stress), present (verb - second
syllable stress) engl.io/avd
overflow (noun - first syllable stress), overflow (verb -
second syllable stress)
Suffixes
There are several word endings (suffixes) that determine the stress of a word.
Below, some of these are organized into tables that tell you where the stress
falls.
Primary stress is on the suffix:
-ee trustee [tsti]

guarantee [g nti]
referee [f i]
notable exception: committee [kmd i]
151
-eer career [kr]

engineer [n n]
volunteer [vl nt]
-ese Chinese [aniz]
Japanese [p niz]
legalese [li gliz]
-ette cigarette [s gt]
kitchenette [k nt]
silhouette [sl ut]
notable exceptions: etiquette [d kt], omelette [m lt] (also
spelled omelet)
-ique technique [tknik]
unique [junik]
critique [ktik]
Primary stress is on the syllable just before the suffix. Note some of these
suffixes can be either one or two syllables.
-cious (1 syllable) delicious [dl s]

precious [p s]
suspicious [ssp s]
-eous (1 or 2 syllables) spontaneous (suffix is two syllables) [spnte ni s]
outrageous (suffix is one syllable) [at|e s]
gorgeous (suffix is one syllable) [g s]
-graphy (2 syllables) geography [ig fi]
biography [bag fi]
photography [ftg fi]
-ial (1 or 2 syllables) official (suffix is one syllable) [f l]
material (suffix is two syllables) [mt i l]
potential (suffix is one syllable) [ptn l]
-ian (1 or 2 syllables) politician (suffix is one syllable) [pl t n]
guardian (suffix is two syllables) [g di n]
historian (suffix is two syllables) [hst i n]
-ible (2 syllables) possible [ps bl]
responsible [spn s bl]
terrible [t bl]
notable exception: words with ligible, like eligible [l
bl], negligible [ng l bl], intelligible [ntl
bl]
152
-ic (1 syllable) economic [k nm k]

metallic [mtl k]
poetic [pod k]
notable exception: Catholic can be pronounced [k
lk]
-ical (2 syllables) political [pld kl]
physical [fz kl]
practical [pk t kl]
-ience (1 or 2 syllables) experience (suffix is two syllables) [ksp i ns]
audience (suffix is two syllables) [ di ns]
convenience (suffix is one syllable) [knvin jns]
-ient (1 or 2 syllables) patient (suffix is one syllable) [pe nt]
sufficient (suffix is one syllable) [sf nt]
recipient (suffix is two syllables) [rsp i nt]
-ify (2 syllables) identify [adn tfa]
clarify [kl fa]
notify [no dfa]
-ily (2 syllables) voluntarily [vl nt li]
luckily [lk li]
momentarily [mo mnt li]
notable exception: satisfactorily [sd sfk t li]
-inal (2 syllables) marginal [m nl]
medicinal [mds nl]
spinal [span l]
-ion (1 syllable) religion [l n]
union [jun jn]
region [i n]
-ional (2 syllables) professional [pf nl]
international* [n tn nl]
educational [ ke nl]
-ious (1 or 2 syllables) various (suffix is two syllables) [v i s]
serious (suffix is two syllables) [s i s]
religious (suffix is one syllable) [l s]
-itude (2 syllables) attitude [d tud]
gratitude [gd tud]
solitude [sl tud]
153
-itute (2 syllables) institute [n sttut]*

constitute [kn sttut]
substitute [sb sttut]
-ity (2 syllables) community [kmju n di]
opportunity* [p tu n di]
responsibility [spn sbl di]
-logy (2 syllables) technology [tknl i]
apology [pl i]
terminology [t mnl i]
-sion* (1 syllable) decision [ds n]
version [v n]
permission [pm n]
-tion (1 syllable) vacation* [veke n]
pronunciation* [pnn sie n]
application* [p lke n]
-ual (2 syllables) individual [n dv u l]
gradual [g u l]
casual [k u l]
notable exception: spiritual [sp u l]
-uous (2 syllables) continuous [kntn ju s]
ambiguous [mbg ju s]
virtuous [v u s]
Primary stress is two syllables before the suffix:

-al (1 syllable) industrial [nds ti l]
animal [n ml]
hospital [hs p dl]
-ary (2 syllables) secretary [sk t i]
contemporary [kntm p i]
secondary [sk nd i]
-ate (1 syllable) separate [sp et]
celebrate [sl bet]
appreciate [pi iet]
Listen + Repeat: Audio 7.4 to 7.6 Word Stress and Suffixes.

The first audio file has stress on the suffix. Notice the shape of the suffix: its the
shape of a stressed syllable, with a curve up, then down in the voice. Youll hear
154
the whole word, then the suffix two times, then the whole word again. Practice all
of the words in the table the same way, working on the suffix on its own, and
making it stressed.
For the next two audio files, stress is NOT on the suffix. Hear how those suffixes
are very fast, flat, lower in pitch and volume. Practice the rest of the words in
those tables just like the audio files, focusing on making the suffixes unstressed
and fast.
Audio 7.4 Suffixes: Stress on the Suffix

-ee trustee
-eer career
-ese Chinese engl.io/avf
-ette cigarette*
-ique technique
Audio 7.5 Suffixes: Stress just before the Suffix

-cious delicious
-eous spontaneous
-graphy geography engl.io/avf
-ial official
-ian politician
-ible possible
-ic economic
-ical political
-ience experience
-ient patient
-ify clarify
-ily voluntarily
-inal marginal
-ion religion
-ional professional
-ious various
-itude attitude
-itute institute*
-ity community
-logy technology
-sion decision
-tion vacation
-ual individual
-uous continuous
155
Audio 7.6 Suffixes: Stress two syllables before the

Suffix
-al industrial
-ary secretary engl.io/avf
-ate separate*
* Cigarette, separate, and institute have Stop Ts on the audio. Though, in a

sentence followed by a vowel or diphthong, most Americans will often make a
Flap T.
Test yourself: Non-Audio 7.1 Which Syllable has Stress?

All of these words follow the pattern of the suffixes above (none of them are
exceptions). Which syllable has primary stress (first, second, third, etc.)?
Because they all follow the rules above, you will know the stress based on the
suffix even if you dont know the word! Answers in the Answers Appendix.
1. annotate
2. biology
3. commodify
4. barrette
5. anxious
6. acrylic
7. addressee
8. conditional
9. conspicuous
10. consideration
If you want more words to practice with for any suffix, use the internet. I
actually used it to write this section, to make sure I was using some of the
most common examples. Search words that end in ary, for example. I
like the MoreWords.com website because you can sort by how common
the words are, by length, or alphabetically.
Compound Words
Nouns that are compound words generally have stress on the first word. Thats
easy if the compound word is just two syllables, like boathouse [bothas]
(boat [bot] + house [has]).
But what if the first or second word in the compound word has more than one
syllable? You should put the stress on the stressed syllable of the first word. So
the unstressed syllable of the stressed word will still be unstressed. For
156
example, basketball [bs ktbl] is basket [bs kt|] + ball [bl]. The
second syllable of basket is unstressed, even though its part of the stressed
word of the compound word.
Lets take a word that can be in both positions of a compound word: mother
[m ]. In motherboard, where its the first word, it will be stressed. But in
grandmother, where its the second word, it wont sound stressed. Mother
should not sound the same in these two words. In grandmother, it will be
quieter, have less shape and energy in the voice, and be lower in pitch, just like
the video Download below.
The compound rule is stronger than the suffix rules above. Take the word
outpatient for example. It ends in the ient suffix. That rule says the stress
would be on the syllable before, -pa-. But its a compound word: outpatient, so
the stress is on the first word, out: [atpe nt].
Watch the video on the compound word download, which you already saw in
Chapter 2. In this video, there is a comparison of -load, stressed and
unstressed. Notice the difference between -load, unstressed in download, and
load, the stressed word.
Video 7.4 How to Pronounce DOWNLOAD

Compare load as an unstressed and stressed syllable.
engl.io/acf
Listen + Repeat: Audio 7.7 Compound Words.

The stress is always on the first word. Youll hear the stressed syllable first, then
the whole word.
Audio 7.7 Compound Words

airport
anyone engl.io/avp
babysitter
background
More compound words to work with: Just like weve been doing with all the
words in this chapter, practice the stressed and unstressed syllables separately
first. This will help you clarify the difference between stressed and unstressed
syllables in speaking.
157
airport [pt] grasshopper [gshp ]

anyone [n iwn] honeymoon [hn imun]
babysitter [be bisd ] household [hashold]
background [bkgand] keyboard [kibd]
baseball [besbl] lifeboat [lafbot]
basketball [bs kt|bl] lifetime [laftam]
boathouse [bothas] newsroom [nuzm]
bookcase [bkkes] passport [pspt]
bookstore [bkst] peppermint [pp mnt]
bypass [baps] popcorn [ppkn]
carload [klod] railroad [elod]
commonplace [km nples] raincheck [enk]
crosswalk [kswk] rattlesnake [d lsnek]
dishwasher [dw ] something [sm]
download* [danlod] sometimes [smtamz]
earthquake [kwek] sunflower [snfla ]
everything [v i] teacup [tikp]
eyeball [abl] thunderstorm [n dstm]
firefighter [fafa d] underdog [n ddg]
grandmother [gnm ] weekend [wiknd]
Initials
There is also a rule for word stress and initials. Famous people are sometimes
referred to by their initials, like MLK (Martin Luther King, Jr.) or JFK (John
Fitzgerald Kennedy). Additionally, many businesses or organizations are known
almost exclusively by their initials, like HBO (Home Box Office) and PBS (Public
Broadcasting Service). In these cases, the last letter is stressed:
PBS [pi bis]
JFK [de fke]
Some letter names have more than one syllable, like W [db lju]. In these
cases, only the stressed syllable is stressed: BMW [bi m db lju].
Watch this video for more examples.
Video 7.5 Word Stress and Initials

No matter how many letters there are, stress is on the last
one. engl.io/avr
158
Listen + Repeat: Audio 7.8 Initials.

The last letter is stressed. Youll hear that first, then the whole set. Practice the
same way, thinking about making the last letter stressed and the letter(s) before
unstressed.
Audio 7.8 Initials

CVS [si vis]
PBS [pi bis] engl.io/avt
LA [le]
DHL [di el]
More initials to work with: Just like weve been doing with all of the words in this
section, practice the stressed and unstressed syllables separately first. This will
help you clarify the difference between stressed and unstressed syllables in
speaking.
HBO [e bio]
JFK [e fke]
RFK [ fke]
ING [a ni]
PNC [pi nsi]
ABC [e bisi]
TV [tivi]
AARP [e e pi]
Note some names that are abbreviated like this arent pronounced by saying the
letters, but by making a word out of the letters, like NASA. This is pronounced
nasa rather than N-A-S-A: [n s]. Which way should you pronounce these
kinds of names? It varies from organization to organization. Youll have to learn
which is which as you learn the names of organizations that use these kinds of
abbreviated names.
There were lots of words to work with in this section. Did you learn the main
point? Practice the stressed and unstressed syllables separately so you
can focus on how theyre different. Then put the whole word back together.
When you break something down into smaller parts to practice, its always
beneficial.
159
Word of the Week Videos featured above:
Video 7.6 Burrito

Study the pronunciation of this word in depth.
engl.io/avv
Video 7.7 Should Burrito have an American

Pronunciation?
The first video on How to Pronounce Burrito sparked a engl.io/avx
debate!
Video 7.8 Procedure

engl.io/avz
Video 7.9 Tomorrow

engl.io/aw1
Video 7.10 Vacation

engl.io/aw4
Video 7.11 Beautiful

engl.io/aw5
Video 7.12 Comfortable

engl.io/aw8
Video 7.13 Graduate

engl.io/awb
Video 7.14 Interview

engl.io/awd
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Video 7.15 Probably

engl.io/awg
Video 7.16 Yesterday

engl.io/awk
Video 7.17 Coffee

engl.io/awm
Video 7.18 Google

engl.io/awn
Video 7.19 Sorry

engl.io/awp
Video 7.20 International

engl.io/aws
Video 7.21 Opportunity

engl.io/awt
Video 7.22 Pronunciation

engl.io/aww
Video 7.23 Application

engl.io/awx
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Chapter 8
Linking
Youve just learned how to say multi-syllable words like a native speaker, making
the stressed syllables sound different from the unstressed syllables. Wasnt that
fun? Soon well move on to doing the same thing with sentences. But first, we
need to talk about linking words together.
Have you ever noticed how words in American English run together? Most of
the time they dont feel like separate words. This is exactly what you want to do
to sound more American. For some of you, like Spanish speakers, this wont be
too hard. The words in your native language flow together quickly too. For
others, like Mandarin speakers, it will be a little harder. Youre used to fully
pronouncing each word, which might mean separating it just a bit from the other
words. In your experience, this is the best and most clear way to speak.
However, when you do this in English, it will not sound natural or American.
When to link
A general rule for linking is to link all the words together in the same thought
group. You can think of a thought group as words that will be separated when
written, for example, with a comma or a period. The following sentence has two
thought groups, one before the comma and one after:
And then I thought, hows that going to work?
162
Youll want to link the words and then I thought so that they flow together and
sound like one word, one thought. Put a small pause, and then link hows that
going to work.
Listen: Audio 8.1 Thought Groups.
Youll hear a sentence with two thought groups. Can you hear the small pause
between the thought groups?
Audio 8.1 Thought Groups

And then I thought, hows that going to work?
engl.io/ax1
Its true that many Americans, myself included, sometimes ignore these pauses
in speaking. Where they would write a comma or period, they might put no break
in speaking. Think of thought groups as a general guideline to help you
structure linking and pauses.
There are three ways you can link words.
1. Linking Vowel to Vowel

Linking Vowel to Vowel refers to words that link where the first one ends in a
vowel (or diphthong) and the next one begins with a vowel (or diphthong). Here
are some examples:
my own [maon]
stay awhile [stewal]
why is [waz]
Remember, were always talking about sounds and not letters. Lets look at
three hours. The first letter of hours is a consonant, H. But the first sound is a
diphthong, OW as in NOW [a]. So linking these two words is a Vowel to Vowel
link: [iaz].
Video 8.1 Linking Vowel to Vowel

Vowel to vowel linking is an easy way to make your speech
more smooth and American. engl.io/ax4
163
Glide Consonants to Help Link

You may find it works well to think of putting a glide consonant (Y or W) between
an ending vowel and a beginning vowel when linking. This will help you connect
the two words. Americans do it without thinking about it.
If the first sound is [i], [a], [e], or [], add a Y sound [j] to connect:
[i]: the apple [ij pl]
[]: toy airplane [tj plen]
[a]: my uncle [maj kl]
[e]: say it [sejt]
If the first sound is [u], [a], [o], or [ju] add a W sound [w] to connect:
[u]: blue automobile [bluw d m bil]
[a]: how about [hawbat]
[o]: slow animal [slow n ml]
[ju]: few others [fjuw z]
What does the symbol mean? Thats something I use to show two
words that link together. Of course, all words in a thought group should
link together! I use it for the cases where its extra easy to feel the link,
like in a linking vowel to vowel or linking consonant to vowel case.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 8.2 Linking Vowel to Vowel.

Youll hear the phrase, then the vowel to vowel link three times, the second time
in slow motion. Feel the link through the glide, which has been added in IPA, in
slow motion. Then youll hear the phrase again. Repeat in the pauses.
Audio 8.2 Linking Vowel to Vowel

The apple is fresh: the apple [ij pl]
The toy airplane broke: toy airplane [tj plen]
My uncle is funny: my uncle [maj kl] engl.io/ax7
Say it quickly: say it [sejt]
The blue automobile is the fastest: blue automobile
[bluw d m bil]
How about this one: how about [hawbat]
The slow animal was caught: slow animal [slow n
ml]
164
In all other cases, just connect the vowel sounds, without a glide consonant.
[]: grandpa eats [gnd pits]
[]: law is [lz]
[]: idea Anna [adi n ]
Notice some vowels dont come at the ends of words in American English: AA as
in BAT [], UR as in BIRD [], EH as in BED [], IH as in SIT [], UH as in PUSH
[], UH as in BUTTER [].
2. Linking Consonant to Vowel

Linking consonant to vowel refers to words that link where the first one ends in a
consonant and the next one begins with a vowel (or diphthong) sound. These
are really fun. Its my favorite kind of linking because it makes new words that
arent words at all:
Ten hours a day Teh_nower_zuh_day [tna zde]
Nower isnt a word, but if you think of it as a word, it will help link ten to hour
so it will be wonderfully linked and smooth!
Another example: Forget about it. forgeh_duh_bou_dit [fgdbadt]
Wait. What?! How did the Ts in Forget about it turn into Ds? Remember, the
letter T will be pronounced like a Flap T when it comes between two vowel or
diphthong sounds (like pretty), or after an R and before a vowel or diphthong
sound (like party). That rule works not only within a word, but also within a
sentence when an ending T links into another word.
That means when a word ends in a vowel or diphthong + T, and the next word in
the thought group begins with a vowel or diphthong, make the T a Flap T [d] and
link the words: about it [badt]
Also, when a word ends in R + T, and the next word in the thought group begins
with a vowel or diphthong, make the T a Flap T [d] and link the words: sort of
[sd].
Video 8.2 Linking Consonant to Vowel

Consonant to vowel linking is an easy way to make your
speech more smooth and American. engl.io/ax9
165
Video 8.3 Using a Flap T to Link Words

The Flap T connects words in many common phrases in
American English. engl.io/axa
Video 8.4 My Summer Vacation

See examples of linking consonant to vowel in real
American English conversation. engl.io/axd
Video 8.5 Got it

Study how the Flap T links got and it in this phrase.
engl.io/axf
Listen + Repeat: Audio 8.3 Linking Consonant to Vowel.

Youll hear the sentence, then the link of consonant to vowel 4 times and the
sentence two more times.
Audio 8.3 Linking Consonant to Vowel

Thats what I thought: what I [wda]
I thought about it: thought about [dbat], about it engl.io/axh
[ebadt|]
Is it time?: is it [zt]
3. Linking Consonant to Consonant

Linking consonant to consonant refers to words that link where the first word
ends in a consonant and the next word begins with a consonant. This kind of
linking is the hardest because some consonants dont link well. Just think of
making them with no gap or release in between. Practice the two sounds
separately first, then go straight from one sound to the next, thinking about what
has to changejust like with the consonant clusters we studied in Chapter 6.
Remember: were talking about sounds and not letters.
Example: tough one [tfwn]

First practice the F, fffff, then the W. What changes? The lip position changes.
First, the top lip lifts so the bottom lip can touch the bottom of the top front teeth:
fffff. Then the lips round into a tight circle. What about the tongue? Its relaxed
166
for the [f] sound, but for the [w] sound, the tongue lifts in the back. Think about
these changes as you say the two sounds together with no break. Then say the
two words, tough one. Practice this way, slowly, for all consonant combinations
that give you trouble.
Video 8.6 Linking Consonant to Consonant

This kind of linking is the least clear, but you can practice
any combination slowly. engl.io/axk
When it comes to linking consonant to consonant, I get the most questions on the
TH. As you already know, the tongue position for the TH is unlike any other, the
tongue tip comes through the teeth. If linking a TH sound is tough for you, its
important to slow things down as you practice it. Some people say this is hard
or I dont understand how to do this so they rush through it. Do the opposite! It
will only become comfortable if you slow it down and understand the movement
that needs to happen to move from one sound to the next. Since the tongue tip
doesnt come far out of the teeth for the TH, often the movement is quite small.
Doing it over and over will help make it more natural, and with more relaxation.
Video 8.7 Linking and the TH

The TH is hard, but slow practice will make it easier to link
this sound to others. engl.io/axm
If the ending consonant of one word is the same as the beginning consonant of
the next word, you dont have to make two separate sounds.
Examples: bus stop, stuff for, mom makes, phone number
Video 8.8 Road Trip

Youll hear the example gas station in this video, linked
together with just one S sound. engl.io/axp
How do stop consonants fit into linking? As you know, stop consonants stop the
airflow. Theres a little pause or lift in the vocal line; theres no connection into
the next sound. However, its not a big break. Even with the small pause, the
flow of the voice can still move forward.
167
Video 8.9 What time?

Study connecting words with a Stop T in this phrase study.
engl.io/axr
Listen + Repeat: Audio 8.4 Linking the Stop T to a Consonant.

Youll hear each sentence, then the Stop T consonant to consonant link three
times, then the sentence again twice. Notice there is a very small gap between
the words, but the flow of the sentence still moves forward.
Audio 8.4 Linking the Stop T to a Consonant

It was raining: it was [t wz]
Wait for me: wait for [wet f]
engl.io/axu
Let me see that: let me [lt mi]
I got Dad a gift: got Dad [gt dd]
Test yourself: Non-Audio 8.1 Which kind of linking is it?

Remember to think about sounds, not letters. Answers in the Answers Appendix.
a. Vowel to Vowel b. Consonant to Vowel c. Consonant to Consonant
1. feel like
2. shut up
3. Im on
4. some more
5. now I
6. although I
7. raise a
8. gave my
9. need a
10. stay around
Test Yourself: Audio 8.5 Which Phrase is Linked?

