A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source.

It is a pn junction diode,
which emits light when activated.[4]When a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able
to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This
effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the
photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor.
An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and integrated optical components may be used to
shape its radiation pattern.[5]
Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962,[6] the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity
infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as transmitting elements in remote-control
circuits, such as those in remote controls for a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first visiblelight LEDs were also of low intensity, and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available across
the visible,ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices, replacing small incandescent
bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-segment displays, and
were commonly seen in digital clocks.
Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and task lighting. LEDs have
many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer
lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are
now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising,general
lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes and even LED wallpaper. However, LEDs powerful enough
for room lighting are still relatively expensive, and require more precise current and heat
management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

Discoveries and early devices[edit]

Green electroluminescence from a point contact on a crystal of SiCrecreates H. J. Round's original experiment
from 1907.

Electroluminescence as a phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the British experimenter H. J.

Round of Marconi Labs, using a crystal ofsilicon carbide and a cat's-whisker detector.[7][8] Soviet
inventor Oleg Losev reported creation of the first LED in 1927.[9] His research was distributed in
Soviet, German and British scientific journals, but no practical use was made of the discovery for
several decades.[10][11] Kurt Lehovec, Carl Accardo and Edward Jamgochian, explained these first
light-emitting diodes in 1951 using an apparatus employing SiCcrystals with a current source of
battery or pulse generator and with a comparison to a variant, pure, crystal in 1953. [12] [13]
Rubin Braunstein[14] of the Radio Corporation of America reported on infrared emission from gallium
arsenide (GaAs) and other semiconductor alloys in 1955.[15] Braunstein observed infrared emission
generated by simple diode structures using gallium antimonide(GaSb), GaAs, indium
phosphide (InP), and silicon-germanium (SiGe) alloys at room temperature and at 77 kelvins.
In 1957, Braunstein further demonstrated that the rudimentary devices could be used for non-radio
communication across a short distance. As noted by Kroemer[16] Braunstein".. had set up a simple
optical communications link: Music emerging from a record player was used via suitable electronics
to modulate the forward current of a GaAs diode. The emitted light was detected by a PbS diode
some distance away. This signal was fed into an audio amplifier, and played back by a loudspeaker.
Intercepting the beam stopped the music. We had a great deal of fun playing with this setup." This
setup presaged the use of LEDs for optical communication applications.

Diagram of a light emitting diode constructed on a zinc diffused area of gallium arsenide semi-insulating
substrate[17]

In the fall of 1965, while working at Texas Instruments Inc. in Dallas, TX, James R. Biard and Gary
Pittman found that gallium arsenide(GaAs) emitted infrared light when electric current was applied.
On August 8, 1962, Biard and Pittman filed a patent titled "Semiconductor Radiant Diode" based on
their findings, which described a zinc diffused pn junction LED with a spaced cathode contact to
allow for efficient emission of infrared light under forward bias.
After establishing the priority of their work based on engineering notebooks predating submissions
from G.E. Labs, RCA Research Labs,IBM Research Labs, Bell Labs, and Lincoln Lab at MIT,
the U.S. patent office issued the two inventors the patent for the GaAs infrared (IR) light-emitting
diode (U.S. Patent US3293513), the first practical LED.[18] Immediately after filing the patent, Texas
Instruments began a project to manufacture infrared diodes. In October 1962, they announced the
first LED commercial product (the SNX-100), which employed a pure GaAs crystal to emit a 900 nm
light output.
The first visible-spectrum (red) LED was developed in 1962 by Nick Holonyak, Jr., while working
at General Electric Company.[6] Holonyak first reported his LED in the journal Applied Physics

Letters on the December 1, 1962.[19][20] M. George Craford,[21] a former graduate student of Holonyak,
invented the first yellow LED and improved the brightness of red and red-orange LEDs by a factor of
ten in 1972.[22]In 1976, T. P. Pearsall created the first high-brightness, high-efficiency LEDs for optical
fiber telecommunications by inventing new semiconductor materials specifically adapted to optical
fiber transmission wavelengths.[23]

