Elementary Treatise On Rigid Body Mechanics

Ijp S.
1. MtU iCthrarg
5fortl| (Earolina
^tate Hmnpraity
^ ^^XT\i REYNOLDS
FOUNDATION
COLLECTION IN
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE DATE
INDICATED BELOW AND IS SUBJECT TO AN OVERDUE FINE AS

POSTED AT THE CIRCULATION
DESK.
EXCEPTION:
if^s
it<
earlier
5^0 21998
150M/01 -92 920179
'ate
due vul be
m is RECALLED
BY THE SAME AUTHOR

COORDINATE
GEOMETRY.
Edition.
The Straight
6s.
Solutions of the Examples.
Crown
Line and
7s.
8vo.
Circle
Fourteenth
only.
3s. 6(/.
6d. net.
AN ARITHMETIC FOR SCHOOLS.
Tenth Edition. Globe

8vo. with or without Answers, 4s. 6c?.
Or in two Parts, with
Answers, 2s. 6c?. each. The Examples alone, 3s. The Answers
alone, Qd.
A NEW EDITION OF DR TODHUNTER'S ALGEBRA

FOR BEGINNERS.
a Chapter on Graphs.
Answers.
KEY,
Globe 8vo. Ninth Impression, with

without Answers.
4s. Qd. with
3s. Qd.
8s. 6d. net.
A NEW EDITION OF DR TODHUNTER'S EUCLID.

Fourth Impression. 4s. 6d.
Globe 8vo.
Also Book
Books L and II., Is. 6d. Books I. IV., 3s.
With
L.
With Answers,
aonOou:
Is.
W. G RENVILLE, M.A.
A SHILLING ARITHMETIC.
Is.
I.,
Is.
Eighth Edition.
Globe 8vo.
6d.
MACMILLAN AND
CO., Limited.
BY THE SAME AUTHOR

A TREATISE ON ELEMENTARY DYNAMICS,
Eighth Edition.
8vo.
7s.
down
Qd.
SOLUTIONS OF THE EXAMPLES

MENTARY DYNAMICS. Crown 8vo.
IN
THE ELE-
7s. 6d.
THE ELEMENTS OF STATICS AND DYNAMICS.

Ex. Fcp. 8vo.
Part
I.
Elements of Statics. Thirteenth Edition, Revised
and Enlarged. 4s. Qd.
Thirteenth Edition,
Part II. Elements of Dynamics.
Revised and Enlarged. 3s. 6c?.
The two Parts bound in one volume, 7s. Qd.
SOLUTIONS OF THE EXAMPLES IN THE ELEMENTS OF STATICS AND DYNAMICS. Ex. Fcp. Svo.
7s. Qd.
AND
MECHANICS
GINNERS.
Ex.
FOR
HYDROSTATICS
Fcp.
Svo.
Twelfth Edition.
BE-
4s. Qd.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
Or
7s. Qd.
Part
I.
Crown Svo. Tenth Edition.

two Parts.
Up to and Including the Solution of Triangles.
in
5s.
Part
De
II.
Moivre's Theorem and the Higher Portions.
3s. Qd.
THE ELEMENTS OF TRIGONOMETRY WITH FOURFIGURE LOGARITHM TABLES. Ex. Fcp. 8vo. Fourth
Edition.
3s.
6c?.
SOLUTIONS OF THE EXAMPLES

TRIGONOMETRY.
Crown
Svo.
IN
10s.
THE PLANE
6^^.
THE ELEMENTS OF HYDROSTATICS, being a
Companion
and Dynamics.
Ex. Fcp.
to the Elements of Statics

Fourth Edition. 4s. Qd.
Volume
Svo.
SOLUTIONS OF THE EXAMPLES IN THE ELEMENTS OF HYDROSTATICS. Ex. Fcp. Svo. 5s.
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
FETTEK LANE,
Eontion:
C.
F.
Hinburfllj:
E.G.
CLAY, Managek
lOc, PRINCES STREET
AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE
ON THE
DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE
AND OF
RIGID BODIES
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

Eoncon:
0.
F.
Cfifntuu!?)-.
100,
PRINCES STREET
A.
ASHER AND
Ecip.ns:
F.
A.
antJ
E.G.
CLAY, Manager
Berlin:
iêir
ISombag
FETTER LANE,
gorti: G. P.
Calcutta:
CO.
BROCKHAUS
PUTNAM'S SONS
MACJIILLAN AND
All rights reserved
CO., Ltd.
v7
AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE
ON THE
DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE
AND OF
RIGID BODIES
BY
^.
L.
LONEY, M.A.
Professor of Mathematics at the Royal
Holloway College
(University of London), sometime Fellow of
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
Cambridge
at the
University Press
1913
Published, November. 1909.
Second Edition, 1913.
PREFACE
TN
-*-
the following work I have tried to write an elementary

class-book on those parts of
Dynamics
of a Particle
and
Rigid D3'naraics which are usually read by Students attending
a course of lectures in Applied Mathematics
for
a Science or
Engineering Degi-ee, and by Junior Students
for
Mathematical
Within the
Honours.
I hope
I
it will
limits with
be found to be
which
fairly
it
professes to deal,
complete.
assume that the Student has previously read some such
course as
is
included in
my Elementary Dynamics.
I also
assume
that he possesses a fair working knowledge of Differential and

Integral Calculus
the Differential Equations, with which he
will meet, are solved in the Text,
find a
summary
of the
and in an Appendix he
will
methods of solution of such equations.
In Rigid Dynamics I have chiefly confined myself to twodimensional motion, and I have omitted
all
reference to moving-
axes.
I have included in the book a large
number
of Examples,
mostly collected from University and College Examination

Papers; I have verified every question, and hope that there
will not
be found a large number of serious
For any
corrections, or suggestions for
errors.
improvement, I shall
be grateful.
S. L.
eoyal holloway college,

Englefield Green, Surrey.
October 23, 1909.
LONEY.
CONTENTS
DYNAMICS OF A PAETICLE
CHAPTER
I.
II.
III.
Fundamental Definitions and Principles

Motion in a Straight Line
Simple Harmooic Motion
Motion under the Earth's Attraction
axes are given
21
....
........
Uniplanar motion referred to Polar Coordinates

Revolving Axes
Stability of Orbits
Uniplanar motion when the acceleration is towards a fixed

centre and varies as the inverse square of the distance
Kepler's
Time
Laws
of describing
Planetary Motion
Disturbed Orbits
VI.
VII.
VIII.
.........
....
any arc of the path
........
45
48
54
59
69
75
79
84
89
92
97
100
The Simple Pendulum

Motion on a rough curve
105
Ill
Motion in a Resisting Medium

Motion when the Mass varies
119
130
Oscillatory Motion
137
143
Oscillations
when
101
Medium
the Forces are Periodic
Motion of a pendulum in a Resisting Medium
Motion in Three Dimensions.

Polar Coordinates
147
151
Accelerations in terms of
155
Accelerations in terms of Cartesian Coordinates
X.
33
36
Tangential and Normal Accelerations

Constrained Motion
Conservation of Energy
Oscillations in a Resisting
IX.
fixed
Central Forces
Apses and Apsidal distances
V.
PAGE
10
13
Uniplanar motion where the accelerations parallel to

Composition of Simple Harmonic Motions
IV.
....
The Hodograph
Motion on a Revolving Cm-ve
Impulsive tensions of Chains
164
170
173
ISO
Contents
viii
DYNAMICS OF A KIGID BODY

CHAPTER
XI.
Moments and Products of

The Momental Ellipsoid
PAGE
185
Inertia
193
196
199
Equi-momental Systems
Principal Axes
.....
XII.
D'Alembert's Principle
The general equations of Motion
Independence of the Motions of Translation and Rotation
Impulsive Forces
204
205
208
XIII.
Motion about a Fixed Axis
213
219
230
The Compound Pendulum
Centre of Percussion
XIV.
Motion
Two
in
Dimensions.
Finite Forces
Two Dimensions
Momentum in Two Dimensions
of
Varying Mass
XV.
XVI.
269
274
261
Motion in Two Dimensions. Impulsive Forces

Impact of a Rotating Sphere on the ground
Instantaneous Centre
Composition of Angular Velocities
282
289
295
Finite Rotations
Moment
of
Momentum and
Kinetic
Energy
in
Three
Dimensions
General
equations
298
of
motion
of
body
in
Three
Dimensions
Motion of a Billiard Ball
XVII.
XVIII.
Conservation of Linear and Angular

Normal Coordinates
Lagrange's Equations for Blows
XIX.
XX.
301
302
Momentum
Lagrange's Equations in Generalised Coordinates

Principal or
238
240
242
Kinetic Energy in
Moment
211
306
313
330
338
339
Small Oscillations
Initial Motions
Tendency to break
346
Motion of a Top
360
Appendix on
369
Ditierential Equations
351
356
CHAPTER
FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS AND PRINCIPLES

1.
so that,
The
if
velocity of a point
be
its
is
the rate of
position at time
its
displacement,
and Q that at time
PQ
the limiting value of the quantity -ry
as
At
is
+ Lt,
made very
small, is its velocity.
Since a displacement has both magnitude and direction,

the velocity possesses both also;
the latter can therefore be
represented in magnitude and direction by a straight

is
line,
and
hence called a vector quantity.

2.
point
may have two
velocities in different directions
they may be compounded into one

velocity by the following theorem known as the Parallelogram
at
the same
instant;
of Velocities
If a moving point possess simultaneously

and direction hy
represented in magnitude
velocities
which are
a
parallelogram dratvn from a point, they are equivalent to a
velocity which is represented in magnitude and direction hy the
diagonal of the parallelogram passing through the point.
the tiuo sides of
velocities AB, AC are equivalent to

AD, where AD is the diagonal of the
parallelogram of which AB, AC are adjacent sides.
If BAChesi right angle and BAD = 6, then AB = ADcosd,
Thus two component
the resultant velocity
AC= AD sin 6, and a velocity v along AD is equivalent to the

velocities v cos 6 along AB and v sin 6 along AG.
two component
Triangle of Velocities. If a point possess two velocities

completely represented {i.e. represented in magnitude, direction
and sense) by two straight
lines
AB
and BC, their resultant
is
Dynamics of a
Particle
completely represented by AC. For completing the parallelogram ABGD, the velocities AB, BG are equivalent to AB, AD
whose resultant is A G.
Parallelepiped of Velocities.
velocities completely represented
OG
point
If a
possess three
by three straight
lines
OA,
by successive applications of the

parallelogram of velocities, completely represented by OD, the
diagonal of the parallelopiped of which OA, OB, OG are conOB,
their resultant
is,
terminous edges.
OA, OB and OG are the component velocities of OD.

OA, OB, and OG are mutually at right angles and u, v, w
are the velocities of the moving point along these directions, the
Similarly
If
resultant velocity
is s/ ic^
+ v^ + w'^
v, w
cosines are proportional to w,
M"-'
+ v^ + W
Similarly, if
along a line whose direction

and are thus equal to
V
,
wu^
OD be
v^
and
+ w-
V 1*2
a straight line whose direction cosines
referred to three mutually perpendicular lines

I,
m,
n,
then a velocity
velocities
3.
lV,mV,nV
=r.
+ v^ + w-
V along OD
is
OA, OB, OG
are
equivalent to component
along OA, OB, and
OG
Change of Velocity. Acceleration.
respectively.
If at
any instant
the velocity of a moving point be represented by OA, and at

any subsequent instant by OB, and if the parallelogram OABG
be completed whose diagonal is OB, then OG ov AB represents

the velocity which must be compounded with OA to give OB,
i.e. it is the change in the velocity of the moving point.
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, i.e. if OA,
OB represent the velocities at times t and t + M, then the
AB
limiting value of -r
{i.e.
the limiting value of the ratio of the
change in the velocity to the change in the time), as At becomes
moving point. As
moving point may possess simuldifferent directions, and they may be
indefinitely small, is the acceleration of the
in the case of velocities, a
taneously accelerations in
compounded
into one
by a theorem known
as the Parallclogx'am
of Accelerations similar to the Parallelogram of Velocities.

As also in the case of velocities an acceleration may be
resolved into two component accelerations.
Fundamental
The
Definitions
and
Principles
results of Art. 2 are also true for accelerations as well
as velocities.
When the distance between two

either in direction or in magnitude or
said to have a velocity relative to the
Relative Velocity.
4.
moving points
is altering,
in both, each point
is
other.
Suppose the velocities of two moving points A and B to be

represented by the two lines
and Bq (which are not
necessarily in the same plane), so that in the unit of time the
positions of the points would change from A and B to
and Q.
AP
Draw
BR
equal and parallel to A P.

The velocity BQ is, by
the Triangle of Velocities, equivalent to the velocities BR, RQ,
i.e. the velocity of B is equivalent to the velocity
of A together
with a velocity RQ.
The
velocity of
Now
B relative to A is thus represented by RQ.

RQ is equivalent to velocities RB and BQ
the velocity
(by the Triangle of Velocities),

represented by BQ and PA.
Hence
pounding
the velocity
of
i.e.
to
relative to
the absolute velocity
of
velocities
ivith
is
completely
obtained by com-
velocity equal
and
opposite to that of A.
Conversely, since the

velocities
BR
and RQ,
velocity
BQ
is
equivalent to the
to the velocity of
together with
the velocity of B relative to A, therefore the velocity
of any
point B is obtained by compounding together its velocity relative
to any other point A and the velocity
of A.
i.e.
The same results are true for accelerations, since they also
are vector quantities and therefore follow the parallelogram
law.
Angular velocity of a point whose motion
5.
one plane.
If a point
point and
Ox
is
in
be in motion in a plane, and if

be a fixed
a fixed line in the plane, the rate of increase
of
12
Dynamics of a Particle
4
the angle
P about
xOP
per unit of time
is
called the angular velocity of
0.
Hence, if at time t the angle

be 6, the angular velocity
xOP
about
C/ IS -TT
at
P at
Q be the position of the point

time t+ t^t, where A* is small,
and
V the velocity of the point at
If
time
t,
then
PQ
If
ZP0Q = A^,
and
OP = r, OQ = r + Ar,
then
r (r
Ar) sin A^ = 2 APOQ =
PQ
F,
where OF is the perpendicular on PQ.

Hence, dividing by Af, and proceeding to the limit when
is very small, we have
upon the tangent at P to

where p is the perpendicular from
the path of the moving point.
Hence, if to be the angular velocity, we have ?-&) = v .p.
The angular acceleration is the rate at which the angular
velocity increases per unit of time, and
d fv.p\
= dt^''^ = di[l^)'
Areal velocity. The areal velocity is, similarly, the rate at
is
which the area XOP increases per unit of time, where
It
the point in which the path of P meets Ox.
^ ^
= Lt.
"
area
POQ
^^
=hr-.o>.
Mass and Force. Matter has been defined to be

6.
that which can be perceived by the senses " or " that which
can be acted upon by, or can exert, force."

space a primary conception, and hence
It is like
it
is
time and
practically im-
Fundamental Definitions and Principles

possible to give
it
a precise definition,
body
is
a portion of
matter bounded by surfaces.
A particle
in
its
all
is
a portion of matter which
dimensions.
It
is
is
the physical
indefinitely small
correlative
of a
A body
which is incapable of any rotation,

or which moves without any rotation, may for the purposes of
Dynamics, be often treated as a particle.
The mass of a body is the quantity of matter it contains.
A force is that which changes, or tends to change, the state
of rest, or uniform motion, of a body.
geometrical point.
If to the
7.
same mass we apply
forces in succession,
and
they generate the same velocity in the same time, the forces
are said to be equal.
If the same force be applied to two different masses, and if
produce in them the same velocity in the same time, the
masses are said to be equal.
it
assumed that it is possible to create forces of

on different occasions, e.g. that the force
necessary to keep a given spiral spring stretched through the
same distance is always the same when other conditions are
It is here
equal
intensity
unaltered.
Hence by applying the same force

number of masses each equal
obtain a
in succession
we can
to a standard unit of
mass.
units of mass are used under
and in different countries.
The British unit of mass is called the Imperial Pound, and
consists of a lump of platinum deposited in the Exchequer
Practically,
8.
different
different conditions
Office.
The French,
and
is
or Scientific, unit of
mass
is
called a
gramme,
the one-thousandth part of a certain quantity of platinum,
called a
Kilogramme, which
is
deposited in the Archives.
One gramme = about 15'432
grains
= -0022046 lb.
One Pound = 45359 grammes.
9.
The
units of length employed are, in general, either a
foot or a centimetre.
Dyîamics of a Farticle
A centimetre
is
the one-hundredth part of a metre which
= 39-37
inches
= 32809
approximately.
ft.
The unit of time is a second. 86400 seconds are equal to a

mean solar day, which is the mean or average time taken by
the Earth to revolve once on
The system of
its axis
with regard to the Sun.
units in which a centimetre,
gramme, and
second are respectively the units of length, mass, and time

called the C.G.S. system of units.
The density
10.
of a body,
when
uniform,
is
is
the mass of a
unit volume of the body, so that, if
m is
the mass of a volume
then
m=
of a body whose density
is
p,
Vp.
When
the
any point of the body is equal

to the limiting value of the ratio of the mass of a very small
portion of the body surrounding the point to the volume of
density
is
variable, its value at
that portion, so that

p
Lt.
when
V is taken to be indefinitely small.
The weight of a body at any place is the force with which

the earth attracts the body. The body is assumed to be of such
finite size, compared with the Earth, that the weights of its
component parts may be assumed to be in parallel directions.
If m be the mass and v the velocity of a particle, its
Momentum is mv and its Kinetic Energy is \mv-. The former
is a vector quantity depending on the direction of the velocity.
The latter does not depend on this direction and such a quantity
is
called a Scalar quantity.

11.
Newton's Laws of Motion.
Law
Every body continues in its state of rest, or of

I.
uniform motion in a straight line, except in so far as it be
compelled by impressed force to change that state.
Law
II.
The
rate of change of
to the impressed force,
momentum
is
proportional
and takes place in the direction
in
which
the force acts.
Law
III.
To every
action there
is
an equal and opposite
reaction.
These laws were first formally enunciated by

Frincipia which was published in the year 1686.
Newton
in his
Fimdamental
If
12.
mid
Definitions
Principles
be the force which in a particle of mass
Law
produces an acceleration /, then
P = \-r. (mv),
where \
is
II states that
some constant,
If the unit of force be so chosen that it shall in unit mass

= mf.
produce unit acceleration, this becomes
If the mass be not constant we must have, instead,
The
unit of force, for the Foot-Pound-Second system,
called a Poundal,
and that
for the C.G.S.
system
is
called a
is
Dyne.
The
acceleration of a freely falling body at the Earth's

denoted by g, which has slightly different values at
In feet-second units the âlue of g varies
different points.
from 32-09 to 32-25 and in the c.G.s. system from 978-10 to
13.
surface
is
98311. For the latitude of London these values are 32*2 and
981 very approximately, and in numerical calculations these are
the values generally assumed.
If
be the weight of a mass of one pound, the previous
article gives that
W = 1 .g poundals,
so that the
weight of a
lb.
= 32'2
=
So the weight of a gramme
A poundal
are the
poundals approximately.
981 dynes nearly.
and a dyne are absolute
units, since their values
same everywhere.
Since, by the Second Law, the change of motion pro14.

duced by a force is in the direction in which the force acts, we
find the combined effect of a set of forces on the motion of a
particle by finding the effect of each force just as if the other
This
forces did not exist, and then compounding these effects.
is the principle known as that of the Physical Independence of
Forces.
From
this principle,
Accelerations,
Forces.
we can
combined with the Parallelogram of

deduce the Parallelogram of
easily
Dynamics of a Pari ids
Impulse of a
15.
Suppose that at time
force.
value of a force, whose direction
impulse of the force in time t
constant,
is
is
is
defined to be
the
Then the
P.
dt.
Jo
From
Art. 12
it
follows that the impulse
^^^^.
= r m-yat= rmvT
1
dt
Jo
= the momentum
Jo
generated in the direction
of the force in time
r.
Sometimes, as in the case of blows and impacts, we have to

deal with forces, which are very great and act for a very short
We
time, and we cannot measure the magnitude of the forces.
measure the effect of such forces by the momentum each produces, or by its impulse during the time of its action.
Work.'
16.
The work done by a
force
is
equal to the
product of the force and the distance through which the point
of application is moved in the direction of the force, or, by
what
is
the same thing, the product of the element of distance
described by the point of application and the resolved part of

the force in the direction of this element.
where ds
is
It therefore
= JPds,
the element of the path of the point of application
of the force during the description of wîich the force in the
direction of ds
If
axes
etc.
X, Y,
when
its
was P.
be the components of the force parallel to the
point of application
is {x, y, z),
X = P -r
so that
then
Lxdx + Ydy + Zdz)=j(P^dx +... +
...)
-H^f-m-(l^h-h
= the work done by the force P.
The theoretical units of work are a Foot-Poundal and an
Erg. The former is the work done by a poundal during a displacement of one foot in the direction of its action the latter
that done by a Dyne during a similar displacement of one cm.
One Foot-Poundal = 421390 Ergs nearly. One Foot-Pound
is the work done in raising one pound vertically through one foot.
;
is
Fundamental
Definitions
and
Principles
Power. The rate of work, or Power, of an agent is the

17.
work that would be done by it in a unit of time.
The unit of power used by Engineers is a Horse-Power, An
agent is said to be working with one Horse-Power, or h.p., when
it would raise 33,000 pounds through one foot per minute.
18.
The
Potential Energy of a body due to a given system
the work the system can do on the body as
passes
of forces
is
from
present configuration to some standard configuration,
its
it
usually called the zero position.
For example, since the attraction of the Earth (considered

a and density p) is known to be
as a uniform sphere of radius
~-
at
a distance x from the centre, the potential energy
of a unit particle at a distance'
y from the centre
of the Earth,
the surface of the earth being taken as the zero position.

19.
From the definitions of the following phj^sical quantities
terms of the units of mass, length, and time, it is clear that
their dimensions are as stated.
in
Quantity
Volume Density
Velocity
Acceleration
CHAPTER
II
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

Let the distance of a moving point P from a fixed
be ^ at any time t. Let its distance similarly at time
A^ be a; + ^x, so that PQ = Ax.
20.
point
f
tThe
.
velocity of
Hence the
at time
PQ
-~
= Limit, when
At
= Limit, when
A^
= 0, of -r-^ =
velocity
v=
0,
of
At
At
-r-
dt
-j-.
Let the velocity of the moving point at time

V
Then the
acceleration of
limit,
+ At
be
Av.
P at
time
when A^ =
0,
of -r-
At
_ dv
~di
_d^x
~dt''
21.
tion
Motion in a
straight line with constant accelera-
/.
Let X be the distance of the moving point at time

a fixed point in the straight line.
from
Motion in a straight
=/
Tt
Hence, on integration,
where
line
is
11
(!>
= -r=ft-]r A
(2),
an arbitrary constant.
we have
Integrating again,
x
where
is
= \ft' + At-^B
(3),
an arbitrary constant.
Again, on multiplying (1) by 2-77, and integrating with

respect to
t,
we have
v^~=(J^) =2fa^
+C
(4).
where G is an arbitrary constant.

These three equations contain the solution of all questions
on motion in a straight line with constant acceleration. The
arbitrary constants A, B, C are determined from the initial
conditions.
Suppose for example that the particle started at a distance

on the straight line with velocity w in
a from a fixed point
a direction away from 0, and suppose that the time t is
reckoned from the instant of projection.
We then have that when ^ = 0, then v=u and a; = a. Hence
the equations (2), (3), and (4) give
u
= A,
Hence we have
and
= B, and vJ'^C + ^fa.

v = u +ft,
c a = ut+ ^fP,
v- =
+ 2f{x - a),
a
u''
the three standard equations of Elementary Dynamics.
A particle moves in a straight line OA starting from rest

and moving with an acceleration which is always directed
and varies as the distance from 0; to find the motion.
towards
at any
Let X be the distance OP of the particle from
time t and let the acceleration at this distance be fix.
The equation of motion is then
22.
at
d'x
5^ = -^"
...
'^^-
Dynamics of a
12
[We have
-J
is
a negative sign on the right-hand side because
the acceleration in the direction of x increasing,
OP
the direction
i.e.
whilst fix
Multiplying by 2
be
a,
then
is
a;
= a,
so that
is
(2).
put on the right-hand side because
clearly negative so long as
moving towards
= - fia^ + C,
| = -V;iVa?:r^'
[The negative sign

is
=-M^+^-
= ^ when
-Tf
.-.
the velocity
towards 0,
and integrating, we have
-j-
di)
OA
the acceleration
is
in
i.e.
PO.]
in the direction
If
Particle
OP
is
positive
and
0.]
tA^/j,
_
=
_
= cos~^ X- +
dx
0= cos~-
where
if
G,,
i.e.
C,
= 0,
the time be measured from the instant
was
C,
when the
particle
at A.
.'.
When
x=
acos'\/fit
the particle arrives at 0, x
velocity
= a V/*-
The
particle
is
zero
(3),
;
and then, by
thus passes through
immediately the acceleration alters
its
(2),
the
and
direction and tends to
diminish the velocity; also the velocity
is destroyed on the
was produced on the righthand side hence the particle comes to rest at a point A' such
that OA and OA' are equal.
It then retraces its path, passes
through 0, and again is instantaneously at rest at A. The whole
left-hand side of
;
as rapidly as
it
Simple Harmonic Motion

motion of the particle
13
thus an oscillation from
is
A' and
to
back, continually repeated over and over again.
The time from
to
is
obtained by putting x equal to zero
This gives cos (v/ii)
in (3).
The time from

complete
to
is
TT
0,
i.e.
= ttt
A' and back again,
oscillation, is four
This result
times
'
the time of a
i.e.
and therefore
this,
independent of the distance
a,
i.e.
27r
.
is inde-
pendent of the distance from the centre at which the particle

It depends solely on the quantity ft which is equal
started.
to the acceleration at unit distance from the centre.
23.
is
called
The
Motion of the kind investigated in the previous

Simple Harmonic Motion.
time,
27r-
for
a complete
oscillation
is
article
called
the
Periodic
OA or OA',
to which the particle vibrates on either side of the centre of
the motion is called the Amplitude of its motion.
The Frequency is the number of complete oscillations that
Time
of the motion, and the distance,
the particle makes in a second, and hence
The equation
24.
left-hand side of
d'^x
-7-
dv
of motion
when
Periodic time
the particle
is
_
~
VM;
*
27r
on the
is
= acceleration
P'A
in the direction
= fl P'O = fJL( X)=

.
fix.
Hence the same equation that holds on the
right
hand of
holds on the left hand also.
As
in Art. 22 it
of this equation
is
easily seen that the
most general solution
is
acoB
[\//x^
e]
which contains two arbitrary constants a and

This gives
(1)
and
(2)
-^'
aVft sin
both repeat when
is
(Vyu,i
(1),
e.
+ e)
increased by
(2).
27r
since the sine
Dynamics of a
14
Particle
and cosine of an angle always have the same value when the
angle is increased by 27r,
Using the standard expression (1) for the displacement in a
simple harmonic motion, the quantity e is called the Epoch, the
angle V/i^ + e is called the Argument, whilst the Phase of the
motion is the time that has elapsed since the particle was at its
maximum
maximum
distance in the positive direction.
where
Hence the phase at time
at time
V/aô
to
Clearly
a;
is
+ e = 0.
_^^t + e
-t-t -t\
Motion of the kind considered in this article, in which the

time of falling to a given point is the same whatever be the
distance through which the particle falls, is called Tautochronous.
In Art. 22 if the
be projected from
direction, we have
25.
initially,
particle,
= fjL(b'-a;%
t\//j,
= cos~^-r+Gi,
.".
From
(1),
^
t
The
t \/fJb
where
where
in the positive
h''
a''
= cos~'
y-
(1),
(7i.
= COS~^-r COS~^j
the velocity vanishes
and then, from
same
(^Y =V' + fi (a' - x")
Hence
and
instead of being at rest
with velocity
(2).
when
(2),
J ix =
/
particle
cos
,<^
^
I.e.
^
t
then retraces
KJii
its
1
1cos
path, and the motion
as in Art. 22 with h substituted for a.
is
the
15
Compounding of two simple harmonic motions of

26.
the same period and in the same straight line.
The most general displacements
a cos
{nt
e)
and
h cos {nt
e'),
of this kind are given by
so that
x=a
cos {nt + e) + 6 cos {nt + e')

= cos nt {a cos e + 6 cos e') sin nt {a sin e + 6 sin e').
a cos e + 6cos 6' = J. cos^l
Let
and
a sin 6 + 6 sin e' = J. sin "1
^'
so that
^=Va^ + 62+2a6cos(e-e'),
Then
a?
and tan
^ = ^î^^^^
a cos 6 6 cos 6
+
= J. cos {nt + E),
so that the composition of the two given motions gives a similar
motion of the same period whose amplitude and epoch are

known.
If we draw OA (= a) at an angle e to a fixed line, and
OB {= b) at an angle e' and complete the parallelogram OA CB
then by equations (1) we see that 00 represents A and that it
is inclined at an angle E to the fixed line.
The line representing the resultant of the two given motions is therefore the
geometrical resultant of the lines representing the two component motions.
So with more than two such motions of the same period.
We
27.
cannot compound two simple harmonic motions
of
different periods.
The
case
when
the periods are nearly but not quite equal,
of some considerable importance.
In
this case
we have
x = a cos (ni + e) +
where
n'
Then
is
=\
small,
=a
+ e) + 6 cos
ei' = \t + e.
cos {nt
where
By
6 cos {n't
e'),
[nt
+ e^'J,
the last article
+ E)
e^)
= (i' + + 2ab cos [e - e' - {u -n)i]
x=- Acos{nt
where
say.
A'^
= a- + b^ + lab
(1),
cos (e
(2),
is
16
J
sin 6 + 6 sine/
E = aa cos
+ 6 cos
and
T^
tan
-.
a sin
ej
+ (w' n) t]
e 4- 6 sin [e'
a cos 6 + 6 cos [e' + {n n)t]

The quantities A and ^ are now not constant, but they
vary slowly with the time, since n' n is very small.
The
greatest value of
multiple of
The
and then
tt
least value of
multiple of
value
is
and then
tt
At any given time
e' {n' n)t = any even

+ &.
when e e {n n) t = any odd
value is a h.
when
is
its
its
is
therefore the motion
may be taken
to
be
a simple harmonic motion of the same approximate period as

either of the given
and epoch
~27r
bemg
component motions, but with
its
amplitude
minimum
gradually changing from definite
maximum
definite
,
to
values, the periodic times of these changes
[The Student who
may compare
acquainted with the theory of Sound
is
the phenomenon of Beats.]
Shew that the resultant
of two simple harmonic vibrations

and of equal periodic time, the amplitude of one
being twice that of the other and its phase a quarter of a period in advance,
is a simple harmonic vibration of amplitude J5 times that of the first and
28.
Ex.
in the
same
1.
direction
whose phase
Ex.
2.
in
is
advance of the
first
by
tan ~ ^ 2
-^
of a period.
particle is oscillating in a straight line
force 0, towards
which when at a distance r the force
the amplitude of the oscillation
when
at a distance
about a centre of
m nh', and a is
is
from
0, the
blow in the direction of motion which generates a

If this velocity be away from 0, shew that the new amplitude
particle receives a
velocity na.
is
/J3.
Ex.
3.
a force
i/x
particle P, of
mass m, moves
Ox under
which moves in the
Shew that the motion of P
in a straight line
(distance) directed towards a point
Ox with constant
straight line
acceleration
a.
2_.
is
simple harmonic, of period
-t--
about a moving centre which
is
always
VM
at a distance
- behind
An
A.
without weight, of which the unstretched

and the modulus of elasticity is the weight of ?i ozs., is suspended
by one end, and a mass of m ozs. is attached to the other shew that the
Ex.
length
4.
is
elastic string
time
of a vertical oscillation is
/ml
2n ng

Ex.
One end
5,
of an elastic string,
and whose unstretched length is a,

horizontal table and the other end is
is
The
lying on the table.
extension of the string
complete oscillation
An
and then
+ -r-
tt
fixed to a
elasticity is X
point on a smooth
m which
where the
shew that the time of a
tied to a particle of
mass
particle is pulled to a distance
is b
is
is
17
whose modulus of
let
go
U and 21'
masses per unit of length being m and
m'.
It is placed in stable equilibrium over a small smooth peg and then
slightly displaced.
Shew that the time of a complete oscillation is
Ex.
6.
endless cord consists of two portions, of lengths
respectively, knotted together, their
{m-m)g
A'
Ex. 7. Assuming that the earth attracts points inside it with a force
which varies as the distance from its centre, shew that, if a straight
frictionless airless tunnel be made from one point of the earth's surface to
any other
would traverse the tunnel
point, a train
in slightly less
than
three-quarters of an hour.
29.
Motion when the motion
is in
a straight line and the

from a fixed point
acceleration is proportional to the distance
and is always away from

Here the equation of motion is
in the straight line
0.
d'a;
dF = ^^
(!)
Suppose the velocity of the particle

at time zero.
a from
The
integral of (1)
to
be zero at a distance
is
+ A,
l-Tij =fiOc-
.-.
where
= /jLa^ + A.
^ = V/.(^^-aO
(2),
the positive sign being taken in the right-hand
the velocity
is
dx
member
positive in this case.

.
^^^ = jvFz9 = ^g[^ + ^^'-']+^.-
where
.
.'.
^
t
V/i
log [a]
= log
+ B.
x-Y^/'aF^^^
.
since
Dynamics of a
18
..
'^x-
a^
xNx^-ar
/.
Particle
ae*^".
/
w x^
x-\-
= ae~V^
a-
Hence, by addition,
As
increases, it follows
and then from
+ |,-sV-.
|,s/.-..
(3).
from (3) that x continually increases,
(2) that the velocity continually increases also.
Hence the
would continually move along the

x and with continually increasing
particle
positive direction of the axis of

velocity.
may
Equation (3)
be written in the form
x = a cosh
and then
30.
{\/ fxt),
v=a^fM sinh
(2) gives
{"J fit).
In the previous article suppose that the particle were

with velocity V; then
towards the origin
initially projected
we should have
-tt
equal to
F when x=a
We may
would be more complicated.
and equation
(2)
however take the most
general solution of (1) in the form
x=
where C and
Since,
when
= 0, we
a=C+D,
1
Hence
'
Ce'^^^
De-^'^^
(4),
D are any constants.
G= ^{a -
have x
and
V\
^^)
= a and
= F, this gives
dx
^
- V = '^^G-
V]iD.
D ^ ^^{a + V
1 /
^nd
-^
(4) gives
= acosh(Vy[i)--r-sinh(\/yL4
In this case the particle
will arrive at the origin
(6).
when
I.e.
gW^ =
when
I.e.
when
i/i
1
= ^rr-
19
line,
asjyi,
log
F + a V/tA
j^
V=a V/w-
In the particular case when
this value of
is
infinity.
If therefore the particle were projected at distance a towards
the origin with the velocity
a\//ji,
it
would not arrive at the
origin until after an infinite time.
V=a ^//x
Also, putting
X=
ae""^^'^
*,
we have
in (5),
= -y- = ~ a V'/xe"'^'^
and v
'.
The particle would therefore always be travelling towards

with a continually decreasing velocity, but would take an
infinite time to get there.
31.
particle moves in a straight line
tion luhich is
always directed towards
from
the square of its distance
A, find
at rest at
Let
at
OP
be
accelera-
if initially the particle were
x,
+
,
be
an
varies inversely as
the motion.
P'
OA ivith
and
and
let
the acceleration of the particle
-^ in the direction
PO.
The equation
when
of motion
therefore
d^x
-5-^
acceleration along
OP -^
Multiplying both sides by 2 -^ and integrating,
at/
where
a +
(1),
we have
0, from the initial conditions.
22
is
Dynamics of a
20
Par-tide
(^) =2/z(-X a
Subtracting,
dx
--JTyJ'^^
V ax
(2).
'^
di
the negative sign being prefixed because the motion of
towards 0,
i.e.
in the direction of
Hence
To
f.
.t = -\
a
is
x decreasing.
X dx.
integrate the right-hand side, put x
= a cos^ Q,
and we
have
[CO
/2fi
sm
=a
=a
2a cos 6 sin B dd
[ (1
+ cos 2^) de=â(d+h
cos~^
V/ a +
A
= a cos-^ (1 ) +
where
^=
\/^
\/ax
C,
a,'2
i.e.
sin 2^)
+G
C,
C = 0.
[V^^^^+acos-y^^]
.(3).
Equation (2) gives the velocity at any point P of the path,

and (3) gives the time from the commencement of the motion.
The velocity on arriving at the origin is found, by putting
;
in (2), to be infinite.
Also the corresponding time, from
(3),
"^
^^
-1 AT =
-/,2^[acos..0]
^^.
r
The equation of motion (1) will not hold after the particle
has passed through 0; but it is clear that then the acceleration,
being opposite to the direction of the velocity, will destroy the
velocity, and the latter will be diminished at the same rate as
was produced on the positive side of 0. The particle will
by symmetry, come to rest at a point A' such
It will then return, pass again
that AO and OA' are equal.
and come to rest at A.
through
it
therefore,
Motion under the EartKs Attraction

The
from
to
By
32.
time of the oscillation
total
27r
four
21
times the time
the consideration of Dimensions only
we can shew that the
time X
a and
^
fi.
Since
For the only quantities that can appear in the answer are
Let then the time be

.^
r^ is
(distance)^
, ,.
the dimensions of
Since this
.-.
33.
is
/*
an
a^/x'.
whose dimensions are [Zl [TY^,
acceleration,
are [X]^
{Ty^
hence the dimensions of a^î are
and -2q = \.
a time, we have p-\-Zq =
q= -- and
As an
jo
= -.
Hence the required time x
-j-.
illustration of Art. 31 let us consider the
of a particle let
a point outside
motion
towards the earth (assumed at rest) from

It is shewn in treatises on Attractions that
fall
it.
the attraction on a particle outside the earth (assumed to be

a homogeneous sphere), varies inversely as the square of its
distance from the centre.
the earth at distance x
The
may
acceleration of a particle outside
therefore be taken to be
If a be the radius of the earth this quantity at the earth's
surface
is
equal to g, and hence
For a point
= g,
^
i.e.
/j,
= ga^.
outside the earth the equation of motion
is
therefore
(l^^_gar
df
a?
^'
X
If the particle started from rest at a distance h from the
centre of the earth, this gives
(r:T--'(i-F)
(^).
and hence the square of the velocity on reaching the surface of

the earth
= 2(/afl
-,)
(3).
22
Let us now assume that there is a hole going down to the

admit of the passing of the
earth's centre just sufficient to

particle.
On
a particle inside the earth the attr-action can be shewn
to vary directly as the distance from the centre, so that the
acceleration at distance x from its centre
is
where
fji,-^x,
/ija
= its
value at the earth's surface =^g.
The equation
therefore
of motion of the particle
inside the earth
d'x
and therefore
dv
/dx\^
\-Â
\dtj
Now when x = a,
since
when
is
= -- x"
a
->r
G..
the square of the velocity
is
given by
(3),
there was no instantaneous change of velocity at the
earth's surface.
2,.(l-|) = -|.a= + a,
dx\^
_ g
^)=-^'
+ a[3-T]dtj
a
On
reaching the centre of the earth the square of the
velocity is therefore
â (3
shew
particle falls towards the earth from infinity
on reaching the earth is the same as it would have
acquired in falling with constant acceleration g through a distance equal
Ex.
34.
that
1.
its velocity
to the earth's radius.
Ex.
Shew
2.
that the velocity with which a body falling from infinity
reaches the surface of the earth (assumed to be a homogeneous sphere of

radius 4000 miles)
is about 7 miles per second.

In the case of the sun shew that it is about .360 miles per second, the
radius of the sun being 440,000 miles and the distance of the earth from
it
92,500,000 miles.
Ex.
If the earth's attraction vary inversely as the square of the
3.
its centre, and g be its magnitude at the surface, the time

from a height h above the surface to the surface is
distance from
of falling
/a + hfa + h
where a
is
//il
the radius of the earth and the resistance of the air
is
neglected.
and
It is clear that equations (2)
35.
be true after the particle has passed 0;
23
line
If h be small compared with a, shew that this result
is
approximately
(3) of Art. 31 cannot
on giving x negative
for
values these equations give impossible values for v and
When
is
tJ^
the particle
i.e.
is
Now ^ means the accelera-
towards the right.
Hence, when P'
tion towards the positive direction of x.
the
left of 0,
t.
at P', to the left of 0, the acceleration
the equation of motion

(Px
is
on
is
fl
'dt^'^x-'
giving a different solution from (2) and
The general
be
tion
/x
when the
(S).
case can be easily considered.
towards
(distance)"
0.
Let the acceleraof motion
The equation
on the right hand of
particle is
is
clearly
d-x
When P'
is
on the
-y-
df
left
of 0, the equation
= acceleration
in direction
is
OA
=fiiP'or=fi{-xr.
These two equations are the same
- /j,.x''= /x{- xY,

i.e.
n be an odd integer, or
if
p and q
if it
if
if (
- 1)" = -
1,
be of the form
otherwise
it
^-
where
same equation holds
are integers; in these cases the
on both sides of the origin

36.
i.e.
does not.
A small bead, of mass m, moves on a straight rough wire under

of a force equal to mfi times the distance of the bead from a fixed
Find the
outside the wire at a perpendicular distance a from it.
JEx.
the action
point
motion if the bead start from

perpendic^dar from A upon the
Let
P be the position
rest at
a distance
from
the foot, 0, of the
toire.
of the bead at
OP=x
and
any time
AP=y.
t,
where
24
Let
R be the normal reaction of the wire and ;xi the coefficient of friction.
Resolving forces jjerpendicular to the wire, we have
R=m\i.y sin
Hence the
The
friction
OPA =mfxa.
fiiR=mfifiia.
resolved part of the force wi/iy along the wire
= m/xy cos OPA = vifijs.

Hence the total acceleration = /iptia-/n.r.
The equation of motion is thus
d'\v
^^=liHia-iix=-fi{x-iiia)
so long as
[If
motion
be to the left of
and moving towards the

in the direction
= fMfiia+fi{ x:),
this is the
Integrating,
''^
sides of 0.]
= (^^y = M[(^-Mi)--(-^-Min
therefore, as in Art. 22,
u.t
^ +
= co%~'^
o=cos-i^^^^^ + e,,
where
.'.
and
OC
0=-fi{c- fiicc)'^ + G,
(2)
the equation of
as in the last article,
same as (1) which therefore holds on both

we have
where
and
left,
is
-TY= acceleration
and
(1),
P is to the right of 0.
(3) give the velocity
From
(2)
i.e.
C'i,
Ci=0.
Vm< = 003-1-:^:^^
and time
any
for
position.
when x- fiia= (c- fiia),

x=c=OC\ and when x = - {c - 2ayi{),
the velocity vanishes
I.e.
when
i.e.
at the point C", where
and then from
(3)
0C' = c 2afii,
the corresponding time
=-7- cos
^-^
= -7-
cos
"'.(^^.
M 1) = -7-.
(3),
Examples
line.
25
The motion now reverses and the particle comes to rest at a point C"
on the right of
where OC" = OC' - 2fX]a=0C- A^na.
Finally, when one of the positions of instantaneous rest is at a distance
which is equal to or less than /nja from 0, the particle remains at rest.
For at this point the force towards the centre is less than the limiting
friction and therefore only just sufficient friction will be exerted to keep
the particle at
rest.
o
It will be noted that the periodic
time -r-
but the amplitude of the motion
friction,
is
is
not affected by the
altered
by
it.
Ex. A particle, of mass m, rests in equilibrium at a point N,

37.
being attracted by two forces equal to mî^ {distanceY and m^'" {distance)^
towards two fixed centres
and 0'. If the particle be slightly displaced
from
and if n
iV",
be positive, shew that
it oscillates,
and find
the time of
small oscillation.
Let 0(y = a,
ON=d and
NO' = d',
/x".C^
O'
so that
= /.'".C^'''
(1),
since there is equilibrium at N.

.-.
^=^=
^,
Let the particle be at a distance x from

The equation of motion is then
(2).
N towards 0',
^=-^^.OF>' + ,x\PO'^=-îd+xy+lx'^'{d'-x)^
If
is positive,
the right-hand side
is
negative
if j? is
(3).
negative,
it is
towards iV in either case.

Expanding by the Binomial Theorem, (3) gives
positive
the acceleration
- nx
is
[/ix"e/"
~^
+ m' "<^'" ~ ^]
+ terms involving
higher powers of
= -n.m"-' y^"^\ -i-...by(2).