Youll hear five phrases. Some are linked, and some are not. Which phrases are
linked? Listen to the whole audio file once first and think about the difference in
what youre hearing. Do you hear the smooth quality in the linked phrases?
Keep this in mind as you practice anything out loud. Answers in the Answers
Appendix.
a. linked b. not linked
168
Audio 8.5 Which Phrase is Linked?
engl.io/axw
When you speak American English, you want all the words of a thought group to
flow together. They should not feel like separate words, but one long word of
connected sounds. Linking words together is an important part of the character
of American English. Keep this in mind as you work through the next chapter,
where youll be putting words together.
169
Chapter 9
Rhythm and Intonation: Stressed Words
Now youre ready to study the rhythm and intonation of sentences. Youve
already learned some important points:
linking and flow: the melody of English is smooth, not angular or choppy, with
a forward flow of the voice.
intonation: the melody or shape of a stressed syllable goes up and then down
in a curve, like this: . Unstressed syllables will be flatter and lower in pitch.
rhythm: stressed syllables are longer, louder, and have more energy in the
voice. Unstressed syllables are very quick and are less clear.
All of these points apply to whole phrases. In fact, by working on three-syllable

words in Chapter Seven, youve already laid the groundwork for three-syllable
phrases.
Lets look at the example da-DA-da. This is the stress pattern of computer,
example, another. Its also the stress pattern for the phrases I want it, I need
it, I saw you, and You know it. Actually, the flow, rhythm, and intonation of
these words and phrases should be exactly the same. The words are made up
of three syllables, and the phrases are made up of three syllables, three 1-
syllable words. Even though they are three separate words, they should flow
together just as much as the three syllables of the longer words.
170
Video 9.1 Three-Syllable Phrases

Three-syllable words and three-syllable phrases should feel
the same. engl.io/ay2
Listen + Repeat: Audio 9.1 Three-Syllable Words and Phrases.

Youll hear the three different stress patterns for three-syllable words and
phrases, then an example word and phrase for each. Notice how the intonation
and stress, the character of the phrases, is the same as for the words: the uh
and da-da-DA patterns sound the same. The phrases should feel the same as
the words: connected and flowing together. The stressed syllable is higher in
pitchwith the up and down shapeand more fully pronounced.
The other syllables either lead up to or fall away from it.
Audio 9.1 Three-Syllable Words and Phrases

1. da-DA-da: example [gzm pl], I saw you [as ju]
2. da-da-DA: recommend [k mnd], I dont know [a
dono] engl.io/ay5
3. DA-da-da: yesterday [js tde], stay with me [ste
w mi]
You know how to find out which syllable is stressed in a word: look it up in a
dictionary and look for the [] symbol, or listen to a native speaker and listen for
the syllable that is the most clear, longest, and highest in pitch. But how do you
know which words should be stressed in a sentence? This is where knowing
some grammar will come in handy.
We can break words in American English into two categories: Content Words
and Function Words. Generally, content words will be stressed in American
English, and function words unstressed.
Content Words
Content words are nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. They carry the most
important information, the most meaning. Since they are the stressed words in a
sentence, that means their stressed syllables should be the longest, loudest,
clearest syllables of the sentence. They should have the up-down shape of a
stressed syllable .
171
For example, When can we go? When is an adverb, a content word. Can is a
helping verb, not a main verb, so its a function word (youll learn more about that
in the next chapter). We is a pronoun, a function word. Go is the main verb, so
its a content word. We have two content words: when and go. If I said just the
words When go, the meaning would still be clear, because they are the words
with the content of my thought. If I said Can we, the meaning is less clear: Im
hoping we can do something, but what? Function words, rather than including
actual content, relate content words to each other within the sentence.
Some common content words are:

Nouns Verbs Adjectives Adverbs
books [bks] run [n] blue [blu] quickly [kwk li]
school [skul] sat [st] old [old] always [l wez]
dinner [dn ] eat [it] happy [hp i] often [ fn]
store [st] walk [wk] used [juzd] really* [i li]
people [pi pl] tell [tl] helpful* [hlp fl] definitely*
[df nt| li]
report [pt|] whisper [ws p] sorry* [s i] finally [fan l i]
subway [sbwe] slept [slpt] disappointed usually [ju u l i]
[ds pn td]
table [te bl] read [id] excited [ksa very* [v i]
dd]
door [d] heard [hd] favorite* [fev t] probably*
[pb bli]
shoes [uz] know [no] beautiful* occasionally
[bju d fl] [ke nl i]
Note: All words in this chapter followed by * are part of the Word of the
Week series. This means there is a video that goes over, in depth, the
pronunciation of each of these words. See the chart at the end of the
chapter for links to those videos.
As you probably noticed in the chart above, many content words have more than
one syllable. That means they have an unstressed syllable. What does it mean
to have an unstressed syllable in a stressed word?
172
Unstressed syllables, even in stressed words, are just unstressed syllables.

Nothing special! They should still be very quick, flatter, quieter, and with less
energy in the voice.
Video 9.2 Content Words

See a video explanation of the four kinds of content words:
verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. engl.io/ay8
Video 9.3 Verbs

This video goes over one type of content words, verbs.
engl.io/aya
Listen + Repeat: Audio 9.2 Content Words.

Youll hear each word twice. Many of them are just one syllable. Notice how that
syllable is clear and has the melodic shape of a stressed syllable, an up-down
shape . The other words are two-syllable words. Again, the stressed syllable is
clear and has the up-down shape of a stressed syllablestressed syllables in
content words must be clear. Imitate this shape of the voice. The unstressed
syllables are noticeably shorter and less clear.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 9.3 Content Words, Slow Motion.

Youll hear each word once, slowed down to 50% speed. The slower speed
makes it easier to study the intonation: the curve up then down in the voice .
The downward curve is more obvious and longer. Repeat the words back in slow
motion and feel the shape of the voice. Do this several times, then go back and
work on the previous audio file where the words are at regular pace. Keep the
right intonation, just do it a bit faster. When you go back to regular pace, try not
to think now Im talking normally you want to break your habits of how you
talk. Think of it as a melodic exercise that youre going to do faster.
Audio 9.2 Content Words

books, school, dinner, run, sat, eat, blue, old, happy, quickly,
always, often
engl.io/ayc
Audio 9.3 Content Words, Slow Motion
books, school, dinner, run, sat, eat, blue, old, happy, quickly,
always, often
engl.io/aye
173
Sentences can have more than one stressed word. For example:
Theyre already here. This sentence has two content words, the adverb already
and the noun here. The syllables -read- and here are stressed, so they are
longer, clearer, and have the shape of a stressed syllable.
Sometimes one stressed word in a sentence will be clearer than others. A native
speaker might say I need to leave at three, and make three the loudest and
most clear word. Or, a native speaker might say I need to leave at three, and
stress need the most. That might signal a clarification:
>> Do you want to leave at three? [Is that convenient?]

>> I need to leave at three. [I dont have any other options, if I leave after that Ill
be late for an important meeting.]
There is no one right way to stress a sentence. It depends on what piece of

information is most important to the speaker.
Video 9.4 Which word is the most stressed?

Can you identify which word is the most stressed? Which
one do you think is the clearest, the longest? engl.io/ayh
Test Yourself: Audio 9.4 Which Word is the Most Stressed?

Youll hear ten sentences. Which word do you think is the most stressed of all
the stressed words? Answers in the Answers Appendix.
Audio 9.4 Which Word is the Most Stressed?

Its time to go.
How was it?
Were gonna be late. engl.io/ayk
What are you doing this weekend?
Thats too bad.
Its too early to tell.
I need the report by end-of-day tomorrow.
Excuse me.
We heard you bought a new house.
Class starts at 3:30.
174
Though there is no one right way to stress a sentence, we can make a

generalization about intonation and statements. The melody of a sentence
will fall from the beginning to the end. Though stressed words will pop out
from the melodic line of a sentence , stressed words at the beginning of a
sentence will generally be more stressed, clearer, and more energized than
stressed words at the end of a sentence. By the end of a sentence, even for a
stressed word, the volume can be quiet and some of the energy of the voice
gone, just like in an unstressed syllable.
Video 9.5 Word Stress and Sentence Position

See how stressed words at the end of a sentence are
different from stressed words at the beginning of a sentence engl.io/aym
using speech analysis software. When two words are
compared, the difference in volume and energy is great.
Lots of words can be either content words or function words, depending on how
they work in the sentence. For example, the word by can be a preposition, like
in the phrase Stand by the edge. But, it can also be and adverb: She lives
close by. In the first sentence, the word by will be very fast. Its unstressed:

Stand by the edge.
But in the second sentence, it will be longer and have shape in the voice:

She lives close by.
How can you know if you should be stressing by or not, or other words like it?
Dont worry about that too much its not necessary to be a grammar guru. The
more English you listen to and imitate, the better youll be at doing it naturally. I
would say most of my students actually know intuitively which syllables should be
the most stressed. The problem is that they stress them the wrong way: flat and
harsh, instead of with a softer curve up and down in the voice. The other main
problem is making the unstressed syllables too long and clear. Again, this isnt a
problem with knowing which syllables are unstressed, but with not making them
fast enough to contrast with the stressed syllables.
175
Intonation of Sentences: Up or Down?

Most statements follow this trend of decreased pitch, volume, and energy. You
just learned this by seeing how words at the end of a sentence are lower in pitch
and less clear than words at the beginning of a sentence.
But some sentences dont go down in pitch. Sentences or parts of sentences

that lead into another thought often go up in pitch, to signal that theres more to
say.
For example:
We found out the flight was cancelled, so everyone got upset.
In the first thought group, the part before the comma, I may make the pitch of my
voice go up to lead into the second thought: ,
Listen: Audio 9.5 One Thought Leading to Another.

Youll hear a phrase where the first half goes up in pitch, leading to the next.
Then youll hear just that first part of the phrase three times. To Americans, it
sounds like there is more to say, it sounds like the speaker is not finished, that
the thought is unresolved. Then youll hear the second half of the sentence three
times. This half goes down in pitch. It sounds complete.
Audio 9.5 One Thought Leading to Another

We found out the flight was cancelled, so everyone got
upset. engl.io/ayp
Also, lists will have words or phrases that go up in pitch. Each item on the list
goes up in pitch to signal theres more to come; the list isnt done. The last item
goes down in pitch to show that the thought is complete.
For example:
We went for a run,

we ate breakfast,
and we started to work.
Video 9.6 Intonation and Lists

Each item of the list goes up in pitch except the last one,
which goes down.
engl.io/ays
176
Along with statements, questions that cant be answered with yes or no follow
this trend of decreasing pitch, volume, and energy.
For example:
How are you?

What are you doing?
Whats your name?
What time?
Questions that can be answered with a yes or no, however, go up in pitch at

the end.
Are you okay?

Are you sure?
Were you there?
Are you hungry?
Video 9.7 Intonation and Questions

Learn several examples of pitch going up at the end of
yes/no questions. engl.io/ayu
Video 9.8 What time?

This is not a yes/no question, so the pitch goes down at the
end. engl.io/axr
Video 9.9 Are you okay?

This is a yes/no question, so the pitch goes up at the end.
engl.io/ayz
Video 9.10 Are you sure?

This is a yes/no question, so the pitch goes up at the end.
engl.io/az2
Tag questions are little questions we add to the end of statements. They are
always yes/no questions, so they go up in pitch:
177
Its nice out , isnt it?

Youre done , right?
The intonation of a sentence does affect the meaning. If the intonation goes up,
it means youre expecting an answer or response. For example, Theyre leaving
now? When the pitch goes up at the end, it shows that you dont know if
theyre leaving now, and youre asking someone. If you said it with the pitch
going down, it shows that you do know and youre telling someone: Theyre
leaving now.
Test Yourself: Audio 9.6 Up or Down?

Which phrases go up in pitch (question), and which down (statement)? The final
punctuation is left out just go by what you hear. Answers in the Answers
Appendix.
Audio 9.6 Up or Down?

You
Yes
What time engl.io/az4
Are you hungry
No
This one
Theyre late
No
This one
Theyre late
This chapter has focused on the words that we stress in a sentence, the content
words. The next chapter does the opposite words that are not only
unstressed, but reduced.
Video 9.11 Helpful

engl.io/az7
Video 9.12 Sorry

engl.io/awp
178
Video 9.13 Favorite

engl.io/azb
Video 9.14 Beautiful

engl.io/aw5
Video 9.15 Really

engl.io/azg
Video 9.16 Definitely

engl.io/azj
Video 9.17 Very

engl.io/azn
Video 9.18 Probably

engl.io/awg
179
Chapter 10
Unstressed Words and Words that Reduce
In the previous chapter, you learned about the general intonation of phrases, and
which words should be stressed. Now its time to study words that are
unstressed: function words. Good American English includes function words
that are said extremely quickly. Often, for the most advanced students,
shortening the short syllables is one of the last things we have to work on. Some
people cant believe how short they can or should make a word but please
believe it! These words should be short, short, short. They dont need to be
clear. As you drill them, keep as much relaxation in your face and neck as
possible. The more relaxed you are, the more easily you can make these words
quickly.
Function words are articles, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, particles, and

helping verbs. These will generally be unstressed, so they will be faster, lower in
volume, and flatter in pitch than stressed syllables. They will be less clear than
the stressed syllables in a sentence.
Listen: Audio 10.1 Stressed vs. Unstressed.

Youll hear the words if and on stressed and unstressed. These words dont
reducenone of the sounds change or are droppedbut they still sound quite
different when stressed than unstressed. The unstressed version is quieter,
shorter, and has less energy and shape in the voice. Its little more mumbled.
Youll hear each pair, stressed then unstressed, twice.
180
Audio 10.1 Stressed vs. Unstressed

if [f] stressed, [f] unstressed
on [n] stressed, [n] unstressed engl.io/a12
Notice the IPA is the same for the stressed and unstressed versions. That is
because no sounds changebut they still sound so different. The IPA doesnt
capture qualities like the shape or energy of the voice, or extremely quick
syllables. Dont worry, as you work through this chapter, youll start to get a feel
for how these unstressed and reduced words should sound.
There are several kinds of function words. The words below are just examples
for each category, not full lists.
pronouns I, we, she, me, us, myself, herself, my, your, our, mine, theirs
prepositions on, in, at, below, to, through, from, till, since, by
conjunctions and, but, or, for, while
auxiliary verbs am, are, can, will, has, have, did, do, could, should, would,
might
particles no, not, as
determiners the, a, an, some, this, that, these, those
Remember, some words can be either a function word or a content word,

depending on how it works in the sentence. For example, the word some can
be a determiner, a function word, like in the phrase I need some money. It can
also be an adjective, or a content word, like in the phrase Some people think
so. In the first sentence, the word some will be very fast:

I need some money.
But in the second sentence, it will be longer and have shape in the voice:

Some people think so.
How can you know if you should be stressing some or not, or other words like
it? Dont worry about that too muchits not necessary to be a grammar guru.
The more English you listen to and imitate, the better youll be at doing it
naturally.
181
Some words go further than being unstressed: theyre reduced. When

something reduces, that means a sound will change or be dropped.
Generally, only function words will reduce. Content words are too important. So,
a reduced syllable is a kind of unstressed syllable.
Reductions are, hands down, one of my favorite things to teach about American
English pronunciation.
What does hands down mean? It means unquestionably, easily,

obviously. This idiom comes from horse racing. If a jockey is so sure
that hell win a race, if hes so far ahead, he can drop his hands and
loosen the reigns on the horse. He can relax because hes so far
ahead, and he will unquestionable win the race.
This is because it can make such a big difference in a student sounding

American. Comfortably reducing words, and linking them into the sentence, will
transform the character of your speech.
Example:
for [f] how the word is pronounced by itself; fully pronounced
for [f] how the word is pronounced in a sentence, reduced
them [m] how the word is pronounced by itself; fully pronounced
them [m] how the word is pronounced in a sentence, reduced
For reduces because a sound changes: the vowel becomes the schwa [].
Changing a full vowel to the schwa is a common reduction for many words.
Them reduces because a sound changes and a sound is dropped: the vowel
changes to the schwa [], and the TH sound [] is dropped.
Listen: Audio 10.2 Stressed vs. Reduced.

Youll hear the words for and them, stressed and reduced. The reduced
version is quieter, shorter, and has less energy and shape to the voice. Its a
little more mumbled. Youll hear each pair, stressed then reduced, twice.
Audio 10.2 Stressed vs. Reduced

for [f], [f]
them [m], [m] engl.io/a14
182
Having listened to both audio samples above, I think you know: reduced or
unstressed words sound quite different from the same word stressed. The
challenge will be for you feel comfortable making these words unstressed or
reduced. You might feel that theyre not clear enough, or good English. Some
students think, If I pronounce everything fully and clearly, that will be better. I
cannot say it too many times: that is not true. Perfect American English is
about the contrast between clear stressed syllables, and quicker, less important,
less clear unstressed syllables. If you fully pronounce every word, you cant
sound American. And, you might be harder to understand.
If you dont make the right syllables unstressed or reduced, important contrast
with stressed syllables will be missing. I hope Ive convinced you how important
this is! The good news is, speech becomes easier when you reduce common
function words because you get to simplify them.
ARE, OR, FOR, and YOUR

ARE fully pronounced: []; reduced []
Lets start with are. Remember, the R will overtake the schwa, its a syllabic
consonant. This means you dont need to think of making a separate schwa
sound, just a very quick R sound. So, are is three letters, but you only need to
make one sound!
Dont reduce are if its the last word of the sentence. For example:
I dont know where they are.
Video 10.1 ARE Reduction

Hear several example sentences to practice reducing this
word. engl.io/a16
Video 10.2 Are you Sure?

We studied this in the last chapter when studying intonation.
Now pay attention to the reduction of are. engl.io/az2
Video 10.3 Are you Okay?

We studied this in the last chapter when studying intonation.
Now pay attention to the reduction of are. Lots of questions engl.io/ayz
in conversation start with this word!
183
OR fully pronounced: []; reduced: []

Fully pronounced, or does not sound like are. But reduced, they sound exactly
the same, the schwa-R sound made very quickly. Its ok that these two words
sound the same. Because of the context the sentence provides, it will be clear
which word youre saying.
Video 10.4 OR Reduction

word. engl.io/a1c
FOR fully pronounced: [f]; reduced: [f]

For, fully pronounced, sounds just like the number four [f]. But, in a sentence,
we reduce for by changing the vowel to the schwa. Now the word is extremely
fast. The number four wont reduce in a sentencethe vowel doesnt change.
This is because four is a noun, and nouns are content words. Content words
dont reduce. Start with an F, and pull the tongue quickly back for the R.
Dont reduce for if its the last word of the sentence. For example:
Thats what its for.
Video 10.5 FOR Reduction

word. engl.io/a1f
Video 10.6 For Sure

Study the reduction in this in-depth phrase study. You can
also study linking consonant to consonant. engl.io/a1g
YOUR fully pronounced: [j] (or [j] or [jo], slight variations); reduced: [j]
Both fully pronounced and in reduction, this word sounds just like the contraction
youre. You dont need to think of a vowel sound here, just the Y sound going
straight into the R sound. Like all reduced words, this word should be said very
quickly!
184
Video 10.7 YOUR Reduction

word. engl.io/a1k
Just like in Chapter 6, where we practiced unstressed syllables by themselves,

practice these function words by themselves. Challenge yourself: how quickly
can you make them? Then put them back into the sentences youre working on.
Remember to always link your function words to the words around them. They
shouldnt feel separate.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 10.3 ARE, OR, FOR, YOUR.

Youll hear each word fully pronounced, then a sample sentence fragment where
it is reduced. Then youll hear the reduced word three times. How short can you
make the word? Dont forget, you dont have to fully energize the voice;
experiment with using less air. Then youll hear the sentence fragment again.
Try to make the word just as short in the sentence as it was on its own.
Audio 10.3 ARE, OR, FOR, YOUR

are, are you there? [ j ]
or, small or large? [sml l] engl.io/a1m
for, for school [f skul]
your, your paper [j pe p]
Sometimes you do want to fully pronounce a word that normally reduces.

You might stress for clarity.
Example:
>> You broke Saras phone?
>> No, YOUR phone. Sorry!
AT and THAT
These two words have the AA as in BAT [] vowel when fully pronounced, but
that often reduces to the schwa sound [] instead. The pronunciation of the final
T depends on the next word. If it links into a vowel or diphthong, its a Flap T like
in at a or that a. If it links into a word that begins with a consonant, or it doesnt
185
link into anything (at the end of a thought group), it will be a Stop T. For example
at my or that my. As always, these words should be very fast!
AT fully pronounced: [t]; reduced: [t]

THAT fully pronounced: [t]; reduced: [t]
At is a preposition, which is a function word. But that can be used many different
ways. It can be a pronoun, adjective, adverb, or a conjunction. In some cases
well reduce it, and in others, not.
Dont reduce that if:
Youre using that with after or before, to show a sequence in time. Examples:
After that, we went to the movie. Before that, I had never even heard of him.
Youre comparing with this. Examples: This one works better than that one.
This is hers and thats mine.
Youre using it as an adverb. Here that is indicating an amount, a degree of

something, and will come before an adjective or adverb: that much, that big,
that small, that important, that hard.
Its at the end of a sentence.
For other uses of that, you can reduce it.
Examples where you can reduce that:

I thought that you knew.
This is the one that I got.
Thats hard.
Turn it up so that we can all hear.
Video 10.8 AT Reduction

word. engl.io/a1p
Video 10.9 THAT Reduction

word. engl.io/a1s
186
Listen + Repeat: Audio 10.4 AT and THAT.

