FACULTY OF SCIENCE

BSc (Hons) Biotechnology

May 2014 Trimester
LABORATORY REPORT
Unit Code & Title: UDBB1104 Cell Biology

Practical Group: P1

Experiment Title: Cell Structure

Date of Submission: 1/7/14 (Tuesday)
Instructor: Dr. Kunasundari Balakrishan

Declaration
We certify that this report is of our own work and does not contain any
unacknowledged work from any other sources.
No.
1
2
3
4

Name
Kung Chen Han
Lim Eng Hang
Bong Willie
Eswaran A/L Salwa Singam

Student ID
1401490
1404630
1304264
1401660

Signature

Introduction
The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in living organism. Modern cell
theory states that all organisms are composed of cells, and cell is the building block for all
organisms (Schleiden and Schwann, 1839) and that all cells arise only from a pre-existing cells by
division (Virchow,1855). The theory is modified as and when new discoveries are made. It stated
that each cell is a mass of protoplasm having a nucleus and bounded by a plasma membrane with or
without a cell wall and all cells are basically alike in their structure and metabolic activities. This
combined views and formulated cell theory is applicable for all living organisms, no matter big or
small, simple or complex. (Rastogi, 1997).
Cell staining is a technique that can be used to enhance visualization or observation of cells
and cell components under a microscope. We can differently stain certain cell components, such as
a nucleus or a cell wall, or the entire cell by using different stains. The choice of stains is important
because certain stains are specific to certain structures. Most stains can be used on fixed, or nonliving cells, while only some can be used on living cells; there are also some stains can be used on
both living or non-living cells. Cells may also be stained to highlight metabolic processes or to
differentiate between live and dead cells in a sample. (Bruckner, 2013). For example, iodine can
used to stain the starch grains since it is a starch indicator. When in solution, the starch grains turns
dark blue/ blue black colour.

Objectives
1. To prepare specimens for staining.
2. To identify unique and standard structures of the microscopic world.
3. To identify and use different stains for the different types of organelles.

Results
Epidermal Cells of Plants
TitleLower Surface of Rheo discolours leaf
Magnification Power: 10 10
Cell wall

Guard cell

TitleLower Surface of Rheo discolours leaf

Magnification Power: 10 40
Guard cell

Stoma

Cell wall

TitleUpper Epidermis of Rheo discolours leaf

Magnification Power: 10 10

Nucleus

Cell wall

Yeast Cells (Saccharomyces)

TitleYeast in Sucrose Solution smear
Magnification Power: 10 10

Yeast cell

Yeast cell budding

Blood Cells
TitleHuman Blood smear
Magnification Power: 10 10
Erythrocytes
(Red blood cells)

Leukocyte
(White blood cell)

TitleHuman Blood smear

Magnification Power: 10 40

Erythrocyte
(Red blood cell)

Leukocyte
(White blood cell)

Spirogyra Cells
TitleSpirogyra scalari form conjugation w.m.
Magnification Power: 10 10
Zygospore

Cell wall

TitleSpirogyra scalari form conjugation w.m.

Magnification Power: 10 40

Cell wall

Zygospore

Flagellum
Title: Euglena w.m.
Magnification Power: 10 10

Euglena cell

Title: Euglena w.m.

Magnification Power: 10 40
Contractile vacuole

Plasma membrane

Chloroplast

Nucleus
Flagellum

Discussions and Answering Questions

Epidermal Cells of Plants
A group of epidermal cells of plant form one cell thick layer that cover the entire parts of
plant, including the leaves, flowers, stems and roots, as a boundary between the plant and external
environment.(Forbes, Watson, 1992). Based on the observation obtained, the nuclei is seen more
readily in the upper epidermis due to the Iodine stain used. The iodine stain creates a better contrast
in order to visualize the nuclei of the epidermal cell under the microscope. While for the lower
surface of the epidermal cell the dye used to mount the sample is Eosin. The structure of lower
surface of the epidermal cell is different compared to the structure of upper epidermis. The lower
epidermis seems to contain guard cells which are absent in the upper epidermis. The lower
epidermis also contains green plastids around the guard cells. The guard cells that contain these
plastids are present in a pair of crescent-shaped.
Yeast Cells (Saccharomyces)
Yeast is a microscopic unicellular fungus which grows naturally on the surface of fruits.
Most yeast reproduce asexually by mitosis, and many do so by an asymmetric division process
called budding, whereby a yeast cell grows and divides into two daughter cells that each contain the
identical information and machinery necessary to repeat the process. According to Walker (1998),
the budding process starts when mother cells grow to a critical size at a time corresponding with the
onset of DNA synthesis, followed by the weakening of the cell wall together with the pressure
exerted to allow extension of cytoplasm in an area bounded by new cell wall materials which
synthesized by enzymes such as chitin synthetases. Then the chitin form a ring at the junction
between the mother cell and the bud eventually contract to separate the bud from mother cell. Yeast
resembles a basic plant cell in having a cell wall made of fungal cellulose. While it also contains
centrioles which are not there in plant cells but are present in animal cells. Yeast cell does not
contain any chloroplast which is also absent in animal cells. The common features between yeast,
plant and animal cells are the presence of plasma membrane enclosing the cytoplasm , nucleus,
ribosomes and mitochondria.