If
X be
so small that its squares
and higher powers may be neglected,
this gives
df^-
^^^-
'\,.+^r-^''
Dynamics of a
26
Hence, as in Art.
If
n be
motion
is
Particle
time of a small oscillation
22, the
member
negative, the right-hand
of (4) is positive
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
1.
A particle moves towards a centre
at a distance
a from the centre
*/
from the centre vary as
^^
of attraction starting from rest
velocity
if its
II.
when
law of
find the
at
any distance x
force.
from rest at A and moves towards a centre of

varies inversely as the distance
the time to any position
varies as the cube
moved through, shew that the attraction towards
2.
force at
AP
and the
not one of oscillation.
particle starts
if
of^P.
3.
Prove that
its velocity
it is
move from rest so that

from the commencement of
impossible for a particle to
varies as the distance described
the motion.
If the velocity vary as (distance)",
shew that n cannot be greater
than 4.
A point moves in a straight line towards

/
|(distance)^J
starting from rest at a distance
a centre of force
1
'
a from the centre of
force
shew that the
time of reaching a point distant h from the centre of force
and that
5.
its
velocity then
particle falls
is
Ja^
6.
its velocity is infinite
A particle
moves
varying as (distance) ~
infinity to a distance a
V^.
from rest at a distance a from a centre of
where the acceleration at distance x
shew that
is
s^
is
nx~
is
a distance a to a distance
when
and that the time
in a straight line
;
"^
it
it
has taken
in falling
equal to that acquired in falling

.
2a^
is
-t^=
under a force to a point in
shew that the velocity
-^
force,
reaches the centre
it
from rest at
from rest at
7.
A particle,
whose mass
towards the origin
moves
particle
a distance a
line,
which
oscillates
it
and that
acted upon by a force
rest at a distance a,
is
toju
(
x-\- -^ \
shew that
it will
its
an acceleration towards
equal to
x from the given point
shew that
distance
is
in a straight line with
a fixed point in the straight

particle is at a distance
w,
from
27
arrive at the origin in time
8.
is
if it start
Examples
line.
^ ;^ when
the
from rest at
between this distance and the
;
it
starts
periodic time is
9.
A particle moves with an acceleration which is always towards,
and equal to fi divided by the distance from, a fixed point 0. If it start
from rest at a distance a from 0, shew that it will arrive at
in time
10.
*/ ^
particle
Assume
by a
attracted
is
that
e~=^
dx =
^--
force to a fixed
inversely as the nth. power of the distance
if
point varying
the velocity acquired by
a from the centre

to the velocity that would be acquired by it in falling from
in falling from
an
infinite distance to a distance
is
it
equal
rest
at
a distance a to a distance j , shew that n = -.
11.
A particle
rests in equilibrium
under the attraction of two centres
of force which attract directly as the distance, their attractions per unit of
mass at unit distance being

towards one of them
12.
fi
and
n'
the particle
shew that the time of a small
is slightly
oscillation is
displaced
.
,
A uniform
chain, of length 2a, is hung over a smooth peg so that

on the two sides are a + b and a-b motion is allowed
shew that the chain leaves the peg at the end of time
the lengths of
to ensue
it
- log-
v/;g
A particle
moves
an acceleration equal to
in the straight line.
nth power of the distance from a fixed point
If it be projected towards 0, from a point at a distance a, with the velocity
it would have acquired in falUng from infinity, shew that it will reach
13.
/x-rthe
in time
n+l
\/
V
-?:
2fx
Dynamics of a Fartide
28
In the previous question if the particle started from rest at

in time
it would reach
14.
distance a, shew that
according as w
is
>
or
<
unity.
whose mass
is 50 lbs., is fired from a gun, 4 inches in

diameter and 8 feet in length. The pressure of the powder-gas is inversely
proportional to the volume behind the shot and changes from an initial
value of 10 tons' weight per square inch to 1 ton wt. per sq. inch as the
shot leaves the gun. Shew that the muzzle velocity of the shot is
approximately 815 feet per second, having given log 10 = 2-3026.
15.
shot,
If the Moon and Earth were at rest, shew that the least velocity
16.
with which a particle could be projected from the Moon, in order to reach
the Earth, is about 1^ miles per second, assuming their radii to be 1100
and 4000 miles

miles,
between their centres 240,000
respectively, the distance
and the mass of the Moon to be -^ that of the Earth.

oi
small bead can slide on a smooth wire AB, being acted upon
by a force per unit of mass equal to /ii-=-the square of its distance from
which is outside AB. Shew that the time of a small oscillation
a point
17.
about
its
position of equilibrium
distance of
18.
-^b^ where
is
the perpendicular
is
from AB.
A solid attracting sphere,
of radius
a and mass
J/,
has a
fine hole
bored straight through its centre a particle starts from rest at a distance
b from the centre of the sphere in the direction of the hole produced, and
moves under the attraction of the sphere entering the hole and going
through the sphere shew that the time of a complete oscillation is
;
^[V2a'^sin- x/g^.+Z'^cos- ^/^Waft (6 - a)]

where y
19.
is
the constant of gravitation.

circular wire
of riidius
according to the Newtonian law y
a and density p
,.
^^g
'>
^^
attracts a particle
^^^ particle be placed on
the axis of the wire at a distance b from the centre, find its velocity when
it is at any distance x.
If it be placed on the axis at a small distance from the centre, shew
that the time of a complete oscillation
is
a/
Motion
20.
and the
from
a straight
ill
Examples
line.
29
In the preceding question if the wire repels instead of attracting,

particle be placed in the plane of the wire at a small distance
shew that the time of an
its centre,
oscillation is
a/ -
2a
yp
21.
moves
particle
towards, and equal to
/x
an acceleration directed
times the distance from, a point in the straight
and with a constant acceleration / in a direction opposite to that of

initial motion
shew that its time of oscillation is the same as it is
line,
its
when / does not
22.
exist,
particle
a force mft
was at a distance
distance of
from
-
line OOP being attracted by

C moves along DC with
was
C
at rest at the origin 0, and P
and moving with velocity V, prove that the
moves in a straight
PC always
constant acceleration /.
directed towards C, whilst

If initially
from
at anv time
t is
+c\cosât+-7=
sin
Vm t-
- -k--^ t\
Two bodies, of masses

and 31', are attached to the lower end
23.
an elastic string whose upper end is fixed and hang at rest M' falls off;
shew that the distance of Af from the upper end of the string at time t is
of
Wi')'
where a is the unstretched length of the string, and b and c the distances
and M' respectively.
by which it would be stretched when supporting
A point is performing a simple
harmonic motion. An additional

acceleration is given to the point which is very small and varies as the
cube of the distance from the origin. Shew that the increase in the
amplitude of the vibration is proportional to the cube of the original
amplitude if the velocity at the origin is the same in the two motions.
24.
One end of a light extensible string is fastened to a fixed point

25.
and the other end carries a heavy particle the string is of unstretched
length a and its modulus of elasticity is n times the weight of the particle.
The particle is pulled down till it is at a depth b below the fixed point
and then released. Shew that it will return to this position at the end of
;
time 2 /v/
^ + cosec -^p + Jp- - 1
^ ng\_J,
that jo
is
where p =
('i
+ 1),
provided
not >\/l+4?i.
If jt)>\/i
+ 4,
shew how to
find the corresponding time.
An endless elastic string, whose modulus of elasticity is X and

26.
natural length is 2ttc, is placed in the form of a circle on a smooth
horizontal plane and is acted upou by a force from the centre equal to
Dynamics of a
30
ft.
Particle
times the distance per unit mass of the string.
will
mean
vary harmonically about a
mass of the
string,
Examine the
An
27.
length ^
Shew
^^
that
its
where
radius
is
the
assuming that 27rX>m^c.
case
when
27rX
= mfj.c.
mass
elastic string of
and modulus of
elasticity
X rests
imstretched in the form of a circle whose radius is a. It is now acted on

by a rejDulsive force situated in its centre whose magnitude per unit mass
of the string is
(distance)^
Shew
that
when the
circle
next comes to rest
its
radius
is
a root of the
quadratic equation
ttA
smooth block, of mass M, with
its upper and lower faces

is free to move in a groove in a parallel plane, and
mass m is attached to a fixed point in the upper face by an
elastic string whose natural length is a and modulus E.
If the system
starts from rest with the particle on the upper face and the string
stretched parallel to the groove to (n + 1) times its natural length, shew
28.
horizontal planes,
a particle of
'
that the block will perform oscillations of amplitude

^
periodic time 2
29.
tt
A particle
^
M+m
)
^^
j^ ^j^q
Mm
+ - j */
ElM+mj'
is
attached to a point in a rough plane inclined at an

originally the string was unstretched and lay
angle a to the horizon
along a line of greatest slope

the coefficient of friction
is
shew that the
particle will oscillate only
if
< o^ tan a.
30.
A mass of m lbs. moves initially with a velocity of u per sec.
A constant power equal to If horse-power is applied so as to increase its
ft.
velocity
shew that the time that elapses before the acceleration
reduced to
31.
mass
-th
Shew
fired
of its original value is -
-,
^^^
is
/,
that the greatest velocity which can be given to a bullet of
from a smooth-bore gun
/2Y\V
\/ ^ , (m log m + 1 m}, where
*"
is
in front
changes of temperature are neglected, and the pressure
of the bullet is supposed constant, the volume V of the powder in the
cartridge being assumed to turn at once, when fired, into gas of pressure
will
and of volume
V,
Motion
Two
32.
masses,
a strength that when
both be
they will
free,
m-i^
make n
31
by a spring of such
performs n complete vibrations
are connected
held fixed
m^ be held
if
Examples
straight line.
and
rtix
nix is
Shew that
per second.
m.<i
fixed, wij will
make n \/ "^
and,
if
vibrations per second, the
'-
vibrations in each case being in the line of the spring.
33.
body is attached to one end of an inextensible string, and the
other end moves in a vertical line with simple harmonic motion of
amplitude a and makes n complete oscillations per second.
Shew
9
that
compressed by the action of a given force

suddenly reversed
prove that the gi-eatest subsequent
extension of the spring is three times its initial contraction,
34.
light spring is kept
the force
Two
35.
is
masses,
and m, connected by a
vertical line with the spring unstretched until
Shew
that
if
the height through which
light spring, fall in a
M strikes an inelastic
falls is
table.
^L^^
greater than
i^
will after an interval be lifted from the table, I being the

the mass
length by which the spring would be extended by the weight of M.
Two uniform spheres, of masses ii and m^ and of radii aj and ao,.,

36.
are placed with their centres at a distance a apart and are left to their
mutual attractions shew that they will have come together at the end of
;
time
where
If
time
R is the radius,
mi = m2 = 4
is
and
lbs., ai
B the mean
= a2 = l'5
about 3 hom-s, assuming
density of the Earth.
inches,
^=4000
and a = one
foot,
miles and Z) = 350
shew that the

per cubic
lbs.
foot.
[When
tion of
-y
-4
'
x^
the spheres have their centres at a distance x, the accelera-
mi due
Hence the
to,
due to m^
acceleration of iiu' relative to nu is v ~^^

'
x^
equation of relative motion
37.
y -J and that of
to the attraction of m<i is
is
x= y
Assimaing the mass of the
Moon
is
and the
to be
.]
that of
the Earth, that
and 4000 miles, and the distance between

their centres 240,000 miles, shew that, if they were instantaneously
reduced to rest and allowed to fall towards one another under their
mutual attraction only, they would meet in about 4j days.
their radii are respectively 1100
32
38.
end of the axis of a thin attracting

shew that its kinetic energy
;
particle is placed at the
cylinder of radius a and of infinite length
when
it
AB is a uniform
39.
of
has described a distance x varies as log^
it is
string of
repelled with a force,
AB produced
mass
M and length 2a
every element
.distance, acting from a point
=/Lt
in the
shew that the acceleration of the string is the

same as that of a particle placed at its middle point, and that the tension
at any point P of the string varies as AP PB.
direction of
Shew that the curve which
40.
each of
its
whose axis
such that a particle will slide down

tangents to the horizontal axis in a given time is a cycloid
is
is vertical.
41.
Two
string
whose
particles, of
masses
and m\ are connected by an elastic

they are placed on a smooth
coeflBcient of elasticity is X
between them being a, the natural length of the string.

The particle m is projected with velocity V along the direction of the
string produced find the motion of each particle, and shew that in the
subsequent motion the greatest length of the string is a+ Vp, and that
the string is next at its natural length after time irp, where
table, the distance
2_ mm' a
^
Two
~m + m'\'
each of mass m, are attached to the ends of aii

; to one of them. A,
another particle of mass 2m is attached by means of an elastic string of
natural length a, and modulus of elasticity 'img. If the system be
supported with the elastic string just unstretched and be then released,
42.
particles,
inextensible string which hangs over a smooth pulley
shew that
43.
will
descend with acceleration a sin^
WM-
weightless elastic string, of natural length
has two equal particles of mass
and modulus
X,
ends and lies on a smooth

horizontal table perpendicular to an edge with one particle just hanging
over.
Shew that the other particle will pass over at the end of time t
given by the equation
at
its
CHAPTER HI
UNIPLAXAR MOTION WHERE THE ACCELERATIONS
PARALLEL TO FIXED AXES ARE GIVEN
Let the coordinates of a particle referred to axes Ox
38.
and Oy be x and y at time t, and let its accelerations parallel
and Y.
to the axes at this instant be
The equations of motion are then
<
%-
a).
=^
(2,
Integrating each of these equations twice,

equations containing four arbitrary constants.
are determined from the initial conditions,
dx
From
These
latter
the initial values
dy
the two resulting equations
we then
obtain a relation between x and y which

path.
39.
viz.
we have two
is
eliminate
t,
and
the equation to the
Parabolic motion under gravity, supposed constant, the
resistance of the air being neglected.
Let the axis of y be drawn vertically upward, and the axis

Then the horizontal acceleration is zero, and
of X horizontal.
the vertical acceleration
Hence the equations

d'x
is
g.
of motion are
^,=0,
and
d^y
J = -g
(1).
Dynamics of a
34
Integrating with respect to
= ^,
Particle
we have
t,
%=-9t + G
and
(2).
Integrating a second time,
= At + B, and y = -gtj^Ct + D
(3).
If the particle be projected from the origin with a velocity

u at an angle a with the horizon, then when i =
we have
dx
= y = 0, -y- = u COS a, and dv = w sin a.
^
dt
r,
"^
dt
Hence from (2) and (3) we have

usma = C,0 = B, and = D.
.'.
(3) gives
Eliminating
= M cos
a;
is
at
^gt\
we have
t,
which
= u sin
and y
at,
uqosol=A,
initially
= X tan a ^r
the equation to a parabola.
is
A particle describes a path with an acceleration which

40.
always directed towards a fixed point and varies directly as
the distance
Let
from
it;
to
find the path.
be the centre of acceleration and
the point
Take OA as the
X and OY parallel
projection.
axis of
to the direction of the initial

velocity, V, of projection.
Let
be any point on
let
be the
ordinate of P.
MP
the path, and
The
along
acceleration, fM.PO,
PO
is
equivalent,
by
the triangle of accelerations,

to
accelerations
and
MO
along
PM
equal respectively to
Hence the equations
of
fj,
PM
d'x
and
and
fi
MO.
motion are
._.
^=-^"
<^>'
= ~^2/
(2).
dl
of
Composition of Simple HarmoniG Motions

The
solutions of these equations are, as in Art. 22,
and
The
a;
=^
2/
= (7 cos [\/yu,i + D]
cos [V/Ii
initial conditions are
= OA =
^=
a,
dt
+ ]
when
that
y=
0,
0,
'^
and
and
?/
(4) give
1-
a^
The
locus of
is
=-
then
%=V.
dt
J. sin
5.
7-
V/t
= a cos (\//it)
OF as
= 0,
and
C=
i'
(5),
-sin(V/xO
V/i+^ =
7- cos
V= - C ^f/lsin D.
i)=?r, and
2
.'.
(3)
and
cos D,
(3),
(4).
'
Hence, from (3), a = ^ cos 5 and

These give B = and A = a.
Also, from (4), similarly we have
.*.
35
(6).
V-
therefore an ellipse, referred to
OX and
a pair of conjugate diameters.
Also,
F = Vy"-
if
the ellipse meet
OY
OB =
in B, then
V
-r-
i.e.
Since any point

semi-diameter conjugate to OA.
on the path may be taken as the point of projection, this result
will be always true, so that at any point the velocity
><
= \/fi
[This
may
X semi-conjugate diameter.
be independently derived from
(5)
and
(6).
For
(Velocity at P)^ = x^ + y^ + 2xy coso)
= aîx sin2
= ix\
a2
= fj.[a'^
=
iu
{Jixt)
+ V^ cos2
a2 cos2
{Jfj.t)
/It)
- 2a V^/x sin
sin2 Jj^t
(Jfj.t)
- -^- sin
cos (V/"0 ^^
{J]j.t)
V/*
+ -x^- y2-2xy cos J] =/x{a^ + -0P2\
X square of semi-diameter conjugate to OP.]
"
cos {Jjit} cos
w
|
-J
Dynamics of a
36
From
equations (5) and (6)
X and y are the same at time
Particle
clear that the values of
it is
+ -^
as they are at time
t.
2_
Hence the time
of describing the ellipse
-r-
is
If a particle possess two simple harmonic motions, in

41.
perpendicular directions and of the same period, it is easily
seen that
path
its
an
is
ellipse.
we measure the time from the time when the

has its maximum value, we have
a;-vibration
If
x = a cos wi
and
2/
where
a,
= 6 cos
(n^
(1),
e)
(2),
h are constants.
(2) gives y
= cos nt cos e sin nt sin e =
pa/ =
cos
I.e.
sin^
- cos
sin e a/
el
V
x^
Ixy
y^
a^
ah
TT,
^ cos e +
ci-,
,_,
= sm^ e
(3).
h'
This always represents an ellipse whose principal axes do

general, coincide with the axes of coordinates, but
not, in
which
is
The
always inscribed in the rectangle x

figure
drawn
If
= 0, equation
If
= TT, it
is
an
ellipse
(3) gives
gives -
+ r = 0,
h.~^'
i.e.

^/-vibration
at zero time
is
where
e is
*'"^"
= a,
i.e.
h.
^^ straight line
the straight line
=^
equal to about
-^
AG.
BD.
when the phase
of the
one-quarter of the periodic time,
equation (3) becomes
i.e.
the path
is
an
ellipse
whose principal axes are in the direction
Composition of
Siinjjle
Hat^monic Motions
37
of the axes of x and y and equal to the amplitudes of the

component vibrations in these directions.
If in addition a = b, i.e. if the amplitudes of the component
vibrations are the same, the path

B
is
circle.
Dynamics of a
38
The dotted curve
when the phase
in the figure
Particle
the path
is
when
of the ^/-vibration at zero time
is
IT
..^.
negative and
equal to one-quarter of the period of the 2/-vibration.
When
time
= TT,
i.e.
when the phase
of the y- vibration at zero
one-half of the y-period, the path becomes
is
^=-|(y-6).
i.e.
the parabola
When
= Oj
GEB.
the path
is
similarly the parabola
^=g(j/+6).
For any other value of
the path
is
more complicated.
Curves, such as the preceding, obtained by compounding
harmonic
simple
Lissajous' figures.
motions in two directions are known as

For other examples with different ratios of
the periods, and for different values of the zero phases, the
may refer to any standard book on Physics.

These curves may be drawn automatically by means of
a pendulum, or they may be constructed geometrically.
student
43.
Ex. 1. A point moves in a plane so that its projection on the axis of x
performs a harmonic vibration of period one second with an amplitude of one
foot; also its projection on the perpendicular axis of y performs a harmonic
vibration of period two seconds with an amplitude of one foot. It being given
that the origin
the path, find
is
its
the centre of the vibrations, and that the point

equation and draw it.
(1, 0) is
on
Ex. 2. A point moves in a path produced by the combination of two

simple harmonic vibrations in two perpendicular directions, the periods of the
components being as 2 3 find the paths described (1) if the two vibrations
have zero phase at the same instant?, and (2) if the vibration of greater period
be of phase one-quarter of its period when the other vibration is of zero phase.
:
Trace the paths, and find their equations.
44.
If in Art. 40 the acceleration be always from the fixed
point arid varying as the distance from
X = a cosh
.'.
p- =
1,
V/A<,
and y =
so that the path
it,
we have
-j- sinh V/ii.
is
a hyperbola.
similarly
Accelerations parallel to fixed axes
39
a catenary under a force which acts

find the law of the force and the velocity at
any point of the path.
Taking the directrix and axis of the catenary as the axes of
45.
parallel to
cc
and
y,
'particle describes
its accis;
we have
as the equation to the catenary

c /
y
Since there
is
_\
= 2\^" +
(1).
'')
no acceleration parallel to the
.'
.*.
df'
-77
const.
=M
_^\
dx
(2).
we have
Differentiating equation (1) twice,
lft
directrix,
1 /
--IN
dt
Also
(velocity)'
(|y+(|J
W"
so that the velocity
Hence the
velocity
'1
= = +
_i'\-
f (.!-.-!)'
IV
y.
and acceleration at any point both vary
as the distance from the directrix.
particle moves in one plane ivith an acceleration

always toivards and. perpendicidar to a fixed straight
in the plane and varies inversely as the cube of the distance
46.
which
line
from
is
it; given the' circumstances
Take the
Then the equations
-J
(1) gives
of projection, find the path.
fixed straight line as the axis of x.
of motion are
S=
w-
%-^f
(^)-
x==At-\rB
(3).
40
Multiplying (2) by -^ and integrating, we have
ydy
Let the particle be projected from a point on the axis of y

component velocities u and v
parallel to the axes.
Then when ^ = we have
distant h from the origin with
x=
r^
0,
'
A=u, B = 0,
.'.
.'.
and
(3)
Eliminating
t,
[t
V
/Lt
is
an
= v',
+ j /xj
b-v
ellipse or a
then
Hence the path
The path
as v
to
A /t"j.
dxi
-77
= v.
dt
0^
\u~ /M- bv)

If
= u, and
dt
G^v"--^^, and
we have
fx
This
-T-
'
i)
""
=-
,,
b^v-
fj,
(4) give
and
tit,
dx
i
= o,
is
C=
*-6-
[b-v-
fi)- + jA
b^v fi
z.
as the equation to the path
_
- b-'v' ^
y"b'~
"*"
yu,
fj,
ifM- b'u-y
hyperbola according as
and equation
in this case
thus an
=7TT-:,
is y'^
(4)
b^ = 2^//^ -
ellipse, parabola, or
/j,<
6V.
becomes
i.e.
a parabola.
hyperbola according
according as the initial velocity perpendicular
the given line
is less,
equal
to,
or greater than the velocity
that would be acquired in falling from infinity to the given

point with the given acceleration.
For the square of the

Cor.
X
axis of
If the particle
it will
latter
2^t/2/=p^
=,^.
describe an ellipse and meets
the
not then complete the rest of the ellipse since
Accelerations parallel to fixed axes
41
the velocity parallel to the axis of x
the same direction;
another equal
If
47.
ellipse.
and
the velocities
particles m^, w^,
space he Vi,v^
is always constant and in

proceed to describe a portion of
will
it
...
m^
...
dindf,f
any instant of
accelerations at
parallel
any
to
straight line fixed in
...to find the velocity
and
acceleration
of their centre of mass.

If 0?!, x^, ... be the distances of the particles at any instant
measured along this fixed line from a fixed point, we have
TOja?!
7?li
+ m^X2 +
???2 +
Differentiating with respect to

_
1} zzz
dx
dt
t,
we have
+ W2V2+ ...
=
m^ + mo + ...
Wit'i
/iv
V-l),
/=g = -"'/ ++ '"'.^++
and
where
dt^
nia
'2
(2),
and /are the velocity and acceleration required.
Consider any two particles, m-^ and m^, of the system and
the mutual actions between them. These are, by Newton's
Third Law, equal and opposite, and therefore their impulses
The changes
resolved in any direction are equal and opposite.

in the
momenta
of the particles are thus,
by
Art. 15, equal
opposite, i.e. the sum of their momenta in any direction

thus unaltered by their mutual actions. Similarly for any
other pair of particles of the system.
and
is
of the momenta of the system parallel to

and hence by (1) the momentum of the centre of
mass, is unaltered by the mutual actions of the system.
If Pj, P2, ... be the external forces acting on the particles
nil, ^2 parallel to the fixed line, we have
Hence the sum
any
line,
'mifi
+ vi2f2 +
...
= (Pi-h P2+ ') + (i^& sum
of the com-
ponents of the internal actions on

the particles)
= P, + P2+...,
since the internal actions are in equilibrium taken
selves.
by them-
42
Hence equation
(2) gives
+ m. +
(mi
.
.
7= Pi + Po +
the motion of the centre of
i.e.
. .
.,
mass in any given
direction is the
same as if the whole of the particles of the system were collected

at it, and all the external forces of the system applied at it
parallel to the given direction.
Hence
also
If
the
sum of
the external forces acting on
any
given system of particles parallel to a given direction vanishes,

the motion of the centre of gravity in that direction remains
unaltered, and the total momentum of the system in that direction
remains constant throughout the motion.
This theorem is known as the Principle of the Conservation
of Linear Momentum.
As an example,
of its centre of
if
mass
a heavy chain be falling freely the motion
is
the same as that of a freely falling particle.
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
A particle describes an ellipse with
1.
the centre
shew that
proportional to
its
III
an acceleration directed towards
angular velocity about a focus

distance from that focus.
its
is
inversely
A particle is describing an ellipse under a force to the centre if

and V2 are the velocities at the ends of the latus-rectum and major
and minor axes respectively, prove that v^v^=Vi^{2v^^v-^).
2.
V, Vi
The
3.
and
path
is
x and y are u + ay
and a are constants shew that its
velocities of a point parallel to the axes of
+ ta'x respectively,
where
m, v,
a>
a conic section.
A particle moves in a plane under a constant force, the direction of

4.
which revolves with a uniform angular velocity find equations to give
the coordinates of the particle at any time t.
;
small ball is projected into the air ; shew that it appears to an

5.
observer standing at the point of projection to fall past a given vertical
plane with constant velocity.
A man
and walks, or runs, with a constant

starts from a point
u along a straight road, taken as the axis of x. His dog starts at
a distance a from 0, his starting point being on the axis of y which is
6.
velocity
perpendicular to Ox, and runs with constant velocity r in a direction which
Accelerations parallel to fixed axes.

is
Shew
always towards his master.
If X
= 1,
shew that the path
[The tangent at any point

point where the
man
then
.'.
d r
^ds
dx'X
is,
that the equation to his path
the curve
is
P of
Examples
-y^
-^
ut
ax
dx
dy
is
2f4--j = ^-alog-.
Ox
the path of the dog meets
so that
43
Also -n
at
=7
at the
= ut x = \s-x,
y-^
^
dx
d^x
/,
(dx\^
-,
A particle is fastened to
one end, B, of a light thread and rests on

the other end, A, of the thread is made to move on
the plane with a given constant velocity in a given straight line shew
7.
a horizontal plane
that the path of the particle in space
[Shew that
AB turns round A
a trochoid.
with a constant angular velocity.]
is
move with a velocity v relative to the water and

both cross a river of breadth a running with uniform velocity V. They
start together, one boat crossing by the shortest path and the other in the
shortest time.
Shew that the difference between the times of arrival is
8.
Two
boats each
either
-1
according as F or t> is the greater.
[The angle that v makes with
IS
a.
4--i
V'F^jhJHTTjTcos^
V sin 6
condition for a
minimum path
(y
9.
particle
moves
being
B,
the length of the path
,
,,
JXand the corresponding
time
'
is
TV,^
Ine
V sin o
gives
cos ^ + F)
Fcos ^ + v) = 0.]
in one plane with
an acceleration which
is
always
perpendicular to a given line and is equal to /x-j- (distance from the line)^.
Find its path for different velocities of projection.
If it be projected from a point distant 2a from the given line with
a velocity a/- parallel to the given
line,
shew that
its
path
is
a cycloid.
If a particle travel with horizontal velocity u and rise to such

10.
a height that the variation in gravity must be taken account of as far as
small quantities of the first order, shew that the path is given by the
equation
a-y = {a-k) cosh |^>/|
-^J>
where 2a is the radius of the earth the axes of x and y being horizontal
and vertical, and h, k being the coordinates of the vertex of the path.
;
44
A particle
11.
to the axis of
moves in a plane with an acceleration which is parallel

y and varies as the distance from the axis of x shew that
;
the equation to
is
its
path
is
of the iovm.y = Aa'+ Ba~^,
when the acceleration
a repulsion.
If the acceleration is attractive,
y=A
then the equation
cos \ax
is
of the form
+ B\
moves under the action of a repulsive force perpenand proportional to the distance from it. Find
its path, and shew that, if its initial velocity be parallel to the plane and
equal to that which it would have acquired in moving from rest on the
12.
particle
dicular to a fixed plane
plane to the point of projection, the path
13.
particle
is
a catenary.
describes a rectangular hyjêrbola, the acceleration
being directed from the centre shew that the angle 6 described about the
t after leaving the vertex is given by the equation
;
centre in time
tan ^ = tanh(\//x<),
where
14.
to the
/i
is
acceleration at distance unity.
A particle
moves
bounding diameter
freely in a semicircle
;
shew that the
under a force perpendicular
force varies inversely as the cube
of the ordinate to the diameter.

15.
Shew that a rectangular hyperbola can be described by a
under a force
parallel to
particle
an asymptote which varies inversely as the cube
of its distance from the other asymptote.
A particle is
16.
m ^ towards the axis
moving under the influence of an

of x.
Shew
attractive force
that, if it be projected
from the point
with component velocities U and V parallel to the axes of x and y,

will not strike the axis of x unless \i> V^k^, and that in this case the
(0, k)
it
distance of the point of impact from the origin
is
-^
A plane has two smooth grooves at right angles cut in it, and two
17.
equal particles attracting one another according to the law of the inverse
square are constrained to move one in each groove. Shew that the centre
of mass of the two particles moves as if attracted to a centre of force
placed at the intersection of the grooves and attracting as the inverse
square of the distance.
CHAPTER IV
UNIPLANAR MOTION REFERRED TO POLAR COORDINATES
CENTRAL FORCES
In the present chapter
48.
we
shall
consider cases
of
motion which are most readily solved by the use of polar

coordinates.
We must first obtain the velocities and accelerations of a moving point along and perpendicular to the radius
vector drawn from a fixed pole.
Let
and
Velocities
49.
perpendicidar
to the
of a particle along and
accelerations
radius vector
to it
from a fixed
origin 0.
be the position
of the particle at time t,
and Q its position at time
t
At.
Let XOP = e, XOQ =

+ AO, OF = r, OQ = r
+ Ar, where OX is
a fixed
line.
Draw
QM
perpendi-
OP.
Let u, V be the velocities of the moving point along and
perpendicular to OF. Then
cular to
= Lt
Distance of particle measured along the line OP at

time ^ + A^ the similar distance at time t
At
= Lt
At=Q
OM-OP
At
J
- Lit
A^=0
{r
+ Ar) cos, A6 - r
T
At
small quantities above the
first
order
being neglected,
_dr
'It
.....(1).
Dynamics of a Farticle
46
Also
Distance of particle measured perpendicular to the

OF at time ^ + A^ the similar distance at time t
line
At
QM-0
= Lt
Ai
M=o
= Lt
(r
= Lt
+ Ar) sin A^
A^
At=0
-T~^
on
neglecting
small
quantities
of the
second order,
-^-
r*
The
in the limit
(2).
velocities along
perpendicular to
OP
and
being
u and V, the velocities along

and perpendicular to OQ
are u + Au and v + Av.
Let the perpendicular
to
OQ
at
u+Au
be produced to
meet OF at L.
Then the acceleration of
the moving point along OF
velocity
its
along
OF
time
at
+ At
velocity at time
= Lt
its
similar
A^
A< = Ol
(u
+ Au) cos Ad (v +
A6 u
Av) sin
A^
^^ \{u
Au) 1 - (y + Ay) A ^ - w'

+ Au).l-{v+Av).Ae-u']
.
= lt\.
A^
'
on neglecting squares and higher powers of A0,
du
^Âu-vAd =1
= Lt
cW
v^r.
'i^n
^,
,.
.,
the limit,
(3),
by
(1)
and
(2).
Polar Coordinates
47
Also the acceleration of the moving point perpendicular

in the direction of 6 increasing
OP
to
OP
perpendicular to
its velocity
at time
similar velocity at time
Lt
t+ ^t
its
Af
_ J Uu +
~ A^=o
A^)
sin /^9 ->r(v-\-
r(tt
Ay) cos
A^ - ^
A^
+ A?0 A^ + (y +
.
J
At')
- v1
'
^t
îfoL
"1
on neglecting squares and higher powers of A^,
dd
dv
d* cfi+*
Cor.
,.
,,
dr^dd
.^
rf^^~rdL
If r
= a,
= a62
and
the tangent
dd\
,,.
,^,
^*^-
a constant quantity, so that the particle
= a^,
(4)
PQ
dt\
and radius
describing a circle of centre

(3)
a,
so that the accelerations of
and the radius
PO
is
the quantity
along
are a^ and a6^.
50- The results of the previous article may also be obtained by resolving
the velocities and accelerations along the axes of x and y in the directions of
the radius vector and perpendicular to it.
For since x = r cos
and y = rsva.
dx
9,
dr
ndO\
Tt=dt'''''-'''^'di\
^^^
| = |sin^ + rcos4^j
and
Also
d'^x
d^r
^drde
/dd\^
d^0
M=dfi''''-^dtdt''^'-''''\Tt)-'''^'^^
.(2).
48
The component
acceleration along
OP
(S)^^^(^).
and perpendicular
to
OP
it
rf2.r
rdtL
By
51.
moving point
manner about the
By
and X
we can
in their
own
-j-
Ox
along
line fixed in space, and, at
to
OA
Let
MP, and
the velocities of
along
OM
~ along
ON
are
PN produced.
velocity of
the velocity of
relative to
are -^ along
ctt
Hence the
Ox
plane.
at
Ja
and y
the
which revolve in any
fixed in space, but
origin
obtain
referred to rectangular axes
Art. 49 the velocities of the point
-J-
,,
time t, let 6 be the

be the moving point draw
perpendicular to Ox and Oy.
be a
inclination of
PM and PN
dtj
and Oy, which are not
OA
d^
^drde
the use of Arts. 4 and 49
accelerations of a
Let
vel.
of
dO
P parallel
N parallel to
to
Ox
Ox +
the velocity of
N.
N parallel to
Ox
4-
the
vel. of
M along OM
dx
= ~'^di^di
.(1).
Revolving Axes
So the velocity of
P parallel
to
Oy
M parallel to Oy the
of M parallel to Oy + the
= vel.
= vel.
of
49
4-
vel. of
vel. of
N along ON
relative to
-4-t
(^)-^^
^;
M are, by Art. 49, -^ ~ ^
Again, the accelerations of
along
X dt\
of
7/7
the accelerations
dt
PN
ON, and^|(2/^|) along
g-2,(^y along
are
MP, and
jDroduced.
Hence the
acceleration of
= acceleration
of
parallel to
N parallel
to
Ox
Ox + acceleration
of
N
= acceleration of N parallel to Ox + acceleration of M
relative to
along
OM
^de\
(de\^
d'x
..
(^>-
--y-dt{yw^dt^-''\jt)
Also the acceleration of
P parallel to
Oy
M parallel to Oy + acceleration of P
relative to M
= acceleration of M parallel to Oy + acceleration of N
= acceleration
along
1
of
ON
,de\^d'y
fddy
(
= ^dt[^dt)+-^-y[di)
Cor.
In the particular case when the axes are revolving
with a constant angular velocity
component
velocities
dd
oo,
so
become
ând
^^>-
-^
2/(y
+ xfjo
along Ox,
along
Oy
that -^ =
o),
these
50
also the
component accelerations are
J^-
and
52.
-Eo;. 1.
velocities
which
is
u and
perpendicular
whose focus
is
With the
and
2/0)"
2ft,
of lohich
P which possesses Uoo constant

and the second of
from a fixed point 0, is a conic
in a fixed direction
is
ivhose eccentricity is
first figure
along Oy.
J"
OP drawn
radius
to the
Oo.,
of a point
/ia< t/je ipath
5/(ejt)
v, the first
1 along
^-0,^-20,
of Art. 49, let
-.
u be the constant
velocity along
OX
and
V the constant velocity perpendicular to OP.
Then we have
dr
;j-
at
n
=M cos 6,
J
and
''^^
-^ = v -
it
sin d.
.:
at
logr= -log fi;-M
.'.
sin ^)
dr
=
ad
u cos 6
-.
us\nd
;,
+ const.,
r{v-usin6)=const. = lv,
i.e.
if the
path cut the axis of
at a distance
a;
I.
Therefore the path
is
sin ^
i.e.
a conic section whose eccentricity
Ex.
2.
A smooth
is
u
V
straight thin tube revolves with uniform angular velocity
in a vertical plane about one extremity which is fixed ; if at zero time the tube be
horizontal, and a particle inside it be at a distance a from the fixed end, and be
moving with velocity
V along
a cosh
(wt)
the tube, shew that its distance at time
~j sinh
{()
-g
sin wt.
At any time t let the tube have revolved round its fixed end
angle wt from the horizontal line OX in an upward direction;
OP=r, be the position

By Art. 49,
d'^r
^-î
of the particle then.
- rw^ z= acceleration of
in the direction
OP
dt-
=
The
-^
sin wt, since the tube is
solution of this equation
smooth.
is
^{-g&mut)
2w'
where A and B, and so
L and
BI, are arbitrary
t is
constants.
through an
P, where
let
Motion referred
The
initial conditions are that r
.-.
polar coordinates
to
=a
and
V=Mw + S-
a = L, and
51
= F" when = 0.
2(1}
r = a cosh
.:
If
wt+
-^
sinh (ut)+
sin ut.
be the normal reaction of the tube, then

gicos ot=the acceleration perpendicular to
= ^~
(r2w),
OP
by Art. 49, =2rw
= 2au' sinh (wt) + (2Vu- g) cosh {ij}t)+g cos tat.
EXAMPLES
1.
A vessel steams at a constant speed v along a straight line whilst
another vessel, steaming at a constant speed F, keeps the first always
exactly abeam. Shew that the path of either vessel relatively to the
other
a conic section of eccentricity
is
y..
boat, which is rowed with constant velocity , starts from

on the bank of a river which flows with a constant velocity nu
points always towards a point B on the other bank exactly opposite to
find the equation to the path of the boat.
If n be unity, shew that the path is a parabola whose focus is B.
2.
a point
it
3.
An
insect crawls at a constant rate
of radius a, the cart
and perpendicular
4.
from a
The
moving with
velocities of a particle along
fixed origin are Xr
and
with velocity
Find the acceleration along
fi6
find
and perpendicular to the radius

the path and shew that the
and perpendicular to the radius
XV-^
A point
v.
to the spoke.
accelerations, along
5.
u along the spoke of a cartwheel,
velocity
starts
from the
and
/x^
oi'igin in
vector, are
fx +
the direction of the
and moves with constant angular
velocity
initial line
w about the
(I)
and with constant negative radial acceleration -/. Shew that the
rate of growth of the radial velocity is never positive, but tends to the
limit zero, and prove that the equation of the path is a)V=/(l eê).
origin
6.
point
P describes a curve
velocity about a given fixed point
with constant velocity and
its
angular
varies inversely as the distance from
shew that the curve is an equiangular spiral whose pole is 0, and that
the acceleration of the point is along the normal at
and varies inversely
;
as OP.
42
52
describes an equiangular spiral with constant angular

velocity about the pole
shew that its acceleration varies as OF and is
7.
jJoint
making with the tangent
in a direction
OP
at
P the same constant angle
that
makes.
A point
8.
velocity
T',
moves in a given straight line on a plane with constant

and the plane moves with constant angular velocity <u about an
axis perpendicular to itself through a given point
from the given straight line be

is given by the equation
distance of
a,
of the plane.
If the
shew that the path of the
point in space
^=V-^-a- + - C0S-1-,
as pole.
referred to
[If 6 be
measured from the
at zero time, then r2 =
a2+
which the given
line to
V^.t"^
and ^ = w + cos-i -
1
-
A straight smooth
9.
tube revolves with angular velocity w in a horiis fixed

if at zero time a particle
be at a distance a from the fixed end and moving with velocity V
zontal plane about one extremity which

inside
line is perpendicular
it
along the tube, shew that
its
distance at time
is
a cosh
a)t
sinh at.
O)
thin straight smooth tube is made to revolve upwards with

10.
a constant angular velocity w in a vertical plane about one extremity
when it is in a horizontal position, a particle is at rest in it at a distance
a from the fixed end ; if to be very small, shew that it will reach
in
;
nearly.
11.
A particle is at rest on a smooth horizontal plane which commences to turn about a straight line lying in itself with angular velocity
if a be the distance of the particle from the axis of rotation at zero
0)
time, shew that the body will leave the plane at time t given by the
;
equation
a sinh a)t+ --^ cosh wi =
12.
particle falls
from
^ cos
a>t.
rest within a straight
smooth tube which
in
revolving with uniform angular velocity w about a point
being acted on by a force equal to nifi (distance) towards 0.
the equation to
= acosh|
If
/I
13.
=0)2,
its
path in space
/ ^
A particle
is
is
length,
Shew
that
is
or 7-=a cos
shew that the path
its
is
|^^^^
(9L according as fita^.
circle.
placed at rest in a rough tube at a distance a trom
Motion referred
to
polar coordinates
53
one end, and the tube starts rotating with a uniform angular velocity w
about this end. Shew that the distance of the particle at time t is
**'^*
ae~"^-
where tan
e is
One end
14.
velocity
[cosh [mt sec

.
e)
+ sin e siuh
{oit
sec
e)],
the coefficient of friction.
of a rod
is
made
to revolve with uniform angular
in the circumference of a circle of radius a, whilst the rod itself
revolves in the opposite direction about that end with the same angular
Initially the rod coincides with a diameter and a smooth ring
velocity.
capable of sliding freely along the rod is placed at the centre of the
Shew that the distance of the ring from A at time t is
- [4 cosh
(o)^)
+ cos
circle.
1a>t\.
and P, where AP=r, is the position of

OA and AP have revolved through an angle
^, ( = &)0, in opposite directions, the acceleration of A is aw^ along AG and
the acceleration of P relative to
is r - rff^, by Art. 49, i.e. r rofi.
Hence
the total acceleration of P along AP is r - rw^ + aco^ cos 20^, and this is
be the centre of the
the ring at time t when both
circle
[If
zero since the ring
is
smooth.]
PQ is a tangent
15.
makes an angle
accelerations of
at
to
6 with a fixed
P along and
circle of radius
a;
PQ\s
tangent to the circle
perpendicular to
QP
equal to p and
shew that the
are respectively
Id
p-pd^ + ad, and -^(p^^h

P<
[The accelerations of
the accelerations of
along and perpendicular to QP are ad and

these same directions are
p-pe^ and
Two
16.
a,
masses
^^yh]
m and
m', connected by an elastic string

are placed in a smooth tube of small bore which is
length with angular velocity .
particles, of
of natural length
aQ'^
P relative to Q in
made to rotate about a fixed point in its

The coefficient of elasticity of the string is
if
is
'imm'aa)^^{m-\-m'). Shew that,

the particles are initially just at rest relative to the tube and the string
just taut, their distance apart at time t is 2a a cos mt.
An
elastic string is just stretched against
a rough wheel of radius

uniform angular velocity co. Shew that
the string will leave the wheel and expand to a maximum radius r given
17.
a,
which
is
set in rotation with
by
rHr-a)^Ma?^
~ 2n\
r+a
where
18.
'
M and X are the mass and modulus of elasticity of the

A uniform
chain
AB is placed
in a straight tube
string.
GAB
which
re-
volves in a horizontal plane, about the fixed point 0, with uniform angular
54
velocity
that the motion of the middle point of the chain
Shew
o).
is
the
same as would be the motion of a particle placed at this middle point, and
that the tension of the chain at any point P is ^mai'.AP. PB, where m is
the mass of a unit length of the chain.
53.
is
particle moves in
a plane with an acceleration which

in the plane
aliuays directed to a fixed point
differential equation
to obtain the
of its path.
as origin and a fixed straight line OX

Referred to
as initial line, let the polar coordinates of P be (r, 6).
through
If P be the acceleration of the particle directed towards 0, we
have, by Art. 49,
s-Kir=-^
Also, since there is
have,
by the same
no acceleration perpendicular to OP, we
article,
rdt\
(2) gives
r^
.*.
^^"^
^^^
dr
_ d
= const. =
= = hu-,
dt
rvu
-^
__
du\
'^-''
(say)
(3).
to -
_.du
u'Td'dt" dd'
__1
^'It'
Tt~dt[uJ
d^r
1 die
/i
u be equal
^
if
r-
/1\
"
dt)
du dd _
d (du\ dO
d'^w
w^ = dt[-^mr-^'dd[ddydt=-^'^'dd^'
Central Forces
56
The constant h
is
thus equal to twice the sectorial area
described per unit of time.
Again, the sectorial area
= lA
Now,
POQ =
its
As
in the limit
when Q
is
.*.
fi
v,
PQ
on
the perpendicular from
x per-
very close to P,
the velocity
and the perpendicular from
PQ
description
on PQ.
^. -r-x perpendicular from
-r-
in the limit h
on PQ, and the rate of
pendicular from
on the tangent at
= v.p,
I.e.
P =^.
= -.
P
Hence, when a particle moves under a force to a fixed

any point P of its path varies inversely
as the perpendicular from the centre upon the tangent to the
path at P.
centre, its velocity at
Since v
-,
and in any curve
55.
A 'particle moves in an ellipse under a force which is
always directed towards its focus; to find the law of force, and
the velocity at
any point of its path.

to an ellipse referred
The equation
+ e cos ^
d'u
Hence equation
(4) of Art.
to its focus is
u=j + jCosd
I.e.
53 gives
P = .v[^ + .]4'
The
(1).
(2).
acceleration therefore varies inversely as the square of
Central Forces
57
the distance of the moving particle from the focus and,
N iJbl
X semi-latus-rectum
w/j,
if it
be
(3).
Also
[1
+ 2. cos
= ;.
..]
1+^ - 1^]
[2
=4'-9'^>-'
where 2a
W'
the major axis of the
is
ellipse.
depends only on the distance r, that the

velocity at any point of the path depends only on the distance
from the focus and that it is independent of the direction of
It follows, since (4)
the motion.
It also follows that the velocity
point whose distance from the focus
2a
of projection from any
is ro,
and that the a of the corresponding
Vn
Since h
Periodic time.
in a unit time,
is
less
than
given by
aj
equal to twice the area described
that if
it follows,
must be
ellipse is
be the time the particle
takes to describe the whole arc of the ellipse, then
^h X
h
Also
= Î
T = area
fjL
of the ellipse
X semi-latus-rectum
fi
fi
Ex.
=a
T = = -â-
Hence
56.
= -rrab.
Find
r^=a"cosnd can
V/*
the laio of force toicards
the pole under lohich the curve
be described.
u"a"cos?i^ = l.
Here
Hence, taking the logarithmic
differential,
we obtain
du
y- = uta,nnd.
da
dhi
.'.
jg2
du
= Jg
tan nd + nu sec2 nd = ii [tan2 jid + n sec^
d?u
'
"^
"
^"
("
^) ^*^^
ne = {n^-\)
nd].
a2''a2'H-i,
Dynamics of a
58
Hence
Particle
equation (4) of Art. 53 gives
P={n + l);i2a2''!(2+3,
the curve can be described under a force to the pole varying inversely as tho
(2n + 3)rd power of the distance.
i.e.
Particular Gases.
I.
Let
n= -~,
so that the equation to the curve
i.e.
the curve
is
a parabola referred to
Let w = -
'
focus as pole.
its
so that the equation
= - (1 + cos 6),
is r
which
is
a cardioid.
^ ^ Zi'
Here
Let n=l, so that the equation to the curve
III.
with a point on
its
is
r=a cos ^,
i.e.
a circle
circumference as pole.
Pen
Here
IV.
+ cos ^
Pxi.
Here
II.
is
2a
a
ê
cos2-
..
,.8
Let n=2, so that the curve
r2
is
= a2 cos 25,
a lemniscate
i.e.
of
rT
V.
Let
n=
- 2,
so that the curve is the rectangular hyperbola
the centre being pole, and
P oc
force is therefore repulsive
from the
- r,
since in this case (n
+ 1)
a'^
r'^
cos 26,
negative.
is
The
centre.
EXAMPLES
A particle
shew that the
describes the following curves under a force

force is as stated
1.
Equiangular spiral
Px
2.
Lemniscate of Bernouilli
P x-..
3.
Circle, pole
,.7
on
its
circumference
4.
- = e", n6, cosh n6, or sin n6
5.
r"cos^
r^cosnd = a'';
a^;
6.
r'^
= A cos, n6 B a\n nO
-\-
Pa:..
,.3-
Pccr^^'^.
;
Px
7.
r=asmnd:
P~
8.
aM = tanh f-^) or cothf-^j;
P oc
W'2^
1
y.2
+3
22a2
,
n2
._ 1
,
to the pole,
Central Forces
cosh
""
coshg + 2
cosh ^ + 1
cosh 6
cosh2^-l
"'"'=
cosh2^ + 2
"
2(9
59
1^
*
\'
cosh
lO-
^-2
r*
+1
%osh2^-2
'
_
1
^^,-T-
Find the law of force to an internal point under which a body will
Shew that the hodograph of such motion is an ellipse.
describe a circle.
[Use formula (5) of Art. 53. The hodograph of the path of a moving
draw a straight line OQ
point P is obtained thus From a fixed point
the locus of the point
parallel to, and proportional to, the velocity of P
Q, for the diflerent positions of P, is the hodograph of the path of P.]
11.
12.
a,
A particle of
unit mass describes an equiangular spiral, of angle
under a force which
always in a direction perpendicular to the
is
straight line joining the particle to the pole of the spiral

force is /ir^*"*~^,
the pole
is
and that the rate of description of
Vm sin a
cos a
shew that the
sectorial area about
r^^^"^":
In an orbit described under a force to a centre the velocity at

is inversely proportional to the distance of the point from the
centre of force shew that the path is an equiangular spiral.
13.
any point
14.
The velocity at any point
of a central orbit
be for a circular orbit at the same distance

varies as
and
-,
is
- th of what
it
shew that the central
that the equation to the orbit
would
force
is
X-i=a''*-icos{(?i2-i)^}.
57.
Apses.
An
apse
is
a point in a central orbit at which
the radius vector drawn from the centre of force to the moving
maximum or minimum value.