First youll hear a sample sentence, but dont repeat yet. Next youll hear just the
word, twice. Its very fast when its reduced! Make it just as fast as you hear it.
Then youll hear a sentence fragment linking the word into other words, twice.
Can you understand what youre hearing? Say it like you hear it, not like you
think the words should be pronounced. These function words are incredibly fast.
Then youll hear the whole sentence. Can you put it all together?
Audio 10.4 AT and THAT

that [t]
that it (Flap T to link!) [dt]
thought that it [t| dt] engl.io/a1v
We thought that it would work. [wi t| dt| wd wk]
at [t]
at the (Stop T!) [t| ]
were at the [wt| ]
Were at the movies. [wt| mu viz]
that [t]
that I (Flap T!) [da]
bad that I [bd| da]
The movie was so bad that I left. [ mu vi wz so bd|
da lft]
Dropping the H, THEM, and OF

Some function words reduce by dropping the first sound. This applies to function
words that begin with H that are pronouns (him, her, his, he), function words that
begin with H that are helping verbs (have, has, had), and the word them.
The words them and him will sound the same in reduction, both reducing to [m]:
I made him a card. [amedm kd]
I made them a card. [amedm kd]
The words have and of also sound the same when reduced. There are two
reductions for them, one with and one without the V sound. Either reduction is
ok, youll hear native speakers do both. Because they sound the same in
speech, sometimes native speakers write them incorrectly, for example, I should
of. With should, would, and could, the following word is always have, not of.
187
Notice that many of the vowels reduce to the schwa [] sound:

Word Full Pronunciation Reduction
of [v] [v] or []
have [hv] [v] or []
had [hd] [d]
has [hz] [z]
he [hi] [i]
his [hz] [z]
her [h] []
him [hm] [m]
them [m] [m]
When you drop a beginning sound, make sure to link that word to the word
before. It should just sound like an extra syllable at the end of that word. Give
her should sound just like giver [gv ].
With all of the dropped H reductions, and the them reduction, weve changed the
word so it starts with a vowel instead of a consonant. Keep that in mind when
linking to the word beforeif it ends with a T, it will make a Flap T:
got her [gd]
met them [mdm]
Video 10.10 Dropping the H Reduction

Hear several example sentences to practice this kind of
reduction. engl.io/a1x
Video 10.11 I have a Cold

Study the dropped H in this phrase study video. Also, study
the difference between cold and code the difference is engl.io/a1z
the Dark L!
Video 10.12 I have to Go

Study the dropped H in this phrase study video.
engl.io/a21
188
Video 10.13 THEM Reduction

word. engl.io/a23
Video 10.14 OF Reduction

word. engl.io/a27
Listen + Repeat: Audio 10.5 Dropping the H.

First youll hear the word separated from the word before, fully pronounced.
Then youll hear it reduced, with the H dropped, linked to the word before four
times. The H-word should sound like an unstressed syllable. The sound flows
forward, no break between words.
Audio 10.5 Dropping the H

him: tell him [tlm]
have: would have [wdv] engl.io/a2b
his: on his [nz]
her: by her [ba] (sounds just like buyer!)
Listen + Repeat: Audio 10.6 THEM.

First youll hear a sentence fragment. Then it will be broken down, each part
twice: just the word them reduced, then the link (the consonant before with the
reduced them). Then youll hear the whole phrase again. Keep it linked. Them
should just feel like an unstressed syllable at the end of the word before.
Audio 10.6 THEM

gave them [gevm]
need them [nidm] engl.io/a2e
Listen + Repeat: Audio 10.7 OF.

Youll hear both reductions here. First youll hear the phrase with the V sound at
the end. Youll hear just the reduced of twice, then the phrase again twice. Next
youll hear the phrase without the V sound. Youll hear the reduced of twice, here
189
its just the schwa sound! Then the phrase two more times. Remember, with the
of reduction, its ok to leave the V on, or not. Both will sound nice if you link them
to the words before and make them as fast as you can.
Audio 10.7 OF
sort of [sdv]
sort of [sd] engl.io/a2g
kind of [kandv]
kind of [kand]
CAN
CAN fully pronounced: [kn]; reduced [kn]
The word can can be a function word or a content word; most of the time its a
function word. When its a function word, we reduce it. Can is a function word
when its a helping verb, or auxiliary verb. That means its not the main verb in
the sentence:
I can help you.

The main verb here is help, so can is the helping verb. That means it will reduce.
>> Who can help?

>> I can.
Here, in I can, its the main verb, so it doesnt reduce.
We can tomatoes every summer.

Here, its the main verb, so it doesnt reduce. In this case, it means to put
something in a can, not able to do something.
Usually can is a helping verb. When we reduce can, we change the vowel from
the AA as in BAT [] vowel to the schwa []. The N consonant [n] is a syllabic
consonant, which means it takes over the schwa sound. You dont need to try to
make a separate schwa sound, just go straight from [k] to [n].
Video 10.15 CAN Reduction

word. engl.io/a2i
190
Listen + Repeat: Audio 10.8 CAN.

Youll hear can fully pronounced, then the reduction. Then youll the word before
with can. Again, it just sounds like an unstressed syllable at the end of the word
before: very quick, not fully or clearly pronounced. We just need a quick [k]
sound and [n] sound to know its can. Then youll hear the whole sentence. The
main verbs will be much more clearly pronounced.
Audio 10.8 CAN

I can be there. [a kn bi ]
We can try. [wi kn ta] (We can sounds like weaken!) engl.io/a2k
TO, YOU, DO, and DOES

TO fully pronounced: [tu]; reduced [t] or [d]
To will almost always be reduced by changing the vowel to the schwa []. The T
can be a True T or a Flap T. If you dont want to bother with thinking about the T,
just always make a True T. It will still be a great reduction with the schwa []. If
you want to smooth out your speech even more, use the Flap T when the sound
before is voiced, like in Im running to the store or Im taking Anna to the party.
Video 10.16 TO Reduction

Hear several example sentences to practice reducing to.
engl.io/a2n
Listen + Repeat: Audio 10.9 TO.

Youll hear a longer phrase with a to reduction. Dont try to imitate yet, first lets
break it up. Youll hear just the word to with the word before three times. Listen
to see if the T is a True T or a Flap T. The words should flow together with no
break. To should sound unstressed, less important. Then try the whole phrase.
Audio 10.9 TO
going to [go t] (this can reduce further to gonna - youll
learn more about that soon), Im going to be late. [am go
t bi let|] engl.io/a2p
about to [bat| t], Im about to leave. [am bat| t liv]
it to [t| t], Give it to my assistant. [gvt| t majss tnt|]
191
YOU fully pronounced: [ju]; reduced [j]

This reduction is so common that youve probably seen it written: ya. See ya!
You gets reduced in common phrases like What do you___: What do you
want to do? What do you think? Simply change the OO as in BOO [u] vowel
to the schwa [].
Video 10.17 See You

Study the you reduction in this in-depth phrase study. This
is a very common phrase we use when saying good-bye to a engl.io/a2s
friend.
DO fully pronounced: [du]; reduced [d]

DOES fully pronounced: [dz]; reduced [dz]
The words do and does can be reduced in a question. For example, Do you
want to go?, Does she know?
Exception: Do is not reduced in questions if it is the main verb. For example,

What does she do? Do is the main verb, and it should be fully pronounced.
In a statement, do or does can be the main verb or added for emphasis. This
means we want to stress it, not reduce it:
I do want to know.
She does odd jobs for us.
Video 10.18 DO and DOES Reduction

Hear several example sentences to practice reducing these
words. engl.io/a2v
Listen + Repeat: Audio 10.10 DO and DOES.

Youll hear a longer phrase with do or does. Dont try to imitate yet, first lets
break it up. Youll hear just the reduced word on its own, twice. Then youll hear
it with the word after, twicemake sure the two words link and flow together.
Imitate it just as you hear it. Then try the whole phrase.
192
Audio 10.10 DO and DOES

do: do you [d j], Do you want to go? [d j wn go]
does: does she [dz i], Does she know? [dz i no] engl.io/a2w
A, AN, and AND

A fully pronounced: [e]; reduced []
A is another word that will reduce to just the schwa, just like have and of. Its an
article; always link it to the next word for smoother speech. So, a cross should
sound just like across [ks].
AN fully pronounced: [n]; reduced [n]

AND fully pronounced: [nd]; reduced [n]
The D sound is dropped in the and reduction, so and and an sound the same.
Remember that N is a syllabic consonant, so it absorbs the schwajust think of
making an N sound. Writing can reflect this reduction. Youve probably seen
something like Cookies n Cream. Its not appropriate in professional writing,
but its always appropriate in speech.
Video 10.19 AND Reduction

word. engl.io/a32
Listen + Repeat: Audio 10.11 AND.

Youll hear a sentence with the word and, but dont try to repeat it yet. First lets
break it down. Youll hear just the word and three times. Then youll hear and
with the word before three times. Its linked; and should just feel like an
unstressed syllable at the end of the word before. Then youll hear and with the
word before it and after it, three times. Hear how it links those two words together
with an N sound. This is an important idea: you can use these function words to
link other words together, making the sentence smoother. Then you can try the
whole sentence.
193
Audio 10.11 AND

And, cold and, cold and windy [koldn wn di], Its cold
and windy.
and, cats and, cats and dogs [ktsn dgz], Its raining engl.io/a34
cats and dogs.
and, Peter and, Peter and Kelly [pi dn kl i], Peter and
Kelly are moving in.
THE
THE fully pronounced: i
reduced: i or
The word the has two possible pronunciations. If the next word begins with a
vowel or diphthong, use this pronunciation: [i]. For example, the olives, the
other. If the next word begins with a consonant, then the pronunciation is []:
the last, the best.
Video 10.20 How to Pronounce THE

Hear several example sentences that go over the two
different pronunciations for this word. engl.io/a37
Listen + Repeat: Audio 10.12 THE.

For both pronunciations, youll first hear the word the, then two phrases with the.
Youll hear each part three times. Make the article as short as you can.
Audio 10.12 THE

the [i], the other [ij ], the earth [ij]
the [], the best [bst], the worst [wst] engl.io/a38
AS, WAS, and BECAUSE

AS fully pronounced: [z]; reduced [z]
WAS fully pronounced: [wz]; reduced [wz]
BECAUSE fully pronounced: [bkz]; reduced [bkz] or [kz]
All of these words reduce to end in a very quick [z]. Some students from Asia
have a habit of pulling the tongue back for was, making it sound like theres an R
mixed in. The tongue tip should be forward for all of these words.
194
The word because can reduce two ways. Either one is ok to use; they are
interchangeable.
Video 10.21 BECAUSE Reduction

word. engl.io/a3c
Video 10.22 The AS and WAS Reductions

word. engl.io/a3e
Listen + Repeat: Audio 10.13 AS, WAS, BECAUSE.

Youll hear a phrase, but dont practice it yet. First break it down. Youll hear the
reduced word three times. Make it as short as you hear it. Then youll hear it
linked to the next word. Again, make it quick, a smooth transition to the next
word. Then try the whole phrase.
Audio 10.13 AS, WAS, BECAUSE

as, as I [za], as I thought.
as, as good [z gd], Youre as good as her.
was, was he [wzi], Was he there? engl.io/a3g
was, was good [wz gd], It was good.
because, because Im [bkzam], because Im tired
because, because they [bkz e], because they live too
far out of town.
SHOULD, WOULD, and COULD

SHOULD fully pronounced: [d]; reduced [d] or []
COULD fully pronounced: [kd]; reduced [kd] or [k]
WOULD fully pronounced: [wd]; reduced [wd] or [w]
These three words can all be reduced by changing the vowel to the schwa and
saying the word quickly. Youll notice some Americans go even further, reducing
more by dropping the D sound. Dropping the D only works when the next sound
is a consonant, for example: could we, should see, would John. If the next
195
sound is a vowel or diphthong, make a quick flap of the tongue for the D and
connect the words.
Video 10.23 Should, Would, and Could

Hear several example sentences to practice reducing these
words. engl.io/a3j
Listen + Repeat: Audio 10.14 SHOULD, WOULD, and COULD.

Youll hear several examples, some where youll want to keep the D, because the
next word begins with a vowel or diphthong, and some where you can drop the
D. Youll hear sentence fragments, then the whole sentence, each twice.
Audio 10.14 SHOULD, WOULD, and COULD

should, should I [da], should I try?
should, should we [wi], should we leave?
could, could I [kda], could I try? engl.io/a3k
would, would we [wwi], would we be late?
would, would he [wdi], would he care?
Test yourself: Audio 10.15 Is the Word Reduced?

Youll hear fourteen words. They are all words studied in this chapter, but some
are reduced and some are not. Which words are reduced? All the words are
listed in alphabetical order below that is not the order on the audio file.
First, just write down if the word is reduced, yes or no. Then listen several
more times, and try to write down which word youre hearing. Answers in the
Answers Appendix.
Audio 10.15 Is the Word Reduced?

and, as, at, because, can, could, do, for, or, should, them,
to, your, was engl.io/a3n
A Note on Speaking and Writing

In some styles of writing, youll see some of these spoken English reductions
written. For example, you might see sorta instead of sort of. Though its
196
important to use spoken reductions like sorta, I recommend not using these
writing reductions as they are very informal and not appropriate for most
situations.
197
Chapter 11
Contractions
A contraction is when we take two words and condense them down into one: did
not didnt.
Theyre used in writing and speech, both professional and casual. Some
students dont want to use them because they think they arent clear enough.
Thats not true! Theyre very clear, and theyre necessary to use if you want to
sound American. (Look, that paragraph had six contractions!)
Why do we use contractions? Contractions allow us to smooth out speech and

make some function words shorter. They serve the same purpose as the
function words that reducethey allow us to have shorter words to contrast with
the longer, more important words and syllables.
NT Contractions
Contractions with not are common: didnt, shouldnt, wouldnt, wont, couldnt,
isnt, arent, wasnt, werent, havent hasnt, hadnt, doesnt. Each of these words
is a contraction of the word before the NT and not: didnt = did not. There is
one exception: Will not = wont, not willnt. Willnt isnt a word. I dont know how
or why this happened!
198
The NT sound is interesting: combine the nasality of the N with the stop of the
T. The last syllable should feel really abrupt because of this stop quality. There
is no release of the T.
Youll also hear Americans reduce further, and drop the stop quality of the T
when the contraction is not at the end of a thought group. Then its just an N
sound linking right into the next word:
I wasnt there. [a wz n]
However, I encourage students to try to put the stop quality into the nasal N
sound to make the NT contractions clearer, at least at the beginning of your work
on contractions.
Video 11.1 NT Contractions

See the nt sound in action in all of the NT contractions.
engl.io/a41
Video 11.2 Interview a Broadcaster: Rehema Ellis

NBC Newscaster Rehema Ellis uses many NT contractions
in this interview. A great example of how important they are engl.io/a44
in real life, conversational American English.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 11.1 NT Contractions.

Youll hear each NT contraction (except for cant, which comes next) and a
sample sentence. Notice how there is no ending T sound, just a shortened, cut-
off N sound. Try it yourself.
Audio 11.1 NT Contractions

is not = isnt [z nt]: Isnt it nice?
are not = arent [nt]: We arent late.
engl.io/a48
was not = wasnt [wz nt]: It wasnt bad.
were not = werent [wnt]: We werent there.
have not = havent [hv nt]: I havent seen it.
has not = hasnt [hz nt]: He hasnt seen it.
had not = hadnt [hdnt]: We hadnt heard that.
will not = wont [wont]: I wont go.
199
would not = wouldnt [wdnt]: I wouldnt say that.

could not = couldnt [kdnt]: I couldnt see.
should not = shouldnt [dnt]: I shouldnt say this.
do not = dont [dont]: Dont say that.
does not = doesnt [dz nt]: It doesnt say.
did not = didnt [ddnt]: We didnt know.
Can vs. Cant

Cant (cannot) is one of the hardest contractions if we dont really pronounce
the T, how is it different from can?
There are two ways to tell can and cant apart.
1. Often, can is reduced. That means the vowel changes from the AA as in
BAT [] vowel to the schwa [] sound, [kn]. The vowel in cant [knt]
never reduces.
2. Just like with the other NT contractions above, we can identify cant by how
abrupt it is. Cant is shorter and more abrupt than can when can is not
reduced and has a full vowel.
CAN CANT
unreduced [kn] [knt]
reduced [kn]
These differences are subtle and can be really confusing when English isnt your
native language. Even native speakers need to ask for clarification on can and
cant at times. Its ok if you have to do this too.
Video 11.3 CAN vs. CANT

Though it can be really hard to hear the difference in these
two words, this video will help. engl.io/a4a
Listen + Repeat: Audio 11.2 Can vs. Cant.

Youll hear each set of phrases, then just can vs. cant twice, and the phrases
again. Can is reducedthe vowel changes to the schwa just like you learned in
the last chapter. Its very fast. Can you hear the difference?
200
Audio 11.2 Can vs. Cant

I can hear you, I cant hear you.
We can come, we cant come engl.io/a4c
I can come, I cant come.
They can leave, they cant leave.
TO BE and TO HAVE Contractions

These two sets of contractions go together because sometimes they make the
same word.
For example:
she is shes [iz]
she has shes [iz]
Question words can use does. Then there are three contractions that sound the
same:
who is whos [huz]
who has whos [huz]
who does whos [huz]
These contractions, except for the question word contractions, will be unstressed
in sentences. That means you want to say them quickly. This means Americans
will sometimes reduce certain contractions by changing the vowel to the schwa.
In the case of hes, many Americans will reduce by dropping the H [h] consonant
(except when it begins a thought group). In a couple of cases, its, thats, and
whats, Americans might drop the vowel and beginning consonant completely
and just use the [ts] cluster. In these cases, Whats up? can sound like tsup?
TO BE HAVE + HAS
I I am = Im [am] or [m] I have = Ive [av] or [m]
Im late. Ive been there.
you you are = youre [jr], [j], you have = youve [juv] or
or [j] [jv]
Youre late. Youve been there.
he he is = hes [hiz] or [iz] he has = hes [hiz] or [iz]
Hes late. Hes been there.
she she is = shes [iz] she has = shes [iz]
Shes late. Shes been there.
201
it it is = its [ts] or [ts] it has = its [ts] or [ts]

Its late. Its got to be on time.
noun the dog is = the dogs [ the dog has = the dogs [
dgz] dgz]
The dogs hungry. The dogs been fed.
proper noun Mary is = Marys [miz] Mary has = Marys
Marys late. [miz]
Marys been there.
we we are = were [w] we have = weve [wiv]
Were late. Weve been there.
they they are = theyre [] or they have = theyve [ev]
[] Theyve been there.
Theyre late.
plural noun* the dogs are = the dogsre the dogs have = the dogsve
[ dgz] [ dgzv]
The dogsre hungry. The dogsve been fed.
that that is = thats [ts] or that has = thats [ts] or Question Word
[ts] or [ts] [ts] or [ts] Bonus: DOES
Thats okay. Thats been a problem.
who who is = whos [huz] who has = whos [huz] who does =
Whos late? Whos been there? whos [huz]
who are = whore [hu ] who have = whove [huv] Whos he like?
Whore those people? The people whove left
didnt want to stay.
what what is = whats [wts] what has = whats [wts] What does =
Whats going on? Whats been going on? whats [wts]
what are = whatre [wt ] what have = whatve Whats he
Whatre you doing? Whatve you been doing? need?
when when is = whens [wnz] when has = whens [wnz] When does =
Whens it going to be over? When has he seen it? whens [wnz]
when are = whenre when have = whenve [wn Whens he
[wn] v] leaving?
Whenre they arriving? Whenve you tried?
202
where where is = wheres [wz] where has = wheres Where does =

Wheres the bathroom? [wz] wheres [wz]
where are = wherere Wheres she been? Wheres he
Wherere you going? where have = whereve keep it?
Whereve you been?
why why is = whys [waz] why has = whys [waz] why does =
Whys he leaving? Whys he given up? whys [waz]
why are = whyre why have = whyve Whys he need
Whyre you crying? Whyve they stopped it?
coming?
how how is = hows [haz] how has = hows [haz] how does =
Hows it going? Hows it been going? hows [haz]
how are = howre how have = howve Hows that
Howre things? Howve they already sound?
finished?
Three things to note about these contractions:
1. Some contractions are the same. Thats ok. Context is how native
speakers know what is being said, just like with any homophone
(there/their/theyre). Its rare that there would be confusion in these cases.
2. *The plural noun contractions arent really contractions. They would never
be written, though they are spoken.
Example: The dogsre

This is really an are reduction. The word ARE will reduce to the schwa-R
[] sound, and it will sound like a contraction.
Example: The dogsve

This is really a have reduction. The word HAVE reduces to [v], and it will
sound like a contraction.
3. Its = it is, which is different from its (though its pronounced the same,
[ts]). Its shows possession: The bird build its nest.
Marys = Mary is, but can also show possession: Marys books, or, the books
that belong to Mary.
203
Video 11.4 TO BE Contractions

Study many of these contractions in this real life English
video. Notice how the TO BE contractions are often engl.io/a4e
followed by gonna youll learn more about that in the next
chapter.
Video 11.5 Im Coming

Study the Im contraction and reduction in this in-depth
phrase study. engl.io/a4g
Video 11.6 YOURE Contraction

This contraction sounds just like the function word we
studied in the last chapter, your. engl.io/a1k
Video 11.7 Interview a Broadcaster: Erica Hill

NBC Newscaster Erica Hill uses lots of contractions in her
speech. engl.io/a4m
Video 11.8 Thats / Its / Whats Reduction

These can all reduce to just the [ts] sound. Whats up
[tsp]? engl.io/a4p
Listen + Repeat: Audio 11.3 TO BE and TO HAVE Contractions.