Working[edit]
A P-N junction can connect the absorbed light energy into its proportional electric current. The same
process is reversed here. i.e. the P-N junction emits light when energy is applied on it.
This phenomenon is generally called electroluminance, which can be defined as the emission of light
from a semi-conductor under the influence of an electric field. The charge carriers recombine in a
forward P-N junction as the electrons cross from the N-region and recombine with the holes existing
in the P-region. Free electrons are in theconduction band of energy levels, while holes are in the
valence energy band. Thus the energy level of the holes will be lesser than the energy levels of the
electrons. Some part of the energy must be dissipated in order to recombine the electrons and the
holes. This energy is emitted in the form of heat and light.
The electrons dissipate energy in the form of heat for silicon and germanium diodes. But in GalliumArsenide-phosphorus (GaAsP) and Gallium-phosphorus (GaP) semiconductors, the electrons
dissipate energy by emitting photons. If the semiconductor is translucent, the junction becomes the
source of light as it is emitted, thus becoming a light emitting diode (LED). But when the junction is
reverse biased no light will be produced by the LED, and, on the contrary the device may also get
damaged.

Technology[edit]

Physics[edit]
The LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material doped with impurities to create a p-n junction.
As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in
the reverse direction. Charge-carrierselectrons and holesflow into the junction
from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy
level and releases energy in the form of a photon.
The wavelength of the light emitted, and thus its color, depends on the band gap energy of the
materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes usually
recombine by a non-radiative transition, which produces no optical emission, because these

are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with
energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible, or near-ultraviolet light.
LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide. Advances
in materials science have enabled making devices with ever-shorter wavelengths, emitting light in a
variety of colors.
LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer
deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many commercial
LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate.
Most materials used for LED production have very high refractive indices. This means that much
light will be reflected back into the material at the material/air surface interface. Thus, light extraction
in LEDs is an important aspect of LED production, subject to much research and development.

Color

Wavelength range (nm)

Typical efficacy (lm/W)

Typical efficiency (W/W)

Red

620 < < 645

72

0.39

Red-orange

610 < < 620

98

0.29

Green

520 < < 550

93

0.15

Cyan

490 < < 520

75

0.26

Blue

460 < < 490

37

0.35

Lifetime and failure[edit]

Main article: List of LED failure modes
Solid-state devices such as LEDs are subject to very limited wear and tear if operated at low
currents and at low temperatures. Many of the LEDs made in the 1970s and 1980s are still in service
in the early 21st century. Typical lifetimes quoted are 25,000 to 100,000 hours, but heat and current
settings can extend or shorten this time significantly. [61]
The most common symptom of LED (and diode laser) failure is the gradual lowering of light output
and loss of efficiency. Sudden failures, although rare, can also occur. Early red LEDs were notable
for their short service life. With the development of high-power LEDs the devices are subjected to
higher junction temperatures and higher current densities than traditional devices. This causes
stress on the material and may cause early light-output degradation. To quantitatively classify useful
lifetime in a standardized manner it has been suggested to use the terms L70 and L50, which is the
time it will take a given LED to reach 70% and 50% light output respectively.[62]
LED performance is temperature dependent. Most manufacturers' published ratings of LEDs are for
an operating temperature of 25 C (77 F). LEDs used outdoors, such as traffic signals or inpavement signal lights, and that are utilized in climates where the temperature within the light fixture
gets very high, could result in low signal intensities or even failure.[63]
LED light output rises at lower temperatures, leveling off, depending on type, at around 30 C
(22 F).[citation needed] Thus, LED technology may be a good replacement in uses such as
supermarket freezer lighting[64][65][66] and will last longer than other technologies. Because LEDs emit
less heat than incandescent bulbs, they are an energy-efficient technology for uses such as in
freezers and refrigerators. However, because they emit little heat, ice and snow may build up on the
LED light fixture in colder climates.[63] Similarly, this lack of waste heat generation has been observed
to sometimes cause significant problems with street traffic signals and airport runway lighting in
snow-prone areas. In response to this problem, some LED lighting systems have been designed

with an added heating circuit at the expense of reduced overall electrical efficiency of the system;
additionally, research has been done to develop heat sink technologies that will transfer heat
produced within the junction to appropriate areas of the light fixture.[67]

Colors and materials[edit]

Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials. The following
table shows the available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop and material:

Color

Infrared

Wavelength [nm

Voltage

drop [V]

> 760

V < 1.63

Semiconductor material

Gallium arsenide (GaAs)

Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Red

610 < < 760

1.63 < V <

2.03

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

Aluminium gallium indium
phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

Orange

590 < < 610

2.03 < V <

Aluminium gallium indium

2.10

phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

Yellow

570 < < 590

2.10 < V <

Aluminium gallium indium

2.18

phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Traditional green:
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Aluminium gallium indium
Green

500 < < 570

1.9[68] < V <

phosphide (AlGaInP)

4.0

Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)

Pure green:
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III)
nitride (GaN)

Zinc selenide (ZnSe)

Blue

450 < < 500

2.48 < V <

Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)

3.7

Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate

Silicon (Si) as substrateunder development

Violet

Purple

400 < < 450

Multiple types

2.76 < V <

4.0

2.48 < V <

3.7

Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)

Dual blue/red LEDs,

blue with red phosphor,
or white with purple plastic

Diamond (235 nm)[69]

Boron nitride (215 nm)[70][71]
Ultraviole
t

< 400

3.1 < V < 4.4

Aluminium nitride (AlN) (210 nm)[72]

Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN)
Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN)
down to 210 nm[73]

Pink

Multiple types

V ~ 3.3[74]

Blue with one or two phosphor layers:

yellow with red, orange or pink phosphor
added afterwards,
or white phosphors with pink pigment or dye

over top.[75]

White

Broad spectrum

V = 3.5

Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor

Types[edit]

LEDs are produced in a variety of shapes and sizes. The color of the plastic lens is often the same as the
actual color of light emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used for infrared LEDs, and
most blue devices have colorless housings. Modern high-power LEDs such as those used for lighting and
backlighting are generally found in surface-mount technology (SMT) packages (not shown).

The main types of LEDs are miniature, high-power devices and custom designs such as
alphanumeric or multi-color.[111]

Miniature[edit]

Photo of miniature surface mountLEDs in most common sizes. They can be much smaller than a traditional 5
mm lamp type LED which is shown on the upper left corner.

Very small (1.6x1.6x0.35 mm) red, green, and blue surface mountminiature LED package with gold wire
bonding details.

These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they come in various sizes from 2 mm to
8 mm, through-hole and surface mountpackages. They usually do not use a separate heat sink.
[112]

Typical current ratings ranges from around 1 mA to above 20 mA. The small size sets a natural

upper boundary on power consumption due to heat caused by the high current density and need for
a heat sink.
Common package shapes include round, with a domed or flat top, rectangular with a flat top (as
used in bar-graph displays), and triangular or square with a flat top. The encapsulation may also be
clear or tinted to improve contrast and viewing angle.
Researchers at the University of Washington have invented the thinnest LED. It is made of twodimensional (2-D) flexible materials. It is 3atoms thick, which is 10 to 20 times thinner than threedimensional (3-D) LEDs and is also 10,000 times smaller than the thickness of a human hair. These
2-D LEDs are going to make it possible to create smaller, more energy-efficient lighting, optical
communication andnano lasers.[113]
There are three main categories of miniature single die LEDs:

Low-current: typically rated for 2 mA at around 2 V (approximately 4 mW consumption).

Standard: 20 mA LEDs (ranging from approximately 40 mW to 90 mW) at around:

1.9 to 2.1 V for red, orange and yellow,
3.0 to 3.4 V for green and blue,
2.9 to 4.2 V for violet, pink, purple and white.

Ultra-high-output: 20 mA at approximately 2 V or 45 V, designed for viewing in direct

sunlight.

5 V and 12 V LEDs are ordinary miniature LEDs that incorporate a suitable series resistor for
direct connection to a 5 V or 12 V supply.

Mid-range[edit]
Medium-power LEDs are often through-hole-mounted and mostly utilized when an output of just
tens of lumens are needed. They sometimes have the diode mounted to four leads (two cathode
leads, two anode leads) for better heat conduction and carry an integrated lens. An example of
this is the Superflux package, from Philips Lumileds. These LEDs are most commonly used in
light panels, emergency lighting, and automotive tail-lights. Due to the larger amount of metal in
the LED, they are able to handle higher currents (around 100 mA). The higher current allows for
the higher light output required for tail-lights and emergency lighting.