By the principles of the Differential Calculus u is a maximum
particle has a
or a
of
minimum
if -j^ is zero,
ciu
u that does not vanish
is
and
if
the
first differential coefficient
of an even order.
If p be the perpendicular from the centre of force upon the

tangent to the path at any point whose distance is r from the
origin, then
1
When
-7^ is zero,
the case of the apse

apse the particle
is
= w^ =
is
fdiC\
so that the perpendicular in
equal to the radius vector.
moving
Hence
at an
at right angles to the radius vector.
Dynamics of a
60
58.
When
Particle
the central acceleration is
when
a single-valued function
a function of the
always the same at the same distance), every
o.pse-line divides the orbit into two equal and similar portions and
thus there can only he tivo apse-distances.
of the distance
and
distance only
Let
{i.e.
ABC be
apses A, B, and
the acceleration is
is
a portion of the path having three consecutive
C and
let
be the
centre of force.
Let
be the velocity of the

particle at B. Then, if the velocity
of the particle were reversed at B,
would describe the path BPA.

For, as the acceleration depends
on the distance from
only, the
velocity, by equations (1) and (3)
of Art. 53, would depend only on
the distance from
and not on the
/"^---.^^
^'^JXP\
it
^n^
./
.^^
/,/'
-^
/^^^'"'^
""
""--
~^^
~~"^
7
/
direction of the motion.
Again the
original particle starting from
from
and the reversed
with equal velocity F, must describe

similar paths.
For the equations (1) and (3) of Art. 53, which
do not depend on the direction of motion, shew that the value
of r and d at any time t for the first particle {i.e. OP' and
Z BOP') are equal to the same quantities at the same time t
particle, starting
for
the second particle
{i.e.
OP
and Z BOP).
BPA are exactly the same

by being rotated about the line OB, would give the
other.
Hence, since A and G are the points where the radius
vector is perpendicular to the tangent, we have OA = 00.
Hence the curves BP'C and
either,
Similarly, if
OB
and
OD
equal,
were the next apse after
and
C,
we should have
so on.
Thus there are only two different apse-distances.

The angle between any two consecutive apsidal distances
is
called the apsidal angle.
59.
When
power of the
the central acceleration varies as some integral

/iî'^ it is easily seen analytically that
distance, say
there are at most two apsidal distances.
A])ses
and Apsidal Distances
For the equation of motion
The
particle
is
61
is
when ;to=^> ^^d then
at an apse
this
equation gives
1 h^
fi
Whatever be the values of n or C this equation cannot have

more than two changes of sign, and hence, by Descartes' Rule,
it cannot have more than two positive roots.
60.
to
particle moves luith
,. ^
- ;
{distancef
find the path and to distinguish the cases.

The equation (4) of Art. 53 becomes
d^
^+=
Case
to
a central acceleration
Let
I.
A*
Ai
^,,
< fi,
,.e.
so that
dîi
^-g,
|^
.\
f/jb
= (p-lj
is
,_.
(1).
positive
and equal
n^, say.
d-u
The equation
(1) is -^^
= ît, the general
solution of which
is,
as in Art. 29,
u=
+ 5e-" = L cosh nd + M sinh nO,

M are arbitrary constants.
Ae-"^
where ^, 5, or X,
This is a spiral curve with an infinite number of convolutions

about the pole. In the particular case when A on B vanishes,
it is an equiangular spiral.
Case II.
Let
A^
/x,
so that the equation (1)

"
dO"-
.*.
where
u=Ae^B = A{d-a\
and a are arbitrary constants.
becomes
Dynamics of a
62
This represents
Let
Case III.
to
n-,
a reciprocal
when
particular case
/i^
so that |^
general.
In the
circle.
negative and equal
1 is
say,
nnti'nn CW
The equation
(1)
which
is
where
u=
j^^
dd
+ B) = A
cos {rtO
is
P is
= a,
given hj 6
The equations
61.
f.ViprpfnrA
therefore
is
is
= nû,
cos
n {d
the solution of
a),
and a are arbitrary constants.
The apse
when
in
spiral
zero, it is
is
> ^,
Particle
= A.
53
(4) or (5) of Art.
given and also the
will give the
path
initial conditions of projection.
which varies inversely

; if it be projected from an apse at a distance a from
a velocity which is sJ2 times the velocity for a circle of radius a,
shew that the equation to its path is
Ex.
1.
particle moves with a central acceleration
as the cube of the distance

the origin with
rcos-^ = a.
Let the acceleration be
yuw^.
If Fi be the velocity in a circle of radius a with the
Fi2
i- = normal
if
V be
^^
-a2-
the velocity of projection in the required path,
^
The
acceleration, then
a^
Hence,
same
acceleration =
differential equation of the
path
dhi
a
from equation
is,
fiu^
(4)
of Art. 53,
ij.
dT2+"=Pir2 = p"Hence, multiplying by
-j^
da
and
we have
integrating,
-'
r'=i"'[(sy"']=f"'-^
The
initial
conditions give that
when m = - then
,
Hence(l)gives
l'i
h^ =
from equation
(1)
l^^'^[_^^
2ij.
and
= . + 0.
C--
2a2'
we have
m^"
2-
1
,,
2a2*
-r-
dd
= 0,
and
^_:^.
a
Examples
Central Forces.
63
%-^lif^)
adn
(^>-
be measured from the initial radius vector, then ^ =
If
when u = -, and
7=-sin-i(l):
therefore
.Fir
e-\
cos
x/2j
Hence the path

If
the curve r cos
is
hand
the negative sign on the right
we take
v/2
-^ = a.
side of (2),
we obtain the same
result.
Ex.
2.
particle, subject
towards the origin,
from
velocity
equation
is
infinity at
to the
path
to
a force producing an acceleration
projected from the point
{a, 0)
an angle cot~^ 2 with
/j.
with a velocity equal
the initial line.
Shew
g
to the
that the
is
r = a(l
+ 2sin
and find the apsidal angle and distances.

The " velocity from infinity " means the
6),
would be acquired by
the particle in falling with the given acceleration from infinity to the point under
consideration.
Hence
if
velocity that
V we
this velocity be
have, as in Art. 22,
F2= 1^
SO that
The equation
of
motion of the
dû
(1).
particle is
r'=2rH^^)j='^L3+2"'j+^
If
jection,
we havepo = *
Hence,
initially,
sin a,
where cot a = 2,
(duy
Hence
(2) gives, initially,
5^
so that
C=
From
(2)
and
h^
i.e.
Pq=-.
we have
'"nw
i.e.
(2)-
Pq be the perpendicular from the origin upon the initial direction of pro-
from
;i2
(1)
-^7==^
and
'''
(3)
"1
= ~.
da
we then have
(^)
=w2[2au + 3a2u2-l] = M2[au+l][3a-l].
Dynamics of a Fartide
64
putting u = -
On
this equation gives
^^)=(a + .)(3a-r),
and hence
0=
'
J sj{a+r ){Ba-r)
Putting r = a + y, we have
6=
=pin-i -^-
I:
'2a
we measure
If
from the
hence 7 = 0.
Therefore the path
dr
Clearly
37^
at/
= 0,
i.e.
initial
is
apse,
TT
2a
r = a,
when
and
= a{l + 2 sin 6).
we have an
'
radius vector, then ^ =
^ = 2'
when
Sir
5ir
T'
T'
^*''-
Hence the apsidal angle is w and the apsidal distances are equal to 3a and
and the apses are both on the positive directions of the axis of y at
distances 3a and a from the origin.
The path is a lima9on and can be easily
traced from its equation.
a,
EXAMPLES
A particle moves
1.
and
under a central repulsive force
the equation to the path

t
"^^
projected from an apse at a distance a with velocity V.
is
time
is
Shew
that
rcos^^ = a, and that the angle 6 described
in
is
-tan-iK^
2.
;;
where
^0^
moves with a central
particle
=^
acceleration,
= -rTT^^^
r-j,
and
is
projected from an apse at a distance a with a velocity equal to n times
that which would be acquired in falling from infinity

apsidal
distance
^
If
path
3.
72
is
= 1,
is
si if-
shew that the other
-I
particle be projected in
and the
any
direction,
shew that the
a circle passing through the centre of force.
moving with a central acceleration
particle,
projected from an apse at a distance a with a velocity
the path
1^
V shew
;
is
rcosh
according as
^-
is
= a,
or t-cos
the velocity from infinity.
j^
;o
(distance)'
- 6 =a,
that
Examples
Central Forces,
(55
A particle moving under a constant force from a centre is projected

a direction perpendicular to the radius vector with the velocityacquired in falling to the point of projection from the centre. Shew that
its path is
3 ,
($)' :C0S-2.
4.
in
move in a straight line through the

path had always been this line.
If the velocity of projection be double that in the previous case, shew
that the path is
and that the

origin in the
particle will ultimately
same way
5.
as
if its
/r-a
_i
/r-a
_,
particle
acceleration
/^
'/*
2a'^\
_.)
being
projected from an apse at a distance a with twice the velocity for a

circle at that distance
find the other apsidal distance, and shew that the
;
equation to the path

-^
6.
is
= tan-i(W3)-^tan-(x/g^).
particle
where
^^
moves with a central acceleration
= 3^,
/x (
?'
projected from an apse at distance a with a velocity 2'\/na;

it
describes the curve r^ [2

7.
particle
+ cos
>^3d]
path
is
the curve
A-*
+2/*
shew that
= 3a^.
projected from an apse at distance c with a velocity

its
being
-3 j
being
iji{r'-c*r),
./ -^ c^
',
shew that
= c*.
moves under a central force /nX I3aû*+8au^] it is

projected from an apse at a distance a from the centre of force with
shew that the second apsidal distance is half the first,
velocity ^^lOA
and that the equation to the path is
8.
particle
2r=a\
+ sech-y^
A particle describes an orbit with a central acceleration fiu^Xu^,

9.
being projected from an apse at distance a with a velocity equal to that
from infinity ; shew that its path is
r
Prove also that
= a cosh
it will
where
î^
+ 1 = Tlr^^
be at distance r at the end of time
6G
lu a central orbit the force
10.
is fxv? {Z
projected at a distance a with a velocity
tan"^ - with the radius,
11.
is
projected from an apse at a
shew that
its orbit is r
12.
it
shew that the equation
the particle be
to the path is r
making
= a tan 6.
force
= a + b cosd.
particle
if
in a direction
m^ {3?t* - 2 (a^-b^) u^}, a>b, and

distance a + b with velocity '\/fi-7-{a + b)
moves under a
particle
+ î'^h'^);
/^
acceleration \^ (8aii^ + ahc^)
projected with velocity 9X from an apse at a distance

f from the
is
origin
shew that the equation to
its
J3\/ au-3
13.
A particle,
path
is
/au + 5
'^^J6'
subject to a central force per unit of mass equal to

fi{2{a^ + b'^)ii^-3a^'^vJ],
is
projected at the distance
angles to the initial distance

7*2
14.
it is
particle
a with a
velocity
shew that the path
=a2 cos^
d+b"^ sin^
moves with a
in a direction at right
is
the curve
6.
central acceleration
projected at a distance a with a velocity
/25
*/ -rr
fi
(u^--ii~\
times the velocity for
4
a circle at that distance and at an inclination tan~' ^ to the radius vector.
Shew
that
its
path
is
the curve
particle is acted on by a central repulsive force which varies as

15.
the nth power of the distance if the velocity at any point of the path be
equal to that which would be acquired in falling from the centre to the
point, shew that the equation to the path is of the form
;
71+3
An
^ 6 = const.
,
cos
I, is tied to a particle at one

end to a point in a smooth horizontal table.
The particle can move on the table and initially is at rest with the string
A blow (which, if directed along the string
straight and unstretched.
would make the particle oscillate to a maximum distance 2l from the fixed
end) is given to the particle in a direction inclined at an angle a to the
Prove that the maximum length of the string during the ensuing
string.
motion is given by the greatest root of the equation
16.
end and
elastic string, of natural length
is fixed
at its other
Examples
Central Forces.
17.
particle of
mass
is
67
attached to a fixed point by an elastic
nmg
string of natural length a, the coefficient of elasticity being
projected from an apse at a distance a with velocity
the other apsidal distance
18.
particle acted
on by a repulsive central force
projected from an apse at a distance c with velocity
it
will describe a three-cusped
Also
To
(5)
put
r^
\/^
-=-
(r^
- Qc^)-
shew that
and we have Sp'-=Qc^-r'^.
Vr^ - p2
ht=
giving
-^-a/
d V
-^
r-
5-.
- c-
= c- + 8c^cos^(p.]
Find the path described about a
19.
when the
/xr
hypocycloid and that the time to the cusp
of Art. 53,
hdt=p .ds=pdr
integrate,
it is
(ra) 2pha {r + a) = 0.
is
[Use equation
shew that
is
nr'^
^2pgh
fixed centre of force
acceleration toward the centre is of the form
by a
particle,
in terms of
^ + ^,
^3'
J.2
the velocity
Shew
20.
at an apse
whose distance
is
a from the centre of
force.
that the only law for a central attraction, for which the
any distance is equal to the velocity acquired in
velocity in a circle at
falling
from
infinity to that distance, is that of the inverse cube.
A particle
moves in a curve under a central attraction so that its

any point is equal to that in a circle at the same distance and
under the same attraction shew that the law of force is that of the
inverse cube, and that the path is an equiangular spiral.
21.
velocity at
moves under a
central force m/x-r (distance)" (where

be projected at a distance ^ in a direction
making an angle ^ with the initial radius vector with a velocity equal to
that due to a fall from infinity, shew that the equation to the path is
22.
n>l
particle
but not = 3).
If
it
w-3
If
n>3
n-3
_.)
shew that the maximum distance from the centre
is
R cosed"' ~^,3,
and
if
23.
?i<3 then the particle goes to
particle
moves with
central
velocity of projection at distance
ultimately go
ofi"
to infinity if
infinity.
is
^^> -/} +
acceleration fiu^ + vu^ and the

V; shew that the particle will
î-
52
Dynamics of a
68
24.
^(?i
per unit of mass
central attraction equal to
l)a"-3r-" + Xr~3j where
shew that
In a central orbit
25.
one of the conies
(cm
26.
from an apse at a distance a with a velocity
particle is projected
and moves with a
particle, of
pole equal to
-~
mass m, moves under an
find the orbit
move with a
and interpret the
a/ -^
from an apse
to the orbit is r(l-4-cos''6)

is (3a)
and
sin d in succession
h^ {u
(1
+F
sin^ 6)
and
h^ {u sin
EUminating
u,
^,
result geometrically.
"^f
by
and integrating, we have
cosd + u sin
^- mcos ^)=
= 2a,
x ^-
[Multiplying the equation of motion, h^ {u + u)=iji{l+k^sm^ 6)~

cos 6
is
attractive force to the
with velocity
It is projected
Shew that the equation
If a particle
time
P=îu'^{cu + Q,os,d)~'^, shew that the path
if
and that the time of a complete revolution
27.
?i>3,
will arrive at the centre of force in
it
+ cos 6Y = a-\-b cos {6 + a),
sin^ 6.
at a distance a.
Particle
6)
=fi sin
-ja cos ^ (1
(1 +F siu^ 6) ' ^+A,

+F sin2 e)~^î\ +k'^) + B.
(9
we have
A2tt=/i(H-Fsin2^)2^(l + P) + ^sin^-5cos^.]
28.
and
A particle
moves
in a field of force
whose potential
is fxr ~
cos 6
projected at distance a perpendicular to the initial line with
it is
2
velocity -
-Jy.
shew that the

=
a sec
orbit described is
J 2 log tan -
particle is describing a circle of radius a under the action of a

29.
constant force X to the centre when suddenly the force is altered to
\+fiii\n7it, where /x is small compared with X and t is reckoned from the
Shew that at any subsequent time t the distance of
instant of change.
the particle from the centre of force
3X
What
is
is
- an^(^Vi:^^"(V?)-""^'
I
the character of the motion
if 2>\
= an'^
Stability
[Use equations (1) and
and the first then becomes
Xa3
=a+^
62.
where ^
small,
is
^.]
nearly a circle
is
find the condition that this
may
is
dû
This will give a
r^ = sj\a?,
^
7it.
A /I sin
a path which
particle describes
of motion
the second gives
and neglect squares of
about a centre of force (= fxu^)

be a stable motion.
The equation
69
orbits
of Art. 53
^ = -
..
Put
(2)
of
/"-
circle of radius
if
/-IN
h'^
= fic^''^
(2).
Suppose the particle to be slightly displaced from the circular

path in such a way that h remains unaltered (for example,
suppose it is given a small additional velocity in a direction
away from the centre of force by means of a blow, the
perpendicular velocity being unaltered).
In (1) put u
= c + X,
,
where x
_(c +
d^x
is
small
then
it
gives
^)"--
Neglecting squares and higher powers of

is always small, we have
x,
i.e.
assuming
that X
d'^x
._
__ = _(3-n)^.
If n be
<
3, so
that 3
a? = ^
If
n be >
3,
so that
x=
?i
is positive, this
cos [\/3
is
-nd
-Y
gives
B].
positive, the solution is
A leV'^^s 6 + Bye--J~>^^ ^
X continually increases as 6 increases hence x is not

always small and the orbit does not continue to be nearly
so that
circular.
If
n<
3,
the approximation to the path
u=
is
+ Acosl'^S-nd + B]
(4).
Dynamics of a
70
The
i.e.
;77i
= 0,
= sin[\/3-?i^ + 5].
of this
solutions
difference
This
c^n^tCl^.^ c\r\
by the equation
apsidal distances are given
by
The
Particle
is
If
between
equation are a series of angles, the
their
successive
values
beinef
therefore the apsidal angle of the path.
3,
this apsidal
angle
is
infinite.
In this case
it
would be found that the motion is unstable, the particle

departing from the circular path altogether and describing
a spiral curve.
The maximum and minimum values
c+A
are
and
A,
of
so that the motion
it,
is
in the case n
<
3,
included between
these values.
case may be considered in the
Let the central acceleration be ^ (u).
The equations (1) and (2) then become
The general
63.
same
manner.
and
h'c'
Also (3)
is
fx,i>
(o)
(6).
now
de'^^'^''''J{cy {cxy
= c-1x + X -^tM
neglecting squares of x.
(p{c)
and the motion
In
is
dd'
4>o
stable only if
this case the apsidal angle is
Central
and
transversal accelerations
If, in addition to the central acceleration P, we have

64
an acceleration T perpendicular to F, the equations of motion
are
= -P
dt'
dt
dd
and
Let r
Dynamics of a
72
If the nearly circular orbit of
2.
shew that the apsidal angle

[Using equation
3.
particle
apsidal angle
a particle be
53 we see that
(5) of Art.
(a'"
""*-?"-
= Jni^
2)
*/ 1 +T2>
varies as r'""^; the
62.]
is 7r-=-
^''^
-j- nearly.
is
from Art.
result then follows
Particle
where -
is
,-(^
-jj
shew that the
the constant areal velocity.
Find the apsidal angle in a nearly circular orbit under the central
4.
force ar'
+ 6>'".
Assuming that the moon
5.
is
acted on by a force
,.
J^
r-j
to the
earth and that the effect of the sun's disturbing force is to cause a force
m? X distance from the earth to the moon, shew that, the orbit being
nearly circular, the apsidal angle
mean lunar month, and cubes
6.
particle
is
shew
that, if the
mean
iri\+^~A
nearly,
where
is
m are neglected.
in
an approximately circular orbit under the
^ and
a small constant tangential retardation/;
moving
action of a central force
of
is
3 f
distance be a, then 6 = nt + ^ - t\ squares of
being neglected.
M and
ends of an
a smooth fixed ring, the whole
The particle m being projected at right
shew that its path is
T\uo particles of masses
7.
in are attached to the
inextensible string which passes through
resting on
angles
horizontal table.
to the string,
\_VnVVJj^\The
tension of the string being T, the equations of motion are
fdd\-^_T
^_
m
df ^\dt)
and
^^^'
-rdtV'^tr^
^^)'
^^^^-^'^^-J
^^-
Examples
Central Forces.
rê=h
(2) gives
and
and then
(1)
since r
zero initially,
is
73
fH
(3) give
This equation and
when
(4)
(4),
= -^.
\r
r=â.
give
r^-d^
and
C vanishes
^^ \
'
if
rr=
adr
/-i
= C03-1 - +
~
(7,
6 be measured from the initial radius vector.

.-.
a = rcos[^^^^^]isthepath.
Two masses i/, m are connected by a string which passes through

8.
a hole in a smooth horizontal plane, the mass m hanging vertically.
Shew that
describes on the plane a curve whose diflferential equation
is
/
m\ d'û
_ mg 1
\-^Jl)'d&^^^~~M A2^-
Prove also that the tension of the string
In the previous question
9.
the plane with velocity
if
m=M,
a/ ^ from
is
and the
latter be projected
an apse at a distance
the former will rise through a distance
a,
on
shew that
a.
Two
particles, of masses
and m, are connected by a light
the string passes through a small hole in the table, in hangs
vertically, and
describes a curve on the table which is very nearly
a circle whose centre is the hole ; shew that the apsidal angle of the
10.
string
orbit of
,.-
m can move on a smooth horizontal table.

which passes through a smooth hole in the
and is attached to
table, goes under a small smooth pulley of mass
a point in the under side of the table so that the parts of the string
hang vertically. If the motion be slightly disturbed, when the mass m
11.
is it *
particle of
mass
It is attached to a string
is
describing a circle uniformly, so that the angular
changed, shew that the apsidal angle
is it
a/
-t^
momentum
is
un-
74
12.
Two
particles
on a smooth horizontal table are attached by an

and are initially at rest at a distance a
elastic string, of natural length a,
One particle is projected at right angles to the string. Shew that

the greatest length of the string during the subsequent motion be 2a,
apart.
if
then the velocity of projection
*/ -^
is
between the masses of the particles and X
where
is
is
the harmonic
mean
the modulus of elasticity of
the string.
is
[Let the two particles be

the one that is projected.
and therefore
T=\
of tension T, such that
is
A and B of masses M and M', of which B

When the connecting string is of length r
Yf along AB, and that of
is
along
the acceleration of
BA.
To
.4
get the relative
and A an acceleration equal and opposite to

that of A. The latter is then "reduced to rest" and the acceleration of B
relative to A is along BA and
motion we give to both
_T
~M
The equation
T^_2
M'
to the relative path of
(Pu
r-a _
2X l-ait
~ ma
B is now
2\
au
Integrate and introduce the conditions that the particle
an apse at a distance a with velocity

apse at a distance 2a determines F.]
V,
The
is
projected trom
fact that there is another
CHAPTER V
UNIPLANAR MOTION WHEN THE ACCELERATION IS
CENTRAL AND VARYING AS THE INVERSE SQUARE
OF THE DISTANCE
65.
In the present chapter we shall consider the motion when
the central acceleration follows the Newtonian
Law
of Attrac-
tion.
This law
particles, of
may be
masses
mutual attraction
between every two

and m^ placed at a distance r apart, the
expressed as follows
wij
is
is a constant, depending on the units of

mass and length employed, and known as the constant of
units of force, where 7
gravitation.
If the masses be
the value of 7
is
is
measured in pounds, and the length in feet,

and the attraction
1*05 x 10~' approximately,
expressed in poundals.
If the masses be
measured in grammes, and the length in

7 is 6'66 x 10~^ approximately, and
centimetres, the value of
the attraction
66.
is
expressed in dynes.
particle moves in a -path so that
its
a fixed point and
to
always directed
sheiu that its
to
path
is
a conic
the three cases that arise.
section
is
and
equal
to
acceleration is
jj^.
x; ;
to
distinguish between
76
When
P=
-, the equation (5) of Art. 53 becomes
p'dr
Integrating
we
^'
have, by Art. 54,
= ^ = 2^ +
.^
:....(2).
(7
jf-
Now
r'
the (p, r) equation of an ellipse and hyperbola, re-
ferred to a focus, are respectively
-= -1,
- = +1
and
p-
(3),
p>
where 2a and 26 are the transverse and conjugate axes.

Hence, when G is negative, (2) is an ellipse; when
is
positive, it is a hyperbola.
Also
(p, r)
when (7=0,
= constant,
becomes
(2)
Hence
and
its focus.
(2) always represents a conic section,
at the centre of force,
this is the
equation of a parabola referred to
and which
is
whose focus
is
an
negative]
ellipse
"I
parabola
>
according as
G is
or hyperbola]
i.e.
according as
velocity at
v^
| -^
any point
zero
or positive
according as the square of the
i.e.
2.-1
is
where S
Again, comparing equations (2) and

of the ellipse,
(3),
the focus.
is
we
have, in the case
h^^/^^G_
b'
.'.
= Kf
/J,
- =
"J/xx semi-latus-rectum,
Hence, in the case of the

So, for the hyperbola,
and, for the parabola,
v-
v-
ellipse, v^
=
=
(2
yu,
2a
-
= fi
\\
+-
( ~^
\v
and G
-]
aj
(4).
Law
Central Forces.
of
the Inverse
Square 11
be noted that in each case the velocity at any point
It will
does net depend on the direction of the velocity.
Since h
is
twice the area described in the unit of time
(Art. 54), therefore, if
be the time of describing the
ellipse,
we
have
area of the ellipse
irah
time varies as the cube of the
so that the square of the periodic
major
Itr
axis.
Cor.
in
any direction the path
hyperbola, according as F^
Now
falling
If a particle be projected at a distance
1.
velocity
<=>
is
an
ellipse,
with
parabola or
the square of the velocity that would be acquired in
from infinity to the distance R, by Art. 81.
-/:(-r^)-=HMHence the path
is
an
ellipse,
ing as the velocity at any point
is
parabola or hyperbola accord-
< = > that acquired
in falling
from infinity to the point.

Cor.
radius
2.
is
The
velocity Vi for the description of a circle of
given by
-^ = normal
acceleration
li
_.
= -^,
so that Vi^
JrC'
V '^^'ôcity from
^
K
infinity
In the previous article the branch of the hyperbola

is the one nearest the centre of force.
If the central acceleration be from the centre and if it vary
as the inverse square of the distance, the further branch is
described.
For in this case the equation of motion is
67.
described
^^ = -ii.
.-X^-^ + C
(1).
Dynamics of a
78
Now
bola
the (p, r) equation of the further branch of a hyper
is
^-
f~
and
Particle
= v/i
T'
X semi-latus-rectum, and
a
-
h
=
with (1) provided that
this always agrees
that h
^^
(7,
so
/I
h'~
v'
Construction of the orbit given the point of projection and
68.
and magnitude of the velocity of projection.

Let 8 be the centre of attraction, P the point of projection,
TPT the direction of projection, and V the velocity of pro-
the direction
jection.
Case
Let F^ <
I.
o^
whose major axis 2a
ellipse
is
a)
by Art.
'
'
QQ, the path is
so that
^^'^
2a =
2ix
Draw PS', so that PS' and PS are on the same

making Z T'PS' = Z TPS, and take
PS'
Then
=2a-SP = 2a-R =
S' is the
an
R = SP,
V^ = ,j,(%-^, where
then,
- V'U
side of
TPT',
2fi-V'R'
second focus and the elliptic path
is
therefore
known.
Case II.
Draw
Let V^
- ^^
so
path
that the
a parabola.
is
the direction PS' as in Case I; in this case this
direction of the axis of the parabola.
meet
TPT in
to
YA
perpendicular to SU.
is S,
Then
Let V^
the
to
TPT
and
the vertex of the required
SY2
-^^^
2o"
-^
where
o is
on the direction of projection.
> ^^
transverse axis 2a given
is
is
parallel to
and the curve can be constructed.
The semi-latus-rectum = 2SA =
Case III.
SU
U; draw >SF perpendicular
PS'
parabola whose focus
Draw
so that the path
is
a hyperbola of
by the equation
and hence 2a =
(l + a)'
V K
-,r.,
s~
Zfjb
Kepler's Laivs
In this case PS'
such that Z
TPS =
79
on the opposite side of TPT' from PS,

z TPS', and S'P - SP = 2a, so that
lies
The path can then be
constructed, since S'
is
the second focus.
Kepler's Laws. The astronomer Kepler, after many

69.
years of patient labour, discovered three laws connecting the
motions of the various planets about the sun. They are
Each planet
1.
describes
an
ellipse
having the sun in one of
its foci.
2.
to the
The areas described by the radii draum from the planet

are, in the same orbit, proportional to the times of
sun
describing them.
3.
are
The squares of
pt'^'opoi'tional to the
the periodic times
cubes of the
of the various planets

major axes of their orbits.
From the second law we conclude, by Art. 54, that

70.
the acceleration of each planet, and therefore the force on it,
is directed towards the Sun.
From the first law it follows, by Art. 55 or Art. 66, that
the acceleration of each planet varies inversely as the square
of its distance from the Sun.
From
the third law
it follows,
T^
since from Art. 66
we have
= ^-^.a^
H-
that the absolute acceleration

distance from the Sun)
Laws
is
/x
{i.e.
the acceleration at unit
the same for
all planets.
similar to those of Kepler have been found to hold
for the planets
and their
satellites.
It follows from the foregoing considerations that
assume Newton's Law of Gravitation
to
we may
be true throughout the
Solar System.
Kepler's
71.
Laws were obtained by him, by a
process of
he found one that was

suitable he started with the observations made and recorded
for many years by Tycho Brahe, a Dane, Avho lived from
A.P. 1546 to 1601.
continually trying hypotheses until
;
80
The
first and second laws were enunciated by Kepler

1609 in his book on the motion of the planet Mars.
The third law was announced ten years later in a book
in
entitled
On
the
Harmonies of
these laws was given by
The explanation of
in his Principia published
the World.
Newton
in the year 1687.
Kepler's third law, in the form given in Art. 69, is

72.
only true on the supposition that the Sun is fixed, or that
the mass of the planet is neglected in comparison with that
of the Sun.
A more accurate form is obtained in the following manner.

Let S be the mass of the Sun, P that of any of its planets,
and 7 the constant of gravitation.
between the two
is
thus 7
V-
The
force
where r
is
of attraction
the distance
r-
between the Sun and planet at any instant.
The
acceleration of the planet
the Sun, and that of the
Sun
is /3
is
then a
= -^ j
towards
towards the planet.
To obtain the acceleration of the planet relative to the Sun

we must give to both an acceleration ^ along the line PS.
The acceleration of the Sun is then zero and that of the planet
is a + /3 along PS.
If, in addition, we give to each a velocity
equal and opposite to that of the Sun we have the motion of P
relative to the Sun supposed to be at rest.
The relative acceleration of the planet with respect to the
Sun then=a + ^ = :yl^\
Hence
the
/x.
we then have T
of Art. 66
is
JliS + P)
7 {S + P), and, as in that
article
Laws
Kepler's
If 7\ be the time of revolution
and
a^
of the relative path of another planet Pj,

rp
27r
T-
Law,
Kepler's
^
that
^,
as
a/
1\^
true,
follows
it
similarly
a?
varies
777-
Si
approximately
the semi-major axis
we have
>S+P T^_^
"S + P^T,^ a,^'
JjiS + Pr)"^'
Since
81
that
4-
very
^
is
-^
very nearly
is
and hence that P and Pj are either very nearly equal

or very small compared with S.
But it is known that the
masses of the planets are very different hence they must be
very small compared with that of the Sun.
unity,
73.
to give
The
corrected formula of the last article
an approximate value
Sun
planet to that of the
to
may be used
the ratio of the mass of a
in the case
small satellite, whose periodic time and
where the planet has a
mean
distance from the
planet are known.
In the case of the

the force which for
all
the attraction of the planet
satellite
is
practical purposes determines its path.
If P be the mass of the planet and D its mean distance

from the Sun, then, as in the previous article,
T=
p
Similarly, if
^"^
,
^y{S + P)
be the mass of the
distance from the planet, and

27r
~\/j(P + p)
The
quantities T,
value for
As
all
^ -^p
P
a numerical
t,
its
^
'
satellite,
its
mean
periodic time, then
S + P T'_D'
" P+p
f-
~d'-
and d being known,
this
gives
example take the case of the Earth
Now T = 365i days, = 27^ days,

the values being approximate.
L. D.
D\
D= 93,000,000 miles,
and the Moon m.
and d = 240,000 miles,
82
Therefore
Moon.
5f
.-.
.5
= 325900
7?
sum
times the
the Earth
of the masses of
and
m=Ê nearly.
Also
= 330000 E
nearly.
a fairly close approximation to the accurate result.

If the Sun be assumed to be a sphere of radius 440,000 miles and mean
density n times that of the Earth, assumed to be a sphere of radius 4000 miles,
This
is
this gives
n X (440000)3 = 330000 x
71=
.'.
330000
1103
Hence the mean density
of the
mean
1331
(4000)3.
,1
= about
''"""" 4*
Sun
= - that of the Earth =- x 5

so that the
330
density of the
527 = about 1*4 grammes per cub. cm.,
Sun
is
much
again as that of
mean
distance and
nearly half as
water.
74.
It
not necessary to
is
periodic time of the planet
rather the
sum
of its mass
know
the
in order to determine its mass, or
and that of its
satelHte.
be the masses of the Earth and Moon, R

the distance of the Earth from the Sun, r that of the Moon
from the Earth, if Y denote a year and y the mean lunar
For
if
and
month, then we have
F= ,-^
^ R^
9r
y=
^
,^
^ry
(1),
-- .r^
(2).
(E+ 711)
Also, as in the last article,
t=
From
(1)
and
(3),
From
(2)
and
(3),
-d'
(3).
(P+^)| = (^+m).^
Equation (4) gives the ratio oi P
Equation (5) gives the ratio of P
(5).
+p
to
S+
+ _p
to
^ + m.
E.
Law
Examples
of the Inverse Square.
83
EXAMPLES
Shew
1.
that the velocity of a particle moving in an ellipse about
a centre of force in the focus
is
perpendicular to the radius and
of
two constant
that, at
any point of
its
velocities,
perpendicular to the major axis.
A particle describes an ellipse about a centre
2.
shew
compounded
of force at the focus
path, the angular velocity about the other
focus varies inversely as the square of the normal at the point.
A particle
3.
projected with velocity
rectangular hyperbola
the angle of projection
if
at a distance R.
particle describes
,.
that
f"
its
it is
path
is
is
fi
_i
VR
4.
Shew
an
(--1/
ellipse
under a force
,.
/^
-^
towards
the focus if it was projected with velocity Ffrom a point distant r from
the centre of force, shew that its periodic time is
;
27rr2_ r2-|-f
If the velocity of the Earth at any point of its orbit, assumed to

5.
be circular, were increased by about one-half, prove that it would describe
a parabola about the Sun as focus.
Shew
also that, if a
body were projected from the Earth with a velocity

it will not return to the Earth and may even
exceeding 7 miles per second,

leave the Solar System.
from the Earth's surface with velocity v

diminution of gravity be taken into account, but the
resistance of the air neglected, the path is an ellipse of major axis
6.
shew
-^
"zga
that, if the
?,
where a
is
the Earth's radius.
v''
Shew that an
7.
unresisted particle falling to the Earth's surface from
a great distance would acquire a velocity
'^'iga,
where a
is
the Earth's
radius.
Prove that the velocity acquired by a particle similarly
Sun
is
falling into the
to the Earth's velocity in the square root of the ratio of the
diameter of the Earth's orbit to the radius of the Sun.
62
Dynamics of a
84
Farticle
If a planet were suddenly stopped in its orbit, supposed circular,
8.
shew that
it
would
fall
into the
Sun
in a time
which
is
^
8
times the
period of the planet's revolution.
The
9.
eccentricity of the Earth's orbit round the
Sun
is
60
shew
Sun exceeds the length of the semiduring about 2 days more than half the year.
that the Earth's distance from the
major axis of the orbit

10.
The mean distance
of
Mars from the Sun being 1-524 times that

Mars about the Sun.
of the Earth, find the time of revolution of
The time
Mars about the Sun
is 687 days and his

the distance of the Satellite Deimos
from Mars is 14,600 miles and his time of revolution 30 hrs. 18 mins.
shew that the mass of the Sun is a little more than three million times
11.
mean
of revolution of
distance 141| millions of miles
that of Mars.
12.
and
his
The time of revolution of Jupiter about the Sun is

mean distance 483 millions of miles the distance
;
satellite is
11-86 years
of his first
261,000 miles, and his time of revolution 1 day 18^ hrs. shew
is a little less than one-thousandth of that of the
;
that the mass of Jupiter
Sun.
13.
and
its
The outer
16| days approximately,

26j radii of the latter. The
revolves in 12 hours nearly
find its distance
satellite of Jvipiter revolves in
distance from the planet's centre
last discovered satellite
is
from the planet's centre.

Find also the approximate ratio of Jupiter's mean density to that of
the Earth, assuming that the Moon's distance is 60 times the Earth's
radius and that her siderial period is 27J days nearly.
[Use equations (2) and (3) of Art. 74, and neglect m in comparison
with E, and p in comparison with P.]
14.
planet
its velocity
that
is
Sun as focus shew

when the radius vector to
describing an ellipse about the
away from the Sun
is
greatest
the planet is at right angles to the major axis of the path,
then
is
where 2a
is
the major axis,
and that
it
the eccentricity, and
the periodic time.
75.
To find
of a given arc of an
end of the major aocis.
the time of description
elliptic orhit starting
from
The equation
=h
r^-j-
ht=
the nearer
of Art. 53 gives
j\"-dd
Jo
\\.â^^.de
Jo(l +ecos^)2
(1)
'
^
Time of describing any arc

If
\ be >
85
we have
1,
dO
\{\ +tan2-j + (l-tan2

/X +
tan-^ Itan ^
/^^^
, 6/
I)
Hence, by differentiation with respect to the constant

have
j(A,
.
^
tan~^
(\--l)*
-}-
['""IVx-Tl]
2!
A -11 +
tan ^ a /
2V
A.
X + lJ
= - we
,
sin d
?i
\ + cos^
;^
r^;
X^-l
have
dd
+ eccos ey
(1
In this equation, putting
j(l
we
tan-
A.
tan"
(V-l)S
2>"
2\
=-
dd
cos^)2
\,
T.tan tz\/
^ /l^^l
^
tan~^
sin
^
^
, :;
e cos
e^)
Hence substituting
since Y
in equation (1)
we
have.
= -r= = -;= =
}.
a^(l-e^)^
L(i-e^)2
= =
2 tan~^
tan
fvrr
vr
~|^
sin B
e-1 +
1
ecos ^Jo
+ e cos
f^
86
[An
alternative
method
of obtaining
this result
will
be
given in Art. 82.]
76.
To find
Here
e is
>
a hyperbolic
the time similarly for
1,
so that
we put
= - where X <
orbit.
1.
Hence
sec^
2 ^^
l+\-{l-\)
setf
1
1
2 ^^
+X
V1
=-.
tan"-
Vi-x + tan
/i-x,
/1
+ A,
tan
+ X + V 1 - A. tan
log
^1-^' "vrTx-Vl-Xtan|
Differentiating with respect
to
X,
we
have,
after
simplification,
Vl + X +
_[_dO__
(1-v)^
\/l
- X tan
Vl + X - Vl - X
tan
iin^
1
Replacing X by -
- X^ X + cos
we have
d0
'(1
cos
ey
{e''
1)^
Ve +
+ Ve- 1
tan
Ve +
- Ve - 1
tan
sin 6
1
+ e cos ^
01
t;
some
Time of describing
aiiy arc
87
Hence, since in this case

,a
'Jim
^fj,
the equation (1) of the last article gives

^
TZl ^15i_ _ log.

1+ecos^
'\/fi
In
77.
the case
of a paraholic
Ve +
A/e
tan
ve +
ve 1 tan-
orbit to find the corresponding
time.
The equation
^
to the parabola
is r
^
the latus-rectum and
is
+ cos
measured from the
-^
^
axis.
where 2d
is
Hence the
equation (3) of Art. 53 gives
h.t=(rW=[j^-^
'(l+cos6')^^^"
coi
J
ht
[6
d?
a be the
d'
projectile,
is
of the air being
attraction of the Earth at a point outside
r irom the centre
vacuo
j.a
vacations of gravity being taken
into consideration but the resistance
The
apsidal distance.
Motion of a
78.
h^^^^
But
if
(1
ir
de
is ^.
Hence the path
neglected.
at a distance
of a projectile in
one of the cases of Art. QQ, one of the
described being at the centre of the Earth.
it
foci of
the path
Dynamics of a
88
If
Particle
be the radius of the Earth, then
gravity at the surface of the Earth
The path
= g,
~
R"
so that
yu,
the value of
= gR-.
of a projectile which starts from a point on the

is therefore an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola
Earth's surface
according as V^ =
i.e.
according as V^ = 2gR.
79. The maximum range of a particle starting from the Earth's surface
with a given velocity may be obtained as follows
Let S be the centre of the Earth and P the point of projection. Let
be
:
the point vertically above

that,
by Art.
31,
to
which the
velocity, V, of projection is due, so
we have
(1),
where
is
the radius of the Earth and
Hence, by equation
By comparing
the second focus
is
and radius
(4)
PK is h.
of Art. 66,
this with equation (1)

is,
h.
we have
PH=h,
so that the locus of
for a constant velocity of projection, a circle
It follows
that the major axis of the path
is
whose centre
SP + PH
or
SK.
Planetary Motion
The
ellipse,
whose
foci are
89
S and H, meets a plane LPM, passing through
the point of projection, in a point Q, such that SQ + QHSK. Hence, if SQ

meet in T the circle whose centre is S and radius SK, we have QT=QH. Since
is, in general, another point, H', on the circle of foci equidistant with
from Q, we have, in general, two paths for a given range.
The greatest range on the plane LPM is clearly Pq where qt equals qO.
Hence Sq + qP=Sq + qO + OP = Sq + qt + PK^SK+ PK.
Therefore q lies on an ellipse, whose foci are the centre of the Earth and the
point of projection, and which passes through K.
Hence we obtain the maximiun range.
there
Suppose that the path described by a planet
80.
the
Sun S
is
the ellipse of the figure.
major axis and produce

Let G be the centre.
to the
Q.
it
to
Draw
P about
PN perpendicular
meet the auxiliary
circle in
The points A and A' are called respectively the Perihelion

and Aphelion of the path of the planet.
The angle ASP is called the True Anomaly and the angle
ACQ the Eccentric Anomaly. In the case of any of the planets
the eccentricity of the path
is
small, being never as large as
except in the case of Mercury when it is "2 the foci of the

path are therefore very near C, the ellipse differs little in actual
;
shape from the auxiliary

the ,True and Eccentric
be
27r
If
and hence the

is
difference
between
a small quantity.
the time of a complete revolution of the planet,
n is its mean angular velocity, then nt is defined

Mean Anomaly and n is the Mean Motion. It is
so that
the
circle,
Anomaly
to
be
clear
Dynamics of a
90
Particle
Anomaly of an imaginary planet

which moved so that its angular velocity was equal to the mean
angular velocity of P.
therefore that nt would be the
=^
27r
c-
Since
27r
ggx
(^^.,.
be the True Anomaly
Let
,^
V/i
ASP, and ^
the Eccentric
Anomaly ACQ.
If
-^t
h be twice the area described in a unit of time, then
= Sectorial
area
= Curvilinear
=-X
- (Sector
ANP + triangle SNP

ANQ + triangle SNP
{2'^' 4*
(</>
ACQ- triangle
~ i^^ ^^^ 4*
e sin
.*.
By
area
Curvilinear area
=^
ASP
n^
co^ ^)
^SN.NP
GNQ) +
+ i (^
cos
(f)
ae)
b sin
(^).
esin
-T- (^
(f>)
(f)
e sin
the polar equation to a Conic Section,
(1).
we have
^ (1 - e")
+ e cos ^ 1 + e cos ^
SP = a e. ON = a{l- e cos ^).
/. (1 - e cos <^) (1 + e cos ^) = 1 - e^
e
cos
^
.*. cos^ = 1 e cos 9
^
SP =
Q^
and
...
(f)
and
81.
If e be small, a
value of
From
is nt,
(2).
approximation from (1) to the
first
and a second approximation
is
nt
approximation to the value of 6

second approximation is </> + A, where
(2),
first
^X sm
cos ^
J
ana
^
.'.
X=
e sin
=
rf)
',
e cos
cos
=,
1
c^
= e sin 6^
.
e
-,
^-
e cos
,
approx.
^^
+ e sin
is
(/>,
nt
and a
Planetary Motion
Hence, as
the
far as
power of
first
91
e,
= ^ e sin ^ = w^ + e sin ??^ + e sin {nt +

= nt + 2e sin
-)-
e sin nt)
?ii.
8P =
Also
''^-^"^'^^
1
+ e cos
= a (1 - e
^
cos ^),
^
same approximation,
to the
= a ae cos (n< +
2e sin
= a ae cos nt.
?2i)
made
If an approximation be
as far as squares of
the
e,
results are found to be

<ji
= nt + e sin nt +
=
= a jl - ecos
From
82.
sin
-^
2^2^,
5g2
and
g2
nt
+ 2e sin ?i^ + -t+
7ii
sin
^(1
2/?^,
cos2n^)i
equation (2) of Art. 80,
we have
^~^""^ (l + e)(l-cos(/>) _ l+g

(^
tan^^^^"^
2~l + cos^""(l-e)(H-cos<^)"l-6'^'' 2'
_
= 2tan-MA/tj
so that
tan-
and
sm^=
2 tan ^
2
-=
VfT
V +
-/I/
-,
--" ^
2
77
i,,o0
l+tan-| 1,1-6,
1+^-p^tan--^
/-
= vl
,,6'
Hence, from equation

that n
This
is
|_
force
it
tan^^
2j
remembering
-eVl -e^-
1 + e cos
at
a particle
is
describing an elliptic orbit,
some point of the path
describes another path
may be
from perihelion.
ellipse, starting
When
happen that
that
article,
the result of Art. 75 and gives the time of describing
any arc of the

83.
same
/,
+ ecos^'
we have
= -r 2tan-M /
Va*.
(1) of the
sm
it
it
may-
receives an impulse so
or the strength of the centre of

To obtain the
altered so that the path is altered.
Dynamics of a
92
new
orbit
altered in
Particle
we
shall want to know how the major axis has been

magnitude and position, what is the new eccentricity,
etc.
84.
Let
of force
Tangential disturbing force.

be the path of a particle moving about a centre
at S, and let
be the other focus.
APA'
When
the particle has arrived at
let
changed to v + u, the direction being unaltered

new major axis.
Then we have
Hence, by subtraction, we have
Since the direction of motion
is
-^
PH
its
;
velocity be
let 2a'
be the
a
unaltered at P, the
new
H' be its position, we have

EH' = {H'P + SP) - (HP + SP) = 2a' - 2a.
focus lies on
and,
if
If the change of velocity u be small
then by diffei'entiating the
first
2v8v
and equal to 8v,

we have
say,
of equations (1)
= Ja,
a^
[For
SP
is
constant as far as these instantaneous changes
are concerned.]
Hence
Sa, the increase in
the semi-major axis,
^ÊA'^'
Again, since
tan
HH
HSH
is
now
small,
we have
HH sin H
2ae
(2)
+ HH'cosH
2Ba sin
.
Disturbed Orbits
Hence
S\^,
the angle through which the major axis moves,
= HSH =
.smH.Sv
=
ae
P is
unaltered by the blow,
altered in the ratio
is
(3).
e/j,
Since the direction of motion at

the value of h
93
so that 8h
= h.
But
2hdh
.'.
.-.
= fiSa{l-e')-fia.2eBe.
fia.2e8e
= 2vBv.a'(l-e')-2~h\
ce= .-
so that
= fia(l-e').
h''
-.
(4).
^
^
fM
This gives the increase in the value of the eccentricity.

Since the periodic time
T=
a^.
3
^
y-2
BT
Sa
S vaSv
<5).
If the disturbing force is not tangential, the velocity ib

85.
produces must be compounded with the velocity in the orbit to
give the new velocity and tangent at the point P.
The
equations (1) or (2) of the last article now give the magnitude,
2a', of
the
new major axis.

moment
Also since the

the focus
is
V/u.
we
obtain the
of the velocity of the point
about
equal to
X semi-latus-rectum,
new
i.e.
to
/x
\/a' (l
e'%
eccentricity.
making with the new tangent at

made by SP, and taking on it a point
H', such that SP + H'P is equal to the new major axis, we
obtain the new second focus and hence the new position of the
Finally by drawing a line
P an
angle equal to that
major axis of the

86.
orbit.
Effect on the orbit of
an instantaneous change
in the
value of the absolute acceleration /*.