Youll hear some of the contractions in the chart above with a sample sentence.
Youll hear the contraction twice. Make sure youre still saying the contraction in
the sentence, and not pronouncing both words.
204
Listen + Repeat: Audio 11.3 TO BE and TO HAVE

Contractions
Im Im sorry.
Ive Ive been there. engl.io/a4s
Youre Youre right.
Youve Youve seen it?
Hes Hes okay. [he is]
Were Were going.
Weve Weve tried.
Theyre Theyre great.
Theyve Theyve known a while.
Whos Whos there? [who is]
Whats Whats it say? [what does]
Whens Whens it been better? [when has]
Wheres Wheres the report? [where is]
Whys Whys she here? [why is]
Hows Hows it going? [how is]
LETS Contraction
This one doesnt get to be in a group because theres nothing else quite like it!
Let us = lets. Just add the S sound at the end: [lts]. This contraction is unique
because, unlike the others, we generally dont use it in its two-word form, let us.
Example Sentences:
Lets try again.
Lets go.
Lets wait and see
Modal Verb Contractions

We can also make modal verb contractions with have:
wouldve, shouldve, couldve, mightve, mustve
They can be pronounced two different ways. The first way is to reduce have to
[v]. Just add that syllable at the end of the word. This means the T in might will
become a Flap T because it comes between two vowels. But the T in must stays
a True T because it is not between two vowels.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 11.4 Modal Verb Contractions.
Youll hear each contraction twice, then the sentence once.
205
Listen + Repeat: Audio 11.5 Modal Verb Contractions, Slow Motion.

Youll hear each contraction once in slow motion. Notice how the first syllable is
stressed in all of these contractions. They all have the pattern DA-da. After
working with this audio file, go back to the audio file with the contractions at
regular pace. How short can you make the second, unstressed syllable [v]?
Audio 11.4 Modal Verb Contractions

wouldve [wdv]
I wouldve been there.
shouldve [dv] engl.io/a4u
I shouldve left.
couldve [kdv]
You couldve gotten hurt.
mightve [madv]
That mightve been better.
mustve [mstv]
That mustve been hard.
Audio 11.5 Modal Verb Contractions, Slow Motion

wouldve [wdv]
shouldve [dv]
couldve [kdv] engl.io/a4w
mightve [madv]
mustve [mstv]
The second way to pronounce these contractions is to reduce them further by

dropping the V sound. This means you just add the schwa to the end of each
word:
mustve [mst]
You can pronounce them either way, both reductions sound natural to
Americans.
206
Video 11.9 Shoulda, Woulda, Coulda

Study examples and reductions of these modal contractions:
should have, would have, could have. engl.io/a4y
WILL Contractions
These contractions are straightforward: just add ll to the end of the word when
writing. For pronunciation, just add a Dark L to the end. If the word before
ended in a vowel or diphthong, like she, then just add the Dark L sound. It does
not make a new syllable. But if the final sound of the word before was a
consonant, the Dark L does feel like a new syllable. Think of it as [l] if you were
to write it in IPA, and make it as quick as possible.
I will Ill [al], [l], or [l] Ill see you later.

you will youll [jul] or [jl] Youll see.
he will hell [hil], [hl], or [hl] Hell be here. If hell isnt at the beginning
of the sentence, then you can reduce the vowel and drop the H: [l] or
[l]
she will shell [il], [l], or [l] Shell try.
it will itll [dl] Itll be great.
Mary will Maryll* [m i l] Maryll be there.
we will well [wil], [wl], or [wl] Well see.
they will theyll [l] or [l] Theyll be ok.
the dogs the dogsll* [dgzl] The dogsll be hungry.
that will thatll [del] Thatll be nice.
who will wholl [hul] Wholl be there?
what will whatll [wdl] Whatll they say?
where will wherell [wl] Wherell it be?
when will whenll [wnel] Whenll you know?
why will whyll [wal] Whyll they think that?
how will howll [hal] Howll you get home?
*Note: its not grammatically correct to write a ll contraction with a noun, singular
(Maryll) or plural (the dogsll), but it happens frequently in spoken English.
Some of these contractions will reduce even further, just like youre. Not only do
you reduce will to the dark L and add it to the end, but change the vowel.
Ill, fully pronounced, sounds just like the word aisle [al]. But its much more
common to reduce Ill to make it shorter. Then it sounds like the word all [l], or
207
even all reduced, [l]. In this case its very fast and even unclear. Just think of
adding a Dark L consonant to the beginning of the next word: Ill try = ltry.
Youll fully pronounced has the OO as in BOO vowel [jul]. But when we speed it
up in conversational speech, it changes to the schwa: [jl].
Hell [hil], shell [il], and well [wil], fully pronounced, have the EE as in SHE
vowel [i]. That means that hell sounds like heal and well sounds like wheel.
But when we speed it up in everyday speech, this vowel relaxes into the IH as in
SIT vowel [], or maybe even the schwa [].
Theyll will also reduce, so the AY as in SAY diphthong [e] becomes the schwa
[].
Itll [dl], whatll [wdl], and thatll [del] are interesting because the final T
changes to a Flap T. This is because it comes between two vowels: the T, and
the vowel-like sound of the Dark L. Flap T followed by the Dark L is a
combination thats very hard for some students, appearing also, for example, in
the word little. When you lift the tongue to the roof of the mouth, dont let it
bounce off the roof of the mouth like you normally will for the Flap T. Instead,
you can leave the front part of the tongue where it is and engage the back part of
the tongue, tightening it up a little or shifting it back. That makes the dark part of
the Dark L. As soon as the front part of the tongue hits the roof of your mouth,
make a Dark L sound with the back of the tongue.
Video 11.10 Well see

Study well in this in-depth phrase study.
engl.io/a51
Video 11.11 Ill think about it

Study Ill in this in-depth phrase study. Also, notice the
Flap T to link the words about and it. engl.io/a53
Listen + Repeat: Audio 11.6 LL Contractions.

Youll hear several LL contractions, twice, with a sample sentence. Focus on the
back of the tongue making the Dark L sound. Make sure youre still saying the
contraction in the sentence, and not pronouncing both words.
208
Listen + Repeat: Audio 11.7 LL Contractions, Slow Motion.

Youll hear the same LL contractions in slow motion. Notice the shape of the
voice. The Dark L sound happens on the downward movement of pitch, the
curve down.
Audio 11.6 LL Contractions

Ill Ill see you later.
Youll youll see.
Hell Hell be here. engl.io/a56
Shell Shell try.
Itll Itll be great.
Maryll Maryll be there.
Well Well see.
Theyll Theyll be okay.
The dogsll The dogsll be hungry.
Thatll Thatll be nice.
Wholl Wholl be there?
Whatll Whatll they say?
Wherell Wherell it be?
Whenll Whenll you know?
Whyll Whyll they think that?
Howll Howll you get home?
Audio 11.7 LL Contractions, Slow Motion
engl.io/a58
WOULD, HAD, and DID Contractions

Take a look at the following chart. Youll notice that just like some of the To Be
and Have/Has contractions, ALL of these contractions are the same:
I would = Id
I had = Id
We also contract DID, but only in questions. In these cases, again, its the same
contraction:
why would = whyd
why had = whyd
why did = whyd
209
Mostly, to pronounce these contractions, you simply add the D sound to the end
of the word. But for some words we add [d] or [d], which adds an extra
syllable. See the chart below. The phrase what did [wdd] is especially
commonand one that can reduce further. We often drop the second syllable
and just say [wd]. For example:
What did he say? [wdise]
Video 11.12 WHAT DID Reduction

Study the different ways this common phrase can be
reduced. engl.io/a5a
Even though the different contractions sound the same, people will know your
meaning from the context.
These contractions, except for the question word contractions, will be unstressed
in sentences. That means you want to say them quickly. This means Americans
will sometimes reduce the vowel in certain contractions to the schwa. In the case
of hed, many Americans will reduce by dropping the H [h] consonant (except
when it begins a thought group).
WOULD HAD
I I would = Id [ad] or [d] I had = Id [ad] or [d]
Id like that. Id seen it already.
you you would = youd [jud] or you had = youd [jud] or
[jd] [jd]
Youd like it. Youd already done it.
he he would = hed [hid] or he had = hed [hid] or [id]
[id] Hed already done it.
Hed like it.
she she would = shed [id] or she had = shed [id] or
[d] [d]
Shed like it. Shed already been
there.
it it would = itd [dd] it had = itd [dd]
Itd seem like it. Itd already ended.
210
noun the dog would = the the dog had = the dogd
dogd [dgd] [dgd]
The dogd The dogd been sick for a
The dogd get sick. week.
proper noun Mary would = Maryd Mary had = Maryd
[m id] [m id]
Maryd like it. Maryd already been
there.
we we would = wed [wid] or We had = wed [wid] or
[wd] [wd]
Wed like to see it. Wed seen it before.
they they would = theyd they had = theyd [ed]
[ed] theyd seen it before
Theyd like to see it.
plural noun the dogs would = dogsd the dogs had = dogsd
[dg zd] [dg zd]
The dogsd like to be The dogsd been walked
walked. already.
that that would = thatd [d that had = thatd [d Question Word
d] d] Bonus: DID
Thatd be nice. Thatd been over for an
hour.
who who would = whod [hud] who had = whod [hud] who did = whod
Whod like to see it? Whod already seen it? [hud]
Whod he like?
what what would = whatd what had = whatd what did = whatd
[wd d] [wdd] [wdd] or [wd]
* we dont actually use I thought whatd been Whatd you think?
this contraction in speech said was the truth.
when when would = whend when had = whend when did = whend
[wnd] [wnd] [wnd]
Whend you like it by? Whend he seen it? Whend she leave?
where where would = whered where had = whered where did = whered
[wd] [wd] [wd]
Whered you like it? Whered he seen it? Whered they go?
why why would = whyd [wad] why had = whyd [wad] why did = whyd
Whyd I lie? Whyd he been there? [wad]
Whyd they leave?
211
how how would = howd how had = howd [had] how did = howd
[had] Howd he already [had]
Howd you like that? known? Howd she know?
Notice that for the WHAT contractions, Ive spelled them differently in IPA. Ive
made the contraction for what would and what had with the schwa [wdd],
and what did with the IH as in SIT vowel [wdd]. Why is this? Usually when
we reduce vowels, we think of them as reducing to the schwa. But for the word
did, it already has the IH as in SIT vowel [], so it seems natural to just make
that unstressed in the what did contraction. Do the schwa [] and the
unstressed [] sound the same? I think so. Ive played around with this a lot over
the years, saying unstressed syllables both ways, and they sound the same.
Video 11.13 Contractions

This is the main contractions video, covering WOULD, HAD,
and DID contractions, as well as others we studied in this engl.io/a5c
chapter.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 11.8 WOULD, HAD, and DID Reductions.

Youll hear several WOULD, HAD, and DID contractions, twice, with a sample
sentence. If the next word begins with a vowel (like already, or when you drop
the H on he), try to link the D into that sound. Make sure youre still saying the
contraction in the sentence, and not pronouncing both words.
Audio 11.8 WOULD, HAD, and DID Reductions

Id Id already left. [I had]
Youd Youd like it. [you would]
Hed Hed already done it. [he had] engl.io/a5f
Wed Wed like it. [we would]
Theyd Theyd be okay. [they would]
Whod Whod think that? [who would]
Whend Whend he leave? [when did]
Whered Whered she go? [where did]
Whyd Whyd she say that? [why did]
Howd Howd he know? [how did]
212
In this chapter youve studied a lot of contractions with question words. Many
question words start with wh: what, when, where, why. There are two ways to
pronounce words like these, either with a clean [w] sound at the beginning, or a
light H sound at the beginning: [w]. I use the first pronunciation, [w].
Video 11.14 Pronunciation of WH Words

My mom helped me film this video she makes a clear [w]
sound! engl.io/a5h
Using Contractions and Reductions Together

Reductions can be used with contractions.
Its for mom [ts fmm]
As you learned in Chapter 9, when you drop the H or TH at the beginning of a

word, the rest of the word should feel like its part of the word before. That can
feel like a double contraction. In these cases, we drop the T part of the T
contractions for a smoother link into the next word
wouldnt have [wd nv] or [wd n]
didnt her [dd n]
Thats exactly what we want: short, linked together function words.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 11.9 Contractions with Reductions.

Youll hear the contraction with the reduction four times. The third time will be in
slow motion. Then youll hear the sentence. In both cases, youll hear an NT
contraction with a dropping the H reduction. Think of the contraction and
reduction all as being one word, flowing together without breaks. The contraction
with the reduction together may feel really fast to you, hard to understand and
hard to say. Try not to think of saying the words, but just of imitating what you
hear. Dont think of it as English, but just sounds and melodies to imitate.
Audio 11.9 Contractions with Reductions

wouldnt have [wdnev], I wouldnt have said that.
didnt her [ddn], Didnt her team win? engl.io/a5k
Test yourself: Audio 11.10 What contraction are you hearing?

Youll hear 15 different contractions. Write down what you hear, and check your
answers in the back. Youll hear each one only once. Listen as many times as
you need to to get all the answers. Answers are in the Answers Appendix.
213
Audio 11.10 What contraction are you hearing?
engl.io/a5m
When NOT to Use Contractions

There are some cases when we dont want to use contractions for emphasis and
clarity. In these cases the word that would normally be contracted will be
stressed. For example:
I do NOT want to go in there.
>> You dont want to see this, do you?

>> I WOULD like to see that.
Even in situations where clarity is not needed, all contractions, except lets, can
and will appear as both words rather than a contraction. You certainly dont need
to use every contraction every time. However, I do encourage you, especially in
speaking, to use them frequently to increase the contrast between stressed and
unstressed words. As you listen to the radio, podcasts, or watch TV, write down
every contraction you hear. Youll notice youre writing down a lot! If you never
used contractions, your speech wouldnt sound natural at all.
To help convince you how important contractions are for sounding natural and
American, here are three more contractversation videos.

Topic: My Trip to Florida
engl.io/a5n

Topic: Going to the Store
engl.io/a5p

Topic: Going on a Date
engl.io/a5s
214
Chapter 12
Gonna, Wanna, and Gotta
In this chapter, we keep building your skills to make function words less
important, and increase the difference between your stressed and
unstressed syllables.
The reductions gonna, wanna, and gotta fill our everyday speech. Dont
worry, its not just for casual conversation, and its not considered
uneducated to use these reductions. These reductions can find their way
into important speeches, too.
Video 12.1 Presidential Speeches

Even the President of the United States uses
gonna/wanna/gotta in important speeches! engl.io/a62
GONNA
Going to gonna [gn ]
The gonna contraction is a two-syllable word with stress on the first syllable.
The second syllable is just the schwa []youll want to make that very short!
You just learned the TO BE contractions in Chapter 11, so you know that the
contraction itself can often be pronounced more than one way, with varying
levels of reduction. For example, it is = its [ts] or [ts]. Ive chosen just one for
each example below.
215
I
I am going to = Im gonna [amgn ]
Im gonna be late.
you
you are going to = youre gonna [jgn ]
Youre gonna be sorry.
he
he is going to = hes gonna [hizgn ]
Hes gonna stop by.
she
she is going to = shes gonna [izgn ]
Shes gonna try to be here.
it
it is going to = its gonna [tsgn ]
Its gonna rain today.
Mary
Mary is going to = Marys gonna [me izgn ]
Marys gonna do well.
we
we are going to = were gonna [wgn ]
Were gonna have fun.
they
they are going to = theyre gonna [gn ]
Theyre gonna drive.
the dogs
the dogs are going to = the dogsre* gonna [ dgz gn ]
The dogsre* gonna love it.
*Note: its not grammatically correct to write the are contraction with a plural
noun (the dogsre), but it happens frequently in spoken English.
Video 12.2 How to Pronounce GONNA and WANNA

Learn the pronunciations, and example sentences for these
reductions. engl.io/a63
Video 12.3 Pronunciation Focus: Gonna

Analyze three real life examples of gonna in-depth.
engl.io/a66
216
Video 12.4 Real Life English: Wedding Venue

In this video, I walk around our wedding venue getting ready
for our big day. As I talk, I use a lot of gonna phrases. We engl.io/a68
do this a lot when talking about the future.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 12.1 Gonna.

First youll hear just the subject contraction (Im, youre) with gonna three times,
the second time in slow motion. Then youll hear the whole phrase.
Audio 12.1 Gonna

Im gonna. Im gonna be late.
Youre gonna. Youre gonna be sorry.
Hes gonna. Hes gonna stop by. engl.io/a6b
Were gonna. Were gonna have fun!
Theyre gonna. Theyre gonna drive.
You might hear Americans reduce the first person, Im gonna, even more.
Sometimes Americans drop the [g] sound, so it ends up sounding like Imunna
[amn], where the stress switches over to I from the first syllable of gonna.
They will even drop I, so it just sounds like muh [m].
Video 12.5 Im Gonna Reduction

Im gonna is already a reduction. But you know Americans
love to shorten familiar phrases! Youll hear it reduced even engl.io/a6d
more. Can you still understand it?
WANNA
Want to wanna [wn ] or [wn ]
Just like gonna, wanna is two syllables with stress on the first syllable. Youll
hear wanna two different ways, with the AH as in FATHER [] vowel or the UH
as in BUTTER [] vowel. I tend to use the UH as in BUTTER vowel.
I
I want to = I wanna [awn ] or [awn ]
I wanna see.
217
you
you want to = you wanna [jwn ] or [jwn ]
Do you wanna head out*?
he
he wants to = WAIT! Now we have wants instead of want. Remember,
wanna = want to, not wants to. That means we cant use wanna with
the third person singular. We cannot say He wanna, She wanna, Mary
wanna, etc. For these cases, we will say He wants to, She wants to, etc.
Remember to reduce to, as you learned in Chapter 10.
we
we want to = we wanna [wiwn ] or [wiwn ]
We wanna move to Philadelphia.
they
they want to = they wanna [ewn ] or [ewn ]
They wanna come with us.
the dogs
the dogs want to = the dogs wanna [ dgzwn ] or [ dgzwn ]
The dogs wanna go outside.
Video 12.6 Interview a Broadcaster: Chris Jansing

Hear NBC Newscaster Chris Jansings perfect American
English and yes, that includes wanna. engl.io/a6f
Video 12.7 Vacation 2012

More examples of gonna and wanna in real conversational
Englishand the beauty of being on vacation! Also, learn engl.io/axd
the reduction let me. Have you ever heard someone say
lemme?
Listen + Repeat: Audio 12.2 Wanna.

First youll hear just the subject (I, you, etc.) with wanna three times, the second
time in slow motion. Then youll hear the whole phrase. Notice there are fewer
hereno 3rd person singular (he/she/it). Remember not to use wanna in these
cases.
218
Audio 12.2 Wanna

I wanna. I wanna see.
You wanna. Do you wanna head out?* engl.io/a6k
We wanna. We wanna move to Philadelphia.
They wanna. They wanna come with us.
*The idiom to head out means to leave, depart. I use it often when
leaving friends:
Im gonna head out.
I gotta head out.
Should we head out?
GOTTA
Got to gotta [gd ]
Gotta is also two syllables with stress on the first syllable. Its important to use
a Flap T here: dont stop the air flow, just a quick flap of the tongue as it bounces
off the roof of the mouth. We use gotta with a subject + have or has + gotta.
Youll hear some Americans drop have (though not has). For example: I gotta
go, you gotta see this, they gotta stop doing that, we gotta go. Again, since
the second syllable is just the schwa, it should be very short.
You just learned the HAVE and HAS contractions in Chapter 11, so you know
that the contraction itself can often be pronounced more than one way, with
varying levels of reduction. For example, it has = its [ts] or [ts]. Ive chosen just
one for each example below.
I
I have got to = Ive gotta [avgd ] or I gotta [agd ]
I gotta go.
you
you have got to = youve gotta [jvgd ] or you gotta [jgd ]
Youve gotta see this.
he
he has got to = hes gotta [hizgd ]
Hes gotta know that.
she
she has got to = shes gotta [izgd ]
Shes gotta stop doing that.
219
it
it has got to = its gotta [tsgd ]
Its gotta be tough.
Mary
Mary has got to = Marys gotta [m izgd ]
Marys gotta leave.
we
we have got to = weve gotta [wivgd ] or we gotta [wigd ]
Weve gotta do this more often.
they
they have got to = theyve gotta [evgd ] or they gotta [egd ]
They gotta work late.
the dogs
the dogs have got to = the dogsve gotta [ dgzvgd ]
The dogsve gotta be quiet.
Video 12.8 Thanksgiving 2011

See gotta in real life English conversation as we cook
Thanksgiving dinner! engl.io/a6m
Video 12.9 How to Pronounce GONNA and GOTTA

In this real life English video, youll see gonna and gotta in
real English conversation, and learn many other points, engl.io/a6p
while getting hungry for Ramen noodles!
Listen + Repeat: Audio 12.3 Gotta.

Youll hear sentence fragments both ways, with the have/has contraction, and
without. Remember, both are common in American English. Youll hear each
fragment three times, the second time in slow motion. Then youll hear a sample
sentence.
220
Audio 12.3 Gotta

I gotta / Ive gotta
Ive gotta go.
you gotta / youve gotta engl.io/a6s
Youve gotta see this.
Hes gotta remember you cant drop the has
contraction
Hes gotta know that.
we gotta / weve gotta
Weve gotta do this more often.
they gotta / theyve gotta
They gotta work late.
Test yourself: Non-Audio 12.1 Used Correctly?