High-power[edit]

High-power light-emitting diodes attached to an LED star base (Luxeon,Lumileds)

See also: Solid-state lighting, LED lamp and Thermal management of high-power LEDs
High-power LEDs (HPLEDs) or high-output LEDs (HO-LEDs) can be driven at currents from
hundreds of mA to more than an ampere, compared with the tens of mA for other LEDs. Some
can emit over a thousand lumens.[114][115] LED power densities up to 300 W/cm2 have been
achieved.[116] Since overheating is destructive, the HPLEDs must be mounted on a heat sink to
allow for heat dissipation. If the heat from a HPLED is not removed, the device will fail in
seconds. One HPLED can often replace an incandescent bulb in a flashlight, or be set in an
array to form a powerful LED lamp.
Some well-known HPLEDs in this category are the Nichia 19 series, Lumileds Rebel Led, Osram
Opto Semiconductors Golden Dragon, and Cree X-lamp. As of September 2009, some HPLEDs
manufactured by Cree Inc. now exceed 105 lm/W[117] (e.g. the XLamp XP-G LED chip emitting
Cool White light) and are being sold in lamps intended to replace incandescent, halogen, and
even fluorescent lights, as LEDs grow more cost competitive.
Evidence of Haitz's law which predicts an exponential rise in light output of LEDs over time can
be readily seen in year over year increases in lumen output and efficiency. For example, the
CREE XP-G series LED achieved 105 lm/W in 2009, [117] while Nichia released the 19 series with
a typical efficacy of 140 lm/W in 2010.[118]

AC driven LED[edit]

LEDs have been developed by Seoul Semiconductor that can operate on AC power without the
need for a DC converter. For each half-cycle, part of the LED emits light and part is dark, and
this is reversed during the next half-cycle. The efficacy of this type of HPLED is typically 40
lm/W.[119] A large number of LED elements in series may be able to operate directly from line
voltage. In 2009, Seoul Semiconductor released a high DC voltage LED, named as 'Acrich MJT',
capable of being driven from AC power with a simple controlling circuit. The low-power
dissipation of these LEDs affords them more flexibility than the original AC LED design. [120]

Application-specific variations[edit]
Flashing[edit]
Used as attention seeking indicators without requiring external electronics. Flashing LEDs resemble
standard LEDs but they contain an integrated multivibrator circuit that causes the LED to flash with a
typical period of one second. In diffused lens LEDs this is visible as a small black dot. Most flashing
LEDs emit light of one color, but more sophisticated devices can flash between multiple colors and
even fade through a color sequence using RGB color mixing.
Bi-color LED[edit]
Two different LED emitters in one case. There are two types of these. One type consists of two dies
connected to the same two leads antiparallel to each other. Current flow in one direction emits one
color, and current in the opposite direction emits the other color. The other type consists of two dies
with separate leads for both dies and another lead for common anode or cathode, so that they can
be controlled independently.

A decorative garden light that changes color

Tri-color[edit]
Three different LED emitters in one case. Each emitter is connected to a separate lead so they can
be controlled independently. A four-lead arrangement is typical with one common lead (anode or
cathode) and an additional lead for each color.
RGB[edit]
Tri-color LEDs with red, green, and blue emitters, in general using a four-wire connection with one
common lead (anode or cathode). These LEDs can have either common positive or common
negative leads. Others however, have only two leads (positive and negative) and have a built in
tiny electronic control unit.
Decorative multicolor[edit]
Incorporates several emitters of different colors supplied by only two lead-out wires. Colors are
switched internally simply by varying the supply voltage. (In a cheap 'Melinera' garden lamp supplied
by OWIM GmbH & Co KG in 2013 the LEDs are within a clear casting of 5mm diameter, 10mm long
which encapsulates 3 LEDs which change between red, green and blue as the DC supply varies
between about 2 volts and 3 volts).
Alphanumeric[edit]
Available in seven-segment, starburst and dot-matrix format. Seven-segment displays handle all
numbers and a limited set of letters. Starburst displays can display all letters. Dot-matrix displays
typically use 5x7 pixels per character. Seven-segment LED displays were in widespread use in the
1970s and 1980s, but rising use of liquid crystal displays, with their lower power needs and greater
display flexibility, has reduced the popularity of numeric and alphanumeric LED displays.
Digital RGB[edit]
These are RGB LEDs that contain their own "smart" control electronics. In addition to power and
ground, these provide connections for data in, data out, and sometimes a clock or strobe signal.
These are connected in a daisy chain, with the data in of the first LED sourced by a microprocessor,
which can control the brightness and color of each LED independently of the others. They are used
where a combination of maximum control and minimum visible electronics are needed such as
strings for Christmas and LED matrices, few even have refresh rates in the kHz range allowing for
basic video applications.