When the particle is at a distance r from the centre of force,
let
the value of
new
[x
be instantaneously changed to
//,',
and
let
values of the major axis and eccentricity be 2a' and e.
the
94
Since the velocity
is
instantaneously unaltered in magnitude,
we have
w-
K^-D=--'a-?)
an equation
to give
The moment
a'.
S being
of the velocity about
unaltered, h
remains the same, so that

^/fia
giving
= h = \/fi.'a'
{l-e')
(1
e'')
(2),
e'.
The
direction of the velocity at distance r being unaltered,
new positions of the second focus and of the new

major axis as in the previous article.
be very small the change 8a in a is
If the change B/u, in
obtained by differentiating the first equation in (1), where v
and r are treated as constants, and we have
we
obtain the
/j,
8a
Sa
a~
So, from (2),
we
fjb-
have, on taking logarithmic differentials,

8/x
8a
fj,
2e8e
8/j,
2e8e
1
_
e"~
vâ ^
B/j,
Again, since the periodic time
T=
'
v'â\
7 ^^
EXAMPLES
1.
be 365 days and the eccentricity
If the period of a j)lanet
e is
shew that the times of describing the two halves of the orbit, bounded by
the latus rectum passing through the centre of force, are
very nearly.
2
2.
The
ISttJ
perihelion distance of a
comet describing a parabolic path
of the radius of the Earth's j)ath supposed circular
that the comet will remain within the Earth's orbit

2
71
.
+2
n-\
^/ ot a year.
^
is
is
shew that the time
Law
[If
95
the Sun, a the radius of the Earth's path, A the perihelion of

the intersection of the paths of the earth and
S be
the comet's path, and
comet, then a = SP.
Now
Examples
of the Inverse Square.
so that cos^ =
-,
--
1,
and therefore
2ir
use the formula of Art. 77, remembering that -â'2' = one year.]
3.
The Earth's path about the Sun being assumed
to be a circle,
shew
that the longest time that a comet, which describes a parabolic path, can
remain within the Earth's orbit
is
5 of a
year.
OTT
mass 3f and periodic time T, when at its greatest

distance from the Sun comes into collision with a meteor of mass m,
moving in the same orbit in the opposite direction with velocity v if
4.
planet, of
jj
be small, shew that the major axis of the planet's path
4m
im vT
5.
When
velocity v
least distance
6.
a periodic comet
from the Sun
A small
is
at its greatest distance from the
is
minor axis of
falls
The Earth's present
path would be
if Jlf
j-
(l
Sun when the Earth is

be the mass of the Sun,
orbit
is
lessened by 2a. j^, that
t>.
ae M
.
orbit being taken to be circular, find
the Sun's mass were suddenly reduced to
if
its
lessened by -j^ of a year, and that the major axis of
turned throusrh an angle
its orbit is
7.
is
Sim
that the comet's
into the
its orbit
shew that the major axis of the Earth's

the periodic time
Shew
dv.
increased by the quantity 48v.
meteor, of mass m,
at the end of the
reduced by
/ l-i
increased by a small quantity
is
is
of
what
what
its
it is
now.
8.
comet
the end of
ratio n:\,
its
is
where
eccentricity
is
moving
about the Sun as focus when at

suddenly becomes altered in the
shew that the comet will describe an ellipse whose
in a parabola
latus-rectum
n<\
its velocity
Jl-'ln^ + 'in'^, and whose major
axis
is
^j
where
21
was the latus-rectum of the parabolic path.

9.
when
A body is
it
moving
arrives at
in an ellipse about a centre of force in the focus

the direction of motion is turned through a right
;
96
shew that the body will describe an

whose eccentricity varies as the distance of P from the centre.
angle, the speed being unaltered;

ellipse
10.
Two pai'ticles, of masses m^ and wig, moving in co-planar parabolas
round the Sun, collide at right angles and coalesce when their common
distance from the Sun is R.
Shew that the subsequent path of the
combined
particles is
an
major axis ^î + "'2->
ellipse of
11.
A particle is describing an ellipse under the action of a force to
one of its foci. When the particle is at one extremity of the miuor axis
a blow is given to it and the subsequent orbit is a circle
find the
magnitude and direction of the blow.
;
A particle m is describing an
12.
ellipse about the focus with angular

end of the minor axis receives a small
along the radius vector to the focus. Shew that the major axis
momentum mA, and when

impulse
mu
of the path
-7- (1
where
e^)'!'^
a, h
at the
diminished by y
is
and that the major axis
that the eccentricity
is
increased by
is
turned through the angle
-^
are the semi-axes and e the eccentricity of the ellipse.
13.
particle is describing a parabolic orbit (latus-rectum 4a) about
a centre of force (/n) in the focus, and on its arriving at a distance r frona
the focus moving towards the vertex the centre of force ceases to act for
a certain time r. When the force begins again to ojserate prove that the
new orbit will be an ellipse, parabola or hyperbola according as
Ira
14.
Shew
maximum
that the
range of a projectile on a horizontal
plane through the point of projection

of the Earth,
and h
is
2A ,-p
-^ ,
where
is
the radius
the greatest height to which the projectile can be
is
fired.
[Use the result of Art.

15.
When
79.]
variations of gravity and the spherical shape of the Earth
are taken into account, shew that the
placed at the sea level

elevation is - cos~^
"n
is
>
maximum
2i?sin-M j
where
R is the
range attainable by a gun
and that the necessary angle of
Earth's radius and h
height above the surface to which the gun can send the
is
the greatest
ball.
16.
Shew that the least velocity with which a body must be projected
from the Equator of the Earth so as to hit the surface again at the North
Pole is about 4^ miles per second, and that the corresponding direction of
projection makes an angle of 67^ with the vertical at the point of
projection.
CHAPTER YI
TANGENTIAL AND NORMAL ACCELERATIONS.
UNIPLANAR CONSTRAINED MOTION
In the present chapter will be considered questions
where the particle is constrained
to move in definite curves.
In these cases the accelerations are
often best measured along the tangent and normal to the curve.
We must therefore first determine the tangential and normal
accelerations in the case of any plane curve.
87.
which
chiefly involve motions
To shew
88.
normal
p
is the
that the accelerations along

d?s (
path of a particle are

j^
to the
radius of curvature of the curve
Let V be the velocity at time
a.t
the
tangent and
clv\
= ^ ;7-
v^
'^''^d
on the path is s, and let

v+ Av be the velocity at
time t + At along the tangent at Q, where PQ = As.
Let <j> and 4> + ^4> ^^
the angles that the tangents at
where
along the tangent at any
point P, whose arcual dis-
tance from a fixed point
the point considered.
and Q make
with a fixed line Ow, so

that A(f> is the angle between the tangents at
and
Q.
Dynamics of a
98
Particle
Then, by definition, the acceleration along the tangent at

velocity along the tangent at time
=
=
the
^ L
same
Lit
at time
.
,
(y
-Lt
A0 V
+ Aw) cos
7
A^
At=o
+ Ai
i>
+ Av w
on neglecting small quantities of the second order,
_dv _ d^s
^dt~dt^'
dv_dvds_
dt
~~
dv
'
ds dt
ds
Again the acceleration along the normal
at
velocity along the normal at time
P
+ At~\
the same
= Lit
-r
at time
At
T.(v + Av)Tsin A<f>

-Lit
Ai
A<=o
T
= Lt
,
(v
M=o^
sin
A0
Av) ~-r-~
^
.
v"
As
1
^
= V.l.-.V
= -.
As At
p
p
A<^
.-r-^.'.^
A(f>
Cor. In the case of a circle we have p

and the accelerations are a6 and aQ'^.
a, s
ad, v
= aO
89. The tangential and normal accelerations may also be directly obtained
from the accelerations parallel to the axes.
dx
'
_dx
ds
di~d^'dt'
/dsy dxd^
d^_^
^
d^~ dp
\dt)
'^
ds dfi'
But, by Differential Calculus,
d^
'X
p~
df _
dy
ds
and
d^x
dy
df2
- ~ ds'y^
ds2
dx'
ds
Tangential and Normal Accelerations. Examples 99

Therefore the acceleration along the tangent
^^~^
'
u.
'^îl
: ^
dv
_ <^^s
_dvds _
dv
cm
and the acceleration along the normal = - --7 sin
cli-
| cos =
dtp
a curve is described by a particle having a constant acceleration

90. -Ej;.
in a direction inclined at a constant angle to the tangent; shew that the curve is
an equiangular
spiral.
Here -3-=/ cos o and
1 ds
.'.
jr
2
.:
.-.
which
3-,
d^
=/sin
o,
where /and a are constants,
=s cot a +^, where 4
is
a constant.
+ .4) = 2^ cot a + const.

s= -^tano + jBe^'/'Cota
log
is the intrinsic
(s
cot
tt
equation of an equiangular spiral.
EXAMPLES
Find the intrinsic equation to a curve such that, when a point
moves on it with constant tangential acceleration, the magnitudes of the
tangential velocity and the normal acceleration are in a constant ratio.
1.
2.
point moves along the arc of a cycloid in such a manner that

it rotates with constant angular velocity ; shew that the
the tangent at
acceleration of the
3.
moving point
accelerations are equal

velocity
4.
is
constant in magnitude.
point moves in a curve so that
its tangential and normal

and the tangent rotates with constant angular
find the path.
If the relation
between the velocity of a particle and the arc
it
has
described be
find the tangential force acting
on the particle and the time that must
elapse from the beginning of the motion

5.
till
the velocity has the value
V.
Shew that a
each point by
generating
cycloid can be a free path for a particle acted on at

a constant force parallel to the corresponding radius of the
circle, this circle
being placed at the vertex.
An
insect crawls at a constant rate u along the spoke of a cartwheel, of radius a, whose centre is moving in a straight line with velocity
6.
V.
Find
7.
its accelerations
A circle
rolls
along and perpendicular to the spoke.
on a straight
line,
instant being v and its acceleration
/;
the velocity of
its
centre at any
find the tangential
and normal
accelerations of a point on the edge of the circle who&e angi.dar distance

from the point of contact is 6.
72
100
91.
A particle is compelled to move on a given smooth
plane curve under the action of given forces in the plane; to fnd
the motion.
Let
be a point of the curve

C is s, and let v be
arcual distance from a
^v
fixed point
Let X,
the velocity at P.
Y be
the components parallel to two

rectangular axes Ow,
forces
when
acting on
at
Oy
of the
the particle
since the curve
is
smooth the only reaction will

be a force R along the normal
at P.
Resolving along the tangent and normal, we have

vdv
-^ = force
along
TP = X cos
(j>+
Fsin
cfi
= xf-+Y'^^
ds
in
ds
= X sin(f)+ Ycos
and
(f)
+R
= -X^+Y + R
ds
When
V is
.(2).
ds
known, equation
(2) gives
at
any
point.
Equation (1) gives

^mv'-
Suppose that
some function
Then
= j{Xdx+Yd:/)
Xdw + Ydy
d) (x, y),
^^
1
- niv^
.,
is
so that
d<h
(3).
the complete differential
X = -^
and Y= -f^
dy
dx
dii
[
= W^dx + -j^ dy ^ = <^{x,y) + G
dy ^
J \dx
,
Suppose that the particle started with a velocity

point whose coordinates are
x^^,
hnV^ =
of
y^.
(a,'o,
(4).
1"
from a
Then
ô)
C*-
Hence, by subtraction,
^v-'-^mV^=(j){x,y)-4,{x^,y^)
This result
is
quite
independent of
the
(5).
path
pursued
Motion in a given Curve
101
between the initial point and P, and would therefore be the

same whatever be the form of the restraining curve.
From
Work
the definition of
by the
represents the work done
it is
clear that
Xd + Ydy
y)
X,
during a small
displacement ds along the curve. Hence the right-hand side of
(3) or of (4) represents the total work done on the particle by
the external forces, during its motion from the point of proforces
jection to P, added to an arbitrary constant.
Hence, when the components of the forces are equal to the

with respect to x and y of some function (j> (x, y), it
differentials
follows ft-om (5) that
The change
in the Kinetic
= the Work
Energy
of the particle
done by the External Forces.
Forces of this kind are called Conservative Forces.
The quantity
the system of
<^ {x,
is known
From the
Potential Function,
it
as the Work-Function of
y)
forces.
ordinary definition
clear that
is
is
(f){x,y)
Potential of the given system of forces added to
we
If the motion be in three dimensions
that the forces are Conservative

perfect differential,
true.
92.
some
constant.
have, similarly,
when j{Xdx + Ydy + Zdz)
and an equation similar
of
equal to the
is
to (5) will also be
[See Art. 131.]
The
system of
Potential Energy of the particle, due to the given
when
forces,
= the work
it is
in the position
done by the forces as the particle moves to some

standard position.
Let the latter position be the point

potential energy of the particle at P
r(x,
Vd
fix,
(xi,
y^).
Then the
dfk
y,) /(JU.
-|(^,,2/,)
<^ ( 3/)
<^
('-^'i
>yi)-4>
(''>
y)-
J(.2/)
Hence, from equation (4) of the last article,

(Kinetic Energy -f Potential Energy) of the particle when at
= (x, y) + C + {x y,) - 4> {X,

= G (f)(xi, 2/i) = a constant.
cfi
(fi
-\-
y)
Dynamics of a
102
Pat'ticle
Hence, when a particle moves under the action of a Conservative
System
Energies
is
of Forces, the
sum
of its Kinetic
and Potential
constant throughout the motion.
In the particular case when gravity is the only forde

= and F= mg.
have, if the axis of y be vertical,
Equation (3) then gives ^mv'^ = - mr/j/ + C.
Hence, if Q be a point of the path, this gives
93.
acting
we
P - kinetic
kinetic energy at
energy at
= mgx difference of the ordinates at P and Q

= the work done by gravity as the particle passes
This result
is
important
from
it,
from
to P.
given the kinetic energy
any known point of the curve, we have the kinetic energy at

any other point of the path, if the curve be smooth.
at
94.
If the only forces acting on a particle be perpendicular
motion (as in the case of a particle tethered

string, or moving on a smooth surface) its
constant for the work done by the string or reaction
to its direction of
by an inextensible
velocity
is
is zero.
95.
All forces tvldch are one-valued functions of distances
from fixed
Let a
function
-y^
points are Conservative Forces.

force acting
(r) of
on a particle at the point
the distance r from a fixed point
r^={^x-ay + {y-h)\
Also let the force act towards the point
Then
{n, b).
(cc,
(a, h)
y) be a
so that
Hence,
if
^(r) be such that
-^
i?'
=-
(r)
103
-v^ (?)
(1),
we have
\{Xdx
Such a
+ Ydy) =
f^F (r) dr = F (r) + const.
therefore satisfies the condition of being a
force
Conservative Force.
If the force be
^ (r) = ^ then F
,
a central one and follow the law of the inverse square, so that
(r)
I \p
93.
(r)
dr-'^ and hence
(Xdx + Ydy) = ^ + constant.
The work done in stretching an
the extension
elastic string is equal to
produced inultiplied by the mean of the
initial
and
final tensions.
Let a be the unstretched length of the

modulus of elasticity, so that, when its length
= A,
The work done
string,
and \
is x, its
its
tension
by Hooke's Law.
-^
in stretching
it
from a length 6 to a length
= 2^J(_)..-(6-a).-]=(o-i)[x^+x"-^]xi
= (c 6)
X mean of the
initial
and
final tensions.
Ex. AandBare two points in the same horizontal plane at a distance 2a apart
AB is an elastic string whose unstretched length is 2a. To O, the middle point of
AB, is attached a particle of mass m lohich is allowed to fall under gravity ; find
its velocity -when it has fallen a distance x and the greatest vertical distance
through which it moves.
When the particle is at P, where OF = x, let its velocity be v, so that its
kinetic energy then
is
imv^.
The work done by gravity = TOr; x.

The work done against the tension
.
= 2 X (P - 0) X
\ :^^^J=i^
of the string
= ^ (L'P
a)2
a'^
- ap.
[v/^;;r^2
_ a]2.
Hence, by the Principle of Energy,

^mj;2
The
particle
comes
to rest
= mgx when
i;
'-
[sjx^ +
= 0, and
then x
ingxa X [\x^ + a^ -
a]^.
is gi\'en
by the equation
Dynamics of a
104
Farticle
EXAMPLES
If an elastic string, whose natural length is that of a uniform rod,
1.
be attached to the rod at both ends and suspended by the middle point,
shew by means of the Principle of Energy, that the rod will sink until the
strings are inclined to the horizon at an angle 6 given by the equation
cot3--cot- = 2,
given that the modulus of elasticity of the string
the rod.
is
7i
times the weight of
A heavy ring, of mass m, slides on a smooth vertical rod and is

2.
attached to a light string which passes over a small pulley distant a from
the rod and has a mass
(> m) fastened to its other end. Shew that, if
the ring be dropped from a point in the rod in the same horizontal plane
as the pulley,
it will
j^
descend a distance
m when
Find the velocity of
it
before coming to rest.
has fallen through any distance
x.
mass
is moving with velocity V.
An internal
explosion generates an amount of energy E and breaks the shell into two
portions whose masses are in the latio m^ m^. The fragments continue
to move in the original line of motion of the shell.
Shew that their
3.
of
shell
...
velocities are
4.
An
/^mÊ
* /
+V
rp
and
f^miE
* /
r?
A'
'iHiM
Hijjil/
endless elastic string, of natural length 'Ina, lies on a .smooth
horizontal table in a circle of radius a.
The
string
is
suddenly set in
centre with angular velocity w. Shew that if left to

itself the string will expand and that, when its radius is r, its angular
motion about
its
velocity i& -â,
r^^
(r^
^
a?-)
'
and the square of

^
ma
where
its radial velocity
from the centre
is
the mass and X the modulus of
is
elasticity of the string.
Four equal particles are connected by strings, which form the

and repel one another with a force equal to /x x distance
one string be cut, shew that, when either string makes an angle Q with
5.
sides of a square,
if
.,..,.,..,
its original position, its
angular velocity
is a
/4/xsiu(9(2 + sin^)
-^^r^.
/ -^--Jf^" Sin
u
[As in Art 47 the centre of mass of the whole system remains at rest
also the repulsion, by the well-known property, on each particle is the
same as if the whole of the four particles were collected at the centre and
= 4^1 X distance from the fixed centre of mass. Equate the total kinetic
energy to the total work done by the repulsion.]
The Simple Pendulum
105
A uniform string, of mass M and length 2a, is placed
6.
over a smooth peg and has particles of masses

and
extremities shew that when the string runs off the peg
ra'
symmetrically
attached to its
its velocity is
J/+ 2 (m - m')
*^'
Jf+m+m'
A heavy uniform chain, of length 21, hangs over a small smooth fixed
7.
pulley, the length
+c
being at one side and
of the shorter portion he held,

slip off the pulley in
time
and then
c at
let go,
log
the other
if
the end
shew that the chain
will
uniform chain, of length I and weight W, is placed on a line of

greatest slope of a smooth plane, whose inclination to the horizontal is a,
and just reaches the bottom of the piano where there is a small smooth
pulley over which it can ruu. Shew that, wheu a length x has run oftj the
8.
tension at the bottom of the plane

9.
is
TF(1
sina)
(I
- x)
Over a small smooth pulley is placed a uniform flexible cord the

and lengths I a and l + a hang down on the two
;
latter is initially at rest
The pulley is now made to move with constant vertical

Shew that the string will leave the pulley after a time
sides.
tion
/.
accelera-
V:f+g cosh~i Oscillations of a Simple
97.
particle
fixed paint
to
and
Pendulum.
attached hy a light string, of length I, to a

oscillates under gravity through a small angle;
is
find the period of its motion.

When the string makes an angle 6 with the vertical, the
equation of motion
m-j^
But
(j
is
= mg sin
W.
= ^ ain =
J 6,to
a,
first
approxima-
tion.
If the pendulum swings through a small

angle a on each side of the vertical, so that
when t = 0, this equation
6 = a and ^ =
gives
_
^
= a cos
U /? t\
lVT
106
JJynamics of a Fartide
so that the
motion
is
very small oscillation
simple harmonic and the time,
27r
a/-
since 6 is zero
when
as in Art. 22.
For a higher approximation we have, from equation
W'
Ti, of
= 2g (cos
- cos a)
(1),
(2),
(x.
[This equation follows at once from the Principle of Energy.]

...
_ ^^
J^.t-T
V
Jo Vcos ^
I
where
t is
cos a'
the time of a quarter-swing.
Put
sin
sm-2
V'2
jo
= sin 2-
sin
<^.
cos (^f?^
1/
/
cos ^
K
SI
sm
^
cos
(f>
fl-sin-^^sin2<^)-
Jo
""^Wo
(3)
2'"'"2-'^^"'^+2":4''''
L
+ (,2-^6)
Hence a second approximation
^^^^2
2'^^^ + -/'^
-J
<^>-
to the required period, T2,
=r,[i+.|.sin=g=r.[i+f;],
if
of
powers of a higher than the second are neglected.

Even if a be not very small, the second term in the bracket
(4) is usually a sufficient approximation.
For example,
The Simple Pendulum

suppose
of
60"^
a.
= 30,
then
so that the
sin^
-^
= sin- 15 = '067,
^-
[The student who
[1
is
107
pendulum swings through an angle
-017
and
(4) gives
-00063
...].
acquainted with Elliptic Functions
will see that (3) gives
sin
sin -
so that
The time
^/:
sin
= sin ^
by the
sn (^
[mod. sin
a/i )
^J
(mod. sin-j
is also,
by
(3),
equal to
real period of the elliptic function with
.]
The equations
98.
U a/?)
sn
of a complete oscillation
- multiplied
modulus
^=
(1)
and
(2) of the previous article give
when a is not necessarily

be the angular velocity of the particle when
passing through the lowest point A, we have
the motion in a circle in any case,
If
small.
CO
le-'
= 2g cos 6 + const. = Im^ - 2^ (1 - cos ^)
(5).
This equation cannot in general be integrated without the

use of Elliptic Functions, which are beyond the scope of this
book.
If
he the tension of the string, we have
T mg cos 6 = force
along the normal
PO
= mie^ = mlw'' - ^vig (1 - cos 6\

T = m{la>^-g{2-Scose)}
.-.
Hence
T vanishes
motion ceases, when cos

Particular Case.
~^^
Let the augular velocity at
i2w2
be that due tu a
= 2(7.2?,
i.e.
(5)
gives
circular
highest point A', so that
Then
(6).
and becomes negative, and hence
fall
from the
Dynamics of a FarticLe
108
^^^
l^l-[
/"JL
n-
^/l'
giving the time
of describing
an angle
from the lowest point.
Also in this case
T = in {Ag -2g + Bg
tan H=v/^'
cos
e}=mg[2 + 3
cos
0],
Therefore the time during which the circular motion lasts
Vi
Ioge(v/5
+ V6).
99. Ex. 1. Shew that a pendulum, which beats eeconds when it swings
through 3 on each side of the vertical, will lose about 12 sees, per day if the
angle be 4 and about 27 sees, per day if the angle be 5.
A heavy bead slides on a smooth fixed vertical circular wire of radius

be projected from the lowest point with velocity just sufbcient to carry it
to the highest point, shew that the radius to the bead is at time t inclined to the
Ex.
a;
2.
if it
vertical at
an angle 2 tau-i
sinh
^/-t
and that the bead
will be
an
infinite
time in airriving at the highest point.
100.
Motion on a smootk cycloid whose axis
vertex lowest.
is vertical
and
Motion on a smooth Cycloid
109
AQD
be the generating circle of the cycloid GPAC,

Let
be the tangent at P and
being any point on it; let
perpendicular to the axis meeting the generating circle
The two principal properties of the cycloid are that the
in Q.
is equal to
tangent TP is parallel to AQ, and that the arc
PT
PQN
^P
twice the line
Hence,
if
Q.
PTx
be
0,
we have
= zQAx = AI)Q,
= arc^P = 2.^Q = 4asin^
e
and
(1),
a be the radius of the generating circle.

If R be the reaction of the curve along the normal, and
the particle at P, the equations of motion are then
if
m
and
ni
From
-j-
= force
~ = force
(1)
and
(2),
along
PT = mg sin ^
along the normal
= R mg cos 6
(2),
..
,(3).
we then have
^=-/
w-
so that the motion is simple harmonic, and hence, as in

Art. 22, the time to the lowest point
TT
_
/a
V
and
is
therefore always the
4a
same whatever be the point of the
curve at which the particle started from

Integrating equation (4), we have
rest.
= 4a^ (sin^ 0^ - sin^ Q),

if
=
the particle started from rest at the point where
[This equation can be written down at once
Principle of Energy.]
Also
P ~ rf^~ ^^ ^^^
^'
0^.
by the
110
Therefore (3) gives
K = mg cos v^ + mg
.
sin'' ^0
sin"
= mg cos2^+sin2<
cos 6
'
giving the reaction of the curve at any point of the path.

On passing the lowest point the particle ascends the other
side until it is at the height from which it started, and thus
it oscillates
The property proved
101.
still
backwards and forwards.
true
instead
if,
in the previous article will be
we
substitute a
that
the particle
of the material curve,
way
string tied to the particle in such a
describes a cycloid and the
always normal to the

This will be the case if the string unwraps and wraps
curve.
itself on the evolute of the cycloid.
It can be easily shewn
that the evolute of a cycloid is two halves of an equal cycloid.
string
is
For, since p = 4a cos 6, the points on the evolute corresponding to A and C are A', where
= DA', and C itself.
Let the normal PO meet this evolute in P', and let the arc
CP' be o". By the property of the evolute
AD
'
o-
= arc P'G = P'P, the radius

= 4(* cos = 4a sin P'GD.
of curvature at P,
(9
Hence, by (1) of the

whose vertex is at
cycloid
holds for the arc CA.
last
article,
the curve
G and whose
The
is
a similar
axis is vertical.
evolute for the arc
C'A
is
This
the
similar semi-oycloid C'A'.
Hence
arc GA',
unwind
if
i.e.
a string, or flexible wire, of length equal to the

4a, be attached at
itself
upon
A' and allowed to wind and
fixed metal cheeks
curve GA'G', a particle
attached
in
the form of the
other end will

GAG', and the string will always be
normal to the curve GAG'; the times of oscillation will
therefore be always isochronous, whatever be the angle through
which the string oscillates. In actual practice, a pendulum is
only required to SAving through a small angle, so that only
small portions of the two arcs near A' are required.
This
arrangement is often adopted in the case of the pendulum
of a small clock, the upper end of the supporting wire consisting
of a thin flat spring which coils and uncoils itself from the two
describe
the cycloid
metal cheeks at A',
to
its
Motion on a rough Curve
TU
Motion on a rough curve under gravity.

Whatever be the curve described under gravity with friction,
we have, if ^ be the angle measured from the horizontal made
by the tangent, and if s increases with 4),
102.
dv
and
112
^'-2yî-^ = 2r/(^cos^-sin^)^
/.
= Sag (fico2 sin 6) cos

= âg {/Jb+ fi cos 20 sin 20).
.
To
integrate this equation, multiply

2^6
^2g
=-
2age-^>''
+ ^^-
v'=A e''^' -
i.e.
4a^je-2,x9 (^
e'^'^^ [2yu,
by
e'^ê^
26
+ ^ cos
sin 26*
+ (1 -
fi'^)
cos 2^]
+ =^^, [2/z sin 2^ + (1 -
2ag
The constant A is determined from the

The equation cannot be integrated further.
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
1.
and we have
sin 29)
/ti*)
cos
^,
2(9].
initial conditions.
VI,
the smooth curve y = a sich -
A particle slides down
the axis of
being horizontal, starting from rest at the point where the tangent
shew that it will leave the curve when
inclined at a to the horizon
has fallen through a vertical distance a sec a.
;
2.
smooth curve under the action of
particle descends a
x
is
it
gravity,
describing equal vertical distances in equal times, and starting in a

Shew that the curve is a semi-cubical parabola, the
vertical direction.
tangent at the cusp of which

3.
A particle
inverted cycloid
vertex
4.
is
first
arc
^-tan-M '^
V from the cusp of a smooth

shew that the time of reaching the
down the
arc of a smooth cycloid whose axis is

prove that the time occupied in falling down
half of the vertical height is equal to the time of falling down
;
half.
particle is placed very close to the vertex of a
whose axis
curve.
down the
particle slides
the second
5.
is vertical.
and vertex lowest
vertical
the
is
is
vertical
Shew that
it
and vertex upwards, and

leaves the curve
making with the horizontal an angle
of
when
is
smooth cycloid
allowed to run
it is
moving
down the
in a direction
of 45.
A ring is strung on a smooth closed wire which is in the shape

6.
two equal cycloids joined cusp to cusp, in the same plane and sym-
The plane of the

metrically situated with respect to the line of cusps.
wire is vertical, the line of cusps horizontal, and the radius of the
generating circle
is a.
The
ring starts from the highest point with
Examples
Constrained motion.
113
Prove that the times from the upper vertex to the cusp, and
velocity v.
from the cusp to the lower vertex are respectively
7.
moves
particle
in a
smooth tube
in the
form of a catenary, being
attracted to the directrix by a force proportional to the distance from
Shew that
8.
the motion
of
particle,
mass m, moves
in
a smooth
radius a, under the action of a force, equal to

inside the tube at a distance c
very nearly at
its
from
centre
its
i/i
if
circular
x distance,
quadrant ending at
its least
logU/2 +
7:
tube,
of
to a point
the particle be placed
greatest distance from the centre of force,
desci'ibe the
it will
it
simple harmonic.
is
shew that
distance in time
1).
A bead is constrained to move on a smooth wire in the form of an

9.
equiangular spiral. It is attracted to the pole of the spiral by a force,
= m/i (distance)- 2, and starts from rest at a distance h from the pole.
Shew
that, if the equation to the spiral
^ */ -
at the pole is
sec
be r = ae^'^*", the time of arriving
a.
Find also the reaction of the curve at any instant.
10.
vertical
smooth parabolic tube
plane
a particle slides
influence of gravity
tube
is
Iw
is
placed,
vertex downwards,
down the tube from
rest
in
under the
prove that in any position the reaction of the
where
is
the weight of the particle, p the radius of
curvature, 4a the latus rectum, and h the original vei'tical height of the
particle above the vertex.
11.
From
an
the lowest point of a smooth hollow cylinder whose cross-
major axis 2a and minor axis 26, and whose minor

a particle is projected from the lowest point in a vertical
plane perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder shew that it will leave
the cylinder if the velocity of projection lie between
section
axis
is
ellipse, of
is vertical,
V2(/a
12.
and
small bead, of mass
wi,
acted upon by a central attraction
moves on a smooth
f''^
situated at a distance h from its centre.
bead
may move
circular wire, being
to a point
within the
^
(distance)^
,_,.
completely round the
r-
Shew
circle
that, in order that the
circle, its velocity at
the wire nearest the centre of force must not be less than
the point of
/ ~-
Dynamics of a
114
13.
small bead moves on a thin elliptic wire under a force to the
^ + -3
focus equal to
R from
Particle
It is projected
from a point on the wire distant
the focus with the velocity which would cause
ellipse freely
under a force
-^
Shew
is
is
the radius of curvature.
If a particle is
14.
to describe the
A -J
or
p yj^
where p
it
that the reaction of the wire
made
to describe a curve in the form of the
four-cusped hypocycloid x^+y'^ = a^ under the action of an attraction

perpendicular to the axis and varying as the cube root of the distance
from
is
it,
shew that the time of descent from any point to the axis
i.e. that the curve is a Tautochrone for this law of force.
of
the same,
15.
small bead moves on a smooth wire in the form of an epi-
upon by a
cycloid, being acted
the centre of
isochronous.
force,
varying as the distance, toward
shew that its oscillations are always

Shew that the same is true if the curve be a hypocycloid
the epicycloid
and the force always from, instead of towards, the centre.
16.
any
arc,
curve in a vertical plane
measured from a
such that the time of describing

time of sliding
shew that the curve is a lemniscate of
is
fixed point 0, is equal to the
down
the chord of the arc ;

Bernouilh, whose node is at
and whose axis
is
inclined at 45 to the
vertical,
17.
and
particle
is
projected along the inner surface of a rough sphere

shew that it will return to the point of
acted on by no forces
is
projection at the end of time

sphere,
V is
j^(e^'"^-
the velocity of projection and
1),
/x
where a
is
is
the radius of the
bead slides down a rough circular wire, which is in a vertical

re.st at the end of a horizontal diameter.
When it
has described an angle 6 about the centre, shew that the square of its
angular velocity is
18.
plane, starting from
y
where
19.
/i
is
[(1
2/^2)
sin 6
+ 3^
the coefficient of friction and a

particle falls
(cos 6
tlie
- e'^^^
radius of the rod.
from a position of limiting equilibrium near the
top of a nearly smooth glass sphere. Shew that it will leave the sphere
whose radius is inclined to the vertical at an angle
at the point
where cos a = |, and

20.
/x
is
the small coefficient of friction.
particle is projected horizontally
from the lowest point of
Examples
Constrained motion.
it
115
After describing an arc less than a quadrant

returns and comes to rest at the lowest point. Shew that the initial
a rough sphere of radius
must be
velocity
and aa
is
sin a
a.
*/ 2ga _^ ^
where
is
ft
the arc through which the particle moves.
21.
The base of a rough cycloidal arc is horizontal and its vertex
downwards a bead slides along it starting from rest at the cusp and
coming to rest at the vertex. Shew that /xV^=l.
;
down a rough cycloidal arc

and vertex downwards, starting from a point where
the tangent makes an angle 6 with the horizon and coming to rest at the
22.
particle slides in a vertical plane
whose axis
is vertical
Shew that
vertex.
fxe*^^
= sin ^ /i cos 9.
rough cycloid has its plane vertical and the line joining its
cusps horizontal. A heavy particle slides down the curve from rest at
a cusp and comes to rest again at the point on the other side of the
vertex where the tangent is inclined at 45 to the vertical. Shew that
23.
the coefficient of friction satisfies the equation

3;x7r
24.
25.
+ 4log,(l+;x) = 2log,2.
bead moves along a rough cvu-ved wire which is such that it

changes its direction of motion with constant angular velocity. Shew
that the wire is in the form of an equiangular spiral.
free to
particle is held at the lowest point of a catenary^ whose axis is

is attached to a string which lies along the catenary hut is
and
vertical,
unwind from it. If the particle

it is moviaj at an angle
be released, sheio that the time that
elapses before
and
that its velocity then is 2 i\Jgc sin
catenary.
Find
At time
where
catenary.
is
t,
let
the string
PQ
The
where
c is the
parameter of
be inclined at an angle (p to the horizontal,

the point where the string touches the
being the lowest point,
velocity of
let
AQ = line PQ.
along QP=ve\. of
along the tangent + the
= (-s)+s==0
vel.
(1).
P perpendicular to QP similarly
The
velocity of
The
acceleration of
the
(f).
s=arc
P relative to
also the tension of the string in terms of
the particle and
to the vertical is
= ^0
P along QP (by
Arts. 4
= acc. of Q along the tangent QP+the

= -s + (i--4^)=-5<^2
(2).
and 49)
ace. of
P relative to Q
(3).
82
of
Dynamics of a
116
The
P perpendicular to QP
acceleration of
= acc.
=-s(j)
of
Particle
in this direction
+ ace.
of
P relative
to
+ s^
(4).
These are the component

whether a catenary or not.
The equation
velocities
and accelerations
for
any curve,
of energy gives for the catenary
\m.
(c
tan<^0)2 = wi^ (c ccos<^)
(5).
Resolving along the line PQ, we have
Mictan(^.02_2T_^^gjjj
(5)
and
(6) give
(^Q^_
the results required.
26.
A particle is attached to the end of a light string vprapped round
a vertical circular hoop and is initially at rest on the outside of the
hoop at its lowest point. When a length aO of the string has become
unwound, shew that the velocity v of the particle then is
\/2ag {6 sin ^+cos 6
and that the tension of the string
is
1),
(3sin^H
-j
times the
weight of the particle.

27.
particle is attached to the
winds round the circumference of a

a repulsive force
nifi
(distance)
end of a fine thread which just

from the centre of which acts
circle
shew that the time of unwinding
and that the tension of the thread at any time

the radius of the
28.
is
-p
.a.t, where a is
is 2/u-
circle.
particle is suspended
by a
light string
of a cylinder, of radius a, whose axis is
tangential to the cylinder and its
from the circumference

the string being
horizontal,
unwound length being
a/S.
The
particle
projected horizontally in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the

cylinder so as to pass ixnder it; shew that the least velocity it can
is
have so that the string
may wind
itself
completely up
is
\'2(/a(/3-sin/3).
moves in a plane under a force acting in the

particle
29.
direction of the tangent from / to a fixed circle and inversely proporShew how to solve the equations
tional to the length of that tangent.
of motion,
and shew that in one particular case the
particle
moves with
constant velocity.
If a particle can describe

of forces and can also describe
30.
set
describe
it
freely
in the last case
two cases.
is
when both
sets act,
<ûal to the
sum of
certain plane curve freely under one
a second set, then it can

provided that the initial kinetic energy
it
freely under
the initial kinetic eneryies in the first
Examples
Constrained 'motion.
117
be measured from the point of projection, and let the

initial velocities of projection in the first two cases be U\_ and Ui.
Let the tangential and normal forces in the first case be T^ and N^,
when an arc s has been described, and T^ and N^ similarly in the second
Then
case let the velocities at this point be Vi and ^2.
Let the arc
as
mvo
dr
-y-
as
= To^'
^wva^ =
and
.:
and
Vo"-
-^ = JV,
'
T^ds + \m U^.
hn {vi^ + v^^) = P T^ds + r
T2ds + ^m U^^ + ^m U<^
m'^-^^^^N^^-N^
and
(1
),
(2).
same curve be described freely when both sets of forces are

acting, and the velocity be v at arcual distance s, and U be the initial
velocity, we must have similarly
If the
i97iv^=j\T,+ T2)ds + lmU^
(3),
m-=JVi + iyo^
and
(4).
Provided that hyiU^^hnUi^ + hnU^^ equations
(4) is the same as (2), which is true.

Hence the conditions of motion are satisfied
(1)
and
(3) give
and then
initial kinetic
the
first
two
energy for
it is
equal to the
for the last case, if the
of the kinetic energies in
cases.
The same proof would
clearly hold for
The theorem may be extended
Cor.
sum
If particles of
more than two
sets of forces.
as follows.
masses mi, m^, ms... all describe one path under

same path can be described by a particle
forces Fi, F2, F^...; then the
mass
under all the forces acting simultaneously, provided its kinetic
energy at the point of projection is equal to the sum of the kinetic
energies of the particles ??ij, wjgj *'J3--- at the same point of projection.
of
31.
and
/5
A particle moves
to another point
under the influence of two forces

;
shew
describe a circle, and find the
to one point
that it is possible for the particle to
circle,
Dynamics of a
118
32.
Shew
that a particle can be
33.
A
Tg
circle,
of radius a,
to a point
on
is
if
Shew
ellipse freely
foci.
described by a particle under a force
.,
If,
in addition, there be
shew that the
circle
will
still
a
be
the iârticle start from rest at a point where
V
34.
an
to describe
directed towards its
circumference.
its
constant normal repulsive force

described freely
made
Ar+^, X/4-^
under the action of forces
.,.
Particle
2^2/
that a particle can describe a circle under two forces
and
1^
two centres of force, which are inverse points for the circle at
distances / and /' from the centre, and that the velocity at any point is
directed to
f f
(-
35.
A ring,
and radius a
of
mass m,
is
strung on a smooth circular wire, of mass
if the system rests on a smooth table, and the ring be

started with velocity v in the direction of the tangent to the wire, shew
;
that the reaction of the wire
is
Mm
always -^
M+m
v''.
0, A and B are three collinear points on a smooth table, such

OA=a and AB = b. A string is laid along AB and to B is attached
36.
that
If the end A be made to describe a circle, whose centre is 0,

a
with uniform velocity v, shew that the motion of the string relative to the
particle.
revolving radius
and
OA
is
the same as that of a
pendulum
further that the string will not remain taut unless a
of length ^-5-
> 46.
CHAPTER
YII
MOTION IN A EESISTING MEDIUM. MOTION OF

PARTICLES OF VARYING MASS
When
104.
a body moves in a
medium
like air, it ex-
motion which increases as its

velocity increases, and which may therefore be assumed to be
equal to some function of the velocity, such as kpf{v), where
p is the density of the medium and k is some constant
depending on the shape of the body.
Many efforts have been made to discover the law of
resistance, but without much success. It appears, however, that
for projectiles moving with velocities under about 800 feet per
periences a resistance
to
its
second the resistance approximately varies as the square of the

velocity, that for velocities between this value and about 1350
feet per second the resistance varies as the cube, or even a
higher power, of the velocity, whilst for higher velocities the

resistance seems to again follow the law of the square of the
velocity.
For other motions

law
for
it is
found that other assumptions of the
the resistance are more suitable.
Thus
in the case of
the motion of an ordinary pendulum the assumption that the

resistance varies as the velocity
is
the best approximation.
In any case the law assumed is more or less empiric, and

its truth can only be tested by enquiring how far the results,
which are theoretically obtained by its use, fit with the actually
observed facts of the motion.
Whatever be the law of resistance, the forces are nonand the Principle of Conservation of Energy
conservative,
cannot be applied.
Dynamics of a
120
In the case of a particle falling under gravity in a

the velocity will never exceed some definite
105
resisting
Particle
medium
quantity.
For suppose the
downward
hv'^
the
= g,
of resistance to be
lavi^
acceleration
i.e.
when the
maximum
\b
velocity
kv'\
=
velocity possible,
and
(yjn
and
kv"^
this
m.
Then the
when
vanishes
This therefore will be

called the limiting or
it is
terminal velocity.
It follows from this that we cannot tell the height from
which drops of rain fall by observing their velocity on reaching
the ground.
For soon after they have started they will have
approximately reached their terminal velocity, and will then
continue to move with a velocity which is sensibly constant and
very little differing from the terminal velocity.
In the case of a ship which is under steam there is a full
speed beyond which it cannot travel. This full speed will
depend on the dimensions of the ship and the size and power of
its
engines, etc.
But whatever the latter may be, there will be some velocity
which the work that must be done in overcoming the
resistance of the water, which varies as some function of the
at
velocity, will
be just equivalent to the
maximum amount
work that can be done by the engines of the

further increase of the speed of the ship
106.
'particle falls
medium whose
resisting
is
ship,
of
and then
impossible.
under gravity {supposed constant) in a
resistance varies as the square of the
to find the motion if the particle starts from rest.

;
Let V be the velocity when the particle has fallen a distance
X in time t from rest. The equation of motion is
velocity
d'x
Let
;.
From
= |,
so that
^ = ,(1-1)
(1).
(1) it follows that if v equalled k, the acceleration
would be zero; the motion would then be unresisted and the

velocity of the particle would continue to be k.
For this
reason k is called the " terminal velocity."

dv
From(l),
121
v^
^dx^^V'!^
2vdv
f
-^x=\.rr^.=
so that
,,,
,.
-ô^(k''-v'')
Since v and x are both zero
initially, ..
A = log A;^
j2gx
(2).
It follows that
= 00 when v=k.
a;
"
not actually acquire the
an
Hence the
terminal velocity
particle
" until it
had
would
fallen
infinite distance.
Again
(1) can be written
dv
gt
,
'
Since v and
'
k"^
v"^
k+v j^
dv _ 1
k'-v'~2k^^k-v^
zero initially,
B = 0.
were
+v
-'-
=e
\v = kK::^=k\,^n\.
e^-
From
and
(2)
(3),
+1
(3).
(l)
we have
k^
A;
cosh-
c''^'=cosh^,
so that
107.
If
doiumuards,
Let
the 'particle
to
V be
and
a;= logcosh^
(4).
were projected upwards instead
the velocity of projection.

of motion
now
is
_ = _^_^,> = -^(^l + _j
is
at
~
find the motion.
The equation
where x
.-.
k
k
Hence
/,
measured upwards.
(5),
of
Dynamics of a
122
Fartiele
.^ = -5,(1+^;).
Hence
= - log
where
2gx
V^
F-
A--)
+ A.
k'
'-'-W^^'^Wk^
Again
5).
(5) gives
dv
gt
v"-\
dv
where
.f
Equation
(6)
,v
1,
tan"^
T^
-y
+ B.
= tan-^-tan-|
when the
the velocity
gives
(7).
particle
has
described any distance, and (7) gives the velocity at the end
of any time.
A person falls by means of a parachute from a height of 800 yards

Assuming the resistance to vary as the square of the velocity, sheio
that in a second and a half his velocity diners by less than one per cent, from its
value when he reaches the ground and find an approximate value for the limiting
108.
Ex.
in 2^ minutes.
velocity.
When
the parachute has fallen a space x in time
(,
we have, by
Art. 106, if
(1
V^^k^[l-e~ k^J
(1),
t;=^tanh^|*^
(2),
= -log cosh (^)
and
(3).
\ /'
Here
2400 ^,
= log cosh
fl^\
150g
.
The second term on the
2400f,
k^
right
=e
hand
is
+c
l.-flgr
'k
(^)-
very small, since k
'-^
2400|
Hence
(4) is
approximately equivalent to
.-.
2400.%
K-
=le
i^- log 2= ^^,

nearly.
K
It
is positive.
Motion in a Resisting Medium.
Examples
123
Hence fc = 16 is a first approximation.

Putting ft=16 (1 + 2/), (4) gives, for a second approximation,
_/
800(1-2,)
âuuu
-y)
i>i
when
eÔOg-^)
_
_
Therefore a second approx.

Also the velocity
+_,-300a-.) _
0(l-a/)
is
A;
= 16
(1
+ -0023),
yery approx.
giving the terminal velocity.
the particle reaches the ground,
is,
by
(1),
given by
2.32.2400-1
ri2=/,2|_i
=
When
is
99
"/o
.*.
=199 = 6"
:.
i.e. t is less
aU practical purposes.
for
fc2,
of the terminal velocity, (2) gives
16
2g
bi
from the Tables.
= p X 5'3 = --- X 5"3 = 1'325
approx.,
than l^secs.
EXAMPLES
mass m, is falling under the influence of gravitythrough a medium whose resistance equals fx times the velocity.
If the particle be released from rest, shew that the distance fallen
1.
particle, of
through in time
2.
is
particle, of
tL
-Ae
mass m,
mk
resistance of the air being
f\
'-l
is
+ ^L
projected vertically under gravity, the
times the velocity
shew that the greatest
y-i
height attained by the particle
is
[\-log(l+X)],
terminal velocity of the particle and X
where
is its initial vertical
is
the
velocity.
A heavy particle is projected vertically upwards with velocity ic in

3.
a medium, the resistance of which is gw'^tB.n'â times the square of the
velocity, a being a constant.
Shew
that the particle will return to the
point of projection with velocity u cos
^-icota(a
+ log
^
\
4.
A particle falls from
medium whose
rest
a,
after a time
'"'"^"
- sui a J
under gravity through a distance
a; in a
be the
would have acquired had
resistance varies as the square of the velocity
velocity actually acquired
by
it,
v^
the velocity
there been no resisting medium, and
Vi?
F the
2 K^"^2.3 V^
it
if y
terminal velocity, shew that
2.3.4 V^'^'"
Dynamics of a
124
A
5.
Particle
particle is projected with velocity
along a smooth horizontal
plane in a medium whose resistance per unit of mass is /* times the cube
of the velocity. Shew that the distance it has described in time t is
and that
6.
in a
then
its velocity
heavy particle
is
is
projected vertically upwards with a velocity
medium
the resistance of which varies as the cube of the particle's

Determine the height to which the particle will ascend.
velocity.
power of the
If the resistance vary as the fourth
7.
energy of
lbs.
a vertical line under gravity
velocity, the
x below the highest point when moving
at a depth
E tan ^
be
Nvill
when
rising,
in
and
^tanh^"
when
falling,
8.
E is the terminal energy
where
and
t.
infinite
resistance
it
In the previous question
9.
medium whose
comes to rest after describing a distance s in

Find the values of s and t and shew that s is finite if n < 2, but
if = or > 2, whilst t is finite if n < 1, but infinite if n= or > 1.
varies as (velocity)",
time
medium.
in the
particle is projected in a resisting
be
initial velocity
the resistance be k (velocity) and the
if
shew that v= Fe"** and s=
V,
t-(1 -e"*^').
heavy particle is projected vertically upwards in a medium

10.
It has a
the resistance of which varies as the square of the velocity.
kinetic energy
in its
upward path
at a given point
same point on the way down, shew that

the limit to which
A'' is
11.
its
energy approaches in
when
its
is
it
passes the
=r--=^ where
,
downward
course.
motion of a railway train vary as its mass

and the engine work at constant h. p., shew
never be attained, and that the distance traversed from
speed will
its velocity,
that
full
rest
when half-speed
is
attained
is
unit mass per unit velocity.