Which sentences do not use gonna/wanna/gotta correctly? Answers in the
Answers Appendix.
I wanna see her later
Theyve gotta see it.
He wanna win.
Were gonna get it.
Hes gonna stop by?
We gotta go.
She gotta know that.
A Note on Speaking and Writing

As youve heard, even President Obama would use a reduction like wanna in an
important speech. But would he ever use it in an important piece of writing?
Absolutely not. While it is absolutely a part of our culture to use these reductions
in speech, it is not acceptable to use them in any kind of formal writing. It has
been used here only because it is a chapter about gonna, wanna, and gotta. I
recommend not using the written form gonna, wanna, or gotta in any writing.
221
Chapter 13
Putting it All Together
If youve come this far, you know a lot about pronunciation! Now its time to start
putting it all together with some concrete training that will improve your listening
comprehension and pronunciation.
Bridging the gap between study and conversation with natives can be difficult.
Set aside time for regular pronunciation practice, and make sure youre doing a
variety of exercises.
Now well take everything we learned and apply it to sentences and

conversations. Make sure you think about rhythm and how to simplify the
unimportant words.
Well do several Ben Franklin Exercises together. This is an exercise I

developed where you study in depth everything you hear: reductions, the most
stressed syllables, contractions, gonna/wanna/gotta, Flap or Stop Ts, and so on.
Identify what you really hear, not what you think you might hear based on the
words. When you study real conversation like this, youll get used to the
reductions Americans use quickly, and the linking and intonation of sentences.
222
Video 13.1 Ben Franklin Exercise

Get familiar with Ben Franklin exercises and how you might
take notes on pronunciation. Topic: Breakfast. engl.io/a72
Youve already heard some audio in slow motion in this book, in this section
youll hear a lot. Why all the slow motion? Changing the speed of the
conversation does a couple of things. First, it makes the intonation easier to
identify: the constant up and down of the voice. The voice is always changing
pitch, its not flat. Work on imitating the speech in slow motion, your voice will
feel like waves going up and down. When its time to speed it up, just do those
waves faster. Dont switch back into talking, or you might loose that wonderful,
connected character.
Second, it makes it easier to identify the quality of unstressed words and

syllables. Its clear that theyre quieter and have less energy in the voice.
Third, its always good to slow something down and really drill it until it feels
comfortable. Your body connects to it in a different wayand remember, your
accent isnt just about your mind, its about engaging your body and retraining
your muscle memory.
There are two voices in this section: a female voice, Rachel, and a male voice,
Tom. This is helpful not only because both genders are represented, but also
because two different interpretations are given. Youll see that in some cases,
Rachel and Tom have made different choices about thought groups, pacing, and
pronunciation. They are both always right with English pronunciation, many
different choices can be made within the overall character of American English.
Topic 1: Directions
Sentence: Do you know where Penn Station is?

You find yourself looking for Penn Station in New York. You lost your map, but
dont worry, there are hundreds of people walking by you every minute. All you
have to do is ask for help!
One of the most useful phrases in American English is excuse me. This is the
best phrase to use to get someones attention whom you dont know. (If you
know the person, youll just say his or her name.)
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Video 13.2 Excuse Me

There are lots of uses for this phrase. See many of them in
real life situations. engl.io/a74
Here we need the help of a stranger, so we use excuse me to get his or her
attention, then ask the question.
Listen: Audio 13.1 Penn Station.

Youll hear the phrase 4 times: normal pace, slow motion, half slow motion, and
normal pace. Youll hear the sequence twice, first in Rachels voice, then in
Toms. Dont repeat yet, just listen.
Audio 13.1 Penn Station

Excuse me, do you know where Penn Station is?
engl.io/a77
Study it:
1) What are your thought groups? There are two here: excuse me, and do
you know where Penn Station is?. We can easily hear a little break in
sound on the audio file for both the male and female speakers. All the other
words flow together. At the end of me, Rachel goes up in pitch, signaling
that she will say more. Tom goes down in pitchboth are ok.
2) What are the most stressed words or syllables? How do they sound?
Excuse, know, Penn, and Station are the most stressed. If you listen to a
sentence but dont understand everything, chances are the words that you
do understand are the stressed words, the most important in the sentence.
Hear how these four words are clearest. They all have full engagement of
the voice. They are the longest and loudest.
3) What words are reduced? Tom doesnt fully pronounce the first syllable of
excuse. This is a stressed word, how is that possible? He does make the
stressed syllable very clear. Its not uncommon to hear this word as Tom
said it. Can you hear the difference in the way the Rachel and Tom
pronounced excuse? Do you: both of these words are very fast, but for this
sentence, neither Tom nor Rachel reduced them to have the schwa vowel.
They both have [u].
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4) Do you notice anything interesting about any of the sounds, or linking? All
of the words in each of the two thought groups really glide together
smoothly. Notice we have a clear consonant to vowel link in Station is; it
sounds stationnis.
5) What about the intonation of the phrase? As discussed, Rachel brings the
intonation up at the end of me, and Tom makes it go down. The intonation
for the second thought group, however, is very similar for both Tom and
Rachel. Know, the first stressed word, has the highest pitch. Then the pitch
falls, and both Penn and Station have a little curve up, then back down. Is
ends with a curve up in pitch because this is a yes/no question.
Here are some of these points notated on the text. Listen to the audio file
several times. What else do you hear?
Practice it:
Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.2 Penn Station Practice.
Youll hear the phrase broken up into sections, each played three times. Repeat
each time; try to match the intonation exactly. The first few times, just do this on
uh. Practice the smooth connection and forward motion of the voice. Then put
the words in. The first time through the sentence will be slowed down a bit, then
it will be at regular pace. Youll hear it this way once with Rachels voice and
once with Toms voice.
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Audio 13.2 Penn Station Practice

slower: Excuse me / do you know / where Penn Station is?
regular: Excuse me / do you know where Penn Station is? engl.io/a79
Sentence: Can you tell me where the closest subway stop is?
Now you know where youre going, you just have to get started. If you need to
get someones attention before asking this question, remember to say excuse
me.
Listen: Audio 13.3 Subway Stop.

normal pace. Youll hear the sequence twice, first in a female voice, then male.
Dont repeat yet, just listen.
Audio 13.3 Subway Stop

Can you tell me where the closest subway stop is?
engl.io/a7c
Study it:
1) What are your thought groups? This sentence has just one. All of the
words flow together in one smooth line.
2) What are the most stressed words or syllables? How do they sound? Tell,
close-, and sub- are the most stressed syllables. In the slower audio, they
sound exaggerated, dont they? They are longer and clearer than the rest,
the voice is fully engaged.
3) What words are reduced? Can, a helping verb here (not the main verb), is
reduced just like you learned in Chapter 10. Toms version is much faster
than Rachels, but in both cases can is pronounced [kn]. The is
pronounced [] because the next word begins with a consonant. The word
where is very fast.
4) Do you notice anything interesting about any of the sounds, or linking?

Rachel releases the T in closest, Tom does not. As you learned, Americans
often drop the T between two consonants, like in closest stop [klo
ssstp]. That means these two words can be linked together with the S
sound, as Tom did.
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5) What about the intonation of the phrase? Because this is a yes/no question,
the intonation went up at the end. The content word tell, which is the
closest to the start of the sentence, is the highest in pitch, while the rest of
the sentence tapers down before the curve up at the end.
Practice it:
Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.4 Subway Stop Practice.
Just like with the Penn Station exercise, youll hear the phrase broken up into
sections, each played three times.
Audio 13.4 Subway Stop Practice

slower: Can you tell me / where the closest / subway stop
is? engl.io/a7f
regular: Can you tell me where the closest / subway stop
is?
Directions Dialog
This happened to me recently. David and I werent using a map and were trying
to find one of the major highways in a town we werent familiar with. When it
became obvious we needed help, we asked someone at a gas station.
227
Listen: Audio 13.5 Directions Dialog.

Youll hear the dialog twice. Once at normal pace, and once in slow motion.
Rachel: Excuse me.

Gas Station Attendant: Yes?
Rachel: Were looking for 94. Do you know where it is?
Gas Station Attendant: Yes. Keep going down this road, and at the next
intersection turn left. In a couple of miles youll see signs for it.
Rachel: Thank you so much!
Gas Station Attendant: No problem.
Audio 13.5 Directions Dialog

engl.io/a7g
Now its up to you:

Just like we did above with the two sentences, write down the text on a piece of
paper, study the audio, and mark down what you hear. What syllables sound
stressed the loudest, clearest, with the up-down shape of the voice? The first
time you listen, just put an up/down curve over these syllables. What words are
reduced? Maybe you can hardly hear them. Are there pauses as one speaker is
talking? What about the intonation of the phrase? Listen several times and mark
everything you notice. The better you know what youre hearing, the better youll
be able to imitate it.
Things to look for:

The two yes phrases: the intonation goes up for the question and down for
the statement.
The of reductionit links the word before it and after it together.
Stop T at the end of it in signs for it.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.6 Directions Dialog Practice:

Now, try it yourself. Youll hear the phrases, at regular pace, broken up into
smaller fragments. Youll hear each fragment three times, repeat each time.
Audio 13.6 Directions Dialog Practice
engl.io/a7k
228
Topic 2: At a Restaurant
Sentence: Hi, I have a reservation for two under Smith.

This is what you might first say to the host or hostess at a restaurant. Youve
made the reservation several days ago, and so you need to let the staff know
who you are and that youve arrived.
Listen: Audio 13.7 Reservations.

Audio 13.7 Reservations

Hi, I have a reservation for two under Smith.
engl.io/a7m
Study it:
1) What are your thought groups? There are two. First Hi, then I have a
reservation for two under Smith. Notice that Rachel goes right through the
comma that separates the two thought groups with no pause. Tom, on the
other hand, puts a noticeable pause between thought groups.
2) What are the most stressed words or syllables? How do they sound? Hi,
two, and Smith are the longest and clearest words. Two and Smith are all I
would need to say to communicate what I mean. The stressed syllable of
reservation, -va-, is also stressed.
3) What words are reduced? For is clearly reduced, just like you learned in
Chapter 10. The vowel has changed to the schwa and the word is very fast,
even in slow motion. It is quiet and low in pitch.

There are a couple of sounds and sound combinations that can be difficult
here. The SM cluster in Smith, for example. Make sure you make that with
no vowel in front, the word under should link right into it. Also, the TH sound
that ends Smith. Make sure the tongue is through the teeth with air lightly
releasing, no pressure. As you work on these examples and any others,
keep your own problem sounds in mind. You might have to drill those words
separately before working on a whole phrase.
229
5) What about the intonation of the phrase? The highest pitch is the stressed
syllable of reservation. Both two and Smith got quite a bit of attentionthey
were longer and rounded (the curve down is very clear), stressed shape to
the pitch. This shape is clear in the slow motion sentences. This is
especially true for Toms sentence. The pitch ends going down because this
is a statement.
Practice it:
Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.8 Reservations Practice.
uh. Then put the words in. The first time through the sentence will be slowed
down a bit, then it will be at regular pace. Then youll hear it broken up again the
same way with the male voice.
Audio 13.8 Reservations Practice

slower: Hi, I have a reservation / for two / under Smith.
regular: Hi, I have a reservation for two / under Smith. engl.io/a7p
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Sentence: How long is the wait for a party of four?

This time, you didnt make a reservation. The restaurant looks crowded, and
youre not sure there is room for you and your three friends. Here, the word
party means group. It does not mean you are celebrating, throwing a party, or
going to a party.
Listen: Audio 13.9 Wait Time.

Audio 13.9 Wait Time

How long is the wait for a party of four?
engl.io/a7s
Study it:
1) What are your thought groups? There is just one thought group.
2) What are the most stressed words or syllables? How do they sound? Wait
and four are the most stressed, but the stressed syllable of party, par-, is
also clear and with an up/down shape of a stressed syllable. They are
longer, clearer, the biggest or most obvious words.
3) What words are reduced? The word for is reduced. Its interesting in this
sentence in particular because we also have the word four, which is
stressed. Some people want to fully pronounce for so it sounds like four, but
in this sentence they are clearly different because for is reduced.
The word of is also reduced to just the schwa [] sound. So, party of
sounds like party-uh. This helps link party and four smoothly.
4) Do you notice anything interesting about any of the sounds, or linking? I

notice a clear Stop T at the end of the stressed word wait. This is because
the next word begins with a consonant, [f]. Because the T is not fully
pronounced, it allows the speaker to move into the next sound more quickly,
making a smoother sentence. Instead of a released burst of air, there is just
a small pause or lift in the vocal line.
There is a Flap T in party because the T comes after an R and before a

vowel. Just flapping the tongue instead of making a fully released T makes
the line smoother.
231
5) What about the intonation of the phrase? This is a question, but it cant be
answered by yes or no. So the intonation goes down at the end. The
stressed word wait is higher in pitch than the stressed word four, which is at
the end of the sentence. The general direction if pitch is down across the
whole sentence.
Practice it:
Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.10 Wait Time Practice.
Audio 13.10 Wait Time Practice

slower: How long is the wait / for a party of four?
regular: How long is the wait / for a party of four? engl.io/a7v
232
At a Restaurant Dialog
Here Rachel and her friend Dawn are at a restaurant. The server Mark is taking
the order.
Someone asked me a question recently: why do servers tell their names, and
what are you supposed to say in response? Are you to introduce yourself to
them, too? The answer is no. You dont need to introduce yourself when servers
introduce themselves. This is something that some servers do to be more
friendly and professional. When a server tells you his or her name, it will often be
followed by something like And Ill be your server today. You can respond with
thank you.
Listen: Audio 13.11 At a Restaurant Dialog. Youll hear the dialog twice.
Once at normal pace, and once in slow motion.
Rachel: Were going to start with the cheese plate.

Mark: Great.
Rachel: And I would like the mushroom pasta.
Mark: Wonderful.
Dawn: Ill have the steak, medium.
Mark: And what two vegetables would you like with that?
Dawn: Um, potatoes and carrots.
Mark: Great. Ill put this order in right away, and my names Mark if you need
anything.
Rachel: Great, thank you.
Audio 13.11 At a Restaurant Dialog
engl.io/a7x
Now its up to you:

233
Things to look for:

Lots of Stop Ts here. How does great, with a Stop T, sound different than the
word gray would?
The pause separating the thought groups Ill have the steak and medium. (This
is how she wants it cooked. You can get meat prepared rare, which is the least
cooked, medium, and well-done.)
And reductions, at the beginning of a sentence and in the middle.
Contractions.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.12 At a Restaurant Dialog Practice.

small fragments. Youll hear each fragment three times, repeat each time.
Audio 13.12 At a Restaurant Dialog Practice
engl.io/a82
Topic 3: Shopping
Sentence: Excuse me, do you have this in another size?

Youre trying something onshoes, jeansand the size isnt right. Youve
looked at the others and dont see your size. This can also apply to other objects
as well, for example, a small bowl that you like, but you need a larger bowl. You
can insert that into the question:
Excuse me, do you have this in a smaller size?
Excuse me, do you have this in a larger size?
Excuse me, do you have this in a size 4?
Listen: Audio 13.13 Another Size.

Audio 13.13 Another Size

Excuse me, do you have this in another size?
engl.io/a84
234
Study it:
1) What are your thought groups? Just like in the Penn Station sentence, we
have Excuse me as a thought group separated from the rest of the
sentence.
Excuse, have, and size have the longest syllables. They have the up-down
shape of a stressed syllable and are the clearest parts of the sentence.
3) What words are reduced? Especially in the slow motion version, it sounds
like do and you are both reduced, not a whole [u] vowel, but something more
like the schwa []. Try thisrush through do you and get to the verb: do
you have, do you know, do you need. Have is not reduced here, as it
sometimes is with a dropped H.
4) Do you notice anything interesting about any of the sounds, or linking? In

another links together with an ending consonant and beginning vowel.
Those words together are very quick, and almost have a bouncy feel. The
tongue is doing a lot of work here, against the roof of the mouth for the two
N sounds, while the tip comes through for the TH, but its always relaxed.
Practice this and other difficult passages slowly.
5) What about the intonation of the phrase? Rachels voice goes up at the end
of Excuse me, and Toms does not. Both are ok. When the voice goes up
in pitch at the end, its a signal that the speaker is going to say more. This is
a yes / no question, so the pitch will go up at the end of do you have this in
another size. Toms upward intonation is very clear.
235
Practice it:
Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.14 Another Size Practice.
Audio 13.14 Another Size Practice

slower: Excuse me / do you have this / in another size?
normal: Excuse me / do you have this / in another size? engl.io/a85
Sentence: Whats your return policy?

Once when I was shopping for a dress in Europe, I asked what the exchange
policy was, and they told me there wasnt one. I had to keep what I bought! This
is quite unusual in America. You can take almost anything back to the store
within a given amount of time as long as you havent used it. Different stores
have different policies, 14 days, 30 days, or 90 days, for example.
Listen: Audio 13.15 Return Policy.

Audio 13.15 Return Policy

Whats your return policy?
engl.io/a88
Study it:
1) What are your thought groups? Just one in this sentence.
Whats and return have the clearest stressed syllables. Policy is also
stressed, but since it is the last word in the sentence, the pitch isnt as high,
and there is less energy in the voice.
3) What words are reduced? Your is clearly reduced, [j]. Its very fast. We
also have the contraction Whats, which reduces the word is.
236

Some students have a hard time with the TS [ts] cluster like in Whats. Its
very clear here, with a crisp sound.
5) What about the intonation of the phrase? This is a question, but it cant be
answered with yes or no, so it goes down in pitch, and the energy
diminishes towards the end like a statement.
Practice it:
Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.16 Return Policy Practice.
Again, youll hear the phrase broken up into sections, each played three times.
Audio 13.16 Return Policy Practice

slower: Whats your / return policy?
normal: Whats your / return policy? engl.io/a8a
237
Shopping Dialog
Youve just walked into a store, and one of the sales clerks walks over to you.
Since youre not looking for anything in particular and you dont need help with
anything, you say youre just looking around.
Listen: Audio 13.17 Shopping Dialog.

Sales Clerk: Can I help you?

You: Im just looking around, thank you.
Sales Clerk: Let me know if you have any questions.
You: I will, thanks.
Audio 13.17 Shopping Dialog
engl.io/a8b
Now its up to you:

Things to look for:

Can reduction
Intonation of the first question: does it go up or down?
Im contraction: saying Im instead of I am helps smooth out the sentence
Stop T in let me.
Thought groups: are there pauses in the audio where you see commas in
the text?
Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.18 Shopping Dialog Practice.

238
Audio 13.18 Shopping Dialog Practice
engl.io/a8d
Topic 4: At Work
Sentence: The meetings been moved to three.

Youre all ready for a meeting at 11am when a colleague comes to tell you the
meeting will now be at 3pm. Goodthat gives you extra time to prepare!
We have a contraction in this sentence. As you know, s can be the contraction

of two different words in this context. Which one is it:
The meeting is been moved to three.

The meeting has been moved to three.
The answer is has this is called the present perfect (has + been). The other
sentence is grammatically incorrect.
Listen: Audio 13.19 Meeting Moved.

Audio 13.19 Meeting Moved

The meetings been moved to three.
engl.io/a8f
Study it:
1) What are your thought groups? There is just one thought group.
Meetings, moved, and three are the words with the clearest syllables.
Three, though it has a stressed length, is a little weaker sounding because it
is at the end of the sentence, when there is less energy in the voice.
3) What words are reduced? The word to is reduced. Rachel makes a

stronger True T sound, while Tom makes a more reduced Flap T sound.
239
Both reduce the vowel to the schwa []. This means the word can be very
quick, giving nice contrast to the longer, stressed syllables.

Rachel releases the D of moved, then makes the T sound of to. Tom
combines this into one D sound for a smoother line. The T in meetings is a
Flap T.
5) What about the intonation of the phrase? This is a statement, and the pitch
has a general movement downward throughout the phrase, with little curves
up and down for the stressed syllables.
Listen: Audio 13.20 Stressed Words and Sentence Position.

Weve already talked about this a lot, but now lets hear it. Well take the opening
words, including a stressed word, The meetings. Then well take the last
stressed word, three. Even though they are both stressed, you can clearly hear
that the words at the beginning of the sentence is louder, higher in pitch, and has
more energy in the voice. The last word, though its quieter and has less energy
in the voice, is still quite clear. Youll hear these two words next to each other
eight times. As you work on this and any sentence, try to make your final words
like this one. This will give your sentences the right shapecoming down in
pitch and energy over a statement.
240
Audio 13.20 Stressed Words and Sentence Position

The meetings / three.
engl.io/a8g
Practice it:
Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.21 Meeting Moved Practice.
Audio 13.21 Meeting Moved Practice

slower: The meetings been moved / to three.
regular: The meetings been moved / to three. engl.io/a8i
Sentence: Have you seen a draft of the report?

Youre working hard on a project with a colleague, and youre waiting for a report
from another department to move forward with your project. Youve heard a draft
of the report is ready, but you havent seen it yet. You ask if your colleague has.
Listen: Audio 13.22 Report.