Blood Cells
We had examined the white blood cells in a prepared smear of human blood. The
granulocytes move by amoeboid locomotion and engulf bacteria by phagocytosis. These cells travel
in the blood stream, delivered by blood to the infection sites or sites of tissue disruption, work to
defend the body from infecting organisms by phagocytes the bacteria. The most abundant
population of blood cells is red blood cells (erythrocytes). They contain hemoglobin that
responsible for carrying oxygen to body tissues and take up carbon dioxide from tissues as waste on
the other hand. (Rhoades, Bell, 2009). Red blood cells are smaller than white blood cells or other

typical animal cells. They have a fixed round, biconcave disc shaped, compared to the irregular
shapes of white blood cells. Different from the typical animal cells, red blood cells do not have
nucleus within the cell body.

Spirogyra Cells
Spirogyra is a type of green algae commonly found in freshwater habitat. Based on
observation, we are able to identify the zygospore. The cell wall is visible due to the staining of the
cell with methylene blue. However we are unable to view any organelles in the spirogyra. The aid
of figure 1.1 is needed in order to explain the organelles present in the spirogyra cell.

(Figure 1.1: The labelled diagram of a spirogyra cell) Retrieved from:

http://cronodon.com/images/Spirogyra_diagram_labeled.jpg
The chloroplasts are commonly arranged spiral ribbons that seem to curl up the filaments of
the colony. Along the ribbons of the chloroplasts are small round nodules which are the pyrenoids,
the center making starch. The cellulose cell walls are often lined up with cytoplasm surrounding a
vacuole. In the center of this space is the nucleus, suspended by strands of cytoplasm. From
diagram 1.1, T.S. Filament shows the arrangement of the cytoplasm and vacuole. The three-

dimensional shape of the spirogyra cells would be long chain made up of rod sections. Under the
microscope, the cell wall of the spirogyra would be colourless and non-visible to the eyes. The
outline of the cell wall is made visible when the spirogyra cell retains the methylene blue dye. Cell
wall is the outermost protective double layer structure. The inner layer of which is made of
cellulose and the outer layer contains pectose. The outermost lining of Pectose turns into Pectin and
get dissolved in water to form Mucilage which surrounds the filament and forms Mucilagenous
sheath.
Mucilage is a type of soluble fiber of viscous nature. It is produced from the seeds of certain plants,
such as carob bean, plantain, flax or mustard. Mucilages have different functions. Among the most
important ones, we can point out:
1. Protection of plant wounds, they create a gummy or gelatinous layer on wounds that can
prevent microorganism to go into the plant tissue.
2. Germination of seeds. Upon contact with water, they increase volume and maintain a layer
of moisture around the seed that facilitates their germination.
3. Seed dispersal. Some root mucilage used to promote the introduction of them into ground.
The comfrey is a clear example of how a component can produce this result. Sometimes
these secretions are a weapon to catch prey, such as occurs with the mucilage secreted by
the carnivorous plants.

Flagellum
According to the study by Prof. Kotpal (2012), Euglena is a single-celled small organism in
the Protist Kingdom, usually found in quiet fresh and salt waters. It is eukaryotic cell because it has
a round bounded nucleus as we seen under the microscope. Under high power magnification, we
had seen the chloroplasts within the cell body, it indicates that Euglena was feed by autotrophy like
plant using photosynthesizing chloroplast. However, we had also observed the contractile vacuole
structure inside the cell body, it proved that Euglena are not completely autotrophic like plants, but
they also can phagocyte or consume food like animals and form vesicle or vacuole within the cell
body (heterotrophic). It has a whippy tail called a flagellum on the front end of cell body that will
twirls to pull the cell, allows it to move through the water.

References
Rastogi, V.B. (1997). Cell Theory.
Modern Biology, pg. 144-146.
Pitambar Publishing.
Bruckner, M.Z. (2013). Basic Cellular Staining.
Microbial Life Educational Resources. Retrieved from
http://serc.carleton.edu/microbelife/research_methods/microscopy/cellstain.html
Walker, G.M. (1998). 4.2 Cellular Growth of Yeasts.
Yeast Physiology and Biotechnology, pg. 102-106.
John Wiley & Sons.
Rhoades, R., Bell, D.R. (2009). Chapter 9: Blood Components.
Medical Physiology: Principles for Clinical Medicine, pg. 175-181.
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
The labelled diagram of a spirogyra cell. Retrieved from:
http://cronodon.com/images/Spirogyra_diagram_labeled.jpg
Prof. Kotpal, R.L. (2012). Chapter 3: Euglena viridis.
Modern Text Book of Zoology: Invertebrates, pg. 30-39.
Rastogi Publications.
Forbes, J.C., Watson, D. (1992). 4.5 Protective Tissues of Plants.
Plant in Agriculture, pg.94.
Cambridge University Press.