Find also the time of describing
A ship,
logg ^
At one
one minute later the speed has
where
fj.
is
rest,
when the
the ship will

first
velocity
the resistance per
gradually brought to rest by the
ft. per sec. and

For speeds below
be taken to vary as the speed, and for
instant the velocity

fallen to 6
ft.
per
move through
was observed.
is
10
sec.
2 ft. per sec. the resistance may

higher speeds to vary as the square of the speed.
coming to
is
this distance.
with engines stopped,
resistance of the water.
point
energy
If the resistance to the
and the square of
12.
its loss of
Shew
that,
before
900[l-|-loge 5] feet, from the
Motion
in
a Resisting Medium. Examples
125
A particle moves from rest at a distance a from a fixed point

13.
equal to fx times the distance per imit of
under the action of a force to
mass if the resistance of the medium in which it moves be k times the
per
unit
of
mass,
shew that the square of the velocity
square of the velocity
;
when
it is
Shew
x from
at a distance
also that
when
it first
is
^' -
e^'''~>
comes to rest
it
+ 2X2 [1 - e^'"^""*]will
be at a distance h
given by {\-2l-b)e'^''^ = {l-\-2l-a)e-^''K
A particle falls from rest at a distance a from the centre of the

14.
Earth towards the Earth, the motion meeting with a small resistance
proportional to the square of the velocity v and the retardation being /x for
unit velocity ; shew that the kinetic energy at distance x from the centre
is
mgr^
l-2/i( 1
- 2/i loge
-I
the square of /x being neglected, and
r being the radius of the Earth.

15.
An
attracting force, varying as the distance, acts on a particle
initially at rest at a distance a.
particle is at a distance x,
the resistance of the air
and
Shew
V be
that, if
V the velocity of
the velocity
when the
when
the same particle
taken into account, then
is
"=''[i-|*'-^^^^r^']
nearly, the resistance of the air being given to be k times the square of the
velocity per unit of mass, where k is very small.
109.
A
mk
horizon;
to
and a resistance
an angle a to the
projected xmder gravity
23cirt{cle is
equal to
{velocity) luith
velocity
at
find the motion.
Let the axes of x and y be respectively horizontal and

Then the
vertical, and the origin at the point of projection.
equations of motion are
..
_
~
jds dx _
dt' ds
Integrating,
log
and
log {ky
dy
we have
= kt + const. = kt + log (u cos a),

const. = kt + log (kit sin a + g);
= cos ae~^*
(1),
+ g) = kt +
.'.
and
di'
ds dy
..
jdx
k;^
a;
+g=
I/,
{ku sin a
+ g) e-''^
(2).
126
^"
^^.'i^ ,-M + ,ost. =
...
ky
and
-\-
gt
ku. sin a
e~*^
(1
.-)
(3).
const.
Ju^ma^g ^^_^_,,^
^^^_
tC
Eliminating
greatest height
when ^ =
attained
is
0,
and then
2/
= ^
and
at time
t
k
'
when
ku sin a\
sin a
P^'^V'^
2/
00
Hence the path has a
cos
Vj
asymptote at a horizontal distance

Also, then, x
projection.
ku
(^
logr
i.e.
from equations (3) and (4) that when
It is clear
i.e.'
g'
kus,\noL-\-
...(5),
^
k^
the equation to the path.
is
The
we have
^log(l--^)+_^(.sina
+ f)
^\
ucosaJ
kj
MCOsaV
which
t,
=Q
and ^
t=
oo
vertical
ol
from the point of
= '|,
i.e.
the particle
wn
then have just attained the limiting velocity.
Cor. If the right-hand side of

it becomes
(5)
be expanded in powers
of k,
_g
kx
^^.|_
wcosa
k'af
k'^x'
2w"cosâ
3w*cosâ
""J
u sm cf
%cosa
I.e.
On
gx^
xiaxia.
Sw^cosâ
1
^
gkx?
dM^cos-'a
1
.
gk\\
,
4M*cos-a
putting k equal to zero, we have the ordinary equation
to the trajectory for unresisted motion.
110.
particle is
luliose resistance
When
= mfju
moving under gravity in a medium
{velocity)-
to
find the motion.
the particle has described a distance
make an angle
its velocity.
(p
s,
let its
with the upward drawn vertical, and
tangent
lot v
be

The equations
127
of motion are then
'j^
-gcos(f>-fMv'-
(1),
- = ^sin^
and
-j^ -^ = -2gcos(f>-
(1) gives
from
i.e.,
(2).
(2),
-7-7
sin
^= -
^+
3 cos
_ ?^1^ 1 _
sin"* ^
p
'2/xp
sin
<^.
d(f)
A.
(}.\
'
^p/
p sin^
= 2 cos ^ 2/Ap
(p sin <^)
Idp
p
Ifiv,
sin^
'
(^
2/A
*
sin* <^
sur 9
1 + cos
cos (i
^-7-^ + ^
= - -^-^
log
^sm-<^ - ^ * sin0
,
/i
/ti
(6
...(3
^
^
.
(2) then gives

r
cos
<f>
v^ A-iJi
^ ^^^
sm'
.
|_
/x
'^
log
o
n
+ cos 01
^-r^ = -^Vt
sm
sin^
J
<f>
Equation (3) gives the intrinsic equation of the path, but

cannot be integrated further.
A bead moves on a smooth wi7'e in a vertical plane

111.
under a resistance {= k {velocityy} ; to find the motion.
When the bead has described an arcual distance s, let the
to the horizon (Fig., Art. 102
velocity be v at an angle
and let the reaction of the wire be R.
The equations of motion are
),
T- =g sin
kv^
- = ^gcos(bR
T
and
Let the curve be
=/"(0).
(1),
(2).
Dynamics of a
128
Then
Farticle
(1) gives
a linear equation to give

Particular case.
v".
Let the curve be a
circle
so that
= a(p,
if s
and ^ be
measured from the highest point.

(1)
then gives
(v^)
+ 2akv^=2ag sin
d>.
a(p
'a
vh'^^^'l'
'
*''
= 2agjsm <p
fi2aft*
= i:^^2(2afcsin0-cos.^) + Ce-2aA*.
EXAMPLES
1.
particle
of
mass
unit
is
at an
medium whose re.'sistance is k times

direction will again make an angle a with
inclination a above the horizon in a
Shew
the velocity.
that its
the horizon after a time y log

J'
2.
If the
sin a\
J 1-1
resistance vary as the velocity
and the range on the

is a maximum, shew
horizontal plane through the point of projection
that the angle a which the direction of projection

,
IS
given by
^
''
X(l-f-Xcosa)
n
^
---^' =log r,l+Xseca],
'
^
cosa+X
"
makes with the
where X
is
vertical
,>
the ratio of the
velocity of projection to the terminal velocity.

3.
A particle acted on by gravity is projected in a medium of which
the resistance varies as the velocity. Shew that its acceleration retains
a fixed direction and diminishes without limit to zero.
4.
Shew
that in the motion of a heavy particle in a medium, the
resistance of which varies as the velocity, the greatest heiglit above the
level of the point of projection is
reached in less than half the total time
of the flight above that level.

If a particle be moving in a medium whose resistance varies as
5.
the velocity of the particle, shew that the equation of the trajectory
can, by a proper choice of axes, be put into the form
Motion in a Eesisting Medium.
Examples
129
If the resistance of the air to
a particle's motion be n times its

weight, and the particle be projected horizontally with velocity F, shew
that the velocity of the particle, when it is moving at an inclination d>
w-l
_n+\
6.
to the horizontal, is
F(l-sin(^)
(l+sin0)
heavy bead, of mass m, slides on a smooth wire in the shape

of a cycloid, whose axis is vertical and vertex upwards, in a medium
7.
whose resistance
vertex
is c
where 2a
and the distance of the starting point from the
shew that the time of descent to the cusp
is
is
is
\/
V
^^ Q^-cj
gc
the length of the axis of the cycloid.
A heavy bead slides down a smooth wire in the form of a cycloid,

8.
whose axis is vertical and vertex downwards, from rest at a cusp, and
is acted on besides its weight by a tangential resistance proportional to
the square of the velocity. Determine the velocity after a fall through
the height
x.
on an equiangular spiral towards the pole with

uniform angular velocity about the pole, shew that the projection of the
point on a straight line represents a resisted simple vibration.
If a point travel
9.
10.
particle,
central force -^
pole
is
if
moving
in a resisting
medium,
is
acted on by a
the path be an equiangular spiral of angle
at the centre of force, shew that the resistance
is
7^
a,
whose
^^^^ ^^'^^^
mass m, is projected in a medium whose resistand is acted on by a force to a fixed point

(=7. /I. distance). Find the equation to the path, and, in the case
when 2/^-2 = 9//, shew that it is a parabola and that the particle would
ultimately come to rest at the origin, but that the time taken would be
11.
ance
particle, of
mJc (velocity),
is
infinite.
high throw is made with a diabolo spool the vertical

be neglected, but the spin and the vertical motion
together account for a horizontal drifting force which may be taken as
proportional to the vertical velocity.
Shew that if the spool is thrown
so as to rise to the height h and return to the point of projection, the
spool is at its greatest distance c from the vertical through that point
12.
If a
may
resistance
when
it is
of the
form
at a height -5-
13.
4^3.^2
If a
and shew that the equation
to the trajectory is
= 21 cY' {h-y).
body move under a central force in a medium which exerts a
resistance equal to k times the velocity per unit of mass, prove that
-T7^+u=To5-e-^''i where h
about the centre of

L. D.
is
twice the initial
moment
of
momentum
force.
Dy7iamics of a Particle
130
14.
particle
moves with a
which the resistance

is
-TTi,
+= r^
15.
where
e^**,
k (velocity)^
is
s is
P in
medium
shew that the equation
of
to its path
the length of the arc described.
moves in a resisting medium with a given central

the path of the particle being given, shew that the
particle
acceleration
,dr ^\
-^^J^ \r ^^
resistance is
Motion where the mass moving
112.
The equation
P = mf
Newton's second law in
constant.
varies.
when the mass m

more fundamental form
only true
is
its
P = JtO^'^)
is
is
(!)
Suppose that a particle gains in time Bt an increment Bm

mass and that this increment Bm was moving with a
of
velocity
u.
Then
momentum
in time Bt the increment in the
of the
particle
= m .Bv + B7n (v + Bv u),

and the impulse
of the force in this time
PBt.
is
Equating these we have, on proceeding to the
When
113.
an
is
Ex.
dm
dm
dt
dt
dt
J^(^^^>
= ^ + ^^-^
we have the
zero
1.
dv
result (1).
increase of volume equal to \ times
When
/
and
t,
and
mass M.
Kow 5/=- 7r/-3,
so that
.*.
T.["'i>'"
dr
dM =
Awr^p =
p iXirr-,
-r
dt
is
Hence
surface at that instant; find
=^, aud
= a + Xt,
the initial radius.

(1)
gives
the
.x
in time
t,
let its
radius
Then
where a
its
the distance fallen through in that time.
the raindrop has fallen through a distance
its
(2>-
spherical raindrop, falling freely, receives in each instant
velocity at the end of time
be
limit,
^ |^(a + Xfj3 '-^^=^{a + Mi^g,
"
by the questiou.
Motion when
mass varies
the
131
4\
dt
since the velocity was zero to start with.
dx
since
x and
vanish together.
x = ^J(a + \t)'^-2a'i +
.-.
+ xd ~ 8 La + XtJ
mass in the. form of a solid njllnder, the area of icôse crosssection is A, moves parallel to its axis, being acted on by a constant force F,
through a uniform cloud of fine dust of volume density p which is moving in
a direction opposite to that of the cylinder ivith constant velocity V. If all the
Ex.
2.
dust that meets the cylinder clings
in any time
M be the mass at time
Let
5v
ill.
to it,
find the velocity and distance described
the cylinder being originally at rest,
t,
+ 5M
{v
and v the
+ bv + F)=increase
in the
^^5-t+^dF +
its
initial
mass m.
Then
momentum
dM ^^dM
^^dv
and
velocity.
in time dt
= FSt.
^T.=^
(1)
in the limit.
^=Ap(v+V)
Also
(2).
Mv + MV=Ft + coQst.=Ft + mV.
gives
(1)
M^=Ap(Ft
M^=Ap
(Ft + mV).
Therefore
(2)
gives
Therefore
(2)
gives
M^Âp(Ft^ + 2mVt) + m^.
.=
Also
if
'
Vt+
-?-
Jnfi + 2mApVt + AFpt^
Ap^
rest,
-~.
Ap
we have that the acceleration
(3)
dv
so that the motion
is
nfi(F-ApV^)
^*
&S,
(3)-
the hinder end of the cylinder has described a distance x from

'^'^
From
-F+^t;^^=-F+_=i^!=
^
Jm^ + 2mApVt + AFpt^
(}ifi
+ 2mApVt + AFpt'i)^*
always in the direction of the
force, or opposite,
according
FÂpV^.
Ex.
3.
A uniform
chain
is
coiled
up on a horizontal plane and one end

a above the plane; initially a
passes over a small light pulley at a height
length
>a, hangs freely on
b,
When
time
dt
the other side; find the motion.
then in the
the length b has increased to x, let v be the velocity
next ensuing the momentum of the part (x + a) has increased by
;
92
Dynamics of a
132
Particle
m is the mass per unit lenp;th. Also a lenc^th m^x has

been jerked into motion, and given a velocity v + 5v. Hence
m(a: + a)5?;, where
+ mdx
(v
Hence, dividing by
ot
TO
(a;
+ a)
5v
+ Sv) = claange
in the
= impulse
V ^-^
.'.
f2 (x + ar' =
.-.
jy
2_
so that
{x
to the limit,
[x-a)
hi.^/
8t.
we have
+ a) +v^^ (x - a) g.
(.r2
momentum
of the acting force
and proceeding
2)
g=2
j^^ -
a2
(.r
^)| g,
{x-b){x^ + bx + b^-3a^)
This equation cannot be integrated further.
2a
= 2a,
this gives v'^= ~-(x-b),
so that the
end descends with constant acceleration |,
The
tension
of the chain is clearly given
by T8t = mdx
v,
so that T=zmv^.
EXAMPLES
a cms. falls from rest through a

throughout the motion an accumulation of
condensed vapour at the rate of k grammes per square cm. per second,
no vertical force but gravity acting shew that when it reaches the ground
1.
spherical raindrop of radius
vertical height h, receiving
its
radius will be k
\/ \ ^ + \/ ^ + ^2
A mass
in the form of a solid cylinder, of radius c, acted upon by

moves parallel to its axis through a uniform cloud of fine dust,
If the particles of dust which
of volume density p, which is at rest.
meet the mass adhere to it, and if 31 and m be the mass and velocity
2.
no
forces,
at the beginning of the motion, prove that the distance
time
3.
particle of
mass 3f
action of a constant force
is
in
at rest
velocity F,
mass
moving
be
m when
it
feet,
|l+log
shew that
and that
will
and during the

its
radius
p.
Shew that
^n where k = F-pV
fall its
-04 inches, begins to fall
when
it
from
radius grows, by precipitation
of moisture, at the rate of 10"* inches per second.
unresisted,
encounters the
it at a constant rate
has travelled a distance
A spherical raindrop, whose radius is
a height of 64U0
it
It
in the opposite direction with
which deposits matter on
will
-Jm-31
4.
and begins to move under the
fixed direction.
a.
resistance of a stream of fine dust
it
traversed in
given by the equation {31+ pird^x)^ = M^ + 2f}7ruc^ML
t is
If its motion be
reaches the ground is '0420 inches
have taken about 20 seconds to
fall.
Motion when the mass

Snow
5.
shew
''
slides off a roof clearing
'
^"* *^**'
^^^ *0P
^f
rest in motion, the acceleration is
Examples
133
of uniform breadth
time in which the roof will be cleared
that, if it all slide at once, the
\/oJ^^ wf)
varies.
away a part
^g
ove
sin a
first
and gradually
and the time
set the
will be
^^
\' g&in a
'
where a is the inclination of the roof and a the length originally covered
with snow.
6.
ball, of
mass m,
matter on
deposits
moving under gravity
is
the
a uniform
ball at
rate
in a
/x.
medium which
Shew that the
equation to the trajectory, referred to horizontal and

through a point on itself, may be written in the form
vertical
axes
k-uy =kx{g-it-kv)+gu{\-e^)^
where
mk =
^f,
v are the horizontal and vertical velocities at the origin and
2fj..
7.
falling raindrop
moisture.
has
its
If it have given to
it
radius uniformly increased by access of

a horizontal velocity, shew that it will
then describe a hyperbola, one of whose asymptotes

If a rocket, originally of
8.
a mass
eM with
shew that
If
it
it
relative velocity
cannot
once unless
rise at
shew that
rises vertically at once,
and that the greatest height
it
is vertical.
mass M, throw off every unit of time

F, and if M' be the mass of the case etc.,
reaches
eV>g,
nor at
all
unless ^-jp->g.
its greatest velocity is
is
9.
A heavy chain, of length I, is held by its upper end so
end is at a height I above a horizontal plane if the upper
shew that at the instant when half the chain is coiled up
the pressure on the plane is to the weight of the chain
;
of 7
its
lower
end is let go,

on the plane
in the ratio
2.
10.
A chain,
of great length a,
suspended from the top of a tower

if it be then let fall, shew that
upper end has fallen a distance
is
is
so that its lower end touches the Earth
the square of
2gr log
11.
that
its velocity,
where r
is
chain, of length
when
is
.^,
the radius of the Earth.

I,
fastened to a particle, whose
and the other end
its
is
One end
coiled at the edge of a table.
mass
is
equal to that of the whole chain,

put over the edge. Shew that, immediately after
leaving the table, the particle
is
is
moving with
velocity - *
/5gl^
>
Dynamics of a
134
A uniform
Particle
whose length is I and whose weight is W, rests

over a small smooth pulley with its end just reaching to a horizontal
if the string be slightly displaced, shew that when a length x
plane
has been deposited on the plane the pressure on it ia
12.
string,
^[^'o^z^-f]and that the resultant pressure on the
i>ulley is
2x
l
-=
A mass M is attached
to one end of a chain whose mass per unit

placed with the chain coiled up on a smooth
table and Mis, projected horizontally with velocity V.
When a length x
13.
of length
is
The whole
m.
of the chain has
become
is
shew that the velocity
straight,
of
MV
M M+mx
is -,>
and that its motion is the same as if there were no chain and it were
acted on by a force varying inversely as the cube of its distance from
a point in
Shew
its line of
motion.
which kinetic energy is dissipated

any instant proportional to the cube of the velocity of the mass.
also that the rate at
is
at
14.
A weightless string passes over a smooth pulley. One end is
attached to a coil of chain lying on a horizontal table, and the other
to a length I of the same chain hanging vertically with its lower end
just touching the table.
Shew that after motion ensues the system will
first
be at rest when a length x of chain has been
lifted
from the
table,
2x
such that {lx)e
'
Why cannot
=1.
the Principle of Energy be directly
applied to find the motion of such a system
through a hole in the deck at a height a

above the coil in which the cable is heaped, then passes along the deck
for a distance b, and out at a hole in the side of the ship, immediately
outside of which it is attached to the anchor. If the latter be loosed find
the resulting motion, and, if the anchor be of weight equal to 2a+\b
of the cable, shew that it descends with uniform acceleration \g.
15.
ship's cable passes
16.
A mass is fastened to a chain of mass m per unit length coiled
up on a rough horizontal plane (coefficient of friction = /i). The mass is
projected from the coil with velocity V shew that it will be brought to
;
rest in a distance
-^
m\\
A uniform
+ ^
1 V
2M,xgJ
and length I, is coiled up at the top

mass
of a rough plane inclined at an angle a to the horizon and has a mass
fastened to one end.
This mass is projected down the plane with
velocity F.
If the system comes to rest when the whole of the chain
17.
is
chain, of
just straight, shew that
7^= -^
o
of friction.
sec
sin(e
a),
where
e is
the angle
Motion ichen
A
18.
the
mass
Examples
varies.
185
uniform chain, of length I and mass ml, is coiled on the floor,

is attached to one end and pi'ojected vertically upwards
and a mass mc
with velocity \llgh. Shew that, according as the chain does or does not
completely leave the floor, the velocity of the mass on finally reaching
the floor again is the velocity due to a fall through a height
where
a?c'''(c-\r 8k).
19.
is partly coiled on a table, one end of it being

smooth pulley at a height h immediately above the
uniform chain
just carried over a
coil and attached there to a weight equal to that of a length 2h of the

chain.
Shew that until the weight strikes the table, the chain uncoils
with uniform acceleration ^cf, and that, after it strikes the table, the
x-h
velocity at
any moment
is
sj^ghe
2A
^
where x
is
the length of the
chain uncoiled.
A string,
Z, hangs over a smooth peg so as to be at rest.

and burns away at a uniform rate v. Shew that the
other end will at time ^ be at a depth x below the peg, where x is given
dx
f d^x
\
by the equation {l-vt) ( -j-, -Vg] - '^ 77
2gx=0.
20.
One end
is
of length
ignited
[At time
let
x be the
longer,
and y the shorter part of the
string,
x+9/=l vi.
Also let V, (=x), be the velocity of the string then.

On equating the change of momentum in the ensuing time dt to the
impulse of the acting force, we have
so that
{x+y-v 8t) V+ 8 V) - {x+2/) V= (x - y) ght,

(
giving
dV
{x-\-y)-^-vV= {x -y)g={2x-l + vt) g,
etc.]
21.
A chain, of mass m and length 2^, hangs in equilibrium over a
alights gently at one end and
smooth pulley when an insect of mass
shew
begins crawling up with uniform velocity V relative to the chain
that the velocity with which the chain leaves the pulley will be
[Let To be the velocity with which the chain starts, so that V- Fq is

the velocity with which the insect starts. Then ir(F- Fo) = the initial
impulsive action between the insect and chain = ?nFo, so that
At any subsequent time
let
x be the
longer,
and y the shorter part

and P the force
of the chain, 2 the depth of the insect below the pulley,
exerted by the insect on the chain.
We then have
136
Byiimuics of a
Far tide
x + = 2l.
Also
i/
These equations give

(
Also,
when x=l^
J/+ m) i'2 = 2
x=
{M- m) gx + ^-^ x"- + A.
Vq, etc.]
A uniform cord, of length I, hangs over a smooth pulley and a

22.
monkey, whose weight is that of the length k of the cord, clings to one
end and the system remains in equilibi'ium. If he start suddenly, and
continue to climb with uniform relative velocity along the curd, shew
that he will cease to ascend in space at the end of time
(T)^^--(-l)'
CHAPTER
VIII
OSCILLATORY MOTION AND SMALL OSCILLATIONS

In the previous chapters we have had several examples
We have seen that wherever the equation
of motion can be reduced to the form x = n^x, or Q = v?Q,
the motion is simple harmonic with a period of oscillation equal
114.
of oscillatory motion.
27r
to
more
We
shall give in this chaj)ter a few
examples of a
difficult character.
Small
115.
The general method
oscillations.
of finding
the small oscillations about a position of equilibrium
is
down
If there
the general equations of motion of the body.
to write
only one variable, x say, find the value of x which makes
is
x,
i.e. which gives the position of equilibrium.

Let
be a.
In the equation of motion put ic = a + f where | is small.
For a small oscillation ^ will be small so that we may neglect
its square.
The equation of motion then generally reduces to
the form | = X^, in which case the time of a small oscillation
...
etc. zero,
this value
27r
For example, suppose the general equation of motion

<^^*
Cr
(dx\"
For the position of equilibrium we have
F (x) = 0,
Fat
giving x
x=a+ ^ and neglect ^\
= a.
is
188
The equation becomes
^, = F{a + ^) = F{a) + ^F'{a)+...,

by Taylor's theorem.
Since F{a)
-^= ?
this gives
F'{a).
we have a
If F'{a) be negative,
by
position of equilibrium given
a;
small oscillation and the
=a
is stable.
be positive, the corresponding motion is

oscillatory and the position of equilibrium is unstable.
If F'{a)
Ex.
116.
1.
not
is supported in a horizontal
ends luhose other extremities are tied to a
uniform rod, of length 2a,
position by tivo strings attached to
its
fixed point; if the unstretched length of each string be I and the modulus of
elasticity be n times the toeight of the rod, sliew that in the position of equilibrium
the strings are inclined to the vertical at an angle a such that
acot a -
and that
the time of
cos a
is
at
is
cot a
VîT
the rod
In
a small oscillation about the position of equilibrium

,
When
^r-.
cos^ a
2?i
depth x below the fixed point,
let d
be the incliuatiou of
each string to the vertical, so that x = a cot Q and the tension
sin 6
"^
The equation
of
motion
is
sm^d
^^^g+
I.e.
sin^
cos
nmq . a-lsinO
.
r^
2a cos 6
sm3^^
d,
-.
^ng a-lsin
.,
e'=g-2~
6i-2cot^^2=:_sin2
a
i.e.
a - isin 6
then
mx = mq - 2
nmg
''
sine
6'+^sin^cos
al
tf
(a-Zsin(9)
For a small
oscillation put 6
..
In this case
6'^
a cot
is
sin ^
a-
(1).
^
In the position of equilibrium when 6 = a, we have ^ =

.".
cos(?,
and
i)
= 0,
and
cos = ;,
= a + ip,
where
= sin a + ^cosa, and
i//
(2)-
is
small,
cos 5 = cos
the square of a small quantity
and
a-
and
i/-
sin a.
is negligible,
and
(1)
gives
Small Oscillations
^= --
(sin a
+ -^008 0)2
-\
(sin a
1/-
cos a) (cos a
-^.t sin a)
[a
(siu2
a + 2^ sin a cos
a) H
j-
[sin a cos a
tan a -
Hence the required time=27r\/--
Making use
gr
+ !/
(cos^
(sin o
+ i^ cos
o)]
a - sin^ a)]
cos a
//'
139
equation
bj'
(2j
=2 cos3 a
of the principle of the last article,
be/(^), the equation for small oscillations
the right-hand side of
if
(1)
is
and
/' (a)
sin a cos a H
(cos2 a
= etc.,
Ex.
2.
- sin2 a) (a -
sin a)
sin a cos2 a
as before.
is placed at the centre of a smooth circular table; n

and, after passing over small pulleys symmetrically
heavy particle
strings are attached to
it
arranged at the circumference of the table, each is attached to a mass equal to that
of the particle on the table. If the particle he slightly displaced, shew that the time
of an oscillation
is
^wk/ -
be the centre of the board, Ai, A^, ..., A^ the pulleys, and let the
When its
particle be displaced along a line OA lying between OA^ and OAi.
distance OP-x, let PA^=yy. and lPOAj.=aj.. Also, let a be the radius of the
Let
table
and
the length of a siring.
Then y^-
sja^ + a;^
- 2a a; cos a^ = a
1 - - cos
a,,
since x
is
very small.
Let Ty be the tension of the string PA^.
Then mg -T^ = m^[l-yj) mx cos

,'.
= vi
=
Tj.
(a
-2 (g
-xeosar)
"
-X
o^.
= m (g - i' cos a^).
a cos
COS Ur)
a,.
-as /
[_a^
COS
+ - cos oa
\
;
a^- ax + ax cos^
aj.].
Nowif POî = a, then

2cosa^=cosa-)-cos
Scos2a,. = -
and
l-l-cos2a
a+ j +
+ l + cos(
...
2a
ton terms = 0,
2cos3oy=2S[3cosa^ + cos3ar] = 0.
...
=ni
140
Dynamics of a
Therefore the equation of motion of

vix
= S2V cos APAr =
- (19^ " + O^^"^ 9 ~
"2
+ 71)
a (2
the time of a complete

It
Farticle
is
oscillation = 27r
"^^'
'
can easily be shewn that the sum of the resolved parts

OP vanishes if squares of x be neglected.
of the tensions
perpendicular to
and m', are connected by an elastic string

Ex. 3. Two particles, of masses
is on a smooth table and
of natural length a and modulus of elasticity X;
describes a circle of radius c with uniform angular velocity ; the string passes
through a hole in the table at the centre of the circle and m' hangs at rest at a
distance
Shew
below the table.
c'
that, if
be slightly disturbed, the periods
of small oscillations about this state of steady motion are given by the equation
ahmm'pi - {mc +
(4c
+ 3c' - Ba)
m' } a\p^ + B(c
+ c' -a)\^ = 0.
At any time during the motion let x and y be the distances of

the hole and T the tension, so that the equations of motion are
and m' from
m(x-rf')=-T=-xiit^
(1),
<^'-
ilfi'-'^'"
m'y-m'g-T = m'g-\
and
(2) gives
x^d
x=
-^
"
^'^
"*"
'-^
"
^^^'
"^
x = c, y c' we have equilibrium, so that x = y
When
(3)
(3).
= const. = h,
so that (1) gives
from
'-
and
(4)
7(2
vi'g^m-^=
fience
on putting
and
(3) give,
'7,2
3t\
c3
c /
7na
(4)
and hence
then,
\(c + c'-a)
,.
(5).
a;
= c + ^ and = c' +
j/
r?
where
and ^ are
small,
..
+ 3c'-3a^
am\_
"
^=-A,(.+ ,).
and
To
solve these equations, put
On
substituting
= ^cos
(pt
+ ^) and
7?
= Bcos
(pf
we have
A
[_
and
X r4c
am
am
A A, + z7r_^2 + A1.o.
am'
L
'J
+ j3).
"1
,
Small
Examples
Oscillations.
Equating the two values
of
a^cmm'p* - {mc + m'
-j-
(4c
141
thus obtained, we have, on reduction,
+ 3c' - 3a) }
This equation gives two vaUies, p{^ and

The solution is thus of the form
a\p^ + 8
(c
ps^, for p^,
+ c' - a)
= 0.
\2
both vaUies being positive.
^= Ai cos (pit + î) + A2C0S (pot + ^2)

with a similar expression for 77.
Hence the oscillations are compounded of two simple harmonic motions
27r
whose periods are
and
27r
P2
Pi
EXAMPLES
1.
Two
law of force
equal centres of repulsive force are at a distance 2a, and the

is
4+^
time of the small oscillation of a particle
find the
on the line joining the centres.

If the centres be attractive, instead of repulsive, find the corresponding
time for a small oscillation on a straight line perpendicular to

2.
to
two
A heavy
particle is attached
fixed points in the
by two equal
same horizontal
it.
light extensible strings
line distant
2a apart
the length
when unstretched was b and the modulus of elasticity is X.

is at rest when the strings are inclined at an angle a to the
of each string
The
particle
vertical,
and
is
then slightly displaced in a vertical direction

.,,
,,
,.
the time of a complete small oscillation

3.
Two heavy
/a
is Stt a
shew that
a-6sino
cot a
7-^0
particles are fastened to the ends of a weightless rod, of
and osciUate in a vertical plane in a smooth sphere of radius a ;

shew that the time of the oscillation is the same as that of a simple
length
2c,
pendulum
4.
of length
heavy rectangular board
is
symmetrically
suspended in a
horizontal position by four light elastic strings attached to the corners of

the board and to a fixed point vertically above its centre. Shew that the
period of the small vertical oscillations
(-
is 27r
+ j^j?)
equilibrium-distance of the board below the fixed point, a
a semi-diagonal, k = >\la?-^c' and X
A rod
is
where
is
c is
the
the length of
the modidus.
m hangs in
a horizontal position supported by two

equal vertical elastic strings, each of modulus X and natural length a.
Shew that, if the rod receives a small displacement parallel to itself, the
5.
of
mass
period of a horizontal oscillation
is ^tt
kI
"
+ h^ )
142
light string has one end attached to a fixed point A, and, after
6.
at the same height as A and distant 2a
passing over a smooth peg
at the other end.
ring, of mass M, can
from A, carries a mass
on the portion of the string between A and B. Shew that the time
of its small oscillation about its position of equilibrium is
slide
477
assuming that
[aMP iM+ P)-^g {4P^ - M^)^^,
2P> M.
mass m, is attached to a fixed point on a smooth

by a fine elastic string, of natural length a and modulus
of elasticity X, and revolves uniformly on the table, the string being
shew that the time of a small oscillation for
stretched to a length b
7.
particle, of
horizontal table
a small additional extension of the string
Two
8.
particles, of
masses
and
OTj
is 27r
i2,
\/ MA_q v
>.
are connected
by a
string,
of length ai + a2, passing through a smooth ring on a horizontal table,

and the particles are describing circles of radii oti and 02 with angular
velocities i and (02 respectively.
Shew that miaj(oi'^ = m2a2a)2'^, and that
the small oscillation about this state takes place in the time
y.
mi + TO2
A particle, of mass m, on a smooth
horizontal table is attached by a

through a hole in the table to a particle of mass m' which hangs
freely.
Find the condition that the particle m may describe a circle
uniformly, and shew that, if m' be slightly disturbed in a vertical
9.
fine string
the period of the resulting oscillation
direction,
where a
10.
is
On
whose axis
focus
by an
the radius of the
is
27r
a/
..
'
>
circle.
a wire in the form of a parabola, whose latus-rectum is 4a and

and vertex downwards, is a bead attached to the
is vertical
elastic string of natural length -
the weight of the bead.
Shew
whose modulus
is
equal to
that the time of a small oscillation
is
Vff'
11,
At the
corners of a square whose diagonal
is
2a, are the centres of
four equal attractive forces equal to any function m.f{x) of the distance x
of the attracted particle
the particle is placed in one of the diagonals
very near the centre

^v^2 {!/() +/'(a)}
12.
strings
oscillation is
Three particles, of equal mass m, are connected by equal elastic

In
and repel one another with a force n times the distance.
Small
Oscillations.
Examples
143
equilibrium each string is double its natural length ; shew that if the
particles are symmetrically displaced (so that the three strings always
form an equilateral triangle) they
will oscillate in period 2:
Every point of a fine uniform circular ring repels a particle with

13.
a force which varies inversely as the square of the distance shew that the
time of a small oscillation of the particle about its position of equilibrium
;
at the centre of the ring varies as the radius of the ring.
A uniform straight rod, of length 2a, moves in a smooth fixed

14.
tube under the attraction of a fixed particle, of mass m, which is at a
distance c from the tube. Shew that the time of a small oscillation is
^.^r^t^
A uniform
straight rod is perpendicular to the plane of a fixed

uniform circular ring and passes through its centre e\ery particle of the
15.
ring attracts e\êry particle of the rod with a force varying inversely as the
square of the distance
find the time of a small oscillation about the
position of equilibrium, the motion being perpendicular to the plane of
the ring.
particle, of mass M, hangs at the end of a vertical string, of

from a fixed point 0, and attached to it is a second string which
passes over a small pulley, in the same horizontal plane as
and distant I
from 0, and is attached at its other end to a mass i, which is small
compared with M. When
is allowed to drop, shew that the system
16.
length
I,
oscillates
about a mean position with a period 2n
approximately, and find the
mean
+ 5^(2+^2) \/-
position.
heavy particle hangs in equilibrium suspended by an elastic

modulus of elasticity is three times the weight of the particle.
It is then slightly displaced
sliew that its path is a small arc of a
parabola. If the displacement be in a direction making an angle cot~i 4
with the horizon, shew that the arc is the portion of a parabola cut ofi" by
17.
string whose
the latus-rectum.
A particle of mass m moves in a straight line under

117.
a force mn- {distance) towards a fixed point in the straight line
and under a small resistance to its motion equal to w,, {velocity);
jj,
to
find the motion.

The equation of motion
is
d'x
d'x
dx
dx
144
[This
moving
clearly the equation of
is
so that
is
motion
If as in the second figure the particle
decreases,
towards the
i.e.
left,
towards the right, and equals
negative, so that the value of
is
is
thus m[i
777
the particle
if
is
increasing.
d?x
But
fjLV.
-i-
The equation
"^-
which again becomes
-y
is
moving
so that
the frictional resistance
in this case
is
the frictional resistance
of motion
/
-^
is
is
then
dx^
(1).
in/xv.
Hence
(1) gives the
motion
for all positions of
right of 0, irrespective of the direction in which
Similarly
positions of
it
is
to the
moving.
can be shewn to be the equation of motion for

whatever be the direction in
to the left of 0,
which
P is moving.]
To
solve (1), put
x = LeP\ and we have

jf
+ fip + w^ = 0,
p = -î^n'-fl,
giving
ie.
where
and
= Ae~î*cos \^n^-l^t + B]
(2),
are arbitrary constants.
If /i be small, then Ae~'i* is a slowly varying quantity, so

that (2) approximately represents a simple harmonic motion of
period 27r-rA/
î*
X'
whose amplitude, Ae~^*
is
a slowly
Resisted motion
Oscillations.
145
Such a motion is called a

measures the damping.
This period depends on the square of fi, so that, to the
quantity.
decreasing
oscillation
and
/a
first
order of approximation, this small frictional resistance has no

effect
on the period of the motion.
Its effect
is
chiefly seen in
the decreasing amplitude of the motion, which
when squares
=A
^t\
of
are neglected, and therefore depends on the
power of
Such a vibration as the above is called a free vibration.
It is the vibration of a particle which moves under the action
of no external periodic force.
If
be not small compared with n, the motion cannot be
//,
first
//-.
fjb
so simply represented, but for all values of
fx,
<
2n, the equation
(2) gives the motion.
From
(2)
tan
we
have, on differentiating, that ^
[y^'-^( + i;]
when
=-^=^, = tano.(say)...(3),
giving solutions of the form
n^
Hence x
-^
is zero,
+ B = a,
that
is
periods of time differing by
TT
+ a,
27r
+ a, ...
the velocity vanishes, at the ends of

tt 4- a
The times of oscillation thus

they are greater than when there
If the successive values of
/ ''i'^^
still
is
no
remain constant, though

frictional resistance.
obtained from (3) are
t^, ti, tg, ...
then the corresponding values of (2) are

2
Ae --t
'
cos
a,
-^f
Ae --t
2'cosof,
Ae 2^cosa,
...
so that the amplitudes of the oscillations form a decreasing g.p.
whose common
If
/i
>
ratio
= e~2^*''~*'^ = e
2'^^**~T.
2n, the form of the solution changes
for
now
p=-lW'
L. D.
10
146
and the general solution
is
= e~f ^1 cosh \J{^ - n^

In this case the motion
If
/i
is
no longer
+A]
oscillatory.
= %i, we have by the rules of Differential

<+)"
a; = Z6>-"+Ltilfe-
Equations
y=
= Le-""^ + Lt il/e-" (1 - 7^ + squares)

Y=
= Xie- + lUe-^ = e-" (Z, + M^t).

Ex.
The time
oscillatiou of a
of
particle
when
there
is
no
frictional
there be a frictional resistance equal to J x m x velocity,

find the consequent alteration in the period and the factor which gives the ratio
resistance is 1^ sees.
of successive
if
maximum
amplitudes.
may be represented
be represented by distances measured
along the horizontal axis and the displacement x of the particle
by the vertical ordinates. Then any displacement such as that
of the last article will be represented as in the figure.
The motion
118.
graphically
let
time
of the last article
The dotted curve on which

ordinates
lie is
a?
= J. e
all
the ends of the
maximum
-^<
^
cos
a.
The times ^1^12,^2^3; ^3^4,-.
of successive periods are equal, whilst the corresponding maxi-
mum
ordinates A^B^, A^B^,
...
form a decreasing geometrical
progression whose ratio
cosae"2-^^ '_ _^.t
J.cosae~2-^^'
where t
is
the time of an oscillation.
Periodic Forces
Oscillations.
If
147
particle moving with a damped vibration of

and we make it automatically draw its own dis-
we have a
this character,
placement curve as in the above figure, we can from the curve

determine the forces acting on it. For measuring the successive
distances G-JJ^, C.^G^, ... etc, and taking their mean, we have
the periodic time r which we found in the last article to be
,
'iTT-Â/n'-^,
-r
Again, measuring
maximum
the
...,
mean,
X,
We
finding the values of -r-jf y
>
quantity
of the
thus have the values of
their
and
'n?
fx,
2'',
so that
giving the restorative
frictional resistance of the motion.
A point is moving
119.
tion fxx towards
in a straight line with an acceleraa fixed centre in the straight line and with an
additional acceleration
The equation
L cospt;
of motion
to
find the motion.
is
d'^x
-^ = fix + L
The
-r^
and taking
It
we have the value
and the
AjB^, A^B^,
ordinates
AB AB
AzB^,
force
^ = n^-^.
so that
solution of this
x=A
cos pt.
is
cos(^/ fit
+ B) + L jy^
= Aco8['^Jit + B] +
cospt
cos pt
(1).
If the particle starts from rest at a distance a at zero time,
we have
B=
.'.
and
A=a
x=\ a
The motion
cos îit
of the point is thus
,cos pt
-\
compounded
harmonic motions whose periods are -7- and
From
the right-hand side of (2)
it
(2).
of two simple
follows that, if
102
be
148
nearly equal to
tlie coefficient
\//*>
becomes very
L cos pt
in other words, the effect of the disturbing acceleration
becomes very important.
e^reat
It follows that the ultimate effect of
a periodic disturbing force depends not only on its magnitude

on its period, and that, if the period be nearly that
L, but also
may be very large even though its

be comparatively small.
If p= V/^, the terms in (2) become infinite.
In this case
the solution no longer holds, and the second term in (1)
of the free motion, its effect
absolute magnitude
= L J=Z
cos
Lt
7=
ytt
= Z Q-T-
= Z Lt J-
[V;Ltf]
T7^7^^'>
(V/i + 7)-
'^'^^
cos
t^^ + 'y^
[something infinite
Wfi + 7)
sin
V/u-i].
Hence, by the ordinary theory of Differential Equations, the

solution
is
x = Ai cos
If,
as before,
=a
= a cos
x = ( ^-^
and hence
+ B^ + 27-
[V/A^
and x
'^ fit
when
\/fi
^r-
sin
= 0,
sin
^f fxt
sin
Vyu.i.
this gives
\Jiit,
-^^ cos
V/u.^.
It follows that the amplitude of the motion,

velocity,
120.
become very great

If,
as
and
also the
gets large.
instead of a linear motion of the character of the
previous article,
we have an angular motion,
a simple pendulum, the equation of motion
as in the case of
is
^, = -jd + Lcospt,
and the solution
In this
is
case, if
nearly equal to
similar to that of the last article.
a/j,
be large compared with j or
if
p be very
the free time of vibration,
is
no longer
Periodic Forces
Oscillations.
149
small throughout the motion and the equation of motion must

be replaced by the more accurate equation
^'^
^- = 9T sin
at-
a
T
d -\- L
cos ^
pt.
,
As an example of the accumulative effect of a periodic

whose period coincides with the free period of the system,
consider the case of a person in a swing to whom a small
impulse is applied when he is at the highest point of his swing.
This impulse is of the nature of a periodic force whose period
is just equal to that of the swing and the effect of such an
impulse is to make the swing to move through a continually
121.
force
increasing angle.
same as
and sometimes
If however the period of the impulse is not the
that of the swing,
sometimes
its effect is
to help,
to oppose, the motion.
If its period is very nearly, but not quite, that of the swing
its
many successive applications to

many further applications to
effect is for
motion, and then for
increase the
decrease the
In this case a great amplitude of motion is at first

produced, which is then gradually destroyed, and then produced
motion.
again,
and
so on.
particle, of mass m, is moving in a straight line

under a force mn^ (distance) towards a fivced point in the straight
line, and under a frictional rêsistance equal to ni. /j, {velocity)
and a periodic force mL cos pt ; to find the motion.
The equation of motion is
122.
dx
=-nâ^-f.-^^+Lcospt,
d-x
d^x
I.e.
-J-
dx
/J,
-J-
+ n^x = L cos pt.

_
The complementary function

Ae--2* cos
assuming
fj,
<
2n,
1
n^
is
(1).
and the particular integral

I-
,,,
Q,os(pt-e)
fip
r^w-^ + l
,,,
-p^ + f,D^ ""^^ P^~
J-
(n'-p') COS pt + fip sinpt

\n' - p'f + ^lY
(2),
150
where
tan
The motion
first is
= ^~,.
n^ p^
thus compounded of two oscillations

the
and the second the forced
is
called the free vibration
vibration.
Particular
Let the period
case.
27r
of the disturbing force
27r
be equal to
The
the free period.
solution
then, for the forced vibration,
is
a?
= sin nt
fin
as is usually the case,
also small, this gives a vibraamplitude is very large. Hence we see

that a small periodic force may, if its period is nearly equal to
that of the free motion of the body, produce effects out of all
proportion to its magnitude.
If,
tion
whose
/* is
maximum
Hence we see why there may be danger to bridges from the

accumulative effect of soldiers marching over them in step, why
ships roll so heavily when the waves are of the proper period,
and why a railway-carriage may
when
vertical direction
time
it
it is
oscillate
takes to go the length of a rail
vibration of the springs on which
Many
considerably in a
travelling at such a rate that the

is
equal to a period of
it rests.
other phenomena, of a more complicated character,
are explainable on similar principles to those of the above
simple case.
There
123.
by
a very important difference between the

by (1) and the forced vibration given
(2).
Suppose
at a
given
constants
for instance that the particle

finite
and
was
initially at rest
from the origin. The arbitrary

are then easily determined and are found
distance
The
factor e~^* in (1), which gradually diminishes

time goes on, causes the expression (1) to continually
to be finite.
as
is
vibration given
free
decrease and ultimately to vanish.
Hence the
free vibration
gradually dies out.
The
forced vibration (2) has
no such diminishing
factor but
Motion of a pendulum in a
resisting
is
a continually repeating periodic function.
is
the only motion of any importance.
medium
Hence
151
finally it
Small oscillations of a simple pendulum lender gravity,

124.
where the resistance = /n {velocityf and /x is small.
The equation of motion is
I'd
= - g9 + fjLp6-
pendulum start from rest

the same equation is found
[If the
vertical,
(1).
at an inclination a to the
to hold until
it
on the other side of the vertical.]