Audio 13.22 Report

Have you seen a draft of the report?
engl.io/a8k
Study it:
1) What are your thought groups? There is just one.
2) What are the most stressed words or syllables? How do they sound? Draft
and report stick out as the longest words (for report, its just the stressed
syllable that is long). This is especially true in Toms sentence, in which the
other words are faster.
241
3) What words are reduced? Tom reduces of by dropping the V sound, but
Rachel makes a quick V. Little differences like this add up to Toms
sentence being faster. Tom also reduced you to [j].
4) Do you notice anything interesting about any of the sounds, or linking? By

dropping the V in of, Tom is able to link of and the a little quicker than
Rachel. However, because there is no break between the two words in
Rachels sentence, it still sounds smooth and American!
5) What about the intonation of the phrase? This is a question that can be
answered by yes or no. This means the intonation should go up at the
end, just as it does. Notice the rising pitch on -port.
Practice it:
Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.23 Report Practice.
Audio 13.23 Report Practice

slower: Have you seen a draft / of the report?
regular: Have you seen a draft / of the report? engl.io/a8m
242
At Work Dialog
John and Kim are chatting while in line at the company cafeteria about a project
that John is working on.
Listen: Audio 13.24 At Work Dialog.

Kim: Hows the project going?

John: Slowly moving along. The client keeps changing his mind.
Kim: Oh, thats frustrating!
John: Yeah, it is. But next week were going on vacation so Im going to try to
forget all about it!
Kim: Nice!
Audio 13.24 At Work Dialog
engl.io/a8p
Now its up to you:

Things to look for:

Contractions
Dropping the H reduction in his.
Going to = gonna reduction.
Intonation: the opening question isnt a yes/no question, so the pitch goes
down at the end.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.25 At Work Dialog Practice:

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Audio 13.25 At Work Dialog Practice
engl.io/a8r
Topic 5: Making Plans
Sentence: Do you want to do something tomorrow night?

Youre free tomorrow night and want to do something social. You ask a friend if
she wants to hang out.
Listen: Audio 13.26 Tomorrow Night.

Audio 13.26 Tomorrow Night

Do you want to do something tomorrow night?
engl.io/a8s
Study it:
1) What are your thought groups? Theres just one thought group in this
sentence.
2) What are the most stressed words or syllables? How do they sound? Do
and night are the most clear and stressed, but the stressed syllables of the
want to reduction and tomorrow are also stressed.
3) What words are reduced? We have a great want to reduction: wanna.
4) Do you notice anything interesting about any of the sounds, or linking? The
first syllable of tomorrow is so short, there is almost no vowel in it. This is
especially clear in Rachels slow motion sentence.
5) What about the intonation of the phrase? This is a question that can be
answered with yes or no, so the intonation goes up in pitch at the end.
244
Practice it:
Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.27 Tomorrow Night Practice.
Audio 13.27 Tomorrow Night Practice

slower: Do you want to / do something / tomorrow night?
normal: Do you want to / do something / tomorrow night? engl.io/a8v
Sentence: Id love to.

This is one possible response to the question you just asked. Your friend is free,
and shed really like to do something with you!
Listen: Audio 13.28 Love To.

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Audio 13.28 Love To

Id love to.
engl.io/a8y
Study it:
1) What are your thought groups? There is just one thought group in this
sentence.
2) What are the most stressed words or syllables? How do they sound? Love
is the only stressed syllable in this sentence. Since the sentence is so short,
we can really see how the unstressed word Id leads up to the stressed
word, and the unstressed word to falls away from the stressed word. They
are all a part of the same smooth line, a curve up and a curve down.
3) What words are reduced? We have the contraction Id, which is a reduction
of I would. What about to? This word normally reduces, but here we can
still hear the OO [u] vowel. Why doesnt it reduce to the schwa? Because
its the last word in the sentence. Most people wont reduce words in this
situation, but its still unstressed.
4) Do you notice anything interesting about any of the sounds, or linking? Love
has the letter O, but it makes an UH [] sound!
5) What about the intonation of the phrase? This is a statement, so the pitch
goes down at the end.
Practice it:
Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.29 Love To Practice.
This sentence is too short to break up. Youll hear the full sentence, three times.
The first few times, just do this on uh. Then put the words in. The first time
246
through the sentence will be slowed down a bit, then it will be at regular pace.
Then youll hear it broken up again the same way with the male voice.
Audio 13.29 Love To Practice

Id love to.
engl.io/a92
Sentence: I cant, well be out of town.

This is another possible answer to the question you asked. Unfortunately, your
friend is unavailable to hang out tomorrow night.
Listen: Audio 13.30 Out of Town.

Audio 13.30 Out of Town

I cant, well be out of town.
engl.io/a93
Study it:
1) What are your thought groups? There are two, I cant and well be out of
town.
2) What are the most stressed words or syllables? How do they sound? In the
first thought group, cant is stressed. In the second, out and town have the most
shape and and are longer.
3) What words are reduced? Of is reduced simply to the schwa sound. It helps
link the words out and town together. Also, the contraction well is not
pronounced with the [i] vowel, but something more like the schwa []. Its very
fast.
4) Do you notice anything interesting about any of the sounds, or linking? The
word cant ends with an abrupt stop, the T isnt released in Rachels sentence.
However, Tom does release the T in cant.
5) What about the intonation of the phrase? This is a statement, and the pitch
heads downward throughout the phrase.
247
Practice it:
Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.31 Out of Town Practice. Youll hear the
phrase broken up into sections, each played three times. Repeat each time; try
to match the intonation exactly. The first few times, just do this on uh. Then put
the words in. The first time through the sentence will be slowed down a bit, then
it will be at regular pace. Then youll hear it broken up again the same way with
the male voice.
Audio 13.31 Out of Town Practice

slower: I cant / well be / out of town.
normal: I cant / well be out of town. engl.io/a95
Making Plans Dialog

Zack will be visiting Brooklyn for the weekend and hopes to see his friends Ray
and Maria. They have a toddler named Charlie whose bedtime routine they dont
want to interrupt.
Listen: Audio 13.32 Making Plans Dialog. Youll hear the dialog twice.
Once at normal pace, and once in slow motion.
Zack: Anna and I will be in town next weekend. Do you guys want to try to get
together?
248
Maria: Yeah, wed love to. Do you want to come over for an early dinner on
Saturday?
Zack: Sure.
Maria: We usually start putting Charlie to bed around 7.
Zack: Ok, no problem. Well be out of your hair by then.
Maria: Great.
Audio 13.32 Making Plans Dialog
engl.io/a98
Now its up to you:

Just like we did above with the three sentences, write down the text on a piece of
Things to look for:

Reductions: and, for, to, wanna, of.
Stop T in great.
Dropped D in around. This is common for around, especially when followed by
a word that starts with a consonant.
Idiom out of your hair. Can you guess what this means?
Linking out and of with a Flap T.
Listen + Repeat: Audio 13.33 Making Plans Dialog Practice:

Audio 13.33 Making Plans Dialog Practice
engl.io/a9a
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Video Exercises
Breaking down what you hear isnt always easy. As you do more and more Ben
Franklin exercises, youll find you become a more active listener. Here are more
videos to practice with:
Video 13.3 How to Sound like a Native Speaker

This video goes over a short Ben Franklin exercise, and an
imitation exercise as well. See more imitation exercises engl.io/a9c
below.
Video 13.4 Where I live

engl.io/a9d
Video 13.5 What did you do today?
engl.io/a9f
Video 13.6 Free Time

engl.io/a9h
Video 13.7 Evening Plans
engl.io/a9k
Video 13.8 Stressed
engl.io/a9m
Imitation Exercises
These exercises are for practicing the character of American English:
placement, linking, rhythm, and intonation. In fact, you dont even need to use
words, you can just use uh like we have several times in this book. These are
imitation exercises. You hear part of a phrase three times, then theres time for
you to repeat. Practice just on uh, imitating the rhythm and melody of the line
you hear. After youve done the same exercise many times, if you feel confident,
try it with the words. Try doing this with your eyes closed, focusing on what you
hear.
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Video 13.9 Brooklyn Neighborhoods
engl.io/a9r
Video 13.10 Dont Keep a Secret

engl.io/a9s
Video 13.11 I Shouldnt be Bragging

engl.io/a9u
Video 13.12 Pan Am
engl.io/a9x
Video 13.13 Whats going on?
engl.io/a9z
Video 13.14 Call Ignored
engl.io/a91
Video 13.15 People Change
engl.io/1a2
Video 13.16 Terminator
engl.io/1a4
Video 13.17 Big Love

engl.io/1a5
Video 13.18 Carousel

engl.io/1a8
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Video 13.19 500 Days of Summer
engl.io/1ab
Video 13.20 The Art of Getting By
engl.io/1ad
Video 13.21 Eavesdrop

engl.io/1af
Video 13.22 Peggys New Office
engl.io/1ah
Video 13.23 Midnight in Paris

engl.io/1ak
Video 13.24 Bored to Death
engl.io/1am
Video 13.25 Lets Do Lunch
engl.io/1ap
Video 13.26 Thanksgiving 2012
engl.io/1as
Video 13.27 What did you do today?
engl.io/1au
Video 13.28 Is Tom Stressed?
engl.io/1aw
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Video 13.29 Is Rachel Stressed?
engl.io/1ax
253
Chapter 14
Continuing to Work
In this book, youve built a foundation for the sounds of American English. You
know how to listen for stressed words and reduced words. You know what a
Stop T sounds like, and contractions. You know Americans use
gonna/wanna/gotta and reductions all the time. The more you pay attention to
these things as you watch TV or listen to a conversation, the more youll notice
them. This will build your intuition, and youll start to get a feel for whats right.
But, because of what youve learned in this book, you dont have to rely on
intuition. Until that gets stronger, you can study phrases and know how they
should sound: pick out the stressed words, identify contractions, look at words
that will link together with an ending consonant to beginning vowel, and so on.
You have all the tools you need to keep practicing. But what material should you
use to keep practicing?
Vocabulary Lists and Phrase Drilling

This sounds boring, but it doesnt have to be! You might be working from a book
or website that gives you word lists. Thats a good base, but its easier to
remember words and phrases by picking them up in context. Read in English
and watch TV for vocabulary and useful phrases. Keep a list with you that you
add to when you find words, ways of using those words, or phrases that are new
to you. Write down the words or phrases and the context, and practice them out
loud.
254
Write out the IPA, or any other system that works for you, for each word and
phrase. Know where the stress is, and practice words just like in Chapter 9,
thinking about the shape of the stressed syllable and making the unstressed
syllables really fast. You might even want to practice stressed and unstressed
syllables separately. For the phrases, look for words you can reduce, and
practice them on their own. Then link them back into the phrase, just like in
Chapter 10. Notice everything, like contractions and gonna.
If any of the words or phrases are difficult, slow down. Dont say them at a
normal speaking pace. Make sure youre going slow enough so you know its
right. Practice the same word or phrase 10 times in a row, really paying attention
to what you hear and the movement of the mouth. Then a little faster 10 more
times.
Talk out loud as much as you can. It doesnt matter if no one is listening.
Sometimes thats even better because you dont need to worry about making
mistakes. Pick a topic and talk about it as if someone was there. Record
yourself, then pick out some of the vocabulary you used and drill those words or
phrases.
If you live in the US, or have the opportunity to have conversation with native
speakers, record that conversation. Listen to it later. Are you happy with your
pronunciation? What would you do differently? Maybe it sounds choppy. Write
down what you said and practice it slowly, with a smooth connection between
words. Use your body: move your arms smoothly too. Slowly speed up can
you keep a smooth connection?
Record yourself and listen to it everyday. Get familiar with how you talk, and
what youd like to change about it. Doing this and a Ben Franklin exercise every
day will help you understand what you need to change about your accent, and
how to change it.
Ben Franklin Exercises

In the last chapter, you saw some videos where I did a Ben Franklin exercise for
you. Those videos are to show you how to do them on your own. They are
named after Benjamin Franklin because they use a method he came up with to
improve is own writing. Study an original, take good notes, try to reproduce it
yourself, compare with the original.
Take a short clip (audio or video) that you can listen to over and over. Luckily
there are lots of news, drama, comedy, and vlog clips on the internet. Just pick a
255
small section of it, 15 or 20 seconds. Write out or get a copy of the transcript,
and mark it with everything you hear: what syllables are most stressed? What
words reduce? Where are Flap Ts, Stop Ts, contractions, gonna? Does the
pitch go up at the end of a phrase? Listen over and over again.
Looking at your notes, practice speaking the text out loud, as slowly as you need.
Do each phrase over and over until it starts to feel more comfortable. Record
yourself and listen to it. Then listen to the original. How does it compare?
What do you still need to work on?
If you dont know where to find good videos to practice with, try ted.com. They
have videos from many disciplines, and you can turn on the subtitles or work with
a clickable transcript. Plus, youll usually learn something cool.
There are some websites, like livemocha.com, where you can record yourself
and native speakers will comment on your recording, for free. I have actually
used it myself when studying a foreign language.
Daily Practice
Daily practice is the best way to move forward. Drill the same concept (the AH
vowel, or reducing for, for example) for a week or more. Once you make a
breakthrough on a word or sound and get it, its time to really work. Think of all
the times youve done it the wrong way. Thats your habit. To break the habit,
you have to practice the new way not once or twice, but many times. Try 20
times a day, at different paces (really slow, then normal speaking speed), for 7
days in a row.
Repetition and consistency are the most important factors to your practice. That
doesnt mean you have to spend hours a day. I remember a student from many
years ago. He was working on the ending [n] sound. It always sounded like []
because of tongue tension. The next week, every word I gave him with an
ending [n] sounded perfectsounded native! I said, how much did you work on
this? He said, Just 10 minutes a day, but I practiced every day.
Be patient with yourself and work hard. With daily practice you can improve
dramatically.
Lessons and Evaluations

Rachels English offers one-time accent evaluations. This can be a great way to
learn what you need to work on, and how to do it. If you want a coach every step
of the way, then lessons, also offered by Rachels English, are a great option.
256
Currently, teacher Tom Kelley, who youve heard on the audio files in this book
and seen in some videos, offers both lessons and evaluations through Rachels
English. He has trained as a singer and professional actor, getting a Masters
Degree in Acting from Harvard University. He is an exceptional accent coach
and has been working with Rachels English students since 2012.
Lessons and Evaluations engl.io/lessons

Learn more about Tom and the evaluations and lesson
packages available from Rachels English.
Thank you for joining me on the pronunciation journey in this book. To keep in
touch with Rachels English, please sign up for the mailing list: engl.io/nl
I wish you the best as you continue to work on your spoken English! I hope
every one of you will achieve your goals!
257
Appendix 1: Answers
Chapter 2 Introduction to Stress
Test Yourself: Audio 2.1 Which Syllable is Stressed?
about second syllable stress
window first syllable stress
yellow first syllable stress
until second syllable stress
along second syllable stress
aside second syllable stress
running first syllable stress
harder first syllable stress
simple first syllable stress
because second syllable stress
Test Yourself: Audio 2.3 Identify the Rhythmic Pattern

1. da-DA-da-DA-da
2. DA-da
3. da
4. da-DA-da-DA
5. DA-DA
6. da-DA-DA-da-da
7. da-DA
8. da-DA-da
9. da-da-DA
10. DA-da-DA
258
Chapter 3 Vowels
Test Yourself: Audio 3.5 AH [] vs. UH [] Test
1. UH as in BUTTER []
2. sung
3. pop
4. crossed
5. rubber
Test Yourself: Audio 3.9 AH [] vs. AA [] Test

1. AA as in BAT []
2. bomb
3. bag
4. rock
5. last
Test Yourself: Audio 3.13 EH [] vs. AA [] Test

1. AA as in BAT []
2. had
3. leapt
4. guess
5. cattle
Test Yourself: Audio 3.17 IH [] vs. EE [i] Test

1. EE as in SHE [i]
2. hill
3. it
4. living
5. ream
Test Yourself: Audio 3.19 EH [] vs. IH [] Test

1. IH as in SIT []
2. strep
3. wet
4. will
5. knit
Test Yourself: Audio 3.23 UH [] vs. OO [u] Test

1. OO as in BOO [u]
2. wooed
3. full
4. kooky
5. pool
259
Test yourself: Non-Audio 3.1 Match the Sound with the Symbol
1. h
2. g
3. i
4. f
5. d
6. b
7. j
8. a
9. e
10. k
11. c
Test Yourself: Audio 3.27 Vowel Test1. g IH as in SIT

2. d AA as in BAT
3. i UH as in PUSH
4. a UH as in BUTTER
5. b AH as in FATHER
6. k UR as in BIRD
7. j UH as in SUPPLY (Schwa)
8. g EE as in SHE
9. e EH as in BED
10. h OO as in BOO
11. c AW as in LAW

1. unstressed
2. stressed
3. stressed
4. unstressed
5. stressed
6. stressed
7. unstressed
8. unstressed
9. unstressed
10. stressed
260
Chapter 4 Diphthongs
Test Yourself: Audio 4.4 OH [o] vs. AW [] or AH [] Test
1. OH as in NOW [o]
2. toad
3. taupe
4. bossed
5. toast
Test Yourself: Audio 4.7 OW [a] vs. AW [] or AH [] Test

1. AW as in LAW []
2. out
3. moth
4. foul
5. brown
Test Yourself: Audio 4.11 AY [e] vs. IH [] vs. EE [i] Test

1. hail, heel, hill
2. knit, neat, Nate
3. wheel, whale, will
4. grin, grain, green
5. nail, nil, kneel
Test yourself: Non-Audio 4.1 Match the Symbols with the Sound
1. c
2. a
3. d
4. f
5. b
6. e
Test yourself: Non-Audio 4.1 Match the Symbols with the Sound
1. c
2. a
3. d
4. f
5. b
6. e
261
Test yourself: Audio 4.14 What diphthong are you hearing?

1. d AY as in SAY
2. f EW as in FEW
3. a OH as in NO
4. b OW as in NOW
5. e OY as in TOY
6. c AI as in BUY
Test yourself: Audio 4.15 Mixed Minimal Pairs, Vowels and Diphthongs
1. wrong hale, hill, heal

2. wrong lane, Lynne, lean
3. wrong out, ought
4. right
5. wrong bog, bag
6. right
7. right
8. wrong stuck, stock
9. wrong bed, bad
10. right
11. wrong fill, fell
12. right
13. wrong wood, wooed
14. wrong full, fool
Chapter 5 Consonants
Test yourself: Non-Audio 5.1 How should the Ts be pronounced?
a. True T b. Flap T c. Stop T
1. b
2. b
3. c
4. a
5. a
6. c
7. a
8. b
9. a
10. c
262
Test Yourself: Audio 5.7 Which T do you Hear?

1. hot Stop T
2. task True T
3. a lot of Flap T
4. interview No T
5. connect True T
6. partake True T
7. water Flap T
8. bottom Flap T
Test Yourself: Audio 5.19 N [n] vs. NG []

1. NG []
2. king
3. sane
4. gong
5. run
Test Yourself: Audio 5.25 R [] vs. W [w]

1. W [w]
2. rut
3. weighed
4. ring
5. rail
Test Yourself: Audio 5.29 R [] vs. L [l]

1. R []
2. rake
3. fly
4. glean
5. litter
Test Yourself: Non-Audio 5.2 Match the Symbol to the Sound

1. i
2. n
3. o
4. j
5. r
6. t
7. v
8. l
9. c
10. w
11. s
263
12. d
13. k
14. q
15. a
16. e
17. f
18. x
19. m
20. g
21. u
22. p
23. h
24. b
Test Yourself: Non-Audio 5.3 Which are American English IPA

Symbols?
2, 4, 5, 8, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20
Test Yourself: Audio 5.30 What Consonant do you Hear?

1. M [m]
2. T [t]
3. W [w]
4. R []
5. H [h]
6. NG []
7. Y [j]
8. B [b]
9. K [k]
10. Z [z]
11. S [s]
12. SH []
13. TH []
14. ZH []
15. CH []
Chapter 6 Consonant Clusters

Test Yourself: Non-Audio 6.1 How is the Plural Ending Pronounced?
1. c
2. b
3. a
4. b
5. a
264
6. b
7. a
8. c
9. c
10. a
Test Yourself: Non-Audio 6.2 How is the -ed Ending Pronounced?

1. b
2. b
3. a
4. c
5. c
6. a
7. b
8. a
9. b
10. c
Chapter 7 Rhythm and Intonation: Multi-Syllable Words

Test Yourself: Audio 7.2 3-Syllable Words Test
a. first b. second c. third
1. a. rectangle first
2. a. fortunate first
3. b. abandon second
4. c. guarantee third
5. b. determine second
6. c. magazine third
7. b. horizon second
8. b. subconscious second
9. a. video first
10. c. cigarette third
Test yourself: Non-Audio 7.1 Which Syllable has Stress?

1. annotate first [n tet] (-ate, two syllables before the suffix)
2. biology second [bal di] (-logy, one syllable before suffix)
3. commodify second [kmd fa] (-ify, one syllable before suffix)
4. barrette second [bt] (-ette, stress on the suffix)
5. anxious first [k s] (-ious, one syllable before suffix)
6. acrylic second [kl k] (-ic, one syllable before suffix)
7. addressee third [d si] (-ette, stress on the suffix)
265
8. conditional second [knd nl] (-inal, one syllable before suffix)

9. conspicuous second [knspk ju s] (-uous, one syllable before suffix)
10. consideration fourth [knsd e n] (-tion, one syllable before suffix)
Chapter 8 Linking
Test yourself: Non-Audio 8.1 Which kind of linking is it?
1. c
2. b
3. b
4. c
5. a
6. a
7. b
8. c
9. b
10. a
Test Yourself: Audio 8.5 Which Phrase is Linked?