Considerations for use[edit]

Power sources[edit]
Main article: LED power sources
The currentvoltage characteristic of an LED is similar to other diodes, in that the current is
dependent exponentially on the voltage (see Shockley diode equation). This means that a small
change in voltage can cause a large change in current. If the applied voltage exceeds the LED's
forward voltage drop by a small amount, the current rating may be exceeded by a large amount,
potentially damaging or destroying the LED. The typical solution is to use constant-current power
supplies to keep the current below the LED's maximum current rating. Since most common power
sources (batteries, mains) are constant-voltage sources, most LED fixtures must include a power
converter, at least a current-limiting resistor. However, the high resistance of 3 V coin cells combined
with the high differential resistance of nitride-based LEDs makes it possible to power such an LED
from such a coin cell without an external resistor.[121]

Electrical polarity[edit]
Main article: Electrical polarity of LEDs
As with all diodes, current flows easily from p-type to n-type material.[122] However, no current flows
and no light is emitted if a small voltage is applied in the reverse direction. If the reverse voltage
grows large enough to exceed the breakdown voltage, a large current flows and the LED may be
damaged. If the reverse current is sufficiently limited to avoid damage, the reverse-conducting LED
is a useful noise diode.

Safety and health[edit]

The vast majority of devices containing LEDs are "safe under all conditions of normal use", and so
are classified as "Class 1 LED product"/"LED Klasse 1". At present, only a few LEDsextremely
bright LEDs that also have a tightly focused viewing angle of 8 or lesscould, in theory, cause
temporary blindness, and so are classified as "Class 2".[123] The opinion of the French Agency for
Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES) of 2010, on the health issues
concerning LEDs, suggested banning public use of lamps which were in the moderate Risk Group 2,
especially those with a high blue component in places frequented by children. [124] In general, laser
safety regulationsand the "Class 1", "Class 2", etc. systemalso apply to LEDs. [125]

While LEDs have the advantage over fluorescent lamps that they do not contain mercury, they may
contain other hazardous metals such as lead and arsenic. A study published in 2011 states
(concerning toxicity of LEDs when treated as waste): "According to federal standards, LEDs are not
hazardous except for low-intensity red LEDs, which leached Pb [lead] at levels exceeding regulatory
limits (186 mg/L; regulatory limit: 5). However, according to California regulations, excessive levels
of copper (up to 3892 mg/kg; limit: 2500), lead (up to 8103 mg/kg; limit: 1000), nickel (up to 4797
mg/kg; limit: 2000), or silver (up to 721 mg/kg; limit: 500) render all except low-intensity yellow LEDs
hazardous."[126]
One potentially dangerous side effect of LED lighting is seizures in people who suffer
from photosensitive epilepsy.[127] LEDs can flicker at high frequencies causing a strobe effect. Most
people cannot see and are not effected by the flicker, but for people who can see the effect it can be
a trigger for the seizure. Sometimes it can be immediate or delayed until after the person has gone
to sleep. Not all LEDs have the issue of causing seizures. For those who are susceptible, the
solution is to leave the area having the strobe effect. It also appears most problematic when it is the
only light source or the main light source. If other sources are lighting the room such as sunlight
shining through a window, the strobe effect is minimized for causing a seizure.

Advantages[edit]

Efficiency: LEDs emit more lumens per watt than incandescent light bulbs.[128] The efficiency
of LED lighting fixtures is not affected by shape and size, unlike fluorescent light bulbs or tubes.

Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as traditional
lighting methods need. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.

Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2[129]) and are easily attached to printed
circuit boards.

On/Off time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full
brightness in under a microsecond.[130] LEDs used in communications devices can have even
faster response times.

Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike incandescent and
fluorescent lamps that fail faster when cycled often, or high-intensity discharge lamps (HID
lamps) that require a long time before restarting.

Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or lowering the
forward current.[131] This pulse-width modulation is why LED lights, particularly headlights on cars,
when viewed on camera or by some people, appear to be flashing or flickering. This is a type
of stroboscopic effect.

Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form
of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat
through the base of the LED.

Slow failure: LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt failure of
incandescent bulbs.[61]

Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to 50,000
hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be longer.[132]Fluorescent tubes typically
are rated at about 10,000 to 15,000 hours, depending partly on the conditions of use, and
incandescent light bulbs at 1,000 to 2,000 hours. Several DOE demonstrations have shown that
reduced maintenance costs from this extended lifetime, rather than energy savings, is the
primary factor in determining the payback period for an LED product.[133]

Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid-state components, are difficult to damage with external
shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs, which are fragile.

Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent and
fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable
manner. For larger LED packages total internal reflection (TIR) lenses are often used to the
same effect. However, when large quantities of light are needed many light sources are usually
deployed, which are difficult to focus or collimate towards the same target.

Disadvantages[edit]

High initial price: LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial capital
cost basis, than most conventional lighting technologies. As of 2012, the cost per thousand
lumens (kilolumen) was about $6. The price was expected to reach $2/kilolumen by 2013. [134][needs
update]
[135]

At least one manufacturer claims to have reached $1 per kilolumen as of March 2014.

The additional expense partially stems from the relatively low lumen output and the drive

circuitry and power supplies needed.

Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature

of the operating environment or "thermal management" properties. Over-driving an LED in
high ambient temperatures may result in overheating the LED package, eventually leading to

device failure. An adequate heat sink is needed to maintain long life. This is especially important
in automotive, medical, and military uses where devices must operate over a wide range of
temperatures, which require low failure rates. Toshiba has produced LEDs with an operating
temperature range of -40 to 100 C, which suits the LEDs for both indoor and outdoor use in
applications such as lamps, ceiling lighting, street lights, and floodlights. [97]

Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a
current below the rating. Current and lifetime change greatly with a small change in applied
voltage. They thus require a current-regulated supply (usually just a series resistor for indicator
LEDs).[136]

Light quality: Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from a black
body radiator like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at 500 nm can
cause the color of objects to be perceived differently under cool-white LED illumination than
sunlight or incandescent sources, due to metamerism,[137] red surfaces being rendered
particularly badly by typical phosphor-based cool-white LEDs. However, the color-rendering
properties of common fluorescent lamps are often inferior to what is now available in state-of-art
white LEDs.

Area light source: Single LEDs do not approximate a point source of light giving a spherical
light distribution, but rather a lambertian distribution. So LEDs are difficult to apply to uses
needing a spherical light field; however, different fields of light can be manipulated by the
application of different optics or "lenses". LEDs cannot provide divergence below a few degrees.
In contrast, lasers can emit beams with divergences of 0.2 degrees or less. [138]

Electrical polarity: Unlike incandescent light bulbs, which illuminate regardless of

the electrical polarity, LEDs will only light with correct electrical polarity. To automatically match
source polarity to LED devices, rectifiers can be used.

Blue hazard: There is a concern that blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs are now capable of
exceeding safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard as defined in eye safety specifications
such as ANSI/IESNA RP-27.105: Recommended Practice for Photobiological Safety for Lamp
and Lamp Systems.[139][140]

Blue pollution: Because cool-white LEDs with high color temperature emit proportionally
more blue light than conventional outdoor light sources such as high-pressuresodium vapor
lamps, the strong wavelength dependence of Rayleigh scattering means that cool-white LEDs
can cause more light pollution than other light sources. TheInternational Dark-Sky

Association discourages using white light sources with correlated color temperature above 3,000
K.[120]

Efficiency droop: The luminous efficacy of LEDs decreases as the electric

current increases. Heating also increases with higher currents which compromises the lifetime of
the LED. These effects put practical limits on the current through an LED in high power
applications.[54][56][57][141]

Impact on insects: LEDs are much more attractive to insects than sodium-vapor lights, so
much so that there has been speculative concern about the possibility of disruption to food
webs.[142][143]

Use in winter conditions: Since they do not give off much heat in comparison to traditional
electrical lights, LED lights used for traffic control can have snow obscuring them, leading to
accidents.[144][145]