For a first approximation, neglect the small term
we have
comes to
rest
/xl-d^,
and
= Acosly/^^t + B].
For a second approximation, put
value of 6 in the
this
small terms on the right-hand side of
(1),
and
it
becomes
+ ^ê = fxl.^Â'sm'\^'^^t + B]
= ^^[l-cos(Vf....)].
.-.
= Acos[^^t +
where
By^ + ^cos[2ît+2B\
^
2
= AcosB + -
-\
(2),
^^
cos 2B,
= - ^ sin 5 - ^-^ sin 2B.
and
B = 0,
.'.
Hence
and
A = a^
ol^/jlI,
squares of
/j,
being neglected.
(2) gives
-|.w)cos(yf<) + ^^foos(Vf<)
(3),
and hence
is
zero
when
sin
a/ y f =^ 0,
i.e.
when t=
ir
\/ -.
(4).
Dynamics of a
152
The time
by the
Again,
its
of a swing from rest to rest
resistance,
when
Particle
= 17
is
therefore unaltered
provided the square of
fju
be neglected.
\/ -
Hence the amplitude of the swing is diminished by f a^^Let the pendulum be passing through the lowest point of
path at time
J- (^ +
Then
2^)
where
T is
small.
(3) gives
= (a -
aV^) (-
and
.-.
Hence the time
sin T)
^^ - ^^ôs 2T,
r=|-^-.
of swinging to the lowest point

I
fir
(xixl
^V2+^
^/:
and of swinging up
to rest again
EXAMPLES
1.
Investigate the rectiliuear motion given by the equation
and shew that
it
is
equation At/^ + Bi/ +

2.
a,
compounded
C=0
of
particle is executing simple
under an attraction
(the amplitude
two harmonic
oscillations if the
has real negative roots.
harmonic
oscillations of
If a small disturbing force
^ be
being imchanged) shew that the period
approximation, decreased in the ratio
58/i
1.
is,
amplitude
introduced
to
first
Examples
Oscillatory Motion.
153
3.
Two heavy particles, of masses m and m', are fixed to two points,
and B, of an elastic string GAB. The end
is attached to a fixed point
and the system hangs freely. A small vertical disturbance being given to
it,
find the times of the resultant oscillations.

4.
hangs at rest at the end of an elastic string whose

is a.
In the position of equilibrium the length of the
particle
unstretched length
string is
time
h,
zero,
begins to
and
the time of an oscillation about this position.
is
At
when the particle is in equilibrium, the point of suspension

move so that its downward displacement at time t is c&mpt.
Shew that the
length of the string at time

,
cnp
.-,
sni
^
)it
ji- JO''
lip=n, shew
t is
cf^
n' p''
sin 'pt.
that the length of the string at time
is
h+-s,in'nt- -^cQBnt,
5.
end
A helical
spring supports a weight of 20
the natural length of the spring
to extend to a length of 13| inches.
is
lbs.
attached to
its
lower
12 inches and the load caases
The upper end
it
of the spring is then
given a vertical simple harmonic motion, the full extent of the displacement being 2 inches and 100 complete vibrations occurring in one minute.
Neglecting air resistance and the inertia of the spring, investigate the
motion of the suspended mass after the motion has become steady, and
shew that the amplitude of the motion set up is about 3^ inches.
6.
If a
pendulum oscillates in a medium the resistance

shew that the oscillations are isochronous.
of which varies
as the velocity,
7.
Shew that the time of oscillation of a simple pendulum in
medium whose resistance varies as the cube of the velocity bears
a
a
constant ratio to that in a vacuum.

8.
A pendulum
performs small oscillations in a
resistance varies as the square of the velocity

oscillations in
which the arc of
medium
of which the
given the
number
oscillation is reduced one-half,
of
compare
the original resistance with the weight of the pendulum.

9.
The point
of suspension of a simple
horizontal motion given
by x=acos,mt.
pendulum
Find the
effect
of length
has a
on the motion of
the particle.
Consider in particular te* motion when m^

J.
In the latter case
if
is
equal, or nearly equal, to
the pendulum be passing through
position with angular velocity
at zero time,
small, the inchnation to the vertical at time
shew
its vertical
that, so long as it is
J][^-^>^^^^h
154
be the position of the point of suspension at time t its acceleraHence the accelerations of P, the bob of the pendulum, are l()
perpendicular to O'P,
along PO, and x parallel to OCf,
Hence resolving perpendicular to O'P^
[If Cy
tion
is X.
W+a'cos5= -g^\\i6=
0=-j-$+
I.e.
-(jO,
cos mt, suice 6 is small.
No-w solve as in Art. 119.]
is
The point of support of a simple pendulum, of weight to and length /,

10.
attached to a massless spring which moves backwards and forwards in a
shew that the time of vibration = 27r a/ -
+ "n/)>
'where
Two simple pendulums, each of length a, are hung from two
points
horizontal line;
W is the weight required to stretch the spring a distance

11.
same horizontal plane at a distance
in the
mass
and the mutual
attraction is
,.
b apart
,,
I.
the bob of each
where X
(dist.)2
is
is
of
small compared
'
with g
shew that, if the pendulums be started so that they are
always moving in opposite directions, the time of oscillation of each is
;
27r
k/
HT
nearly, about a
mean
position inclined at -j^ radians
nearly to the vertical.

12.
A pendulum is suspended in
a ship so that
it
can swing in a plane
at right angles to the length of the ship, its excursions being read off
scale fixed to the ship.
The
free period of oscillation of the
on a
pendulum
is
one second and its point of suspension is 10 feet above the centre of
gravity of the ship.
Shew that when the ship is rolling through a small
angle on each side of the vertical with a period of 8 sees., the apparent
angular movement of the pendulum will be approximately 20 per cent.
greater than that of the ship.
pendulum of length I moves

a with constant angular velocity o> when
the motion has become steady, shew that the inclination a to the vertical
of the thread of the pendulum is given by the equation
13.
The point
of suspension of a simple
in a horizontal circle of radius
co^
{a
+ 1 sin a) g ta,n a = 0.
pendulum consists of a light elastic string with a particle at

one end and fastened at the other. In the position of equilibrium the
14.
string is stretched to | of its natural length

displaced from the position of equilibrium
subsequent path and find the times of
its
I.
If the particle
is
slightly
and is then let go, trace

component oscillations.
its
CHAPTER IX
MOTION IN THREE DIMENSIONS
To find
125.
the accelerations
of a particle in terms of
polar coordinates.
Let the coordinates of any point

the distance of
from a fixed
origin 0, 6 is the angle that
P be
r, 6,
and
(p,
where r
is
OP
makes with a fixed axis

and <^ is the angle that
the plane zOP makes with a
Oz,
fixed plane zOx.
Draw
PN perpendicular to
xOy and let ON = p.

Then the accelerations of
the plane
P are d'x
df
-rnr
X,
d^y
,
-tit
d^'z
and
-j-
,
,
where
dt-
dt-
y and z are the coordinates of P.
Since the polar coordinates of N, which is always in the

plane xOy, are p and <p, its accelerations are, as in Art. 49,
Id^
and
p^
p dt
A Iso
-^) perpendicular to ON.
P relative
the accelerations of P are
the acceleration of
Hence
to
g-,(fJa,ogXP,
d^z
is
-j- along
NP.
Farticle
Dyvkjamics of
156
--r (p^-^) perpendicular
to the plane
zPK,
d?z
and
parallel to Oz.
-rp,
Now,
since z
= r cos 6
that accelerations
-j-^
and p
-r.
(r^ -tt]
dtj
r dt\
zPK,
are equivalent *o jTJ
perpendicular to
Also the acceleration
-psmOl-^j
along
follows, as in Art. 50,
Qt
(Ml
in the plane
= r sin 6, it
and -j^, along and perpendicular to Oz
OP
OP
~"
''"
j7
in the plane
p{-$)
along
along
OP
and
zPK.
LP
is
equivalent to
and -pcosdi-^j perpendicular
to
OP.
Hence if a, /5, <y be the accelerations of P respectively along
OP, perpendicular to OP in the plane zPK in the direction
of 6 increasing, and perpendicular to the plane zPK in the
increasing, we have
dii'ection of
<f>
/de\^
afdcpy
[dt)-p''''^[-i)
=s-Kfr K^y
^^ =
and
126.
lil/A)
pdtV dt)
sm
^f^sin'^^)
dt
e dt\
^^>'
(3).
^
^
Cylindrical coordinates.
sometimes convenient to refer the motion of P to the

coordinates z, p, and ^, which are called cylindrical coordinates.
As in the previous article the accelerations are then
It
is
Motion in three dimensions

-^ j perpendicular
-T- f|0^
and
-7- parallel to
A particle
127.
I,
is
to the plane
Vol
zPK,
Oz.
attached to one end of a string, of length

is tied to a fixed point 0.
When the
end of which
the other
an acute angle a
string is inclined at
downward-drawn
and perpendicular
to the
vertical the particle is projected liorizontally
with a velocity V ; to find the resulting motion.

In the expressions (1), (2) and (3) of Art. 125 for the
accelerations we here have r=l.
The equations of motion are thus
to the string
W-l sinId
-I
and
+ q cos
9. .(1),
cos 6 sin e4>
g sin
6. (2),
=O
64)''
(sin2^0)
sin 6 dt
The
sin^ d^}
last
.(3).
equation gives
= constant = sin^ a
[</)]o
Fsina
.(4).
On
substituting for
in (2),
a cos 9
V'^ sin^
ij
V^
?here
V'~
^;
Avhere F^
Hence 6
when
-T^-
sm^ a
smâ
=^
cos a
(cos a
cos a
4-
2/i2
sin^
again zero
cos ^
= w*
+ cos 6) = sin^ 6,
Vl 2/i^ cos a +
-I-
cos^)
cos
when
(cos a
^.
-f-
Ugn'.
is
sin'
cos d)
2/1"
i.e.
1
sin-
2^.
= -J(cos a
.(5).
-sin^^^t^^^^^^'
l^
F^sin^ct r
sin^ a
l^
'
sm^"~7 sin 6
f'
"
we have
...(6)
158
The lower
inclination at
sign gives an inadmissible value for 6. The only

which 6 again vanishes is when d = di, where
cos
The motion
of
= n' + Vl 2;rcos a
^1
e.
The motion
of the particle
according as cos
6^
Vl
always above or below the
is
starting point, according as 6^ <

i.e.
-^n*.
therefore confined between values a and 6^
is
a,
$ cos a,
cos a + n^ $
+ cos a,
2?i^ cos a > cos- a + '2n^ cos a.
2/1^
sm
71^
4 cos a
i.e.
V^ ^
The tension
equation
Ig sin
a tan
a.
of the string at
In the foregoing
(1).
any instant is now given by

assumed that T does not
it is
vanish during the motion.
The square
of the velocity at any instant
= (W)^ + (l sin
Hence the
^l'
Principle of
(6^
(j)^
[On substituting
sin^
for
(9)
<j>
e(j>y
= ^2 (6^ +
4>' sin'' 6).
Energy gives
= iw F2 - mgl
from (4)
(cos a
- cos 0).
we have equation
(6).]
(1) then gives
T
=
128.
-V-
(vel.)'
+ 5r (3
cos ^
2 cos
.^^- %^ (cos a - cos
a).
In the previous example d
is
zero
when 6 =
a.,
particle revolves at a constant depth below the centre
the ordinary conical pendulum,
d)
if
F^ =gl
sin^
i.e.
the
as in
CL
.
Suppose the particle to have been projected with this

velocity, and when it is revolving steadily let it receive a small
displacement in the plane NOP, so that the value of ^ was not
Motion in three dimensio7is

=
Putting 6
instantaneously altered.
a-\-'f,
where
159
-v/r
is
small,
the equation (6) of the last article gives
+ ilr)
Zcosa sin*(a + '|r)
a sin* a cos (a
lin
a r 1
neglecting squares of
tan a
cot a)*
^ (tan a
+ 4 cot a)
Again, from
-.
(4),
is
îr ^
/l
-z.
^ 1
+ 3 cos^ g
cos a
cos a
3 cos^ a
on putting ^ = a
whose period
is
z-
7^
so that during the oscillation there

(p
relative equilibrium
^
value of
cot a)
\lf
time of a small oscillation about the position of

,!
(1
yjr,
gsin
so that the
,
yfr
-v/r
is
-v/r,
we have
a small change in the
the same as that of
-\|r.
129- ^ particle moves on the inner surface of a smooth cone, of vertical

angle 2a, being acted on by a force towards the vertex of the cone, and its
direction of motion always cuts the generators at a constant angle /3; find the
motion and the law of force.
Let F.m he the force, where m is the mass of the particle, and
reaction of the cone. Then in the accelerations of
Ai't. 125 we have 6 = a and therefore ^ = 0.
Hence the equations

Oh-
of motion are
/rf0\2
and
Also, since the direction of
OP
at
an angle
motion always cuts
/3,
r sin ac
the
160
Substituting in
(1),
we have
- f'= - 8in2 a cot2 /3
-3-
sin'^
^2sin2a
1^_^
F='^-^^.=,^r
i.e.
V~^
sin2|3
/dr\2
(7).
^2sin2a
/d0\2
''=^-
so that
Again,
6
(2)/
'
'
From
(4),
42 gin d cos a
12
=
m
gives
f'
the path
is
8in2
=*
j8
cos a
sin a
1-3
given by r = ro.e'""^^-"''.
EXAMPLES
in a smooth sphere
shew that, if the
heavy particle
due to the level of the centre, the reaction of the sui-face
vary as the depth below the centre.
1.
moves
velocity be that
will
A particle
2.
is
projected horizontally along the interior surface of a
smooth hemisphere whose axis
is vertical
and whose vertex
is
downwards
the point of projection being at an angular distance /3 from the lowest

point, shew that the initial velocity so that the particle may just ascend
to the
rim of the hemisphere
3.
heavy particle
smooth spherical
of a
depth
is
is
^/2agsec^.
projected horizontally along the inner surface
shell
below the centre.
of radius
Shew
that
-j-
it
\/ ~^
with velocity
will rise to
at
a height - above
the centre, and that the pressure on the sphere just vanishes at the
highest point of the path.
4.
particle
moves on a smooth sphere under no forces except the

shew that its path is given by the equation
are its angular coordinates.
where 6 and
pressure of the surface

cot ^
= cot /3 cos (^,
(f>
heavy particle is projected with velocity V from the end of a

horizontal diameter of a sphere of radius a along the inner surface, the
If the
direction of projection making an angle /3 with the equator.
5.
particle never leaves the surface, prove that
6.
particle constrained to
3siu2/3<2 +
move on a smooth
spherical surface
is
projected horizontally from a point at the level of the centre so that

If a>â be very great
its angular velocity relative to the centre is a.
compared with
at time
is
g,
shew that
its
depth
-|sin2^ approximately.
below the level of the centre
Examples
Motion in three dimensions.

A
7.
thin straight hollow smooth tube
velocity
is
o>
upward drawn
the
angle a to
about a vertical
is
always inclined at an
and revolves with uniform

axis which intersects it.
A heavy particle
vertical,
projected from the stationary point of the tube with velocity
shew that
Find
in time
it
has described a distance
^ cot a
_g-<osina.ei
also the reaction of the tube.
8.
smooth hollow right
circular cone is placed with its vertex
downward and axis vertical, and at a point on its

a height h above the vertex a particle is projected
the siu-face with a velocity
its
161
interior surface at
horizontally along
Shew that the
lowest point of
path will be at a height - above the vertex of the cone.
smooth circular cone, of angle 2a, has its axis vertical and its
wbich is pierced with a small hole, downwards. A mass
hangs
at rest by a string which passes through the vertex, and a mass m attached
to the upper end describes a horizontal cii-cle on the inner surface of the
Find the time T o? & complete revolution, and shew that small
cone.
oscillations about the steady motion take place in the time
9.
vertex,
J'-
smooth conical surface is fixed with its axis vertical and

vertex downwards. A particle is in steady motion on its concave side
in a horizontal circle and is slightly disturbed. Shew that the time of a
10.
small oscillation about this state of steady motion
where a
the semi-vertical angle of the cone and

generator to the circle of steady motion.
is
is
I is
V/
2tt <
Zg cos a '
the length of the
Three masses ?/ii, m^ and m^ are fastened to a string which passes

11.
through a ring, and nii describes a horizontal circle as a conical pendulum
while 7112 and m^ hang vertically. If wig drop off, shew that the instanTOl
its
+ ?2
rhumb-line on a sphere in such a way that

longitude increases uniformly
shew that the resultant acceleration
12.
particle describes a
varies as the cosine of the latitude
normal an angle equal to the
[A Rhumb-hne
constant angle a
L. D.
is
its
and that
its direction
makes with the
latitude.
a curve on the sphere cutting
equation
is
all
the meridians at a
tana.]
II
Dynamics of a
162
Particle
particle moves on a smooth right circular cone under a force

always in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the cone
if the particle describe on the cone a curve which cuts all the generators
at a given constant angle, find the law of force and the initial velocity, and
shew that at any instant the reaction of the cone is proportional to the
13.
which
is
acting force.
14.
point moves with constant velocity on a cone so that its

makes a constant angle with a plane perpendicular
direction of motion
Shew that
to the axis of the cone.
the residtant acceleration
is
per-
pendicular to the axis of the cone and varies inversely as the distance
of the point from the axis.
At
15.
its
.,.
the vertex of a smooth cone of vertical angle 2a, fixed with

and vertex downwards, is a centre of repulsive force
axis vertical
r^
V
2u sill
weightless particle
^-^
projected horizontally with velocity
from a point, distant o from the
Shew that
surface.
is
ci
it will
on a horizontal plane
is 1
along the inside of the
axis,
describe a curve on the cone whose projection
=3
tanh^
- sin a
pendulum when disturbed

steady motion by a small vertical harmonic oscillation
of the point of support.
Can the steady motion be rendered unstable by
such a disturbance ?
Investigate the motion of a conical
16.
from
its state of
17.
A particle moves on the inside of a smooth sphere, of radius a,
under a force perpendicular to and acting from a given diameter, which
equals
^ when
/a
diameter
if^
with velocity
when
the particle
at an angular distance d from that
is
the angular distance of the particle
V^^secy
is y, it is
projected
in a direction perpendicular to the plane
and the given diameter, shew that its path

sphere, and find the reaction of the sphere.
itself
is
through
a small circle of the
18.
particle moves on the surface of a smooth sphere along a
rhumb-line, being acted on by a force parallel to the axis of the rhumbShew that the force varies inversely as the fourth power of the
line.
distance from the axis and directly as the distance from the medial
plane perpendicular to the axis.

19.
A particle moves on the surface of a smooth sphere and is acted
on by a force in the direction of the perpendicular from the particle on a
diameter and equal to

its
path
will cut the
20.
A particle
under a force
,.
rj
Shew
that
it
can be projected so that
meridians at a constant angle.
moves on the interior of a smooth sphere, of radius

producing an acceleration /xor" along the perpendicular
a,
or
Examples
163
with velocity V along the

great circle to which this diameter is perpendicular and is slightly
shew that the new path will cut the old one
disturbed from its path
drawn to a
fixed diameter.
It is projected
times in a revolution, where m2 = 4
-^^rrg-
21.
A
moves on a smooth cone under the action of a force
to the vertex varying inversely as the square of the distance.
If the
cone be developed into a plane, shew that the path becomes a conic
particle
section.
22.
mass m, moves on the inner surface of a cone

a, under the action of a
particle, of
of revolution, whose semi-vertical angle is

repulsive force
r-g
from the axis; the moment of
the particle about the axis being
m \f}j.t&-a a,
of a hyperbola whose eccentricity
is
sec
shew that
cos'âsmâ
Hence
-T7
--1
r*
gi^ng
'^=
.,
cos- a
=r^.
,^
^
sin'' a
momentum
path
is
of
an arc
a.
[With the notation of Art. 129 we obtain d>^=
r=
its
^,
V"
COSâsm'â
where
and
..
r*
a constant,
o? is
*"/
Hence (^='y-sm"i-
-;-
= sm(7-<^)=cos^,
the initial plane for <^ be properly chosen. This is the plane ^=c?sin a,
which is a plane parallel to the axis of the cone. The locus is thus a
hyperbolic section of the cone, the parallel section of which through
if
the vertex consists of two straight lines inclined at 2a.

If a particle
23.
move on
Hence,
etc.]
the inner surface of a right circular cone
under the action of a force from the vertex, the law of repulsion being
rrifA
9^
-g
'
'"'here
2a
is
the vertical angle of the cone, and
be projected from an apse at distance a with velocity /v/ - sin

that the path will be a parabola.
[Show that the plane of the motion
is
a,
if it
shew
parallel to a generator of the
cone.]
24.
move on a smooth conical surface

and describes a plane curve under the action of an
particle is constrained to
of vertical angle 2a,
attraction to the vertex, the plane of the orbit cutting the axis of the
cone at a distance a from the vertex.
must vary as
Shew that the
attractive force
a cos a
A particle moves on a rough circular cylinder under the action of

25.
no external forces. Initially the particle has a velocity F in a direction
making an angle a with the transverse plane of the cylinder shew that
;
the space described in time
^log
is
/I
[Use the equations of Art. 126.]
1
[_
"
^^
112
Difnamics of a Particle
1G4
point is moving along
any curve in three dimensions;

along (1) the tangent to the curve, (2) the
principal normal, and (3) the binomial.
If (x, y, z) be the coordinates of the point at time t, the
accelerations parallel to the axes of coordinates are x, y, and z.
130.
to find its accelerations
dx _ dx ds
Now
dt
d^'x
So
and
ds dt
Motion in
three dimensions
dsV
The
dy
1 /ds
direction cosines of the binormal are proportional to

d"z
dz d^y
ds ds^
ds ds^
On
165
multiplying
adding, the result
dz^ d'^x
ds
'
_ dx^ d'^z
(1), (2)
ds ds-
o?s^
and
dx d^y
ds ds^
dy
d'^x
ds ds^
by these and
(3) in succession
the acceleration in the direction
is zero, i.e.
of the binormal vanishes.
The foregoing
equations
(^3, iris,
(1),
W3) are
results
(2),
(3).
might have been seen at once from

For if (l^, Wi, %), (Zj, m^, n^) and
the direction cosines of the tangent, the principal
normal, and the binormal, these equations
d?x_d?s
dt^-^'
d^y
'^'"
dt^
d^s
d^z
fl
may be
written
(dsY\
\p[dij]'
fl
/dsV)
(1 fds\-\
d^'s
These equations shew that the accelerations along the axes

are the components of
an acceleration
d^s
-^-j
an acceleration -
along the tangent,
[-t.)
along the principal normal,
and nothing in the direction of the binormal.
We
therefore see that, as in the case of a particle describing
a plane curve, the accelerations are -r^
gent and
or v
-7-
along the tan-
along the principal normal, which
lies
in
the
osculating plane of the curve.

131.
A particle moves in a curve, there being no friction,
under forces such as occur in nature. Shew that the change in
its kinetic
energy as
it
passes
from
one position
to the
other is
Dynamics of a
166
Farticle
independent of the path pursued and depends only on
and final positions.

Let X, Y, Z be the components of the
article, resolving
forces.
its initial
By
the last
along the tangent to the path, we have
m^ = X+
Y-^ + Z.
ds
ds
ds'
dt^
Now, by
i.e.
*""
"^ '^'^^^
Art. 95, since the forces are such as occur in nature,
are one-valued functions of distances from
Xdx + Ydy + Zdz
quantity
^ {x,
is
(ds^
\mv^ =
where
2/o,
jfixed points,
the
the differential of some function
so that
y, z),
(xq,
" /^^^"^ "^ ^^^
iltf
<|)
(o,
being the starting point and
Zo)
Hence
^mv^ =
^mv-
The right-hand member
(f>
2/o
(x, y, z)
Vq
ô)
+ G,
the initial velocity.

(j)
(x^, y^, Zo).
of this equation depends only on
the position of the initial point and on that of the point of the
path under consideration, and
is
quite independent of the path
pursued.
The
normal
reaction
is
where p
of the curve in the direction of the principal
is
p
the radius of curvature of the curve.
Motion on any surface. If the particle move on a

whose equation is f(x, y, z) = 0, let the direction cosines
at any point (x, y, z) of its path be (î, m-^, n-^, so that
132.
surface
mj
^1
Wi
^= 1=
dz
\dxj
\dz)
\dyj
V/JWuW^\''
"5"=
dx dy
Then,
if
R be the
=Z
m -Jdt-
d'^x
where
A', Y,
-t-
Rl,
Z are
"^
"^
normal reaction, we have

d-z

m d'^y
-^, = Y+ Rm^, and m ^- = Z + Rn^,
dtdt-.^
the components of the impressed forces.
Motion in three dimensions

Multiplying these equations by -^
~,
167
-^ and adding,
we have
1
d \(dx\^^(dyV
C?2
r'dtVKdtj'^Kdt)^
for the coefficient of
dx
dx
Ts
J-
dy
dt
dt
dz
dy
''^
dt
dz\ ds
ds
ds) dt
x the cosine of the angle between u tangent line to the

surface
and the normal
= 0.
^mv' =J(Xdx
+ Ydy + Zdz),
as in the last article.
Also, on eliminating R, the path on the surface

d'-x
"^d^-^
^1
d'y
dt^
m^
d-z
Hi
first
given by
^rf^-^
giving two equations from which, by eliminating
get a second surface cutting the
is
'
t,
we should
in the required path.
133.
Motion under gravity of a particle on a smooth surface
of revolution whose axis is vertical.
Dynamics of a
168
Particle
Use the coordinates z, p and </> of Art. 126, the ^-axis being
the axis of revolution of the surface. The second equation of
that article gives ~ j: (p^ -??
-^ =
/>'
i.e.
AP
Also, if s be the arc
the velocities of
P are
rating curve, and p
= 0,
constant
/i
(1).
measured from any fixed point A,
ds
-j along the tangent at
perpendicular to the plane
to the gene-
zAP. Hence
the Principle of Energy gives
H(S)'-^K)}= ^^
<^>-
Equations (1) and (2) give the motion.

Equation (1) states that the moment of the
the particle about the axis of z is constant.
By
equating the forces parallel to Oz to
momentum
<Pz
m -r-
we
of
easily
have the value of the reaction R.

If the equation to the generating curve be z=f(p) then,
since
s-i^ + ^ =
[i
+ {/V)}^](^)>,
equation (2) easily gives
which gives the differential equation of the projection of the

motion on a horizontal plane.
EXAMPLES
1.
slides
rest in
2.
smooth helix is placed with its axis vertical and a small bead
it under gravity
shew that it makes its first revolution from
down
time 2 ^
^-^
/ sm
a cos a
where a
is
the angle of the helix.
particle,
without weight, slides on a smooth helix of angle a

force to a fixed point on the axis equal to
and radius a under a
Motion in
TO/A
Shew
(distance).
three dimensions.
Examx^les
169
that the reaction of the curve cannot vanish unless
the greatest velocity of the particle
is
a \j \i sec a.
smooth paraboloid is placed with its axis vertical and vertex

downwards, the latus-rectum of the generating parabola being 4a. A
heavy particle is projected horizontally with velocity F at a height h
above the lowest point ; shew that the particle is again moving hori3.
F2
when
zontally
its
height
is
-^
Shew
also that the reaction
of the
paraboloid at any point is inversely proportional to the corresponding

radius of curvature of the generating parabola.
A particle
is describing steadily a circle, of radius h, on the inner

a smooth paraboloid of revolution whose axis is vertical and
vertex downwards, and is slightly disturbed by an impulse in a plane
through the axis shew that its period of oscillation about the steady
4.
sui'face of
^y~
hi.
motion
5.
is tt
*/
particle
yi
>
wtiere
is
the semi-latus-rectum of the paraboloid.
moving on a paraboloid
of revolution under a force
a constant angle ; shew that

the force varies inversely as the fourth power of the distance from the
parallel to the axis crosses the meridians at
axis.
6.
particle
moves on a smooth paraboloid of revolution under the
action of a force directed to the axis which varies inversely as the cube
shew that the equation of the projection

of the path on the tangent plane at the vertex of the paraboloid may,
under certain conditions of projection, be written
of the distance from the axis
V4a^+r'' + a log -V=

'sj4.a?
where 4a
is
+ r^ + 2a
=k.d.
the latus-rectum of the generating parabola.
CHAPTER X
MISCELLANEOUS
THE HODOGRAPH. MOTION ON REVOLVING CURVES.

IMPULSIVE TENSIONS OF STRINGS
134.
The Hodograph.
OQ
a straight line
which
If from
is
any
we draw
and proportional to,
fixed point
parallel to,
the velocity of any moving point P, the locus of
is
called
a hodograph of the motion of P.
If P' be a consecutive point on the path and OQ' be parallel

and proportional to the velocity at P', then the change of the
velocity in passing from P to P' is, by Art. 3, represented by
QQ'.
If T be the time of describing the arc
ration of
PF\
then the accele-
P
= Limit -^ = velocity of Q
T
in the hodograph.
T=0
Hence the
in magnitude
velocity of
and
in the hodograph represents, both
direction, the acceleration of
in its path.
The Hodograph
171
follows that the velocity, or coordinate, of
It
direction
in
any
proportional to the acceleration, or velocity, of
is
in
the same direction.
The same argument
holds
if
the motion of
not
is
coplanar.
any moment x and y be the coordinates of the moving-
If at
point P, and ^ and
hodograph,
where
A, is
tj
those of the corresponding point
eliminate
of the
a constant.
The values of -^ and -^ being then known
i.e.
we have
t,
we
(^,
??),
in terms of
between these equations and have the locus of
the hodograph.
So
for three-dimensional motion.
The hodograph of a central
135.
reciprocal of the
S turned
through a right
orbit is
orhit with respect to the centre of force
angle about S.
SY be
the perpendicular to the tangent at any point P

Produce SY to P' so that SY. SP' = ^, a constant;
the locus of P' is therefore the reciprocal of the path with
Let
of the orbit.
respect to
By
>S'.
Art. 54, the velocity
Hence SP'
is
t;
of
P = ^= ^
perpendicular
to,
^P'.
and proportional
to,
the
velocity of P.
The
locus of P' turned through a right angle about
is
therefore a hodograph of the motion.
The
velocity of P' in its path is therefore perpendicular to
and equal to y times the acceleration of P,

i.e.
it
-y-
X the central acceleration of P.
EXAMPLES
under gravity
shew that the
hodograph of its motion is a straight line parallel to the axis of the
parabola and described with uniform velocity.
1.
particle describes a parabola
172
2.
when the path
force
is
is
a parabola.
path be an
shew that the hodograph
ellipse described
If the
3.
under a force to its focus

a circle which passes through the centre of
particle describes a conic section
shew that the hodograph
is
a similar
under a force to
its
centre,
ellipse.
A bead moves on the arc of a smooth vertical circle starting

4.
from rest at the highest point. Shew that the equation to the hodograph
IS
/=
Xsin -.
5.
Shew
that the hodograph of a circle described under a force to
a point on the circumference

6.
a parabola.
is
The hodograph of an orbit is a parabola whose ordinate

Shew that the orbit is a semi-cubical parabola.
increases
uniformly.
particle slides down in a thin cycloidal tube, whose axis is

and vertex the highest point shew that the equation to the
hodograph is of the form r^ = '2g\a + hcQS.'i6\ the particle starting from
any point of the cycloid. If it start from the highest point, shew that the
hodograph is a circle.
7.
vertical
8.
9.
an equiangular spiral about a centre of force

hodograph is also an equiangular spiral.
particle describes
at the pole
shew that
its
If a particle describe a lemniscate
that the equation to the hodograph
10.
hodograph be a
If the
velocity about a point on
its
is r^
under a force to
= a^ sec^
its pole,
shew
^d
o-
TT
circle described
with constant angular
circumference, shew that the path
is
cycloid.
11.
Shew
that the only central orbits whose hodographs can also be
described as central orbits are those where the central acceleration varies
as the distance from the centre.
[In Art. 135
if
dicular to Y'P'
SP
and
acceleration to
S if
acceleration of
Px
meet the tangent at P'
= ^^
The hodograph
the velocity of P' x
is
constant.
SY'
is
in
T, then S7'
is
described with central
constant,
Hence the
i.e.
if
is
perpen-
the central
result.]
If the path be a helix whose axis is vertical, described under

shew that the hodograph is a curve described on a right circular
cone whose semi-vertical angle is the complement of the angle of the
12.
gravity,
helix.
Revolving Curves
173
Motion on a Revolving Curve.
136.
given curve
own plane about a given fixed point

with constant
angular velocity a> ; a small bead P moves on the curve under
the action of given forces wJiose components along and perpenand Y ; to find the motion.
dicular to OP are
Let OA be a line fixed in the plane of the curve, and OB
turns in
its
a line fixed with respect to the curve,

whichat zero time coincided with 0^,
so that, at time
^,
N\
^ Oi? = ft)t
At time t let the bead be at P,

be the angle
where OP = r, and let
between OP and the tangent to the
-/^
'^^^'^--^^p
cf)
curve.
Then, by Art. 49, the equations of

motion are
d'r
(de
r dt
y X
\dt
ffive
Ihese
and
J]
d'r
t::
m m
t\-j-]
\dtj
d ( ,dd\
ji ^ "77
dt\
dtj
I
=~
^
^
= rco^ +
de
^
Zrco -77
dt
X R sin ^
.
0,
^
Y
R
m h m cos ^
dr
'
fdev
dt-"
jo^
^''
2a) -7- H
rf>.
dt
Let V be the velocity of the bead relative to the wire, so that

.
V cos
The equations
C)
dr
i;
sin
dt
dd
-7^ = r dt
of motion are then
fdey
d'r
,dd\
mm,
/?'
where
= -TT and
R'
,^,
R'
7?
2a)V
(3).
^
'
These equations give the motion of the particle relative

the curve.
to
Dynamics of a
174
Now
Particle
suppose that the curve, instead of rotating, were at
and that the bead moved on it

under the action of the same forces
and Y as in the first case together
with an additional force mwl^r along OP,
and let 8 be the new normal reaction.
The equations of motion are now
rest,
mm
Y 8
\dfdd\ =
+
mm
dP
\dtj
and
J. k^ :7T
rdt\
dtj
cos
^
(^
,.,
.(o).
^
^
These equations are the same as (1) and
(2) with
substi-
tuted for R'.
The motion
case
is
of the
therefore given
bead relative to the curve in the first

by the same equations as the absolute
motion in the second case.

The relative motion in the case of a revolving curve may
thus be obtained as follows.
Treat the curve as fixed, and put on an additional force on
the bead, away from the centre of rotation and equal to mar.r;
then find the motion of the bead this will be the relative
motion when the curve is rotating. The reaction of the curve,
;
be the actual reaction of the moving curve.

(3) add to the reaction, found by
the foregoing process, the quantity 2m(ov, where v is the
velocity of the bead relative to the curve.
The above process is known as that of "reducing the moving
curve to rest." When the moving curve has been reduced to
so found, will not
To get the
rest,
latter
we must by
the best accelerations to use are, in general, the tangential
and normal ones of Art.
88.
If the angular velocity <a be not constant the work is

137.
the same, except that in equation (2) there is one extra term
r -77
on the right-hand
force m&),
side.
In this
we must put on another
angles to OF, and the curve
is
then
"
case, in addition to the
force
mr -^
reduced to
rest."
at right
Revolving Curves
175
138. Ex. A smooth circular tube contains a particle, of mass m, and lies on a
smooth table. The tube starts rotating with constant angular velocity lo about an
axis perpendicular to the plane of the tube tchich passes through the other end, 0,
of the diameter through the initial position. A, of the particle. Shew that in time
t the particle will have described an angle 4> about the centre of the tube equal
to 4
tan-i
tanh
Shew
particle is then equal to
also that the reaction between the
2wiaw2cos|
| -2
3 cos
and
tube
the
P being the position of the particle at time t, and 0= / ACP, we may treat
the tube as at rest if we assume an additional force along OP equal to mw^ OP,
.
R' being the normal
mu^. 2a cos ^.
i.e.
reaction in this case,
we
have, on
taking tangential and normal accelerations,
a^=
-w2. 2acos^sin ^
(1),
a^2=__2,2acos2|
and
(1)
^2 = 2w2cos0 +
gives
Now,
if
the tube revolves
its initial relative velocity
i.e.
^ = 2w
Therefore
.;
(3)
gives
(^2
was
initially at rest,
2a, in the opposite direction.
initially.
= 2c>j2 (1 + cos
^ = 2 log tan
2'jit=
(3).
then, since the particle
was w OA,
Hence
(2).
t + f
<p).
the constant vanishing.
Jcosf
1
"*=
+ tanj
,
1 - tan
Also
(2)
gives
wt_i
so that tan
-^
= Qau^ cos^ ^
= ^-"4::i=tanh(^V
176
Now, by equation
(3)
of Art. 136, the real reaction
is
given by
^
= R'
m + luv,
in
It
where v
is
the velocity of the particle relative to the tube in the direction in
which the tube revolves,

:.
Ex.
when it
i.e.
J,
so that
v=
a<p.
R = R'- 2mwa(p = 2maw2 cos
3 cos
j
^-2
If the particle be initially at rest indefinitely close to 0, shew that,

is at its greatest distance from 0, the reaction of the curve is lOmau^.
139.
Let the curve of Art. 136 be revolving with uniform

eo
about a
angular velocity
fixed
Oy
axis
in
own
its
plane.
At time
have
let
the curve
through
an
be
the coordinates of the bead
measured along and perpendicular to the fixed axis.
Let
R be the normal reaction in
the plane of the curve, and S
angle
revolved
<f),
and
let
y and
cc
the reaction perpendicular to

the plane of the curve.
The equations
of motion
of Art. 126 then become, since

(f>
= Q),
d?x
R sm
xoi- H
dt""
.(1),
Z
-
m+m
and
d?y
df'
R cos U
m
.(2),
.
-\
(3),
where X, F, and Z are the components of the impressed forces

parallel to x and y, and perpendicular to the plane of the curve,
and d is the inclination of the normal to the axis of y.
Equations (1) and (3), which give the motion of the bead
relative to the wire, are the same equations as we should have
if tve assumed the wire to be at rest and put on an additional
Revolving Curves
force
77? ft)'
X distance perpendicular
177
and away from
to
the axis of
rotation.
Hence, applying this additional force, we may treat the wire

and use whatever equations are most convenient.
as at rest,
As a numerical example,
140.
revolving about
its vertical
let
diameter,
the curve be a smooth circular wire

being
centre and a
its
its
Let
radius.
the bead start from rest at a point indefinitely close to the highest point of the
Treat the circle as at rest, and put on an additional force
wire.
7710)2
along
NP{ = m<a^
a sin
d)
NP.
Taking tangential and normnl accelerations, we then have

ae = (xiâain9cos6
a6^=
and
(4)
a6'^=uâ sin2 e + 2g(l- cos
gives
and then
(5)
+ gsm6
-=g(3cos 0-2)- 2uiâ
gives
Also the reaction
(4),
R
--+g cos 6 -u'â sin^d
(5).
6),
sin2 6.
perpendicular to the plane of the wire
is,
by
(2),
given by
- = 2iw = 2w
= 2w cos 6
(a sin 6)
Juâ^ sin2
= 2wa cos ^
d
+ 2ga (1
- cos d).
EXAMPLES
smooth straight tube which is suddenly

which is at a perpendicular distance a from the tube shew that the distance described by
the particle in time
being initially at
is a sinh a>t, the particle and
a distance a apart shew also that the reaction between the tube and the
1.
particle is placed in a
in its plane of motion,
set rotating about a point
;!
particle then is maaP' [2 cosh
2.
o)^
- 1].
circular tube, of radius a, revolves uniformly about a vertical
diameter with angular velocity

its
\/ ~
and a
lowest point with velocity just sufficient to carry
point
shew that the time of describing the
first
from
to the highest
it
quadrant
is
y;
A
P moves
in a smooth circular tube, of radius a, which

turns with uniform angular velocity w about a vertical diameter ; if the
angular distance of the particle at any time t from the lowest point is d,
3.
and
if it
particle
be at rest relative to the tube when 6 = a, where cos^

2
then, at any subsequent time

L. D.
t,
cot - = cot - cosh
at sin -
=-
V/-a
12
178
4.
A thin circular wire is made to revolve about a vertical diameter
with constant angular velocity. A smooth ring slides on the wire, being
attached to its highest point by an elastic string whose natural length
If the ring be slightly displaced from
is equal to the radius of the wire.
the lowest point, find the motion, and shew that it will reach the highest
point if the modulus of elasticity is four times the weight of the ring.
smooth
circular wire rotates with uniform angular velocity

tangent line at a point A. A bead, without weight, slides on
the wire from a position of rest at a point of the wire very near A.
Shew that the angular distance on the wire traversed in a time t after
passing the point opposite J. is 2 tan"^ a)t.
5.
about
its
A small bead slides on a circular

6.
with constant angular velocity &> about
arc, of radius a,
its vertical
time of a small oscillation about

,.
its
27r(Ba
cases, respectively equal to
27r
- anaJ
parabolic wire, whose axis
is
it
in relative rest
downwards according as ^ <

-where Aa
is
shew that
and
will
two
and vertex downwards,

it will
ring
is
placed
move upwards
remain at rest
if
<u2
or
=^
the latus-rectum of the parabola.
tube in the form of the cardioid r = a(l + cos^) is placed with

and cusp uppermost, and revolves round the axis with
8.
^,
for the
a""
vertical
rotates about its axis with uniform angular velocity w.
at any point of
is,
V
A
7.
- , and shew that the
<
position of stable equilibrium according as ^
which revolves
Find its
diameter.
its axis vertical
angular velocity
\J
-A-
of the tube along the tube with velocity ^JZga

will ascend until it is
9.
from the lowest point
shew that the
particle
on a level with the cusp.
smooth plane tube, revolving with angular velocity about a

mass m, which is acted upon
in its plane, contains a particle of
lôint
by a force
where
mwV towards
and
shew that the reaction of the tube
B are constants and p
at the point occupied
by the
is
is
^ +-
the radius of curvature of the tube
particle.
whose unstretched length is a, of mass ma and

whose modulus of elasticity is X, has one end fastened to an extremity A
if the tube revolve with
of a smooth tube within which the string rests
uniform angular velocity in a horizontal plane about the end A, shew
10.
An
elastic string,
that
when the
string
is
equilibrium
$
= a<i)
its
A-
length
is
where
Examples
Revolving Curves.
An
11.
elastic string, of length
179
a and mass ma,
is placed in a tube
one end attached to the pole.
The plane of the spiral is horizontal and the tube is made to revolve
with uniform angular velocity a about a vertical line through the pole
in the form of
shew that
its
an equiangular
length,
when
spiral with
in relative equilibrium,
is
a-
~
9
where
(j)
12.
,v/ y
mass m, is placed on a horizontal table which is

so that the force on the particle due to viscous friction
the velocity of the particle relative to the table. The
particle, of
lubricated with
oil
mku, where
is
is
= aa> cos a
tt
made to revolve with uniform angular velocity w about a vei-tical

Shew that, by properly adjusting the circumstances of projection,
table is
axis.
the equations to the path of the particle on the table will be
a + z/3 =
where
[With the notation of Art.
51, the equations of
{D'^-\-kD-a>^)x-2o>Dy = Q
Hence
\^D^
/^2
*/ + ia^k.
and
motion are
{D^+kD-(o^)y+2a>Dx = 0.
+kD ay^ + 'iiu}D']{x + iy) = 0. Now solve
in the usual manner.]
A smooth horizontal plane revolves with angular velocity <a about

13.
a vertical axis to a point of which is attached the end of a light string,
extensible according to Hooke's Law and of natural length o? just sufficient
The string is stretched, and after passing through
to reach the plane.
a small ring at the point where the axis meets the plane is attached to
a particle of mass m which moves on the plane. If the mass is initially
at rest on the plane, shew that its path relative to the plane is a hypocycloid generated
on a
by the rolling of a circle of radius â{l a)(w2o?X~i)i}

where a is the initial extension and \ the coefficient
circle of radius a,
of elasticity of the string.
smooth straight tube which is made to

uniform angular velocity w about a vertical axis. If the
particle start from relative rest from the point where the shortest
distance between the axis and the tube meets the tube, shew that in
time t the particle has moved through a distance
14.
particle slides in a
rotate with
-4 cot a cosec a sinh^
(^ u,t sin a),
CO"
where a
is
the inclination of the tube to the vertical.
122
Dynamics of a Partiele
180
Impulsive tensions of chains.

is lying in the form of a given curve on a smooth
141.
chain
horizontal plane; to one end of it is applied a given impulsive

tension in the direction of the tangent; to find the consequent
impulsive tension at any other point of the carve, and the initial
motion of the point.
Let
FQ
of the arc
Let
The
T -7-
be any element Bs of the chain, s being the length

O'P measured from any fixed point 0'.
and T + SThe the impulsive tensions at P and Q.
resolved part of the tension at
and
The
parallel to
this is clearly a function of the arc
resolved part of the tension at
=/(s +
&s)
=f(s)
Let
be/(5).
...
dx'
d^
ds
is
+ Ssf'(s) + /"() +
as
it
Ox
\"'
dsj
by Taylor's Theorem.
Hence,
if
be the mass of the chain at
per unit of
length, and u, v the initial velocities of the element

to the axes,
FQ
we have
\_
ds
ds\
dsj
ds
parallel
Impulsive tensions of Chains

i.e.,
in the limit
when
181
Zs is indefinitely small,
-=l(^s)
- = l(^|)
So
Again, since the string
(2)-
inextensible, the velocity of
is
along the direction PQ {i.e. along the tangent at

ultimately)
must be equal to the velocity of Q in the same direction.
Hence
cos
i/r
+ w sin -y^ =
.
Sit
*.
{u
cos
i/r
cZii
dx
hi) cos
Sy'sin
i/r
i/r
+ (w +
= 0,
Sv) sin t^.
dv dy _
ds ds
*'
ds~
ds
Tangential and Normal Resolutions.
142.
Somewhat
easier equations are obtained if
we assume
Vg
and
the initial tangential and normal velocities at P.

Resolving along the tangent, we have
Vp as
mh .Vs = (T+ dT) cos d^^-T

= dT + smQ\\
i.e.,
quantities of the second order,
dT
---
in the limit,
= mVs
(1).
So, resolving along the normal,
mSs .Vp
i.e.,
in the
where p
The
is
= (T+ dT) sin Sf =

T
-
+ ...,
(2),
the radius of curvature.
condition of inextensibility gives

^s
(^s
i.e.
+ ^Vg) COS 5\/r - {vp + Svp) sin S\|r,

= hvs VpS^jr,
dvs_^^
=
^*
i.e.
By
Th^\r
=mVp
limit,
eliminating
Vp
-yp
and
dyjr _Vp
-^ = -^
Vg
P
from
ds\jndsj
The
initial
in the limit
(1), (2)
p^
and
(3),
(3).
we have
^
^'
form of the chain being given, p is known as a

is either a constant when the chain is
function of s; also
Dynamics of a
182
Particle
uniform or it is a known function of s. Equation (4) thus

determines T with two arbitrary constants in the result; they
are determined from the fact that T is at one end equal to the
given terminal impulsive tension, and at the other end is zero.
Hence T is known and then (1) and (2) determine the
each element.
initial velocities of
Ex. A uniform chain is hanging in the form of a catenary, ichose ends are
at the same horizontal level; to each end is applied tangentially an impulse Tq;
find the impulse at each point of the chain and its initial velocity,
In this curve s=
tan
=
so that p
"^
\1/,
ds
-=c sec^ ^
\1/.
d\p
dT_dT
cos2i/>
ds~ d\p'
d27'_d2r
cosî^
(4)
i/>
cos3
>
dr
d^
gives
,dT ^
=
2Cos^-sm\^^
d^T
t.e.
)/
ds^'df^ ~c2~
Hence equation
'
2 sin
dT
Tcos<A + 8m,/,^.
,
dT
-rTC0Sii'=rsin^ + 4.
.'.
df
:.
^here
A and B
Also, from equations
and
(1)
mvg
-r
d\j/
(1),
(2),
= - \A cos + Axp sin

\1/
li-
+ -B sin vt]
(2),
jHUp= -cos^^ = i
and
Vj
T cos xp-A^p + B
are constants.
cosxf/
(6).
Now, by symmetry, the lowest point can have no tangential motion,

must vanish when = 0. Therefore A = 0.
Also if fo be the inclination of the tangent at either end, then, from
so that
i/'
'
^=^'^^rr
^^'f'
so that the impulsive tension at any point varies as
Also
The
t',=
"
cos
mc
V'o
(1),
B = Tocos\l/Q.
T COS ypQ _ Tq cos ^0
and
sin i//,
^
vp =
its
cos
mc
ordinate.
iô
cos
\1/.
velocity of the point considered, parallel to the directrix of the catenary,
= Ug cos
Hence
all
directrix, i.e.
\f/
- Vp sin
i/'
= 0.
points of the catenary start moving perpendicularly to

in a vertical direction, and the velocity at any point
the
Free motion of a Chain
183
Motion of a chain free to move in one plane.

figure of Art. 141 let X, Y be the forces acting on
an element PQ of a chain in directions parallel to the axes of
coordinates.
Let u and v be the component velocities of the
point P parallel to the axes.
Let T be the tension at P. Its
dx
component parallel to Ox= Tj~=f(s), where s is the arc OP.
143.
With the
If
PQ = 8s,
the tension at
parallel to
Ox
=f{s + 8s)=f(s) + 8sf(s)+....