1. a: on a linked
2. b: for the not linked
3. b: fly all not linked
4. a: had a linked
5. b: over there not linked
Chapter 9 Rhythm and Intonation: Stressed Words

Test Yourself: Audio 9.4 Which Word is the Most Stressed?
1. go
2. was
3. late
4. doing
5. thats
6. early
7. report
8. excuse
9. bought
10. class
266
Test yourself: Audio 9.6 Up or Down?

1. You up question
2. Yes down statement
3. What time down question, but not a yes/no question
4. Are you hungry up question
5. No up question
6. This one up question
7. Theyre late down statement
8. No down statement
9. This one down statement
10. Theyre late up question
Chapter 10 Unstressed Words and Words that Reduce

Test yourself: Audio 10.15 Is the Word Reduced?
1. yes at
2. yes for
3. yes should
4. no or
5. yes and
6. no because
7. yes to
8. no can
9. yes was
10. yes do
11. no them
12. no your
13. yes as
14. no could
Chapter 11 Contractions
Test yourself: Audio 11.10 What contraction are you hearing?
1. youd
2. whats
3. havent
4. wont
5. Ill
6. cant
267
7. hell
8. arent
9. youre
10. shouldve
11. were
12. hes
13. wherell
14. mightve
15. Id
Chapter 12 Gonna, Wanna, Gotta

Test yourself: Non-Audio 12.1 Used Correctly?
Only two sentences do not use gonna/wanna/gotta correctly:
He wanna win. 3rd Person (he, she, Mary, etc.) cannot use wanna. Correct:
He wants to win.
She gotta know that. You cant drop the has contraction for the 3rd Person
(he, she, it, etc.). Correct: Shes gotta know that.
268
Appendix 2: Video Index

Tools for Learning
0.1 The IPA: Vowels engl.io/aac
0.2 The IPA: Diphthongs engl.io/aae
0.3 The IPA: Consonants engl.io/aah
0.4 The IPA: Test Yourself engl.io/aam
Chapter 1 Getting Started

1.1 Path of the Voice engl.io/ab7
1.2 Placement engl.io/abf
1.3 Neck and Throat Relaxation engl.io/abm
1.4 Jaw Relaxation engl.io/ab2
1.5 Tongue Relaxation engl.io/ab9
1.6 Lip Relaxation engl.io/abx
1.7 Soft Palate engl.io/abr
Chapter 2 Introduction to Stress, Rhythm, and Intonation

2.1 English: A Stress-Timed Language engl.io/ac2
2.2 Introduction to Word Stress engl.io/acb
2.3 The Shape of a Stressed Syllable engl.io/ac4
2.4 How to Pronounce DOWNLOAD engl.io/acf
2.5 Weddings and 2-Syllable Words engl.io/ac3
2.6 Wedding Venue: 2-Syllable Words engl.io/ace
2.7 Listening Comprehension: 2-Syllable Words engl.io/ac5
269
Chapter 3 Vowels
3.1 The UH as in BUTTER [] Vowel engl.io/ad4
3.2 The AH as in FATHER [] Vowel engl.io/ada
3.3 AH [] vs. UH [] engl.io/adf
3.4 The AW as in LAW [] Vowel engl.io/adm
3.5 How to Pronounce Quarter engl.io/ads
3.6 The AA as in BAT [] Vowel engl.io/adv
3.7 Lesson Excerpt: The AA as in BAT Vowel engl.io/ady
3.8 The AA as in BAT Vowel followed by N, M, and NG engl.io/ae9
3.9 English in Real Life: Easter engl.io/aeb
3.10 The EH as in BED [] Vowel engl.io/aee
3.11 EH [] vs. AA [] engl.io/aei
3.12 The EE as in SHE [i] Vowel engl.io/aer
3.13 The IH as in SIT [] Vowel engl.io/aex
3.14 EE [i] vs. IH [] engl.io/af2
3.15 EE, IH, and Vowel Length engl.io/af3
3.16 Beach vs. Bitch engl.io/af6
3.17 The OO as in BOO [u] Vowel engl.io/afh
3.18 The UH as in PUSH [] Vowel engl.io/afm
3.19 The UH as in SUPPLY [] (Schwa) Vowel engl.io/afx
3.20 The UR as in BIRD Vowel engl.io/ag5
3.21 Differences between British and American Vowels engl.io/agb
4.1 The OH as in NO [o] Diphthong engl.io/ahd
4.2 The OW as in NOW [a] Diphthong engl.io/ahm
4.3 The AI as in BUY [a] Diphthong engl.io/ahw
4.4 The AY as in SAY [e] Diphthong engl.io/ah2
4.5 The OY as in TOY [] Diphthong engl.io/aie
4.6 The EW as in FEW [ju] Diphthong engl.io/aik
5.1 Voiced vs. Unvoiced Consonants engl.io/ak2
5.2 The B [b] and P [p] Consonants engl.io/ak8
5.3 Stop Consonants engl.io/aka
5.4 The G [g] and K [k] Consonants engl.io/akf
5.5 Contractversation engl.io/akj
5.6 The Flap T like in PARTY engl.io/akp
5.7 The Flap T like in PRETTY engl.io/akr
5.8 On the Farm engl.io/akt
5.9 T and D between Consonants engl.io/akv
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5.10 The T [t] and D [d] Consonants engl.io/akx

5.11 The Word SEVENTY engl.io/amz
5.12 T Pronunciations engl.io/anc
5.13 T Pronunciations Test engl.io/ane
5.14 Homophone Phrases engl.io/anj
5.15 The V [v] and F [f] Consonants engl.io/anp
5.16 The S [s] and Z [z] Consonants engl.io/anu
5.17 Letter S as the [z] Sound engl.io/anz
5.18 The SH [] and ZH [] Consonants engl.io/an2
5.19 The Two TH [] and [] Consonants engl.io/an7
5.20 The CH [] and JJ [d] Consonants engl.io/ap5
5.21 The M [m] Consonant engl.io/apd
5.22 The NG [] Consonant engl.io/aph
5.23 The N [n] Consonant engl.io/apm
5.24 How to Make N [n], Relating to D [d] engl.io/app
5.25 N [n] vs. NG [] engl.io/aps
5.26 N [n] vs. NG [] Test engl.io/apv
5.27 The H [h] Consonant engl.io/ar3
5.28 The Y [j] Consonant engl.io/ar8
5.29 The W [w] Consonant engl.io/are
5.30 The R [] Consonant engl.io/arh
5.31 R [] vs. W [w] engl.io/arm
5.32 The L [l] Consonant engl.io/aru
5.33 Comparing R [] and L [l] engl.io/as4
5.34 Listen and Repeat, R [] and L [l] engl.io/as7

6.1 Holding Out the R Sound engl.io/at3
6.2 How to Make the SHR Cluster engl.io/at6
6.3 How to Make the TR Cluster engl.io/at8
6.4 TR Sounding like CHR engl.io/ata
6.5 How to Make the [kw] Cluster engl.io/atf
6.6 How to Pronounce Quarter engl.io/ads
6.7 How to Pronounce S-Clusters engl.io/atk
6.8 Practice Tip: NTH Cluster engl.io/atm
6.9 How to Make the TS Sound engl.io/atp
6.10 Dropping T and D between Consonants engl.io/akv
6.11 Study: Ending T Clusters in Real English engl.io/atu
6.12 How to Pronounce Plural Nouns engl.io/atz
6.13 How to Pronounce -ed Endings engl.io/au4
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7.1 Three-Syllable Words engl.io/av1
7.2 Three-Syllable Words Listening Comprehension engl.io/av3
7.3 Heteronyms engl.io/ava
7.4 How to Pronounce DOWNLOAD engl.io/acf
7.5 Word Stress and Initials engl.io/avr
7.6 Burrito engl.io/avv
7.7 Should Burrito have an American Pronunciation? engl.io/avx
7.8 Procedure engl.io/avz
7.9 Tomorrow engl.io/aw1
7.10 Vacation engl.io/aw4
7.11 Beautiful engl.io/aw5
7.12 Comfortable engl.io/aw8
7.13 Graduate engl.io/awb
7.14 Interview engl.io/awd
7.15 Probably engl.io/awg
7.16 Yesterday engl.io/awk
7.17 Coffee engl.io/awm
7.18 Google engl.io/awn
7.19 Sorry engl.io/awp
7.20 International engl.io/aws
7.21 Opportunity engl.io/awt
7.22 Pronunciation engl.io/aww
7.23 Application engl.io/awx
Chapter 8 Linking
8.1 Linking Vowel to Vowel engl.io/ax4
8.2 Linking Consonant to Vowel engl.io/ax9
8.3 Using a Flap T to Link Words engl.io/axa
8.4 My Summer Vacation engl.io/axd
8.5 Got it engl.io/axf
8.6 Linking Consonant to Consonant engl.io/axk
8.7 Linking and the TH engl.io/axm
8.8 Road Trip engl.io/axp
8.9 What time? engl.io/axr

9.1 Three-Syllable Phrases engl.io/ay2
9.2 Content Words engl.io/ay8
9.3 Verbs engl.io/aya
9.4 Which word is the most stressed? engl.io/ayh
9.5 Word Stress and Sentence Position engl.io/aym
272
9.6 Intonation and Lists engl.io/ays

9.7 Intonation and Questions engl.io/ayu
9.8 What time? engl.io/axr
9.9 Are you okay? engl.io/ayz
9.10 Are you sure? engl.io/az2
9.11 Helpful engl.io/az7
9.12 Sorry engl.io/awp
9.13 Favorite engl.io/azb
9.14 Beautiful engl.io/aw5
9.15 Really engl.io/azg
9.16 Definitely engl.io/azj
9.17 Very engl.io/azn
9.18 Probably engl.io/awg

10.1 ARE Reduction engl.io/a16
10.2 Are you Sure? engl.io/az2
10.3 Are you Okay? engl.io/ayz
10.4 OR Reduction engl.io/a1c
10.5 FOR Reduction engl.io/a1f
10.6 For Sure engl.io/a1g
10.7 YOUR Reduction engl.io/a1k
10.8 AT Reduction engl.io/a1p
10.9 THAT Reduction engl.io/a1s
10.10 Dropping the H Reduction engl.io/a1x
10.11 I have a Cold engl.io/a1z
10.12 I have to Go engl.io/a21
10.13 THEM Reduction engl.io/a23
10.14 OF Reduction engl.io/a27
10.15 CAN Reduction engl.io/a2i
10.16 TO Reduction engl.io/a2n
10.17 See You engl.io/a2s
10.18 DO and DOES Reduction engl.io/a2v
10.19 AND Reduction engl.io/a32
10.20 How to Pronounce THE engl.io/a37
10.21 BECAUSE Reduction engl.io/a3c
10.22 The AS and WAS Reductions engl.io/a3e
10.23 Should, Would, and Could engl.io/a3j
11.1 NT Contractions engl.io/a41
273
11.2 Interview a Broadcaster: Rehema Ellis engl.io/a44

11.3 CAN vs. CANT engl.io/a4a
11.4 TO BE Contractions engl.io/a4e
11.5 Im Coming engl.io/a4g
11.6 YOURE Contraction engl.io/a1k
11.7 Interview a Broadcaster: Erica Hill engl.io/a4m
11.8 Thats / Its / Whats Reduction engl.io/a4p
11.9 Shoulda, Woulda, Coulda engl.io/a4y
11.10 Well see engl.io/a51
11.11 Ill think about it engl.io/a53
11.12 WHAT DID Reduction engl.io/a5a
11.13 Contractions engl.io/a5c
11.14 Pronunciation of WH Words engl.io/a5h
11.15 Contractversation engl.io/a5n
11.16 Contractversation engl.io/a5p
11.17 Contractversation engl.io/a5s

12.1 Presidential Speeches engl.io/a62
12.2 How to Pronounce GONNA and WANNA engl.io/a63
12.3 Pronunciation Focus: Gonna engl.io/a66
12.4 Real Life English: Wedding Venue engl.io/a68
12.5 Im Gonna Reduction engl.io/a6d
12.6 Interview a Broadcaster: Chris Jansing engl.io/a6f
12.7 Vacation 2012 engl.io/axd
12.8 Thanksgiving 2011 engl.io/a6m
12.9 How to Pronounce GONNA and GOTTA engl.io/a6p
Chapter 13 Putting it all together

13.1 Ben Franklin Exercise engl.io/a72
13.2 Excuse Me engl.io/a74
13.3 How to Sound like a Native Speaker engl.io/a9c
13.4 Where I live engl.io/a9d
13.5 What did you do today? engl.io/a9f
13.6 Free Time engl.io/a9h
13.7 Evening Plans engl.io/a9k
13.8 Stressed engl.io/a9m
13.9 Brooklyn Neighborhoods engl.io/a9r
13.10 Dont Keep a Secret engl.io/a9s
13.11 I Shouldnt be Bragging engl.io/a9u
13.12 Pan Am engl.io/a9x
274
13.13 Whats going on? engl.io/a9z

13.14 Call Ignored engl.io/a91
13.15 People Change engl.io/1a2
13.16 Terminator engl.io/1a4
13.17 Big Love engl.io/1a5
13.18 Carousel engl.io/1a8
13.19 500 Days of Summer engl.io/1ab
13.20 The Art of Getting By engl.io/1ad
13.21 Eavesdrop engl.io/1af
13.22 Peggys New Office engl.io/1ah
13.23 Midnight in Paris engl.io/1ak
13.24 Bored to Death engl.io/1am
13.25 Lets Do Lunch engl.io/1ap
13.26 Thanksgiving 2012 engl.io/1as
13.27 What did you do today? engl.io/1au
13.28 Is Tom Stressed? engl.io/1aw
13.29 Is Rachel Stressed? engl.io/1ax
275
Appendix 3: Audio Index

Chapter 1 Getting Started
1.1 Listen + Repeat: Imitation engl.io/ab1
1.2 Listen + Repeat: Placement engl.io/abt
Chapter 2 Introduction to Stress, Rhythm, and Intonation

2.1 Test Yourself: Which Syllable is Stressed? engl.io/acg
2.2 Listen + Repeat: Rhythmic Patterns engl.io/ac6
2.3 Test Yourself: Identify the Rhythmic Pattern engl.io/ac7
Chapter 3 Vowels
3.1 Listen: Vowels engl.io/ad1
3.2 Listen + Repeat: The UH as in BUTTER [] Vowel engl.io/ad8
3.3 Listen + Repeat: The AH as in FATHER [] Vowel engl.io/adc
3.4 Listen + Repeat: AH [] vs. UH [] engl.io/adh
3.5 Test Yourself: AH [] vs. UH [] Test engl.io/adk
3.6 Listen + Repeat: The AW as in LAW [] Vowel engl.io/adp
3.7 Listen + Repeat: The AA as in BAT [] Vowel engl.io/ae2
3.8 Listen + Repeat: AH [] vs. AA [] engl.io/ae4
3.9 Test Yourself: AH [] vs. AA [] Test engl.io/ae7
3.10 Listen + Repeat: AA [] followed by Nasal Consonants engl.io/aed
3.11 Listen + Repeat: The EH as in BED [] Vowel engl.io/aeg
3.12 Listen + Repeat: AA [] vs. EH [] engl.io/aek
276
3.13 Test Yourself: EH [] vs. AA [] Test engl.io/aen

3.14 Listen + Repeat: The EE as in SHE [i] Vowel engl.io/aet
3.15 Listen + Repeat: The IH as in SIT [] Vowel engl.io/aez
3.16 Listen + Repeat: IH [] vs. EE [i] engl.io/af8
3.17 Test Yourself: IH [] vs. EE [i] Test engl.io/afb
3.18 Listen + Repeat: EH [] vs. IH [] engl.io/afc
3.19 Test Yourself: EH [] vs. IH [] Test engl.io/aff
3.20 Listen + Repeat: The OO as in BOO [u] Vowel engl.io/afk
3.21 Listen + Repeat: The UH as in PUSH [] Vowel engl.io/afp
3.22 Listen + Repeat: UH [] vs. OO [u] engl.io/afs
3.23 Test Yourself: UH [] vs. OO [u] Test engl.io/afv
3.24 Listen + Repeat: The UH as in SUPPLY [] Vowel (Schwa)
engl.io/ag1
3.25 Listen + Repeat: Syllabic Consonants engl.io/ag3
3.26 Listen + Repeat: The UR as in BIRD [] Vowel engl.io/ag8
3.27 Test Yourself: Vowel Test engl.io/agc
3.28 Test Yourself Stressed or Unstressed? engl.io/age
4.1 Listen: Diphthongs engl.io/aha
4.2 Listen + Repeat: The OH as in NO [o] Diphthong engl.io/ahf
4.3 Listen + Repeat: OH [o] vs. AW [] or AH [] engl.io/ahg
4.4 Test Yourself: OH [o] vs. AW [] or AH [] Test engl.io/ahj
4.5 Listen + Repeat: The OW as in NOW [a] Diphthong engl.io/ahp
4.6 Listen + Repeat: OW [a] vs. AW [] or AH [] engl.io/ahr
4.7 Test Yourself: OW [a] vs. AW [] or AH [] Test engl.io/ahu
4.8 Listen + Repeat: The AI as in BUY [a] Diphthong engl.io/ahy
4.9 Listen + Repeat: The AY as in SAY [e] Diphthong engl.io/ah5
4.10 Listen + Repeat: AY [e] vs. IH [] vs. EE [i] engl.io/ah8
4.11 Test Yourself: AY [e] vs. IH [] vs. EE [i] Test engl.io/aib
4.12 Listen + Repeat: The OY as in TOY [] Diphthong engl.io/aig
4.13 Listen + Repeat: The EW as in FEW [ju] Diphthong engl.io/ain
4.14 Test Yourself: What diphthong are you hearing? engl.io/aip
4.15 Test Yourself: Mixed Minimal Pairs, Vowels and Diphthongs
engl.io/ais
5.1 Listen + Repeat: Paired Consonants engl.io/ak4
5.2 Listen + Repeat: Unpaired Consonants engl.io/ak7
5.3 Listen + Repeat: The B [b] and P [p] Consonants engl.io/akd
5.4 Listen + Repeat: The G [g] and K [k] Consonants engl.io/akh
277
5.5 Listen + Repeat: Stop T vs. No T engl.io/akm

5.6 Listen + Repeat: The Three T Sounds engl.io/anb
5.7 Test Yourself: What T do you Hear? engl.io/ang
5.8 Listen + Repeat: The D [d] Consonant engl.io/anm
5.9 Listen + Repeat: The V [v] and F [f] Consonants engl.io/ans
5.10 Listen + Repeat: The Z [z] and S [s] Consonants engl.io/anw
5.11 Listen + Repeat: The SH [] and ZH [] Consonants engl.io/an4
5.12 Listen + Repeat: The Two TH [] and [] Consonants engl.io/ap2
5.13 Listen + Repeat: The CH [] and JJ [d] Consonants engl.io/ap8
5.14 Listen + Repeat: SH [] vs. CH [] engl.io/apb
5.15 Listen + Repeat: The M [m] Consonant engl.io/apf
5.16 Listen + Repeat: The NG [] Consonant engl.io/apk
5.17 Listen + Repeat: The N [n] Consonant engl.io/apx
5.18 Listen + Repeat: N [n] vs. NG [] engl.io/apz
5.19 Test Yourself: N [n] vs. NG [] Test engl.io/ar1
5.20 Listen + Repeat: The H [h] Consonant engl.io/ar5
5.21 Listen + Repeat: The Y [j] Consonant engl.io/arb
5.22 Listen + Repeat: The W [w] Consonant engl.io/arf
5.23 Listen + Repeat: The R [] Consonant engl.io/arj
5.24 Listen + Repeat: R [] vs. W [w] engl.io/arp
5.25 Test Yourself: R [] vs. W [w] Test engl.io/arr
5.26 Listen + Repeat: The L [l] Consonant engl.io/arw
5.27 Listen + Repeat: L [l] vs. OH [o] engl.io/arz
5.28 Listen + Repeat: R [] vs. L [l] engl.io/as2
5.29 Test Yourself: R [] vs. L [l] Test engl.io/as9
5.30 Test Yourself: What Consonant do you Hear? engl.io/asc

6.1 Listen + Repeat: Beginning Clusters engl.io/at1
6.2 Listen + Repeat: R Clusters engl.io/atc
6.3 Listen + Repeat: Middle and Ending Clusters engl.io/atw
6.4 Listen + Repeat: Plural Nouns engl.io/au2
6.5 Listen + Repeat: Regular Past Tense engl.io/au7

7.1 Listen + Repeat: 3-Syllable Words engl.io/av5
7.2 Test Yourself: 3-Syllable Words Test engl.io/av8
7.3 Listen + Repeat: Verbs vs. Nouns engl.io/avd
7.4 Listen + Repeat: Suffixes: Stress on the Suffix engl.io/avf
7.5 Listen + Repeat: Suffixes: Stress just before the Suffix engl.io/avf
278
7.6 Listen + Repeat: Suffixes: Stress two syllables before the Suffix
engl.io/avf
7.7 Listen + Repeat: Compound Words engl.io/avp
7.8 Listen + Repeat: Initials engl.io/avt
Chapter 8 Linking
8.1 Listen: Thought Groups engl.io/ax1
8.2 Listen + Repeat: Linking Vowel to Vowel engl.io/ax7
8.3 Listen + Repeat: Linking Consonant to Vowel engl.io/axh
8.4 Listen + Repeat: Linking the Stop T to a Consonant engl.io/axu
8.5 Test Yourself: Which Phrase is Linked? engl.io/axw