Hence,
if
m be the mass of the chain per unit of length,
equation of motion of
m8s
PQ
= the
-jj
the
is
forces parallel to
Ox
= m8sX + {/(s) + 8sf (s) +
.]
-f(s)
= m8s.X + 8s^(T~
as
Dividing by
8s,
in the
P in
same
we have
w-
-s-^4.i4f)
(^)-
to
be inextensible,
PQ
the direction
it
ibllows that the
must be the same as that of
direction.
= 8u.^ + 8v^.
I.e.
ds
du dx
and hence
These equations give

i.e.
8s,
4:-^ 4.(4:)
Assuming the chain
velocity of
as
and neglecting powers of
+
x,
ds
dv
y,
dii
and
they give the position at time
arcual distance
is
s.
T
t
(3)_
in terms of s
and
t,
of any element whose
Dyiimnics of a Particle
184
EXAMPLES
1.
A uniform chain, in the form of a semi-circle, is phicked at one
end with an impulsive tension T^. Shew that the impulsive tension at
siuh(7r-^)
angular distance 6 from this end is Tn
sinh
361
the form of the curve r = ae'" from = to 6 = fi,

and receives a tangential impulse Tq at the point where ^=0, the other end
being free ; shew tl.at the impulsive tension at any point is
2.
chain
lies in
.29
.),
5^
e2
3.
uniform chain
is
-1
in the form of that portion of the plane curve
tan~i -I, which lies between

and 256 units distance from the pole. If tangential impulsive tensions
of 2 and 1 units are simultaneously applied at the points nearest to and
farthest from the pole, shew that the impulsive tension at a point distant
81 units from the pole is ^JZ units.
cutting every radius vector at an angle
1
4.
position
R and
velocity F, centre above centre.

.
wire
TnV
IS
27r
supported in a horizontal
into it with
Shew that the impulsive tension in the
ring of inelastic wire, of radius
and a sphere of radius
r=
Vi22-r2
?,
mass
is
falls vertically
DYNAMICS OF A BIGID BODY

CHAPTEH XI
MOMENTS AND PRODUCTS OF
INERTIA.
PRINCIPAL AXES
If r be the perpendicular distance from any given

any element m of the mass of a body, then the quantity
%mr^ is called the moment of inertia of the body about the
144.
line of
given line.
In other words, the moment of inertia is thus obtained;
take each element of the body, multiply it by the square of its
perpendicular distance from the given line; and add together
all
the quantities thus obtained.

If this
sum be
equal to Mh"^, where
is the total mass of

Radius of Gyration about the
given line. It has sometimes been called the Swing-Radius.
If three mutually perpendicular axes Ox, Oy, Oz be taken,
and if the coordinates of any element m of the system referred
to these axes be x, y and z, then the quantities Xmyz, "Zmzx,
and l^mxy are called the products of inertia with respect to
the axes y and z, z and x, and x and y respectively.
Since the distance of the element from the axis of x is
the body, then k
V2/2 H-
2^ the
called the
is
moment
of inertia about the axis of
= %m (y^ + z%
145.
I.
Simple cases of Moments of Inertia.
Thin uniform rod of mass
any element
of
it
such that
Hence the moment
M and length 2a.
AP=x
and
of inertia about
PQ = 8x.
Let
an axis through
rod
Sx
-
2a
2ajo
^4[2a]3: -^^
AB
The mass
'
x-dx
be the rod, and

of
PQ
is
PQ
^.M.
perpendicular to the
Dynamics of a Rigid Body
186
be the centre of the rod, OP = y and PQ = 5y, the

perpendicular to the rod
an axis through
Similarly, if
moment
of
inertia of the rod about
ir
,-!+
,,
rt2
'2a"6\
whose centre
be the lamina, such that
By drawing
0.
is
ABCD
Let
Rectangular lamina.
II.
AD = 2b,
number
a large
AB = 2a
of lines parallel to
and
AD
we obtain a large number of strips, each of which is ultimately a

The moment of inertia of each of these strips about an axis through
straight line.
parallel to
AB
moments
the
mass multiplied by
(by I) equal to its
is
of the strips,
i.e.
the
moment
Hence the sum
of inertia of the rectangle,
O
of
about
'
So
If
its
moment
of inertia, about
an axis through
parallel to the side 2t, is
<
X and y be the coordinates of any point P of the lamina referred

parallel to AB and AT) respectively, these results gire
to axes
through
îny^= moment of
The moment
to the
inertia about
of inertia of the
and
Sffia;2
= Jl/
lamina
= Zm OP^
.
2c.
conceive the solid as

slices all
hence
St
(.t2
+ 7/2) = M '^^
Rectangular parallelopiped. Let the lengths of its sides be 2a, 2b,

Consider an axis through the centre parallel to the side 2a, and
III.
and
Ox =
lamina about an axis through O perpendicular
its
made up
of a very large
perpendicular to this axis
moment
Hence the moment
number
each of these
of inertia about the axis is

of inertia of the
i*3
+ c2
-^'
whole body
has sides 2b and 2c and
mass multiplied by
the whole mass multiplied by
+
^^,.62
--
its
is
of thin parallel rectangular
slices
(.2
Circumference of a circle. Let Ox be any axis through the centre O,

of the circumference such that xOP=d, PQ an element aSd; then
the moment of inertia about Ox
IV.
any point
\Jiira
-27
V.
Circular disc
circles of radii r
-^T
'''''"''=-ir-2-2of radius
and r+5r
a.
is 27rr5r
The area contained between

and
its
mass
is
of inertia about a diameter by the previous article :=
^.
thus
5- M
~,
concentric
its
moment
Moments of Inertia
Hence the required moment
of inertia
M r rMr M
a*
21.
moment about a perpendicular diameter.

The moment of inertia about an axis through the
So
187
for the
the disc = (as in II) the
sum
centre perpendicular to
= 3/.
of these
Taking
Elliptic disc of axes 2a, 2b.
axis of y, the
moment
r2b
fo
sin (pd {a cos 0)
of inertia
sin^ <pd^
-L
and r + 5r
=M
.
sin ^
. ^"1
Ma^
{",.
s.nê.dO
My-.xnH^j
^^^
2 _2Ma^
47ra2
it/gg
Solid sphere.
of radii r
=M
it
^ ra80 2wa
=2
^2sin2j
4
be formed by the revolution of the circle of IV
Then the moment of inertia about the diameter
about the diameter.
VII.
'II
about the axis oty
Let
Holloio sphere.
,n
^b
'3
VI,
lines parallel to the
of inertia about the axis of x clearly
=^jirL
So the moment
made by
slices
"3.1"
The volume
of the thin shell included between spheres
and hence
is 47r?-5r,
its
mass
Awr-5r
is
M.
iir-
Hence, by VI, the required
moment
Sr^-^
\M a5
a3
= 1Z
j2
p + 32=l-
Consider any
included between planes at distances

X and X + 8x from the centre and parallel
to the plane through the axes of y and z.
slice
The
area of the section through
PMP'
Now
BO that
..1
A-:
TT.MP.MP'.
is
0M-^_
0C2"^ 0^2-1'
PJ72
MP-.
So
Hence the volume
a^
MP'
ce
of the thin slice
= wbcfl-
2a2
Solid ellipsoid about any principal axis.
VIII.
ellipsoid
of inertia about a diameter
2r2
"^2^ .5a;.
Let the equation to the
dynamics of a Rigid Body
188
Also
its
moment
about the perpendicular to
of inertia
its
plane
MP^ + MP'^
vbcdx

Z;2
fc2
= iral)C
^^
,r
=M
X
of inertia
+ c2
+ c2
16
^4
fc2
+ '^^
.
;:
Dr Routh has pointed out a simple rule for re146.

membering the moments of inertia of many of the simpler
bodies, viz.
The moment of inertia about an axis of symmetry is

the sum of the squares of the perpendicular semi-axes
-
Mass X
or 5
3, 4,
'
the denominator to be 3, 4, or 5 according as the body is

rectangular, elliptical (including circular) or ellipsoidal (including
spherical).
// the moments and products of inertia about any line,

through the centre of inertia G of a body are known, to
obtain the corresponding quantities for any parallel line.
Let GX, GY, GZ be any three axes through the centre of
147.
or
lines,
gravity, and OX', OY', OZ' parallel axes through any point 0.
Let the coordinates of any element m of the body be a, y, z
referred to the first three axes, and x y' and z' referred to the
second set. Then if/, g and h be the coordinates of G referred
to OX', OY' and OZ' we have
,
X -\-f,
y'
Hence the moment

to
=y
-\-
and
g,
z'
= z + h.
of the
of inertia
body with regard
OX'
= ^m {y'^ + z'') = %m [y- + z' + 2yg + 2zh + g- + A-]. ..(1).

X??i '2yg = 2g Xmy.
Now
.
Also,
'
by
Statics,
-^
inertia referred to
similarly S?n
2zh
"
.^
^m
= 0.
the ^
^-coordinate of the centre of
as origin
0.
Hence S?n 2yg =

.
and
Moments of Inertia
Hence, from
the
189
(1),
moment
of inertia with regard to
OX'
= Sm (2/2 + 22) + M (g^ + h?)

= the moment of inertia with regard to GX + the moment
of inertia of a mass M placed at G about the
axis
OX'.
Again, the product of inertia about the axes
= tmx'y' = 2m {x +f) {y + g)
= tm[a;y + g.x + fy+fg]
= Xmxy + Mfg
= the product of inertia about
of inertia of a mass
OX' and
OX' and OY'
GX and GY-\- the product
M placed at G about the axes
07'.
Cor. It follows from this article that of all axes drawn in

a given direction the one through the centre of inertia is the
one such that the moment of inertia about it is a minimum.
Exi.
The moment
The moment
of inertia of the arc of a complete circle about a tangent
of inertia of a solid sphere about a tangent
moments and products of inertia of a body

about three perpendicular and concurrent axes are known, to
find the moment of inertia about any other axis through their
148.
If
the
meeting point.
Let OX, OY, OZ be the three given axes, and

be the moments of inertia with
respect to them, and D,
and
the products of inertia with respect
to the axes of y and z, of z and x,
let
4, ^ and
and x and y respectively.

Let the moment of inertia be
required about OQ, whose direction-cosines with respect to
Y and OZ are
I,
OX,
m and n.
Take any element m' of the

body at P whose coordinates are
KL=yaindLF = z.
'
y/
x, y,
and
z,
so that
OK = x
Dynamws of a Rigid Body
190
Draw
PM perpendicular to the axis
Now
OP' =
+ y' + z-,
OQ of the straight line OP
= the projection on OQ of the broken line OKLP
= OK + m KL + n.LP==lx + 'my+ nz.
0M= the projection
and
OQ.
PM'=OP'-OM\
Then
a;-'
on
of inertia about
OM
= :im' P3P = Xm [x- + y'^+ Z-- {Ix + my + nzf]

{l^ + m^)!
Vx^ (m^ + rv") + y^ {n'' + P) +
_^
2mnyz 2iilzx 2lmxy
J
since
l^ + m'' +if = l,
= P^m' (3/2 + ^2) + m"" Xm' (z- + x'^) +
Sm' (x^ + y^)
^mii^m'yz 2nVZm'zx 2lmX'm'xy
= Al^+ Bm-" + Cn^ - 2Dmn - 2Enl - 2Flm.
.
z-"
'
'
|_
ri"
As a
149.
particular case of the preceding article consider
the case of a plane lamina.
Let A,
Bhe
its
moments
of inertia about
two
lines
OX and
X sin
^.
OF at right angles, and F its product

of inertia about the
same two
lines,
so that
A = Xmy^, B = l.mx'^, F = Xmxy.

If
y') are
{x',
point
the coordinates of a
referred to
new
axes
OX'
and OT', where Z XOX' = d, then

x = x' cos y sin 9,
and
y = ^' sin 6 + y' cos 6.
x =x cos 6 -{-y sin 6 and
.
Hence the moment
y'
of inertia about
=y
cos
OX'
= 2wy = 2w (3/ cos ^ sin 6y

= cos^ ^ Xmy^ + sin^ ^ 2mx^ 2 sin ^ cos
= A cos^ 6 + B sill' 6 - 2Fsm 6 cos 6.
a;
The product
of inertia about
OX' and
Xmxy
Y'
= Xmx'y' = Xm (x cos6 + y sin 6) (y cos ^ sin 6)

= 1m sin 6 cos 6 x- sin ^ cos 6 + xy (cos^ ^ sin- ^)]
= (A - ) sin ^ cos ^ + i' cos 2^.
a;
[3/2
Moments of
Examples
Inertia.
191
In the case of a plane lamina, if A and B be the moments

of inertia about any two perpendicular lines lying in it, the
moment of inertia about a line through their intersection
perpendicular to the j)lane
= Sm (2 + y") = Xmif- + S'??^.^- = A

Find
\-B.
CF
1.
moment of inertia of an elliptic area about a line
150.
inclined at d to the major axis, and about a tangent parallel to CP.
-E.r.
The moments
in Art. 145,
the
b"-.-
of inertia,
and
M a2
4
A and
Hence the moment
= BI Y cos'^ + HI
The
perpendicular
CY upon
B, about the major and minor axes are, as
sin- d,
of inertia about
CF
F=0, by symmetry.
since
a tangent parallel to
CF~.
Hence, by Art. 147, the moment of inertia about this tangent
= ilf ^%os2 + M ^%in2 ^ + M ^2
521/
(a2sin2^
Ex.
centre
+ Z^2cos2(?).
The moment of inertia of a uniform, cube about any axis through
2.
is the
its
same.
A = B = C, and
For
Therefore, from Art. 148,
I=A
D=E=F=0,
Ip + j?i2 + n^)
= A.
EXAMPLES
Find the moments of inertia of the following
1.
2.
its
centre
3.
A rectangle about a diagonal and any line through the centre.

A circular area about a line whose perpendicular distance from
is c.
The
arc of a circle about (1) the
diameter bisecting the
an axis through the centre perpendicular to its plane,

through its middle point perpendicular to its plane.
(2)
4.
An
isosceles
upon the opposite

5.
Any
through A.
triangle
(3)
arc,
an axis
about a perpendicular from the vertex
side.
triangular area
ABG
about a perpendicular to
[ Result.
its
plane
~{3b^ + '3c^-a^).~]
192
6.
The
7.
through
area bounded by r^ = a'^ cos 26 about
right circular cylinder about (1) its axis, (2) a straight line
centre of gravity perpendicular to its axis.
its
8.
9.
rectangular parallelopiped about an edge.
hollow
11.
height
a diameter,
its
external and internal
[ ResvZt.
b.
truncated cone about
Shew
is
about
sphere
a and
radii being
10.
its axis.
that the
moment
axis, the
its
radii
"^
of inertia of a right solid cone, whose
h and the radius of whose base
side,
^'^
of its ends being
is a, is
20
a slant
and -^{h'^ + Aa^) about a
line
h^
about
+ a^
through the centre of gravity
of the cone perpendicular to its axis.
Shew that the moment of inertia of a parabolic area (of

12.
latus-rectum 4a) cut off by an ordinate at distance h from the vertex
is jMh^ about the tangent at the vertex, and f i/aA about the axis.
13.
about
14.
Shew
that the
its axis is
soidal
+ "2'=l
its base.
shell
(bounded
of inertia of a thin
by
similar,
is
M o-
about an axis
Shew that the moment
about any straight line through
similarly
,
where
number
of sides
and
c is
homogeneous ellipand concentric
is
the mass of the
of inertia of a regular polygon of
its
centre
jfc^^
is
shell.
sides
+ cos-
-^r
17.
{x',i/,z!).
situated
24
the
solid ellipsoid
about the normal at the point
Shew that the moment
ellipsoids)
16.
of inertia of a paraboloid of revolution
square of the radius of
Find the moment of inertia of the homogeneous
bounded by r2+'p
15.
moment
M x the
- cos
where n
is
"Ztt
the length of each.
solid body, of density p, is in the
shape of the solid formed
by the revolution of the cardioid r = a(l + cos<9) about the initial hne
shew that its moment of inertia about a straight line through the pole
;
perpendicular to the initial line
is
f^Trpa^.
Momental Ellipsoids
193
A closed central curve revolves round any line Ox in its own

18.
plane which does not intersect it ; shew that the moment of inertia of
{a? -\-Zk'), where
the solid of revolution so formed about Ox is equal to
is the mass of the solid generated, a is the distance from Ox of the
centre C of the solid, and k is the radius of gyration of the curve about a
line through C parallel to Ox.
Prove a similar theorem for the moment of inertia of the surface
generated by the arc of the curve.
The moment
19.
M and
mass
of inertia about its axis of a solid rubber tyre, of
the radius of the core.

thickness,
ellipsoid.
{AW-{-Za^),
where b
is
and of small uniform
If the tyre be hollow,
shew that the corresponding
Momental
151.
circular cross-section of radius a, is
result is
Along
{2U^
-{-Zcfi).
line
OQ
drawn
take a distance OQ, such that the moment

through any point
of inertia of the body about OQ may be inversely proportional
The result of Art. 148 then gives
to the square of OQ.
Al'-{- Bin'
Cn''
1
"^
where
is
- 2D>nji - 2Enl _ M.IO
OQ'
OQ'
the mass of the body and
If (x, y, z) are the coordinates of
OF,
0^ this
Ax'
The
2Flm,
'
is
some
linear factor.
referred to the axes
OX,
gives
+ Bif + Gz' - 2Byz -2Ezx- 2Fxy = MK'
locus of the point
is
thus an ellipsoid, which
is
.(1).
called
the momental ellipsoid of the body at the point 0.

Since the position of Q is obtained by a physical definition,
which is independent of any particular axes of coordinates, we
arrive at the
same
with which we
It is
ellipsoid
whatever be the axes OX,
Y,
OZ
start.
proved in books on Solid Geometry that for every

be found three perpendicular diameters such
ellipsoid there can
be taken as axes of coordinates, the resulting

equation of the ellipsoid has no terms involving yz, zx or xy,
and the new axes of coordinates are then called the Principal
that, if they
Axes
of the Ellipsoid.
Let the momental

axes have as equation
ellipsoid (1)
when
referred to its principal
A'x'-vB\f-\-G'z'=MK'
L.
D.
(2).
13
Dynamics of a Rkjid Body
194
The products of inertia with respect to these new axes

must be zero; for if any one of them, say D', existed, then
there would, as in equation
Hence we have the

any body
be a term
(1),
^D'yz
in (2).
following important proposition
ivhatever there exists at each point
set
For
of three
perpendicular axes {which are the three principal diameters of

the mo/nental ellipsoid at 0) such that the products of inertia
of the body about them, taken two at a time, all vanish.
These three axes are called the principal axes of the body
also a plane through any two of these axes is
at the point
called a principal plane of the body.
152.
It
is
also
shewn
of the ellipsoid,
Geometry that
in Solid
principal axes of an ellipsoid, one
and another
is
of the radius vector of the
is
the
it
moment
of inertia
If the three principal
and another has the maximum.
moments
in this case all
moments
are equal,
of inertia at
the ellipsoid of inertia becomes a sphere,

;
of inertia of the
follows that of the three principal axes, one has the
minimum moment
equal
of the three
radius vector
the minimum. Since the square

momental ellipsoid is inversely
proportional to the corresponding
body,
maximum
all radii
of which are
of inertia about lines through
are equal.
Thus, in the case of a cube of side 2a, the principal moments

and hence the moment of
of inertia at its centre are equal,

inertia
about any line through
its
centre
is
the same and equal
to if. -7-.
body be a lamina, the section of the momental

any point of the lamina, which is made by the
plane of the lamina, is called the momental ellipse at the point.
If the
ellipsoid at
If the tAVO principal
moments
in this case are the same, the
becomes a circle, and the moments of inertia

are the same.
of the lamina about all lines through
momental
ellipse
To shew that the moments and products of inertia of

153.
a uniform triangle about any lines are the same as the moments
and products of inertia, about the same lines, of three particles
placed at the middle points of the sides, each equal
tlte
mass of
the triangle.
to one-third
Moments of
Inertia of a Triangle
Divide up the triangle ABC

number of straight lines parallel
narrow
into
slips
195
by a large
to its base.
Let
x,
of one of
B'C'
= AP, be the distance

them from A.
= ra,
h
the mass
= ^ ah
p,
Then
where
AD=h,
the triangle
of
where p
The moment
is
and
the density.
of inertia about a line
^
^r[7-H-=i
The moment
where
E is
of inertia about
AK parallel to BG
1;..
AD, by
(!)
Art. 147,
the middle point of BG,
= lpah\^^ + DE^'^=^[(bcosC + ccosBy
+ 3 (6 cos C - c cos By]

= M [ cos' G + c' cos"" B- be cos B cos G]
(2).
-^
The product
of inertia about
= r^dx.a;.PE',
AK,
AD
by Art. 147,
= ^pa^.D:.dx = '^^.^.DE=^[bcosG-ccosB]...(S).
If there be put three particles, each of
and G, the middle points of the
sides, their
mass -^
moment
at ^, F,
of inertia
about Â'
fi-Hir- D] M
Their
moment
of inertia about
AD
M[{a
=
M
zr^ [(b
cos
21
[b- cos^
G - c COS Bf + cos^ G + c' cos- B]

G+
c'"'
cos-
B be cos B cos 6*].

132
196
Also their product of inertia about
AK,
AD
f[ad.de+\ad.^dg-\ad.^bd^\
h
Mh
r p.Tp
\'
& cos
c cos
The moments and products of
'
[6 cos
c cos B].
inertia of the three particles
about AK, AD are thus the same as those of the triangle.

Hence, by Art. 149, the moments of inertia about any line
through A are the same and also, by the same article, the
products of inertia about any two perpendicular lines through
;
are the same.
Also
it is
easily seen that the centre of inertia of the three
particles coincides with the centre of inertia of the triangle.
Hence, by Art.
147,
it
follows
that the
products of inertia about any lines through the

of gravity are the
by the same
same
article,
the
for
moments and
common
centre
the two systems, and therefore
also,
moments and products about any two
other perpendicular lines in the plane of the triangle are the
same.
Finally, the
moment
of inertia about a perpendicular to the
is equal to the sum of

plane of the triangle through any point
in
the moments about any two perpendicular lines through
the plane of the triangle, and
is
thus the same for the two
systems,
154.
Two
mechanical systems, such as the triangle and
the three particles of the preceding article, which are such

that their moments of inei'tia about all lines are the same, are
be equi-momental, or kinetically equivalent.

two systems have the same centre of inertia, the same
mass, and the same principal axes and the same principal
moments at their centre of inertia, it follows, by Arts. 147
and 148, that their moments of inertia about any straight line
are the same, and hence that the systems are equi-momental.
said to
If
Momental
Examples
ellipsoids.
197
EXAMPLES
1.
The momental
ellipsoid at the centre of
an
elliptic plate is
^+f-!+22n + n=const.
2.
The momental
(
3.
62
ellipsoid at the centre of a solid ellipsoid is
+ c2) a;2 + (c2 + a2) 2^2 + (^2 + 62) ^2 ^ gongt.
The equation
of the
momental
ellipsoid at the corner of a cube,
of side 2a, referred to its principal axes is 2;!;2+ll

4.
The momental
ellipsoid at
2^2 + 7 (y2 ^ g2)

5.
solid
is
(?/2
+22)
= const.
a point on the rim of a hemisphere
_ lAxz
is
const.
The momental ellipsoid at a point on the circular base of a

cone is {da^+2h^)x'^ + [23a^ + 2h^)f + 26ah^-10akxz= const, where
the height and a the radius of the base.
Find the principal axes of a right circular cone at a point on the

6.
circumference of the base and shew that one of them will pass through
its centre of gravity if the vertical angle of the cone is 2tan-i|.
;
Shew that a uniform rod, of mass in, is kinetically equivalent to

7.
three particles, rigidly connected and situated one at each end of the rod
and one at its middle point, the masses of the particles being im, ^m
and
|;n.
8.
A BCD
is
a uniform parallelogram, of mass
M;
at the middle
points of the four sides are placed particles each equal to
the intersection of the diagonals a particle, of mass

five particles
and at
shew that these
and the parallelogram are equi-mo mental systems.
9.
Shew that any lamina is dynamically equivalent to three particles,
each one-third of the mass of the lamina, placed at the corners of a
maximum triangle inscribed in the ellipse, whose equation referred to
the principal axes at the centre of inertia
mB
are the principal
moments
is
^ +^ = 2,
of inertia about
where viA and
Ox and Oy and
is
the
10.
Shew that there is a momental ellipse at an angular point of a
triangular area which touches the opposite side at its middle point and
bisects the adjacent sides.
[Use Art. 153.]
Shew that there is a momental ellipse at the centre of inertia

11.
of a uniform triangle which touches the sides of the triangle at the
middle points.
198
Shew
12.
that
-^
4
of mass
particle,
a uniform tetrahedron
of mass
particles, each
placed at
equivalent to fiour
is hineticalhj
and a
at the vertices of the tetrahedron,
fifth
centre of inertia.
its
OABG
draw any
be the tetrahedron and through the vertex
Let the coordinates oi A, B and C
three rectangular axes OX, OY, OZ.
referred to these axes be (î, yi, Zi), (^2, ?/2, ^2) and {x^, y^, 23), so that
Let
BG is
J5C at a
(^^^
the middle point of
PQ,R
parallel to
A^^, where Aq
is
= that
^5Cand p
the area of
moment
on ABC. By Art. 153 the

d^, about Ox
^')
^-^'^^
is
and
^.A^p.^^.d^ placed
+ ^^^
similar terms
\_\p
*\p
(
Hence, on integrating with respect to ^ from

inertia about OX of the whole tetrahedron
area
at the middle
to p, the
moment
/jN
Now the moment of inertia about OXoi four particles, each of mass
at the vertices of the tetrahedron, and of
axes
this,
on reduction, equals
OF and
of
ôP- -[{(3/2+^3)^ + (^2 + 23)^} + two similar expressions]
_ifr ^12+^2^^3^+^2^3+3/3^1+^13/2!
10 L+ V + ^2^ + %^ + ^2^3 + 23^1 + ^l22j
and
is
PQ
similar terms
"'^
section
y^^^\ + two
= - A(,o.-d^\(^.
p'^
^
3
its
^^
RP
of inertia of a thin slice, of thickness
of three particles, each
points of QR,
Take any
perpendicular distance ^ from
(1).
4i/
at its centre of inertia
Similarly for the
moments about the
OZ.
In a similar manner the product of inertia of the tetrahedron about

07, OZ
= ^[(_y2+y3) (22 +23) + two similar

and that of the
and
(2),
five particles
M,
= 20
expressions]
l>2^2+^3^3+3/i2i]
4il/(yi+.y2+y3)(fi+f2+f3)
+ -5-
this is easily seen to be equal to (2).
'
Principal Axes
Also
199
follows at once that the centre of inertia of the tetrahedron
it
coincides with the centre of inertia of the five particles.
The two systems are therefore equal momental,

148, their moments of inertia about any straight
and
Shew
13.
that a tetrahedron
is
for,
by Arts. 147
line is the same.
kinetically equivalent to six particles
mass of the tetrahedron

and one at the centroid th of the mass of the tetrahedron.
at the middle points of its edges, each Jjjth of the
To find whether a given
155.
so, to
straight line is, at any point

a principal axis of a given material system, and, if
length,
of its
find the other two principal axes.

straight line as the axis of
Take the given
z,
and
also
any
and any two perpenOX, OF as the other two
on
origin
it
dicular lines
axes.
Assume that OZ is a principal

at a point
GY' be the other two

where GX'
OX. Let
0(7 be
h.
z be the coordinates of
X, y,
any particle
referred to
principal axes
inclined at an angle d
is
to a line parallel to
Let
axis
of its length and let GX',
of the material system
OX, OY, OZ and
x,
y', z' its
coordinates referred to
GX', GY', GZ.
Then
z= z' -^tK x = x' cos 6 y' sin 6,
and y
= x' sind + y' cos 6,
so that
x'
= x cos 6 -^-y sin
.'.
y' = x sin 6 + y cos 6, and z' = z h.

6,
= Xm ( xz sin 9 + yz cos + hx sin 6 hy cos 6)
= Dcos0-Esm6 + Mh (xsind-ycosd)
(1),
Imy'z'
with the notation of Art. 148,
^mz'x
= l.m [xz cos 6 + yz sin 6 - hx cos hy sin 6]

= Dsind + Ecosd- Mh (x cosO + y sin 6) .(2),
.
and
2m [- aP sin 6cos0 + xy (cos^ - sin^ 0) + y"^ sin 9 cos 6]

=^ sin 29 {A -B) + F cos 29
(3).
GX', GY', GZ are principal axes, the quantities (1), (2),
Xmx'y' =
If
(3)
must
The
vanish.
latter gives
tan 29
=^
Vj
'?
(4).
200
From
(1)
and
(2)
we have
Esm0-Dcose _ D sin^+^ cos^

y cos 6
X sin
x cos 6 + ysin6
- =
These give
h=
and
(5) is the condition that
Mh.
(5),
= -jYz
^~
ihy
Mx
must hold
(6).
'
^
so that the line
OZ may
be a principal axis at some point of its length, and then, if it be

and (4) give the position of the point and the
satisfied, (6)
directions of the other principal axes at
156.
length
it.
If an axis be a principal axis at a point
it is not,
of its
in general, a principal axis at any other point.
then D,
For if it be a principal axis at
and
are all zero
equation (6) of the previous article then gives h = 0, i.e. there
is no other such point as G, except when x =
and y=0.
In this latter case the axis of z passes through the centre of

gravity and the value of h
is
indeterminate,
a principal axis at any point of
Hence
if
a body, and
is
an axis passes
i.e.
all
the axis of z
is
length.
tltroagh the centre of gravity of
a principal axis at any point of
a principal axis at
157.
its
its length, it is
points of its length.
If the body be a lamina, as in the figure of Art. 149,

are a normal OZ to its plane,
the principal axes at a point
and two lines OX', OY' inclined at an angle 6 to OX and OY.

In this case, since z is zero for every point of the lamina,
both D and E vanish. Hence equation (6) of Art. 155 gives
^ == 0, and 6 is given by
tan 2^
As a numerical
= ^-^
2F
B-A
illustration,
take the case of the triangle
of Art. 158.
Here
A=M^;
B=\
6c cos 5 cos ^
2
6
,
(7
and
F -2- (b cos G c cos B).
Principal Axes
201
The inclination 6 of one of the principal axes to

given by the above formula.
principal axes at any point
The
158.
AK
is
then
of a lamina
may
be constructed as follows.
The plane of the lamina being the plane of the paper,
the principal axes
let G be its centre of inertia and GX,
at G, the moments of inertia about which are A and B, A being
GY
greater than B.
On
GX
take points
8 and H,
such that
G8=GH = ^^^.
Then, by Art. 147, the
to
GY,
so
that
moment
of inertia about SY', parallel
=B + M.GS' = A,
moments of
and SY'
the
inertia about
SX
are both equal to A.
Also the product of in-
ertia
about SX, SY'
since
= ItVi (x GS) y = Xmxy GS

GX and G Y are the principal axes
.
s x
G'
%iiiij
at G,
= 0,
and since
is
the centre of inertia.

/S is a point such that SX and SY' are the principal
and the moments about each are equal to A.
Hence, by Art. 149 or 152, any line through S in the plane
of the paper is a principal axis at S, and the moment of inertia
about it is ^.
Similarly for any line through IT.
are each
Hence the moments of inertia about SP and
equal to A. Also the normal at P to the lamina is clearly one
of the principal axes at P, so that the other two lie in the
Hence
axes,
HP
plane of the lamina.
If then
we
construct the
at P, its radii-vectores in the directions

equal, since
rS
and
we have shewn
PH
are the same.
that the
PS
momental ellipse
must be
and
moments
PU
of inertia about
Also in any ellipse equal radii-
vectores are equally inclined to its principal axes, so that the

latter bisect the angles
Hence the
between equal
principal axes of the
radii-vectores.
momental
ellipse at
P,
202
i.e.
the principal axes of the lamina at
angles between
PS
and
and
in its plane, bisect the
PH.
If then, with S
as foci, we describe an ellipse to pass
of the lamina, the principal axes of the
through any point
lamina are the tangent and normal to this ellipse at P. The
are hence known as the Foci of Inertia,
points >S^ and
proposition of the preceding article may be

extended to any body, if G be the centre of inertia, OX, 07,
and P be any point in the plane
and GZ its principal axes at
The
159.
of
ZF.
EXAMPLES
A and B
be the moments of inertia of a uniform lamina about

two perpendicular axes, OA'and OV, lying in its plane, and Fhe the product
of inertia of the lamina about these lines, shew that the principal moments
If
1.
are equal
at
2.
and 26
.
and
^ J?
its
are 2a
Shew
its
- and
jr
TT
tan"*
2
IT
that at the centre of a quadrant of an ellipse the principal
plane are incHned at an angle
tan"^
Find the principal axes of an

bounding arc.
At the
vertex
C of
a triangle
the sides at an angle - tan~i
2_h'i
5-=
\7r a^
elliptic
to the axes.
b^J
area at any point of
A BG, which
principal axes are a perpendicular to the plane
is
right-angled at C, the
DE
square lamina
to
'
AD
A uniform
its
and two others inclined
\s perpendicular to BC
ABC is a triangular area and
7.
shew that BC
the middle point of
the middle point of BC and
[Use the property of Art. 153.]
principal axis of the triangle at 0.
8.
shew that at an
of a semi-circle of radius a
diameter the principal axes in its plane are inclined to the
5.
6.
A BCD
of one of the principal axes at
2(a2-62)*
axes in
the sides of a rectangle
A wire is in the form
diameter at angles - tan-i

4.
AD of
inclination to
3a6
_j
end of
AB
shew that the
'^2^^''
3.
to^[A+B \/(A-By'+4F^.
The lengths
is
E is
is
bounded by the axes of x and y and
the lines a;=2c, y=2c, and a corner
is
cut
oflf
by the
line
-+| = 2.
that the principal axes at the centre of the square are inclined
^ a6-2(a + 6)c-f3c',
to the axis of x at angles given by tan 2^=
Shew
(a-6)(a + 6-2c)
'
Examples
Principal Axes.
9.
A uniform
lamina
is
bounded by a parabolic
and a double ordinate at a distance
arc, of
from the vertex.
203
latus-rectum 4a,
If
&=- (7 + 4^/7),
3
shew that two of the principal axes at the end of a latus-rectum are the
tangent and normal there.
10.
Shew that
lemniscate
the principal axes at the node of a half-loop of the

^6 are inclined to the initial line at angles
r'^=a'^ cos,
gtan-i-and 2+2tan-i211.
The
principal axes at a corner
to the centre of the cube

12.
If the
generator
is
of a cube are the line joining
and any two perpendicular

angle of a cone
lines.
the point at which a

a principal axis divides the generator in the ratio 3 7.
vertical
is
90,
[Use Art. 159.]

13.
Three rods AB, 5(7 and CD, each of mass
such that each
moments
is
pei'pendicular to the other two.
of inertia at the centre of
mass are ma^t
and length
Shew
^J-tna^
Sa, are
that the principal
and ima^.
CHAPTER
XII
D'ALEMBERT'S PRINCIPLE
THE GENERAL EQUATIONS OF MOTION

160.
We
have already found that, if x, y, z be the coat time t, its motion is found by
ordinates of a particle
equating
d?x
w -^
to the force parallel to the
axis
of x,
and
similarly for the motion parallel to the axes of y and z.

If
be a portion of a rigid body its motion is similarly
but in this case we must include under the forces

on the
particle (such as its weight), but also the forces acting on the
particle which are due to the actions of the rest of the body
on it.
given,
parallel to the axes not only the external forces acting
The quantity
d?x
m -,
is
called the effective force acting
the particle parallel to the axis of
x.
[It is also
on
sometimes
called the kinetic reaction of the particle.]
Thus we may say that the ^--component of the

force is equivalent to the
effective
^-component of the external
forces
together with the ^r-component of the internal forces,

or again
that the ^r-component of the reversed effective
forces together with
the a;-components of the external and
internal forces form a system in equilibrium.
So for the components parallel to the axes of y and z.

Hence the reversed effective force, the external force, and
the internal force acting on any particle m of a body are in
equilibrium.
General equations of motion
205
So for all the other particles on the body.

Hence the reversed effective forces acting on each particle
of the body, the external forces, and the internal forces of the
body are in equilibrium. Now the internal forces of the body
amongst themselves for by Newton's third
law there is to every action an equal and opposite reaction.
are in equilibrium
Hence the reversed effective forces acting on each particle of

body and the external forces of the system are in equilibriuin.
This is D'Alembert's principle. It was enunciated by him
the
in his Traite de
Dynamique published
be noted however that

Third Law of Motion.
will
161.
Let X, Y,
it is
in the year 1743.

It
only a deduction from Newton's
be the components parallel to the axes
of the external forces acting on a particle
whose coordinates
are x, y, z at the time t.
Then the principle of the preceding article says that forces
whose components are
d^x
^
X-m-j-,
dt-
acting at the point
^
d-z
Y-m-j^, Z-m-fdtd'u
df
together with similar forces acting

at each other such point of the body, form a system in equi{w, y, z),
librium.
Hence, from the ordinary conditions of equilibrium proved

we have
in Statics,
2(Z-.) = 0,
and
4(^-)-.(x->g)]=o,
206
Dynmaics of a Rigid Body
These give
and
2m^ = 2X
(1),
2S=2r
(2).
^"'i-s^
(3).
Hy%-^%'^^y'-'^)
W'
^(^-4')=^(^^--^)
(5)-
2m(.;g-2,^) = 2(<7-yX)
(6).
These are the equations of motion of any rigid body.

Equations (1), (2), and (3) state that the sums of the
components, parallel to the axes of coordinates, of the effective
forces are respectively equal to the
parallel to the
same axes
sums of the components
of the external impressed forces.
Equations (4), (5), (6) state that the sum of the moments
about the axes of coordinates of the effective forces are re-
sums of the
axes of the external impressed forces.
spectively equal to the
moments about the same
Motion of the centre of inertia, avid motion relative to

of inertia.
Let {x, y, z) be the coordinates of the centre of inertia, and
the mass of the body.
162.
the centre
Then
Mx = Xma:
throughout the motion, and therefore

T,,d^x
Hence equation
S
and
_,
(Px
(1) of the last article gives
*S=^^
*S=2^
-^2=^^
wC2).
<*>
But these are the equations of motion of a particle, of

mass M, placed at the centre of inertia of the body, and acted
General equations of motion
207
on by forces parallel to, and equal to, the external forces acting
on the different particles of the body.
Hence the centre of inertia of a body moves as if all the mass
of the body were collected at it, and as if all the external forces
were acting at it in directions parallel to those in which they act.
Next, let {x, y z') be the coordinates, relative to the centre
of inertia, G, of a particle of the body whose coordinates referred
to the original axes were {x, y, z).
,
x = x-\-x',
Then
y=iy-\-y' and z
z-\-z'
throughout the motion.
^_d?x_
'
dt'~
d^_d^ dy
d'^z _ d^'z
d^z'
dF'~d^'^W'^^^dt'~dF''^d'
d?x_
dt''^
dt"
Hence the equation

d^z
-d^y\
(4) of the last article gives

(
,d''z'
,d''y'
df
dt'
df
dt^
df"
y
X[{y+y')Z-{z+z)Y]...{^).
Now
-r~^
= the
y-coordinate
referred to
of
as origin
and therefore
Xniy'
and Swi
so
^mz'
and
Hence (4) gives

dry~\
Â-d''z
the centre
-^ =
of
inertia
= 0,
;
d^z'
Sm ^- = 0.
( ,d?z'
,d^y'\
= X[yZ-zV + y'Z-/7]...i5).
But equations
.*.
(5) gives
(2)
and
(3) give
208
But
same form as equation (4) of the

thus the same equation as we should have
had regarded the centre of inertia as a fixed
this equation is of the
last article,
and
obtained
we
if
is
point.
Hence
163.
a body about
the motion of
same as it would be if
same forces acted on the
The two
its
centre of inertia is the
the centre of inertia
were fixed and
the
bodi/.
results proved in the previous article
shew
us that the motion of translation of the body can be considered
independently of the motion of rotation.
By
result we see that the motion of the centre of

be found by the methods of Dynamics of a Particle.
By the second result we see that the motion of rotation is
reduced to finding that of a body about a fixed point.
As a simple example, consider the case of a uniform stick
thrown into the air in such a way that at the start its centre is
moving in a given direction and at the same time it is rotating
with given angular velocity about its centre. [Neglect the
By
resistance of the air and suppose gravity to be constant.]
the first result the motion of the centre of inertia is the same
as if there were applied at it all the external forces acting on
the body in directions parallel to that in which they act. In
this case these external forces are the weights of the various
elements of the body; when applied at the centre of inertia
they are equivalent to the total weight of the body. Hence
the centre of the stick moves as if it were a particle of mass
the
first
inertia is to
moves just as a particle

would under gravity if it were projected with the same velocity
Hence the path of the centre of the
as the centre of the stick.
stick would be a parabola.
acted on by a vertical force Mg,
i.e.
it
In a subsequent chapter it will be seen that the angular

remain unaltered. Hence the centre
of the stick will describe a parabola and the stick revolve
uniformly about it.
As another example consider a shell which is in motion in
the air and suppose that it bursts into fragments. The internal
forces exerted by the explosion balance one another, and do not
velocity of the stick will
exert any influence on the motion of the centre of inertia of
Examples
D'Alemhert's Principle.
the
The
shell.
209
centre of inertia therefore continues to describe

it was moving before the explosion.
supposed to be in vacuo and gravity to be
the same parabola in which
[The motion
is
constant.]
Equation (1) of Art. 161
164.
may be
dx'
[-^^
It
i.e.
[Total
-T
momentum
S(X),
dt
parallel to the axis of x]
= Sum
So
written in the form
of the impressed forces parallel to
OX.
the other two axes.
for
Also (4) can be written
^_.^^1='
^^.
liiHyt-ty^^y'-^^^[Total
moment
momentum
of
about the axis of x]
dt
Sum
165-
-A-s
of the
moments
of the impressed forces about
an example of the application of D'Alembert's principle
OX.
let
us
consider the following question.
A uniform rod OA, of length 2a, free to turn about its end 0, revolves with
uniform angular velocity w about the vertical OZ through 0, and is inclined at
a constant angle a to OZ ; find the value of a.
Consider an element PQ of the rod, such that OP = i and PQ = d^. Draw
FN perpendicular to OZ. By Elementary
Dynamics, the acceleration of P is w- FN
.
PN.
Hence the reversed
along
0)2
.
effective force is
-r
I sin
1 sin o as marked.
All the reversed effective forces acting at

different points of the rod, together with the
external force,
and the
the weight mg,
i.e.
0, form a system of forces in

statical equilibrium.
reactions at
Taking moments about

we therefore have
avoid
to
the
reactions,
vig
sm
moment about
2
mw'sm a
cos
of all the several effective forces
w^^
sm
a X I cos
[la
4a2
??iw'^siu
a cos a
14
210
either a = 0, or cos a =
Hence
-~-
equation gives an impossible value for

is
a = 0,
the rod hangs vertically.
i.e.
3q-> iw-a,
a,
and the only
If
3g<iuâ, then a = co8~i
i.e. it
u^-c-^, the second
solution in this case
^.
4w'=a
EXAMPLES
1.
planlf, of
mass
3f, is initially
at rest along a line of greatest
smooth plane inclined at an angle a to the horizon, and a man,

of mass M', starting from the upper end walks down the plank so that it
does not move shew that he gets to the other end in time
slope of a
2M'a
y;(J/+i/')(/sina'
where a
is
the length of the plank.
rough uniform board, of mass m and length 2a, rests on a

smooth horizontal plane, and a man, of mass 31, walks on it from one
end to the other. Find the distance through which the board moves
2.
in this time.
[The centre of inertia of the system remains at
rest.]
rod revolving on a smooth horizontal plane about one end,

which is fixed, breaks into two parts; what is the subsequent motion
of the two parts ?
3.
4.
A circular board
runs round the edge of
centre of the board ?
is
it
placed on a smooth horizontal plane, and a boy

at a uniform rate ; what is the motion of the
5.
A rod, of length 2a, is suspended by a string, of length I, attached
to one end
if the string and rod revolve about the vertical with uniform
angular velocity, and their inclinations to the vertical be
and <^ re;
shew that
spectively,
^J
J^t^^z3J^^
(tan
thin circular disc, of
^ - tan ^) sm
<9
mass ifand radius
a, can turn freely about

a thin axis, OA, which is perpendicular to its plane and passes through
a point
of its circumference.
The axis OA is compelled to move in a
horizontal plane with angular velocity w about its end A.
Shew that the
inclination 6 to the vertical of the radius of the disc through
is
6.
-^,
unless a>^<^
yCta-J
7.
and
and then 6
is zero.
thin heavy disc can turn freely about an axis in
about a fixed point on
itself.
its
own
plane,
with a uniform angular velocity w
this axis revolves horizontally
Shew
that the inchuation 6 of the plane
of the disc to the vertical is cos "^7^,, where
K-'W
is
the distance of the
Impulsive Forces
centre of inertia of the disc from the axis and k
211
is
the radius of gyration
of the disc about the axis.

If
0)2
< Y^j
then the plane of the disc
is vertical.
Two uniform spheres, each of mass

and radius a, are firmly
two uniform thin rods, each of mass
and length I,
the
other
ends
and
of the rods are freely hinged to a point 0.
The whole
system revolves, as in the Governor of a Steam- Engine, about a vertical
line through
with angular velocity w. Shew that, when the motion
8.
fixed to the ends of
is
steady, the rods are inclined to the vertical at an angle 6 given
by the
equation
M{l + a) +
m-
cos^=4
i.
Impulsive Forces
When
the forces acting on a body are very great and

act for a very short time, we measure their effects by their
166.
If the short time during which an impulsive force

rT
impulses.
X acts be
T, its
impulse
Xdt.
is
-'o
In the case of impulsive forces the equations (1) to (6) of

Art. 161 take a different form.
Integrating equation
Xm
u and
(1),
we have
r^X .dt = X
I^Xdt
before and
m parallel
to the axis
be the velocities of the particle

after the action of the impulsive forces, this gives
If
u'
2m('
where X'
is
w)
= 2 A'
the impulse of the force on
of*'.
This can be written
Xmu'
i.e.
is
the total change in the
Xmu = IX'
momentum
(1),
parallel to the axis of
equal to the total impulse of the external forces parallel to
this direction.
Hence the change in

mass M, supposed
moving with it, is equal
ivhole
parallel
to
the
momentum
to the
Ox of the
of inertia and
parallel to
collected at the centime
impulse of
tJie
external forces
Ox.
142
212
So
and
z,
for the
change in the motion parallel to the axes of y
the equations being
and
Again,
^mv -tmv = tY'

2ww' Xmiu = 2-^'
on integrating equation (4), we have
Xm [y (w' iv) z {v v)] = 2
i.e.
[yZ'
(2),
(3).
- z Y'\
Hence
2m \yv} zv'^ Sm \yw zv\ = 2 (yZ' zY')

Hence
of X
is
the
change in the moment of
equal to the
moment about
momentum
the axis
. .
.(4).
about the
cuvis
of x of the impulses of
the external forces.
So
for the other
two axes, the equations being
2m {zu xw') 2m (zu xw) = 2 {zX' xZ')

2m {xv yu) 2m {xv yu) = 2 {coY' yX')
and
167.
The equations
. .
.(5),
.(6).
of Arts. 161 and 166 are the general
equations of motion of a rigid body under finite and impulsive
and always give the motion. They are not

however in a form which can be easily applied to any given
forces respectively,
problem.
Different forms are found to be desirable, and will be obtained
in the following chapterSj for different classes of Problems.
CHAPTER
XIII
MOTION ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

Let the fixed axis of rotation be a perpendicular
168.
OZ
paper,
plane of the
to the
at
and
let
fixed
plane
through OZ cut the paper in OA.