9.1 Listen + Repeat: Three-Syllable Words and Phrases engl.io/ay5
9.2 Listen + Repeat: Content Words engl.io/ayc
9.3 Listen + Repeat: Content Words, Slow Motion engl.io/aye
9.4 Test Yourself: Which Word is the Most Stressed? engl.io/ayk
9.5 Listen: One Thought Leading to Another engl.io/ayp
9.6 Test Yourself: Up or Down? engl.io/az4

10.1 Listen: Stressed vs. Unstressed engl.io/a12
10.2 Listen: Stressed vs. Reduced engl.io/a14
10.3 Listen + Repeat: ARE, OR, FOR, YOUR engl.io/a1m
10.4 Listen + Repeat: AT and THAT engl.io/a1v
10.5 Listen + Repeat: Dropping the H engl.io/a2b
10.6 Listen + Repeat: THEM engl.io/a2e
10.7 Listen + Repeat: OF engl.io/a2g
10.8 Listen + Repeat: CAN engl.io/a2k
10.9 Listen + Repeat: TO engl.io/a2p
10.10 Listen + Repeat: DO and DOES engl.io/a2w
10.11 Listen + Repeat: AND engl.io/a34
10.12 Listen + Repeat: THE engl.io/a38
10.13 Listen + Repeat: AS, WAS, BECAUSE engl.io/a3g
10.14 Listen + Repeat: SHOULD, WOULD, and COULD engl.io/a3k
10.15 Test yourself: Is the Word Reduced? engl.io/a3n
11.1 Listen + Repeat: NT Contractions engl.io/a48
279
11.2 Listen + Repeat: Can vs. Cant engl.io/a4c

11.3 Listen + Repeat: TO BE and TO HAVE Contractions engl.io/a4s
11.4 Listen + Repeat: Modal Verb Contractions engl.io/a4u
11.5 Listen + Repeat: Modal Verb Contractions, Slow Motion engl.io/a4w
11.6 Listen + Repeat: LL Contractions engl.io/a56
11.7 Listen + Repeat: LL Contractions, Slow Motion engl.io/a58
11.8 Listen + Repeat: WOULD, HAD, and DID Reductions engl.io/a5f
11.9 Listen + Repeat: Contractions with Reductions engl.io/a5k
11.10 Test Yourself: What contraction are you hearing? engl.io/a5m

12.1 Listen + Repeat: Gonna engl.io/a6b
12.2 Listen + Repeat: Wanna engl.io/a6k
12.3 Listen + Repeat: Gotta engl.io/a6s
Chapter 13 Putting it all together

13.1 Listen: Penn Station engl.io/a77
13.2 Listen + Repeat: Penn Station Practice engl.io/a79
13.3 Listen: Subway Stop engl.io/a7c
13.4 Listen + Repeat: Subway Stop Practice engl.io/a7f
13.5 Listen: Directions Dialog engl.io/a7g
13.6 Listen + Repeat: Directions Dialog Practice engl.io/a7k
13.7 Listen: Reservations engl.io/a7m
13.8 Listen + Repeat: Reservations Practice engl.io/a7p
13.9 Listen: Wait Time engl.io/a7s
13.10 Listen + Repeat: Wait Time Practice engl.io/a7v
13.11 Listen: At a Restaurant Dialog engl.io/a7x
13.12 Listen + Repeat: At a Restaurant Dialog Practice engl.io/a82
13.13 Listen: Another Size engl.io/a84
13.14 Listen + Repeat: Another Size Practice engl.io/a85
13.15 Listen: Return Policy engl.io/a88
13.16 Listen + Repeat: Return Policy Practice engl.io/a8a
13.17 Listen: Shopping Dialog engl.io/a8b
13.18 Listen + Repeat: Shopping Dialog Practice engl.io/a8d
13.19 Listen: Meeting Moved engl.io/a8f
13.20 Listen: Stressed Words and Sentence Position engl.io/a8g
13.21 Listen + Repeat: Meeting Moved Practice engl.io/a8i
13.22 Listen: Report engl.io/a8k
13.23 Listen + Repeat: Report Practice engl.io/a8m
13.24 Listen: At Work Dialog engl.io/a8p
13.25 Listen + Repeat: At Work Dialog Practice engl.io/a8r
280
13.26 Listen: Tomorrow Night engl.io/a8s

13.27 Listen + Repeat: Tomorrow Night Practice engl.io/a8v
13.28 Listen: Love To engl.io/a8y
13.29 Listen + Repeat: Love To Practice engl.io/a92
13.30 Listen: Out of Town engl.io/a93
13.31 Listen + Repeat: Out of Town Practice engl.io/a95
13.32 Listen: Making Plans Dialog engl.io/a98
13.33 Listen + Repeat: Making Plans Dialog Practice engl.io/a9a
281
Appendix 4: Sound Chart

If was any confusion about whether or not English is a phonetic language, this list
should make you sure! English is not phonetic. See that the letter A can
represent seven different vowel and diphthong sounds.
The Letter A
a ... 'aa' as in 'bat' ... [] ... exact
a ... 'ah' as in 'father' ... [] ... father
a ...'aw' as in 'law' ... [] ... fall
a ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [] ... about
a ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [e] ... base, able
a ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [] ... share
a ... 'ih' as in 'sit' ... [] ... private
aa ... 'ah' as in 'father' ... [] ... bazaar, aardvark
ai ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [] ... said
ai ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [a] ... aisle
ai ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [e] ... maid
ai ... 'aa' as in 'bat' ... [] ... plaid
au ...'aw' as in 'law' ... [] ... cause
au ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [e] ... gauge
au ... 'aa' as in 'bat' ... [] ... aunt
au ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [o] ... chauffeur
ay ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [] ... says
ay ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [e] ... pay
ay ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... quay
aye ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [a] ... aye
282
augh ... 'aw' as in 'law' ... [] ... daughter

aw ... 'aw' as in 'law' ... [] ... shawl
ea ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... heat
ea ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [] ... ocean
ea ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [] ... head
ea ... 'ah' as in 'father' ... [] ... heart
ea ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [e] ... great
eau ... 'ew' as in 'few' ... [ju] ... beauty
eau ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [o] ... beau
ea[r] ... 'ur' as in 'her' ... [] ... learn
oa ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [o] ... oat
The Letter B
silent ...thumb
b ... 'b' as in 'bit' ... [b] ...bone
The Letter C
c ... 'k' as in 'cap' ... [k] ... casserole
c ... 'ch' as in 'char' ... [] ... cello
ce ... 's' as in 'sip' ... [s] ... ice
ce ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [] ... ocean
cc ... 'k' as in 'cap' ... [k] ... with 's' as in 'sip' ... [s] ... accent
ch ... 'k' as in 'cap' ... [k] ... choir, schedule
ch ... 'ch' as in 'char' ... [] ... chance
ch ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [] ... machine
chs ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [] ... fuchsia
ci ... 'ch' as in 'char' ... [] ... ancient
ci ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [] ... special
ck ... 'k' as in 'cap' ... [k] ... back
cz ... 't' as in 'time' ... [d] with 's' as in 'sip' ... [s] ... czar (one of two possible
pronunciations)
sch ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [] ... schmuck
sc ... 's' as in 'sip' ... [s] ... science
sci ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [] ... conscience
tch ... 'ch' as in 'char' ... [] ... watch
The Letter D
d ... 'd' as in 'dime' ... [d] ... dark
d ... 'j' as in 'jar' ... [] ... individual
dge ... 'j' as in 'jar' ... [] ... judge
dj ... 'j' as in 'jar' ... [] ... adjective
ed ... 't' as in 'time' ... [d] ... tripped
283
The Letter E
e ... silent ... there
ce ... 's' as in 'sip' ... [s] ... ice
ce ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [] ... ocean
e ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [] ... shed
e ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... be
e ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [] ... anthem
e ... 'ih' as in 'sit' ... [] ... pretty
e ... 'ah' as in 'father' ... [] ... sergeant
e ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [e] ... suede, cafe
ea ...'ah' as in 'father' ... [] ... heart
ea ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... heat
ea ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [] ... head
ea ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [] ... ocean
ea ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [e] ... great
ea[r] ... 'ur' as in 'her' ... [] ... learn
ed ... 't' as in 'time' ... [t] ... tripped
ee ... 'ih' as in 'sit' ... [] ... been
ee ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... weep
ee ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [e] ... puree
ei ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... receive
ei ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [e] ... veil
eig ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [] ... foreign (can also be 'ih' as in 'sit' ... [])
eig ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [e] ... reign
eigh ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [e] ... weigh
eigh ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [a] ... height
eo ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [] ... leopard
eo ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... people
eu ... 'ew' as in 'few' ... [ju] ... feud
eu ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [] ... chauffeur
eu ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... sleuth
eu(r) ... 'ur' as in 'her' ... [] ... chauffeur
ew ... 'ew' as in 'few' ... [ju] ... few
ew ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... blew
ey ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... key
ey ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [e] ... they
ie ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [] ... friend
ie ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... brief
ie ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [a] ... lie
oe ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [o] ... foe
284
oe ... 'uh' as in 'butter' ... [] ... does

oe ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... shoe
ue ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... blue
ye ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [a] ... bye
The Letter F
f ... 'f' as in 'fan' ... [f] ... fear
f ... 'v' as in 'van' ... [v] ... of
f ... 'f' as in 'fan' ... [f] ... off
The Letter G
silent ... sign
igh ...'ai' as in 'buy' ... [a] ... sigh
g ... 'g' as in 'gap' ... [g] ... go
g ... 'j' as in 'jar' ... [] ... gem
ge ... 'dj' as in 'measure' ... [] ... beige
gg ... 'j' as in 'jar' ... [] ... exaggerate
ng ... 'ng' as in 'sing' ... [] ... ring
ng ... 'ng' as in 'sing' ... [] with 'k' as in 'cap' ... [k] ... angst
ng ... 'ng' as in 'sing' ... [] with 'g' as in 'gap' ... [g] ... anger
ough ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [o] ... though
ough ... 'aw' as in 'law' ... [] ... thought
ough ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... through
ough ... 'ow' as in 'now' ... [a] ... bough
ough ... 'ah' as in 'father' ... [] OR 'aw' as in 'law' ... [] with 'f' as in 'fan' ... [f] ...
cough
ough ... 'uh' as in 'butter' ... [] with 'f' as in 'fan' ... [f] ... enough
The Letter H
silent ... honor, thyme, rhythm
ch ... 'k' as in 'cap' ... [k] ... choir
ch ... 'ch' as in 'char' ... [] ... chance
ch ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [] ... chartreuse
h ... 'h' as in 'hi' ... [h] ... happy
igh ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [a] ... sigh
285

cough
ph ... 'f' as in 'fan' ... [f] ... phone
pph ... 'f' as in 'fan' ... [f] ... sapphire
sh ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [] ... shame
th ... 'th' as in 'thin' ... [] ... thanks
th ... 'th' as in 'this' ... [] ... those
The Letter I
ai ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [] ... said
ai ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [a] ... aisle
ai ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [e] ... maid
ai ... 'aa' as in 'bat' ... [] ... plaid
ci ... 'ch' as in 'char' ... [] ... ancient
ci ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [] ... special
ei ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... receive
ei ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [e] ... veil
i ... 'ih' as in 'sit' ... [] ... him
i ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [a] ... time
i ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... police
i ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [] ... possible
i ... 'aa' as in 'bat' ... [] ... timbre
i ... 'y' as in 'yes' ... [j] ... senior
ie ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [] ... friend
ie ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... grieve
ie ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [a] ... lie
igh ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [a] ... sigh
i[r] ... 'ur' as in 'her' ... [] ... bird
oi ... 'oy' as in 'toy' ... [] ... moist
oi ... 'w' as in 'will' ... [w] with 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [a] ... choir
286
ui ... 'ih' as in 'sit' ... [] ... build

ui ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... juice
si ... 'dj' as in 'measure' ... [] ... vision
ti ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [] ... motion
ti ... 'ch' as in 'char' ... [] ... mention
The Letter J
dj ... 'j' as in 'jar' ... [] ... adjective
j ... 'j' as in 'jar' ... [] ... joy
j ... 'y' as in 'yes' ... [j] ... fjord
j ... 'h' as in 'hi' ... [h] ... junta
The Letter K
silent ... know
ck ... 'k' as in 'cap' ... [k] ... back
k ... 'k' as in 'cap' ... [k] ... king
L silent ... palm
l ... 'l' as in 'lap' ... [l] ... love
ll ... 'l' as in 'lap' ... [l] ... million
M m ... 'm' as in 'map' ... [m] ... mine
mm ... 'm' as in 'map' ... [m] ... summer
N silent ... autumn
n ... 'n' as in 'nap' ... [n] ... name
n ... 'ng' as in 'sing' ... [] ... think
nn ... 'n' as in 'nap' ... [n] ... funny
ng ... 'ng' as in 'sing' ... [] ... ring
ng ... 'ng' as in 'sing' ... [] with 'k' as in 'cap' ... [k] ... angst
ng ... 'ng' as in 'sing' ... [] with 'g' as in 'gap' ... [g] ... anger
The Letter O
eo ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [] ... leopard
eo ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... people
o ... 'w' as in 'will' ... [w] with 'uh' as in 'butter' ... [] ... one
o ... 'ih' as in 'sit' ... [] ... women
o ... 'ah' as in 'father' ... [] ... body
o ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... do
o ... uh as in push ... [] ... wolf
o ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [o] ... go
o ... 'uh' as in 'butter' ... [] ... love
o ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [] ... bottom
oa ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [o] ... oat
oe ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [o] ... foe
287
oe ... 'uh' as in 'butter' ... [] ... does

oe ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... shoe
oi ... 'oy' as in 'toy' ... [] ... moist
oi ... 'w' as in 'will' ... [w] with 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [a] ... choir
oo ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... too
oo ... uh as in push ... [] ... wood
oo ... 'uh' as in 'butter' ... [] ... blood
oo ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [o] ... brooch
ou ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... you
ou ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [] ... jealous
ou ... uh as in push ... [] ... could
ou ... 'uh' as in 'butter' ... [] ... trouble
ou ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [o] ... soul
ou ... 'ow' as in 'now' ... [a] ... round
ou[r] ... 'ur' as in 'her' ... [] ... journey
o[r] ... 'ur' as in 'her' ... [] ... word
cough
ow ... 'ow' as in 'now' ... [a] ... cow
ow ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [o] ... row
oy ... 'oy' as in 'toy' ... [] ... joy
wo ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... two
The Letter P
silent ... psychology, pneumonia
p ... 'p' as in 'pit' ... [p] ... pear
ph ... 'f' as in 'fan' ... [f] ... phone
pph ... 'f' as in 'fan' ... [f] ... sapphire
The Letter Q
q ... 'k' as in 'cap' ... [k] ... quiet
The Letter R
r ... 'r' as in 'run' ... [] ... rat
The Letter S
silent ... island
288
s ... 's' as in 'sip' ... [s] ... some

s ... 'z' as in 'zip' ... [z] ... his
s ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... []... sugar
s ... 'dj' as in 'measure' ... [] ... measure
sc ... 's' as in 'sip' ... [s] ... science
si ... 'dj' as in 'measure' ... [] ... vision
sh ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [] ... shame
ss ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... []... issue
ss ... 's' as in 'sip' ... [s] ...miss
ss ... 'z' as in 'zip' ... [z] ... possession
The Letter T
silent ... fasten
t ... 't' as in 'time' ... [t] ... tap
t ... 'ch' as in 'char' ... [] ... future, righteous
th ... 'th' as in 'thin' ... [] ... thanks
th ... 'th' as in 'this' ... [] ... those
ti ... 'sh' as in 'ship' ... [] ... motion
ti ... 'ch' as in 'char' ... [] ... mention
The Letter U
silent ... plague (it signals a hard G without being pronounced)
au ... 'aw' as in 'law' ... [] ... cause
au ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [e] ... gauge
au ... 'aa' as in 'bat' ... [] ... aunt
au ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [o] ... chauffeur
eu ... 'ew' as in 'few' ... [ju] ... feud
eu ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [] ... chauffeur
eu ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... sleuth
eu(r) ... 'ur' as in 'her' ... [] ... chauffeur
ou ... 'uh' as in 'butter' ... [] ... trouble
ou ... uh as in push ... [] ... could
ou ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... you
ou ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [] ... jealous
ou ... ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [o] ... soul
ou ... 'ow' as in 'now' ... [a] ... round
289

cough
ou[r] ... 'ur' as in 'her' ... [] ... journey
u ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [] ... autumn
u ... 'uh' as in 'butter' ... [] ... up
u ... 'ew' as in 'few' ... [ju] ... union
u ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [] ... bury
u ... uh as in push ... [] ... sugar
u ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... flute
u ... 'w' as in 'will' ... [w] ... quiet, suite
u ... 'ih' as in 'sit' ... [] ... minute
ue ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... blue
ui ... 'ih' as in 'sit' ... [] ... build
ui ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... juice
u[r] ... 'ur' as in 'her' ... [] ... burn
uy ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [a] ... buy
The Letter V
v ... 'v' as in 'van' ... [v] ... voice
The Letter W
silent ... answer, write
aw ... 'aw' as in 'law' ... [] ... shawl
ew ... 'ew' as in 'few' ... [ju] ... few
ew ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... blew
ow ... 'ow' as in 'now' ... [a] ... cow
ow ... 'oh' as in 'no' ... [a] ... row
w ... 'w' as in 'will' ... [w] ... wise
wo ... 'oo' as in 'boo' ... [u] ... two
The Letter X
x ... 'k' as in 'cap' ... [k] with 's' as in 'sip' ... [s] ... ax, expert
x ... 'z' as in 'zip' ... [z] ... xylophone
x ... 'g' as in 'gap' ... [g] with 'z' as in 'zip' ... [z] ... exhibit
The Letter Y
ay ... 'eh' as in 'bed' ... [] ... says
ay ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [e] ... pay
ey ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... key
290
ey ... 'ay' as in 'say' ... [e] ... they

oy ... 'oy' as in 'toy' ... [] ... joy
uy ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [a] ... buy
y ... 'ih' as in 'sit' ... [] ... symbol
y ... 'uh' as in 'supply' ... [] ... syringe
y ... 'y' as in 'yes' ... [j] ... you
y ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [a] ... rhyme, my
y ... 'ee' as in 'she' ... [i] ... melody
ye ... 'ai' as in 'buy' ... [a] ... bye
y[r] ... 'ur' as in 'her' ... [] ... myrtle
The Letter Z
cz ... 't' as in 'time' ... [t] with 's' as in 'sip' ... [s] ... czar (one of two possible
pronunciations)
z ... 'z' as in 'zip' ... [z] ... lazy
z ... 'dj' as in 'measure' ... [] ... azure
z ... 't' as in 'time' ... [t] with 's' as in 'sip' ... [s] .. Nazi
z ... 's' as in 'sip' ... [s] ... ritz
zz ... 'z' as in 'zip' ... [z] ... buzz

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Tools for Learning

exact [gzct] here, it is the [] vowel

Video 0.1 The IPA: Vowels

Video 0.2 The IPA: Diphthongs

Video 0.3 The IPA: Consonants

Video 0.4 The IPA: Test Yourself

To continue to make pronunciation complicated, some words are spelled

If YouTube is blocked in your country, dont worry. On the Rachels English

Be patient with yourself as you practice and work on your pronunciationyou

Lessons and Evaluations engl.io/lessons

Listen + Repeat: Audio 1.1 Imitation.

Audio 1.1 Imitation

Of the three topics I mentioned earliersounds, melody and rhythm, and

Video 1.1 Path of the Voice

Video 1.2 Placement

Listen + Repeat: Audio 1.2 Placement.

Audio 1.2 Placement

Video 1.3 Neck and Throat Relaxation

Video 1.4 Jaw Relaxation

Video 1.5 Tongue Relaxation

Video 1.6 Lip Relaxation

Tension isnt the only thing that can lift your

When the soft palate is lifted, it is closed. This

Its hard to feel and move the soft palate. We

If you think your soft palate isnt closed, there

Video 1.7 Soft Palate

Video 2.1 English: A Stress-Timed Language

In many of my videos, I use the nonsense syllable da for stress: DA is a

Video 2.2 Introduction to Word Stress

Video 2.3 The Shape of a Stressed Syllable

Video 2.4 How to Pronounce DOWNLOAD

Unstressed syllables should be so short that theres no time to change pitch

Video 2.5 Weddings and 2-Syllable Words

Video 2.6 Wedding Venue: 2-Syllable Words

Video 2.7 Listening Comprehension: 2-Syllable Words

Test Yourself: Audio 2.1 Which Syllable is Stressed?

Audio 2.1 Which Syllable is Stressed?

Listen + Repeat: Audio 2.2 Rhythmic Patterns.

Audio 2.2 Rhythmic Patterns

Test Yourself: Audio 2.3 Identify the Rhythmic Pattern.

Audio 2.3 Identify the Rhythmic Pattern

In this section, there is an important element. Back in my Introduction, I made a

There are eleven vowels in American English.

Listen: Audio 3.1 Vowels.

Audio 3.1 Vowels

[] The UH as in BUTTER Vowel

Video 3.1 The UH as in BUTTER [] Vowel

Listen + Repeat: Audio 3.2 The UH as in BUTTER [] Vowel.

What you hear (each 2 times) Is [] in a Stressed or Unstressed syllable?

Audio 3.2 The UH as in BUTTER [] Vowel

*Notice how different the sound is when its in a stressed versus an

[] The AH as in FATHER Vowel

Video 3.2 The AH as in FATHER [] Vowel