Let a plane ZOG, through OZ
and fixed in the body, make an
angle 6 with the fixed plane, so
that
/.AOG=e.
Let a plane through OZ and

any point P of the body make
an angle ^ with ZOA and cut the plane of the paper in OQ, so
that
zAOQ =
(f).
As the body
same always,
OZ the
rotates about
so that the rate of
angle
change of 6
QOG
is
remains the
the same as that
of</).
d(b
dd
d'^di
d'd
'd-t=dt' ^''^'''-d^-dr
,
If r be the distance, P3I, of the particle

then, since
P describes
along
tions are r
dt>
Hence
a circle about
dt)
and
the axis OZ,
centre, its accelera-
in these directions are
mr
'
dt'
Hence the moment of

Oz
P fi-om
PM and r -^ perpendicular to PM.
its effective forces
^d^V-
M as
.e.
mr
-j-
and mr
dt^'
its
effective forces
is
dê
i.e.
df"
'
mr"^
dt'
about the axis
214
Hence the moment
since
-^
Now
the
the same for
is
2ir^
particles of the body.
moment
the
is
all
of inertia, Mk-, of the
Hence the required moment of the
axis.
Mk"
of the effective forces of the whole body
OZ is
about
-T-^
where 6
body about
effective forces is
the angle any plane through the axis
is
which is fixed in the body makes with any plane through the
axis which is fixed in space.
Kinetic energy of the body.
169.
The
is
velocity of the particle
therefore h''^ (^777)
mis r~-
Hence the
i.e.
-,-
total kinetic
Its
energy
energy of the
body
fdOV
^1
~^2""
170.
The
\Tt)
of
axis.
KW
the
body about the fixed
m is r -^ in a direction perpenlength r, drawn from m perpendicular to
Hence the moment about the
m is mr x r -vdt
of the
Moment of momentum of
dicular to the line, of
the
l/dOY K
l.r/.^^^V
^^"" -2^""-2\dtJ
i.e.
mr^ -rr
axis of the
Hence the moment
of
momentum
momentum
dt
body
de
de ^
dt
dt
,,,,
d0
dt
To find the motion about the axis of rotation.

Art. 161 tells us that in any motion the moment of the
171.
effective forces about the axis is equal to the moment of the

impressed forces. Hence, if L be the moment of the impressed
forces about the axis of rotation, in the sense which would
cause 6 to increase, we have
Motion about a fixed axis
215
This equation on being integrated twice will give

in terms of the time
t.
and
do
-j-
The arbitrary constants which appear

known if we are given the position
in the integration will be
ZOG, which
any time.
of the plane
velocity at
Ex.
1.
one end which
is
172.
is
fixed in the body,
uniform rod, of mass
fixed;
ichich it hangs vertically
it is
;
and length
and
its
angular
2a, can turn freely about
started with angular velocity
u from
the position in
Jind the motion.
The only external force is the weight Mg whose

axis is Mg .a Bind, when the rod has revolved
through an angle 6, and this moment tends to
lessen 6.
Hence the equation of motion is
moment L about
the fixed
216
and M', tied to

Ex. 2. A fine string has two masses,
over a rough pulley, of mass m, whose centre is fixed ; if
slip over the pulley,
its
ends and passes
the string does not
M will descend loith acceleration
shew that
,-,
M+M' + m~
a^
where a
is
the radius
and k
If the pulley be not
will
the radius of gyration of the pulley.
rough
sufficiently
descending mass, shew that
g,
to prevent
acceleration is
its
sliding,
M + M'e'^''
g,
and
and that
he
the
the pulley
2MM'pa{e'^''-l)
now spin
acceleration equal
with an anaular
^
^
to
mkîM + M'ef^n
Let T and T' be the tensions of the string when the pulley has turned
through an angle 6; and let the depths of
and M'
below the centre of the pulley be x and y. Then, by
Art. 171, the equation of
motion of the pulley
is
mk^-d^(T-T')a
(1).
Also the equations of motion of the weights are
Mx = Mg-T
Again x + y
M'y = M'g-T'
and
...(2).
constant throughout the motion,
is
so that
y=-x
First, let the pulley be
any
(3).
rough enough to prevent
sliding of the string, so that the string
moving with the same

x = ad always, and therefore
at
are always
and pulley
Then
velocity.
x = ad
Equations
to
(1)
(4)
{i).
31
x-a9 =
give
-M'
g,
giving
the
constant
M + M' + m^^
acceleration with
which
If the pulley be
M descends.
a uniform disc,
^2;
'
and
this acceleration is
M-M'
M + M' +
If it
be a thin ring, k- =
a^,
and the acceleration
M-M'
is
M+M'+m-"
Secondly, let the pulley be not rough enough to prevent all sliding of the
In this case equation (4) does not hold instead, if /* be the coethcient
we have, as is proved in books on Statics,
string.
of friction,
r=T'.e'^'^
Solving
(2), (3)
and
(5),
T'ei^'"=T=
(5).
we have
2mrge^
x=
and
M+M'ei^"'
M+M'ei^'''
and then
The
(1)
gives
Iga
result of the first case
Principle of
Work and Energy
(>*"
,
MM'
1)
.
might have been

;
easily obtained
in the second case
it
by assuming the
does not apply.
Motion about a fixed
Examples
axis.
217
EXAMPLES
wrapped round the axle, whose diameter

pulled with a constant force equal to
50 lbs. weight, until all the cord is unwound. If the wheel is then
rotating 100 times per minute, shew that its moment of inertia is
1.
is
cord, 10 feet long, is
4 inches, of a wheel, and
ft.-lb.
is
units.
uniform wheel, of weight 100 lbs. and whose radius of gyration

centre is one foot, is acted upon by a couple equal to 10 ft.-lb.
units for one minute find the angular velocity produced.
Find also the constant couple which would in half-a-minute stop the
wheel if it be rotating at the rate of 15 revolutions per second. Find also
how many revolutions tlie wheel would make before stopping.
2.
about
its
wheel consists of a disc, of 3 ft. diameter and of mass 50 lbs.,

3.
loaded with a mass of 10 lbs. attached to it at a point distant one foot
from its centre it is turning freely about its axis which is horizontal.
;
If in the course of a single revolution its least angular velocity is at the
rate of 200 revolutions per minute,
shew that
maximum
its
angular
velocity is at the rate of about 204-4 revolutions per minute.
Two
unequal masses, J/ and
rest on two rough planes inclined

they are connected by a fine string
passing over a small pulley, of mass wi and radius a, which is placed at
shew that the acceleration of
the common vertex of the two planes
4.
at angles a and
/3
to the horizon
J/',
either
mass
is
^[i/(sina /icosa)
where
\i,
fi'
i/''(sin/3 + /a'cos^)]^ Jf+J/' + m^
are the coefficients of friction, k
of the pulley about its axis,
aB
and
is
is
the mass which moves downwards.
movable on a rough inclined plane,

whose inclination to the horizon is i and whose coefficient of friction is fi,
about a smooth pin fixed through the end A
the bar is held in the
horizontal position in the plane and allowed to fall from this position.
If 6 be the angle through which it falls from rest, shew that
5.
uniform rod
is
freely
sin ^
-^-=/xcot?..
A uniform vertical circular plate, of radius a, is capable of revolving

6.
about a smooth horizontal axis through its centre a rough perfectly
flexible chain, whose mass is equal to that of the plate and whose length
is equal to its circumference, hangs over its rim in equilibrium
if one
end be slightly displaced, shew that the velocity of the chain when the
;
other end reaches the plate
is
[Use the Principle of Energy and Work.]
Djjnamics of a Rigid Body
218
A uuiform chain, of length 20 feet and mass 40 lbs., hangs in

7.
equal lengths over a solid circular pulley, of mass 10 lbs. and small
Masses of 40 and 35 lbs.
radius, the axis of the pulley being horizontal.
Shew
are attached to the ends of the chain and motion takes place.
that the time taken by the smaller mass to reach the pulley is
/15
^
logj (9 + 4^/6) sees.
4
heavy fly-wheel, rotating about a symmetrical axis, is slowing

D%iring a certain minute its
the friction of its bearings.
angular velocity drops to 90 / of its value at the beginning of the minute.
What will be the angular velocity at the end of the next mimtte on the
assumption that the frictional moment is (1) constant, (2) proportional
8.
down under
to
the
angular
velocity,
(3)
proportional
the square of the
to
angular
velocity?
Let / be the moment of inertia of the body about its axis, a its
angular velocity at any time t, and Q its initial angular velocity. Let
xQ, be the angular velocity at the end of the second minute.
(1)
If
F be the constant frictional moment, the equation of Art. 171 is

Ico=-Ft+C=-Ft+lQ,
and I.xQ= - F
.-.
where
I.
.a=-F.eO+lQ,
120 + lQ.
80
(2)
If the frictional
moment
is
Xw, the equation of motion is
/log 0)=
,-.
-X;+ const.
^-
.-.
where
(o
= Ce
-ieo
=Qe^
90
I'
and
-^-
=Qe
1'

xQ.=ae
t
,
-fi20
-'
_/9V__81^
(3)
Let the frictional
"^"Vio/ "100-
moment be
^dt =
...
where
/xw^,
so that the equation of motion is
--^''-
/.i=^, + (7 = ^^+|,
/.9^=M.60 + |,
and
.^ = ^^-^^^î'
81
The Compound Pendulum

With the
minutes
three suppositions the angular velocity at the end of two
and 81^j/ of the
is therefore 80, 81,
9.
219
fly-wheel, weighing 100 lbs.
initial
angular velocity.
and having a radius of gyration
It is rotating at 120 revolutions

ft., has a fan attached to its spindle.
per minute when the fan is suddenly immersed in water. If the resistance
of the water be proportional to the square of the speed, and if the angular
velocity of the fly-wheel be halved in three minutes, shew that the initial
retarding couple is 20it ft.-pouudals.
of 3
A fly-wheel, whose moment of inertia is /,
10.
G cos pt
couple
find the
is acted on by a variable
amplitude of the fluctuations in the angular
velocity.
THE COMPOUND PENDULUM

If a
173.
rigid body swing, under gravity,
horizontal axis, to shew that the time of

tion is 277 a/
axis,
and h
t ivhere k
,
is the
from a fixed
a complete small oscilla-
radius of gyration about the fixed
is its
distance between the fiêd axis
and
the centre
of inertia of the body.

Let the plane of the paper be the plane through the centre
of inertia
meet the
and the
the body makes
perpendicular to the fixed axis; let
and let 6 be the angle between the
axis in
it
vertical
OA
OG, so that 6 is the angle a plane fixed in

with a plane fixed in space.
The moment L about the horizontal axis of rotation
the impressed forces
line
= the sum
of the
moments
particles of the
of the weights of the
it
acts so as to diminish
Hence the equation

T,.j^dÔ
If 6
n^
of
component
body
= the moment of the weight Mg

= Mgh sin 6, where OG = h,
and
OZ
acting at
d.
of Art. 171 becomes
be so small that
d-9
its
gh
cubes and higher powers
may be
neglected, this equation becomes
d'0_
gh
W--T^^
^'>-
220
The motion
is
complete oscillation
now simple harmonic and

27r
V
By
IT'
A;^
Art. 97 the time of oscillation
that of a simple
the time of a
is
pendulum of length
is
This length
-y-.
same
therefore the
is
as
that of
the simple equivalent pendulum.
Even
small,
of length
y-
compound pendulum be not

same time as a simple pendulum
the oscillation of the
if
it will oscillate
in the
For the equation of motion of the
- g sin
d?e
latter
gh
is,
by
Art. 97,
sin^
(3),
Hence the motion given

is the same equation as (1).
and (3) will always be the same if the initial conditions
of the two motions are the same, e.g. if the two pendulums are
which
by
(1)
instantaneously at rest
when the
value of 6
is
equal to the
same value
in each case, or again if the angular velocities of
the two pendulums are the same when each is passing through
a.
its
position of stable equilibrium.
we measure
If from
174.
off,
along OG, a distance 00^,
equal to the length of the simple equivalent
pendulum
-y-
the point Oi
is
called the centre
of oscillation.
We
can easily shew that the centres of
and
suspension and oscillation,

vertible,
i.e.
that
if
Oi instead of from 0, then the

in
0^, are con-
we suspend the body from

body
will
swing
the same time as a simple pendulum
length OiO.
of
-I-Oi
For we have
00.
''
OG
^^^^^^
OG
4 0s
The Compoivnd Pendulum

where
is
221
the radius of gyration about an axis through
(r
parallel to the axis of rotation.
K^ = OG .00,-0G'= OG GO,
Hence
(1).
When
the body swings about a parallel axis through Oi,

We then have, similarly,
let O2 be the centre of oscillation.
K'=0,G.GO,
(2).
are the same

Comparing (1) and (2) we see that O2 and
is the
point.
Hence when 0, is the centre of suspension,
centre of oscillation, so that the two points are convertible.
This property was used by Captain Kater in determining
the value of g. His pendulum has two knife-edges, about
either of which the pendulum can swing. It also has a movable
mass, or masses, which can be adjusted so that the times of
We then
oscillation about the two knife-edges are the same.
know that the distance, I, between the knife-edges is the length
of the simple equivalent pendulum which would swing in the
observed time of oscillation, T, of the compound pendulum.
Hence g
For
is
obtained from the formula
details of the
T=1'k sj -
experiment the Student
is
referred to
practical books on Physics.
175.
If
Mwimum time of oscillation of a compound pendulum.

be the radius of gyration of the body about a line
through the centre of inertia parallel to the axis of rotation,

then
k'
= K"' + h\
Hence the length of the simple equivalent pendulum
The simple equivalent pendulum
is
of
therefore its time of oscillation least,
i.e.
when
= 0,
i.e.
minimum
length, and
when ^(^^ + nr)=^>
when h = K,
ic-
and then the length of the simple equivalent pendulum
is
2K.
the axis of suspension either passes

through the centre of inertia or be at infinity, the corresponding
simple equivalent pendulum is of infinite length and the time
If
/i
or infinity,
of oscillation infinite.
i.e.
if
222
The above
gives only the
minimum time
of oscillation for
axes of suspension which are drawn in a given direction.
we know, from
Art. 152, that of
But
axes drawn through the
all
G there is one such that the moment of inertia

maximum, and another such that the moment of
If the latter axis be found and
inertia about it is a minimum.
if the moment of inertia about it be K^, then the axis about
centre of inertia
about
it
is
which the time is an absolute minimum

and at a distance Ki.
be parallel to
will
it
176. -Ea;. Find the time of oscillation of a compound pendulum, consisting

of a rod, of mass m and length a, carrying at one end a sphere, of mass mi and
diameter 2h, the other end of the rod being fixed.
Here
(m + mi)
k-~m .^ +mi\
{a
+ 6)2 +
{m + m-i) h = m.- + mi{a + b).
and
Heiice the length of the required simple
/(
pendulum
r,
a2
0.
2Z;2-|
,,
m- + mi(a +
,
fc)
Isochronism of Torsional Vibrations.

177.
Suppose that a heavy uniform circular disc (or cylinder)
suspended by a fairly long thin wire, attached
at one end to the centre C of the disc, and
with its other end firmly fixed to a point 0.
Let the disc be twisted through an
angle a about 00, so that its plane is still
horizontal, and let it be then left to oscillate.
We shall assume that the torsion-couple
of the wire,
i.e.
the couple tending to twist
the disc back towards

librium,
is
its position of
equi-
proportional to the angle through
which the disc has been twisted, so that the

is \6 when the disc is twisted through
an angle 0.
Let
be the mass of the disc, and k its
radius of gyration about the axis of rotation 00.
couple
is
Torsional Vibrations
By
Art. 171 the equation of motion
The motion
oscillation
is
223
is
therefore simple harmonic,
and the time of
= 27r^y^-^=27r^^^..
This time
is
independent of
a,
(1).
the amplitude of the oscilla-
tion.
We
can hence test practically the truth of the assumption

is \d.
Twist the disc through any
angle a and, by taking the mean of a number of oscillations,
find the corresponding time of oscillation.
Repeat the experithat the torsion-couple
ment
from one
These
times are found in any given case to be approximately the same.
Hence, from (1), the quantity \ is a constant quantity.
for different values of a, considerably differing
another, and find the corresponding times of oscillation.
Experimental determination of moments of inertia.

of inertia of a body about an axis of symmetry
be determined experimentally by the use of the preceding
178.
The moment
may
article.
and
known. Let it be /.
time of oscillation is then
If the disc be weighed,

its
Mk^
Its
its
diameter determined, then
T,
where
is
T=2'rr^^
(1).
Let the body, whose moment

symmetry is to be found, be placed on the disc with this axis
of symmetry coinciding with GO, and the time of oscillation T'
determined for the compound body as in the previous article.
of inertia /' about an axis of
Then
(1)
and
'^'=^W-
(2) give
giving i in terms of
'
known
quantities.
"'>
Dynamics of a Eiyld Body
224:
EXAMPLES
Find the lengths of the simple equivalent pendulums in the following
cases, the axis being horizontal
1.
Circular wire
of the wire at
2.
axis (1) a tangent, (2) a perpendicular to the plane
any point of
Circular disc
lamina
3.
Elliptic
4.
Hemisphere
5.
Cube
2a
6.
Cone;
(2)
(l)|v/2a;
Triangular lamina ABC; axis

lamina through the point A.
[W.
7.
an edge,
axis (1)
[Results.
to the
it.
axis a latus-rectum.
axis a diameter of the base.
of side
its arc.
axis a tangent to
(1)
Resxilt.
a diagonal of one of
a.
its faces.
{2)^
the side BC,
(2)
a perpendicular
(l)46sie;(2>l.|iJ|^.]
axis a diameter of the base.
.h.
Result.
Three equal particles are attached to a rod at equal distances a

The system is suspended from, and is free to tm-n about, a point
Find the time of a small
of the rod distant x from the middle point.
oscillation, and shew that it is least when d7='82a nearly.
8.
apart.
A bent lever,
whose arras are of lengths a and b, the angle between

makes small oscillations in its own plane about the fulcrum
shew that the length of the corresponding simple pendulum is
9.
them being
a,
a? + h^
3 \/a* + 2a^6'^cosa+6'*'
10.
solid
homogeneous cone, of height h and
about a horizontal axis through
oscillates
pendulum
length of the simple equivalent

11.
sphere, of radius a,
from
point at a distance
oscillation is given
by
'^
is
its
its
is
vertical
vertex
angle 2a,
shew that the
-(4 + tan2a).
suspended by a fine wire from a fixed

centre
y -^-^|^Tl +iSin2|J,
^here a represents
the amplitude of the vibration.

12.
the end
A
A
weightless straight rod
which
is
fixed
and
of length 2a, is movable about

two particles of the same mass.
A BC,
carrieo
The Compound Pendulum.
Examples
225
one fastened to the middle point B and the other to the end C of the rod.
If the rod be held in a horizontal position and be then let go, shew that
its
angular velocity when vertical
is
sj -S-
>
^^^
-^
^tiat
is
the length of
the simple equivalent pendulum.
For a compound pendulum shew that there are three other axes
and intersecting the line from the
centre of inertia perpendicular to the original axis, for which the time
of oscillation is the same as about the original axis. What is the practical
13.
of support, parallel to the original axis
application of this result
Find the law of graduation of the stem of the common metronome.
14.
A simple circular pendulum is formed of a mass suspended from

15.
a fixed point by a weightless wire of length ^ if a mass m, very small
compared with i/, be knotted on to the wire at a point distant a from
the point of suspension, shew that the time of a small vibration of the
;
pendulum
approximately diminished by -^prf%\
is
-7
of
itself.
16.
A given compound pendulum has attached to it a particle of
small mass
shew that the greatest alteration in the time of the
pendulum is made when it is placed at the middle point of the line
bisecting the distance joining the centi'es of oscillation and of suspension ;
shew also that a small error in the point of attachment will not, to a first
ajiproximation, alter the weight of the particle to be added to make a given
difference in the time of oscillation.
;
uniform heavy sphere, whose mass is 1 lb. and whose radius

is susjjended by a wire from a fixed point, and the torsioncouple of the wire is proportional to the angle through which the sphere
is turned from the position of equilibrium.
If the period of an oscillation
be 2 sees., find the couple that will hold the sphere in equilibrium in the
position in which it is turned through four right angles from the equi17.
is
3 inches,
librium-position.
18.
parallel to
is hung up with its axis vertical by two long ropes

and equidistant from the axis so that it can perform torsional
fly-wheel
It is found that a static-couple of 60

turned through îgth of a radian, and that
vibrations.
it is
any small angle and
Shew
that
when
let
go
it
this fly-wheel is
per minute the energy stored up in
179.
ft. -lbs.
if it
will hold it
when
be turned through
make
a complete oscillation in 5 sees.

revolving at the rate of 200 revolutions
will
it will
be about 31
ft.
Reactions of the axis of rotation.
-tons.
Let us
first
consider the simple case in which both the forces and the body
are symmetrical ^\\ki respect to the plane through the centre
of gravity perpendicular to the fixed axis,
L. D.
t.e.
with respect to
15
226
the plane of the paper, and let gravity be the only external
force.
the actions of the axis on the body must
By symmetry,
reduce to a single force acting at

in the plane of the paper; let the
components of this single force be

and Q, along and perpendicular
to 00.
By Art. 162 the motion of the
is the same as it
would be if it were a particle of
acted on by all the external
mass
centre of gravity
forces applied to it parallel to their
original directions.
Now
describes a circle round
as centre, so that its
accelerations along and perpendicular to
A ( ^7
j^
Hence
its
and h
,.
Also, as in Art. 171,
Mk'
If (3) be integrated
(1).
2-Mgsme
.(2).
3Igh sin 6
.(3).
we have
'dt^~
given by eliminating
from the
Mg cos 6
dtl
and
is
are
equations of motion are
M.h
)
I
GO
d'd
-r-^
between
(2)
..
and
(3).
and the resulting constant determined

we then, by (1), obtain P.
initial conditions,
As a particular case let the body be a uniform rod, of length 2a, turning
its end 0, and let it start from the position in which it was vertically
about
above 0.
In this case h = a, k^=a^+---
Hence equation
(3)
=-^,
becomes
4a
3.<7
since
(5
is
zero
wheu
d-
sin 9
const.
(l
+ cos<
227
Reactions of the axis of rotation

(1)
and
(5)
give
(2)
and
(4)
give
F=Mg
The
is
+ 5 cos 5
2
Q = ^Mg sin
Hence the resulting reaction

the rod
d.
of the fixed axis.
vertical reaction for
9 is zero,
i.e.
when
any position of the rod
^
= Mg
= Pcose + Qsmd
.
/I
I
+ 3 cos
^
and therefore vanishes when ^ = cos~i {-^)The horizontal reaction = P sin ^ - Q cos ^ = ^Mg
180.
When
in its lowest position, this reaction is four times the weight.
61
\2
j
sin
(9
(2
+3
cos
6).
In the general case when either the external forces

itself, is not symmetrical about
acting on the body, or the body
we may proceed as follows.

Let the axis of rotation be taken as the axis of y, and let
the body be attached to it at two points distant h^ and h^ from
the axis of rotation
the origin.
Let the component actions of the axis at these

to the axes be X^, Fj, Z^ and X^, T^, Z.^,
points parallel
respectively.
2'
228
Hence,
if
6 be denoted by w,
x=z
xw^ + zod;
[These results
may
= 0;
= zai
crw.
be obtained by resolving parallel to

the axes the accelerations of P, viz. raP' along
and rm
perpendicular to MP^^
also
PM
The equations of motion of Art. 161 now become, if Z, F, Z

are the components parallel to the axes of the external force
acting at any point {x, y, z) of the body,
S X + Xi + X^ = 'ûix = Ini [ xm^ +
zw]
= -Mx.(o^+Mz.w
2F+
Y,+ Y,= l.my=0

tZ + Z,+ Zo_ = Imz = tm (- z<o'' - xca)
= -Mz.(D-'-Mx.w ...,
2 {yZ-zY) + ZA-^Z,h,
= 2m (yz zy) = l,my ( zay^ xw)
= (o'^Xmyz (oXvixy
2 (zX xZ) = 2wi (zx - xz)
= 2m ( zxco^ + z-a> + xzttP' + xîo) = ay Mk^
.
where k
is
the radius of gyration about
(1);
(2);
(3);
(4)
(5),
OY; and
^(xY-yX)-XA-XA
Xm (xy yx) = Smy
= oi^Xmxy - bj^myz
xo)-
+ zw)
(6).
On
integrating (5) we have the values of w and m, and then,

by substitution, the right-hand members of equations (1) to (4)
and (6) are given.
and (6) determine X^ and X^.

and (4) determine Z^ and Z^.
Fi and Y^ are indeterminate but (2) gives their sum.
It is clear that the right-hand members of (4) and (6) would
be both zero if the axis of rotation were a principal axis at the
origin 0; for then the quantities "Xmxy and Xmyz would be
(1)
(3)
zero.
In a problem of this kind the origin

should therefore be
always taken at the point, if there be one, where the axis of
rotation
is
a principal
axis.
Examples 229
Reactions of the axis of rotation.
EXAMPLES
A thin
uniform rod has one end attached to a smooth hinge and is

allowed to fall from a horizontal position shew that the horizonal strain
on the hinge is greatest when the rod is inclined at an angle of 45 to
times the weight of
the vertical, and that the vertical strain is then
1.
the rod.
A heavy homogeneous cube,
of weight W, can swing about
an edge
from its unstable
when the perpendicular from the centre of
gravity upon the edge has turned through an angle 6, shew that the
components of the action at the hinge along, and at right angles to, this
2.
which
horizontal
is
it
starts
from
rest being displaced
perpendicular are -^ (3 - 5 cos

3.
W sin
and -
6.
circular area can turn freely about a horizontal
of its circumference and
passes through a point

its
6)
plane.
axis
which
perpendicular to
diameter through
is
is
motion commences when the

shew that, when the diameter has turned through
the components of the strain at
along, and perpendicular to,
If
vertically above C,
an angle
6,
this diameter are respectively
uniform semi-circular arc, of mass

ends to two points in the same vertical
4.
its
-^(7 cos ^ 4) and
constant angular velocity

,
upper end
is
m. g
u>.
W sin
-5-
m and
line,
Shew that the
6.
radius
and
is
a, is fixed
at
rotating with
horizontal thrust on the
+ ar'a
5.
A right cone, of angle 2a, can turn freely about an axis passing
through the centre of its base and perpendicular to its axis if the cone
starts from rest with its axis horizontal, shew that, when the axis is
vertical, the thrust on the fixed axis is to the weight of the cone as
;
+^
A regular tetrahedron,
cos2 a to
-^
cos-
a.
mass M, swings about one edge which is

horizontal.
In the initial position the perpendicular from the centre of
mass upon this edge is horizontal. Shew that, when this line makes an
angle 6 with the vertical, the vertical component of thrust is
6.
of
^(2sin2^-fl7cos2^).
Motion about a fixed axis. Impulsive Forces.

By Ai-t. 166 we have that the change in the moment of
momentum about the fixed axis is equal to the moment L of
181.
the impulsive forces about this axis.
230
But, as in Art. 170, the moment of momentum of the body

about the axis is Mk"^ ft, where O is the angular velocity and
Mk- the moment of inertia about the axis.
.
Hence,
if co
and
to'
be the angular velocities about the axis
just before and just after the action of the impulsive forces, this
change
Mk- (&>' &>),

Mk- (co' ai)= L.
is
and we have
and length la, rests on a smooth table

Ex. A uniform rod OA, of jnass
and is free to turn about a smooth pivot at its end O ; in contact with it at
is
inelastic
an
particle
distance
b
a
from
of mass m; a horizontal blow, of
in a direction perpendicular
impulse P, is given to the rod at a distance x from
to the rod; find the resulting instantaneous angular velocity of the rod ajid
and on the particle.
the impulsive actions at
If w be the angular velocity required and S the impulse of the action

between the rod and particle, then, by the last article, we have
M~u, = P.x-S.b
Also the impulse
S communicates
a velocity
bio to
(1).
the mass m, so that
m.bu = S
(1)
and
(2)
w = Px
give
/(m
4a2
(2).
mb^
Again, let X be the action at O on the rod. Then, since the change in the
motion of the centre of gravity of the rod is the same as if all the impulsive
forces were applied there,
3I.au = P-S-X.
.-.
.:
Also
(2)
gives
X=P-{Ma + mb)u,= P
5
(Ma +7nb) x'
M + mb-
mPbx
=
M^ + mb^
Centre of percussion.
When the fixed axis of
given and the body can be so struck that there is no
impulsive action on the axis, any point on the line of action
of the blow is called a centre of percussion.
As a simple case consider a thin uniform rod OA (= 2a)
suspended freely from one end and struck by a horizontal blow
at a point G, where OC is x and P is the impulse of the blow.
182.
rotation
is
231
be the instantaneous angular velocity communicated

and
the impulsive action
upon the rod of the axis about which it
Let
ft)'
to the rod,
rotates.
The
velocity of the centre of gravity
immediately after the blow is rm.

Hence the result (1) of Art. 166 gives
Mato'
Also the
=P+X
(1).
of momentum
moment
of
immediately after the

Mk-w, where k is the radius of
the rod about
blow
is
gyration of the rod about 0,
i.e.
k-
= -^
o
Hence the
result (4) of Art.
Mk"(o'
X = Maw
Hence
Hence
when
X
,
3ro,
166 gives
= P .X
(2).
- M - w = Maw
i.e.
there
(3).
no impulsive action at
is
0,
and then 0C=^ the length of the simple equivalent
pendulum
(Art. 173).
In this case G, the required point,
with the centre of oscillation, i.e. the centre of
percussion with regard to the fixed axis coincides with the
coincides
centre of oscillation with regard to the

If
X be not equal to -
negative according as x
impulsive stress at
is
then,
by
same
(3),
axis.
greater or less than
on the body
is
is
positive or
i.e.
the
in the same, or opposite,
direction as the blow, according as the blow
is
applied at a
point below or above the centre of percussion.
For the general case of the motion of a body free to

axis, and acted on by impulsive forces, we must
use the fundamental equations of Art. 166.
With the notation and figure of Art. 180, let {X, Y, Z) be
the components of the impulsive forces at any point {x, y, z)
and (Xj, Fi, Z^ and (Xg, Fj, Z.^ the components of the corresponding impulsive actions at B^ and Bo.
183.
move about an
232
Then, as in Art. 180,

u
= X = zo) v= y =
w z = xoa
=
u' = zoj';
and w' = xw,
;
?;'
where
cd' is
the angular velocity about
The equations
(1) to (6) of Art.
OF after
the blows.
166 then become
XX + Xi + X2 = Xmzo)' Xmzw = Mz .{a

2F+F, + F,=
XZ+
- co)
..
.(1)
(2);
+ Z2==^ Xm ( ccco') 'S.in ( xo))

= -i]Ix.((o'-a})
(.3);
X(yZ-zY) + ZJ), + ZJ), = tm [- xy<o'] - S?u [- xyco]
= {(o' -co) .Xmxy
(4);
S (zX - xZ) = tm {z'w + x'oi') - tm (zô) + x-co)
= {w - (o) Mlc"
(5);
t {xY yX) X-J}^ XJ).^ = tm ( yzo>') tm ( yzu))

= (&)' ). tmyz
(6).
Zi
and
The
rest of the solution is as in Art. 180.
Centre of Percussion. Take the fixed axis as the

xy pass through the instantaneous
position of the centre of inertia Q and let the plane through
the point of application, Q, of the blow perpendicular to the
184.
axis of y; let the plane of
fixed axis be the plane of xz, so that
and Q is the point (^, 0, ^).

Let the components of the blow
Fand
there
Z,
is
is
the point
(x,
parallel to the axes
y, 0)
be X,
and let us assume that

no action on the axis
of rotation.
The equations of the previous

then become
article
^-0
F=0
(1),
(2),
Z = - Mx {(o' - (o)
^Y={(0'-(0)tl
^y
...(3),
(4),
^X-^Z = {a>'-a>)Mk'...{5),
and
^Y = -(q}' -o})tmyz
(6).
Equations (1) and (2) shew that the blow must have no
components parallel to the axes of x and y, i.e. it must be
233
perpendicular to the plane through the fixed axis and the
instantaneous position of the centre of inertia.

(4) and (6) then give %mxy=0, and ^myz = 0, so that
the fixed axis must be a principal axis of the body at the
origin, i.e. at the point where the plane through the line of
action of the blow perpendicular to the fixed axis cuts it.
This
is
the essential condition for the existence of the

Hence, if the fixed axis is not a principal
centre of percussion.
some point of its length, there is no centre of percussion.

be a principal axis at only one point of its length, then
the blow must act in the plane through this point perpendicular
to the axis of rotation.
axis at
If
it
and
Finally, (3)
k-
(5) give
^= =
It follows, therefore, from Art, 173, that
percussion does exist,
same
body
its
when a
as that of the centre of oscillation for the case

oscillates freely
centre of
distance from the fixed axis
is
the
when the
about the fixed axis taken as a horizontal
axis of suspension.
Corollary.
centre of inertia
In the particular case when y =

and the
G lies on Ox, the line of percussion passes
through the centre of oscillation. This is the case when the

plane through the centre of inertia perpendicular to the axis of
rotation cuts the latter at the point at which it is a principal
axis,
and
therefore,
by
Art. 147, the axis of rotation
is
parallel
to a principal axis at the centre of inertia.
The
investigation of the three preceding Articles refers to
impulsive stresses,
rotation has
i.e.
stresses
commenced there
due
finite stresses
due to the blow, only after the

will be on the axis the ordinary;
to the motion.
rough example of the foregoing article is found in

a cricket-bat. This is not strictly movable about a single
axis, but the hands of the batsman occupy only a small portion
of the handle of the bat, so that we have an approximation to
185.
If the bat hits the ball at the proper place, there
a single axis.
is
very
little
jar on the batsman's hands.
Another example
handle
is
the ordinary
hammer with a wooden
the principal part of the mass
hammer-head
the centre of percussion
is
is
collected in the iron
situated
in,
or close
234
to, the hammer-head, so that the blow acts at a point very

near the centre of percussion, and the action on the axis of
rotation, i.e. on the hand of the workman, is very slight
If the handle of the
accordingly.
same material
Ex.
186.
as its head, the effect
triangle
ABC is free
to
hammer were made

would be
move about
side
its
of the
different.
BC
find the centre
of percussion.
Draw
AD
BC
is
li
let
Then, as in Ex.
7,
perpendicular to BC, and
the middle point of
DE.
be the middle point of
page 202,
F is
BC and F
the point at which
a principal axis.
AD=p,
then, by Art. 153, the
moment
of inertia
"['Ki)1-'^-'='
about
BC
6*
Also
In the triangle draw FF' perpendicular to

that
BC
to
meet
AE
in F', so
FF' = ^.AD--^.
oscillation for a rotation about
BC
as a horizontal axis of suspension.
The points E' and F' coincide only when the
sides
AB,
AC
of the triangle
are eqiial.
EXAMPLES
Find the position of the centre of percussion in the following cases
1.
A uniform circular plate

A sector of a circle axis
2.
3.
to its
uniform rod with one end
fixed.
axis a horizontal tangent.

in the plane of the sector, perpendicular
symmetrical radius, and passing through the centre of the
circle.
uniform circular lamina rests on a smooth horizontal plane,

shew that it will commence to turn about a point
on its circumference
if it be struck a horizontal blow whose line of action is perpendicular to
and at a distance from
equal to three-quarters
the diameter through
of the diameter of the lamina.
4.
5.
Shew
a,
which
is
at a distance {M[f^d'^ + {a-\-b)^]
+ ^mb'}-i-[M{a + b) + -^mb]
from the
axis.
Find how an equilateral triangular lamina must be struck that

may commence to rotate about a side.
6.
it
pendulum
is constructed of a solid sphere, of mass

and
attached to the end of a rod, of mass
and length b.
that there will be no strain on the axis if the pendulum be struck
radius

A
7.
librium
it
AB
uniform beam
Examples
axis.
235
can turn about its end A and is in equiwhere a blow must be applied to
find the points of its length
so that the impulses at
A may
be in each case -th of that of the
blow.
uniform bar AB, of length 6 feet and mass 20 lbs., hangs

from a smooth horizontal axis &i A
it is struck normally at
a point 5 feet below J. by a blow which would give a mass of 2 lbs. a
find the impulse received by the axis and
velocity of 30 feet per second
the angle through which the bar rises.
8.
vertically
A rod,
9.
strikes a fixed
and length 2a, which is capable of free motion

from a vertical position, and when it is horizontal
Shew
inelastic obstacle at a distance b from the end A.
mass
of
about one end A,
falls
that the impulse of the blow
the reaction at
10.
fixed
A rod,
of
is TO
is r?t.
a/ -|^
mass nM,
is
horizontal blow at its free end
- g|
vertically
and that the impulse of

upwards.
lying on a horizontal table
is
a particle, of mass M,
^. */ -^
in contact with
and has one end
The rod
it.
receives a
find the position of the particle so that it
start moving with the maximum velocity.

In this case shew that the kinetic energies communicated to the rod
may
and mass are equal.

11.
A uniform
inelastic
beam can
revolve about
its
centre of gravity
and is at rest inclined at an angle a to the vertical.

of given mass is let fall from a given height above the centre
in a vertical plane
A particle
and
hits the
beam
in a given point
resulting angular velocity
may
be a
find the position of
P so that the
maximum.
and length 2a, is rotating in a vertical plane

rod, of mass
12.
with angular velocity a about its centre which is fixed. When the rod
is horizontal its ascending end is struck by a ball of mass m which is
falling with velocity u, and when it is next horizontal the same end is
the coefficient
struck by a similar ball falling with the same velocity
of restitution being unity, find the subsequent motion of the rod and
;
balls.
13.
uniform beam, of mass
m,
and length
turn freely about its centre which is fixed.

moving with vertical velocity u, hits the
coefiicient
beam
horizontal and can
particle, of
beam
mass m' and
at one end.
for
Zm'
and that the
2?, is
If the
the impact be e, shew that the angular
immediately after the impact is
of restitution
velocity of the
{\
+ e)uj{m-\-'im')l,
vertical velocity of the ball is
then u (em - 3m')/{m -\-37n').
236
14.
Two
wheels on spindles in fixed bearings suddenly engage so that
become inversely proportional to their radii and

One wheel, of radius a and moment of inertia /j,
the other, of radius h and moment of
o) initially
Shew that their new angular velocities are
at rest.
their angular velocities

in opposite directions.
has angular velocity

inertia I^, is initially
7,62
J-
T,
+ La-
Iâb
.-,
a>
and
Jib^+l/x-
-f-yr,
:>
(i>-
Jib^
15.
A rectangular parallelepiped, of edges 2a, 2b, 2c, and weight W,
supported by hinges at the upper and lower ends of a vertical edge 2a,
and is rotating with uniform angular velocity <o about that edge. Find,
in so far as they are determinate, the component pressures on the hinges.
is
16.
A rod, of length 2a, revolves with uniform angular velocity a
about a vertical axis through a smooth joint at one extremity of the rod
so that it describes a cone of semi-vertical angle a shew that
;
4 a cos a
Prove also that the direction of the reaction at the hinge makes with the
vertical the angle tan "^ (f tan a).
17.
velocity
A
w
I feet wide and of mass m lbs., swinging to with angular

brought to rest in a small angle ^ by a buffer-stop which
door,
is
applies a uniform force
Find the magnitude of
when the
buffer
is
P
F
at a distance -
from the axis of the hinges.
and the hinge reactions normal to the door
placed in a horizontal plane half-way up.

and have two hinges disposed symmetrically
If the door be 21 feet high
and 26 apart,
find the hinge-reactions
when
the buffer
is
placed at the
top edge.
uniform rod AB, of length c and mass m, hangs from a fixed

it can turn freely, and the wind blows horizontally
with steady velocity v. Assuming the wind pressure on an element dr of
the rod to be kv"~dr, where v' is the normal relative velocity, shew that
the inclination a of the I'od to the vertical in the position of stable
equilibrium is given by mg ain a = ckv^ coa^ a and find the time in which
the rod will fall to this inclination if it be given a slightly greater inclination and let fall against the wind.
18.
point about which
rod is supported by a stiff joint at one end which will just

an angle 6 with the vertical. If the rod be lifted through a
small angle a and be let go, shew that it will come to rest after moving
through an angle 2a-â'^td\i6 nearly, the friction couple at the joint
19.
hold
it
at
being supposed constant.

20.
The door
length of the train
of a railway carriage stands open at right angles to the
when the
latter starts to
move with an
acceleration
f;
Examples
axis.
237
the door being supposed to be smoothly hinged to the carriage and to be

uniform and of breadth la, shew that its angular velocity, when it has
turned through an angle
^,
is
*/
--
sin
Q.
21.
A Catherine wheel is constructed by rolling a thin casing of
powder several times round the circumference of a circular disc of
radius a. If the wheel burn for a time T and the powder be fired
off at a uniform rate with relative velocity V along the circumference,
shew that the angle turned through by the wheel in time T will be
where 2c
The
is
the ratio of the masses of the disc and powder.
casing
is
supposed so thin that the distance of
the centre of the disc is a.

[If
be the whole mass of the powder and
any time
if,
all
the powder from
P the impulsive
the equations of motion are
|2ci.|' + m('l-|,')a2U = i'.a, and i^
fif
F.]
"J-^
action at
CHAPTER XIV
MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS. FINITE FORCES
The
187.
position of a lamina compelled to
move
in the
plane of xy is clearly known when we are given the position of

some dennite point of it, say its centre of inertia, and also the
position of some line fixed in the body, i.e. when we know the
angle that a line fixed in the body makes with a line fixed in
These quantities (say x, y, 6) are called the coordinates
space.
we can determine them in terms of the

we have completely determined the motion of the body.
The motion of the centre of inertia is, by Art. 162, given by
of the body, and, if
time
t,
the equations
W'
^S=^^
ilf = 2F
and
(2).
If {x, y') be the coordinates of any point of the
to the centre of inertia, then the

inertia
is,
by equation
Now x -^ ~y' ~jI

ric
etc
of
77*.
relative to G,
body relative
motion about the centre of

by
(6) of Art. 162, given
^^
moment about G
of the velocity
Motion in two dimensions
239
Let ^ be the angle that the line joining m to G makes with

QB fixed in space and 6 the angle that a line GA, fixed
in the body, makes with GB.
Then, as in Art 168, since AGm is the same for all positions
of the body, we have
a
line
d4 _dl
dt~
If
of
Gm = r,
m relative
dt'
the velocity
d4
to G^ is r
dt
Hence
its
moment about
G
deb
r~
xr-
dt
dy'
Sm
Hence
dt
,
[x
dx'
the
dt
dt
dt'
sum
of the
moments about
of the velocities of all the points such as
=
where k
through
2wi
do
.
r^
de
,^,,
the radius of gyration of the body about an axis

perpendicular to the plane of the motion.
Hence equation (3) becomes
is
|[if^g=2(.'F-,'X),
d'0
the
dt'
moment about G
of
all
the external forces
acting on the system

188.
The equations
(1), (2)
and
.(4).
(4) of the previous article
are the three dynamical equations for the motion of any body
in one plane.
In general there will be geometrical equations

6.
These must be written down for any
particular problem.
connecting
x,
y and
Often, as in the example of Art. 196, the
contact with fixed surfaces
a normal reaction B,
will
moving body
is
in
each such contact there will be

and corresponding to each such
there
;
for
be a geometrical relation expressing the condition that the
velocity of the point of contact of the moving body resolved

along the normal to the fixed surface is zero.
240
we have two moving
as in Art. 202,
bodies which are

a normal reaction
at the jDoint of
contact, and a corresponding geometrical relation expressing
If,
always in contact there
is
that the velocity of the point of contact of each body resolved

along the common normal is the same.
Similarly for other cases;
it will be clear that for each

connection and a corresponding
geometrical equation so that the number of geometrical equa-
reaction
tions
we have a
forced
the same as the
is
189.
number
The same laws
Friction.
as in Statics, viz. that friction

to stop the relative
that
it
of reactions.
are
assumed
a self-adjusting
is
motion of the point at which
cannot exceed a fixed multiple
(fx)
for friction,
force,
tending
it acts,
but
of the corresponding
normal reaction, where /x is a quantity depending on the

substances which are in contact. This value of fx is assumed
to be constant in dynamical problems, but in reality its value
gets less as the relative velocity increases.
The fundamental axiom concerning friction is that it

keep the point of contact at which it acts at relative rest
can,
i.e.
if
the amount of friction required
Hence the
the limiting friction.
make a body
is
will
if it
not greater than
friction will, if it
be possible,
roll.
In any practical problem therefore we assume a friction

in
a direction opposite to what would be
relative motion,
relative rest
latter
and assume that the point of contact
there
condition.
is
at
a geometrical equation expressing this
is
So
the direction of
to
each unknown friction there
is
required to prevent sliding
is
geometrical equation.
If
however the value of
greater than fxR, then sliding follows, and there is discontinuity

then have to write them down afresh,
in our equations.
We
substituting ixR for
and omitting the corresponding geo-
metrical equation.
Kinetic energy of a body moving in two

190.
dimensions. Let {x, y) be the centre of inertia, 0, of the
body referred to fixed axes let {x, y) be the coordinates of any
element m whose coordinates referred to parallel axes through
;
the centre of inertia are {x, y).

x = x-^x' and y = y
Then
Hence the
241
-^y'.
body
kinetic energy of the
=l^[(l)'-(l)>i^4(S-w)"-(l+f)]
-^-fM-^-%%
Since x'
is
the a?-coordinate of the point referred to the
centre of inertia as origin, therefore, as in Art. 162,
Xmx =
->
Hence the
last
and %in
-^r
= 0.
dt
dx dx
_dx ^
dx'
dt' dt
dt'
dt
_
~
'
two terms of (1) vanish, and the kinetic
energy
Hif)<^)'HH(^h(^
=
dt.
the kinetic energy of a particle of mass

centre of inertia and
+ the
moving with
placed at the
it
kinetic energy of the body relative to the centre of

inertia.
Now
the velocity of the particle
d(b
L
dt
m relative
to
dS
v> _
dt'
and therefore the kinetic energy of the body relative to
Hence the required
kinetic energy
where v is the velocity of the centre of inertia G, 6 is the angle

that any line fixed in the body makes with a line fixed in space,
and k is the radius of gyration of the body about a line through
perpendicular to the plane of motion.

L. D.
16
242
Moment of momentum about the origin

191.
a body moving in two dimensions.
With the
momentum
^
notation
the last
of
article,
the
of
moment
of
of the body about the origin

dx~\
dii
f- dy
-:,
dy
_ dx
dx\
+ -'L''i*"i-'''i-âJ
=
But, as in the last article, 1,mx
^'>-
2m -j- = 0.
and
at
...
Smo^'f =
dt
fdt 2W=0,
l.my^^=ylm-^^=0.
and
So
also for the corresponding
moment
of
momentum
y terms.
dt
= moment
momentum
of
about
the
moment
Now
of
y dt\
of a particle of mass
and moving v/ith

of the body relative to Q.
placed at the centre of inertia
Hence, from (l),the
about
momentum
the velocity of the particle
d4 _
_
~^^
it
m relative to G
dd
dt~'^ dt'
and
its
moment
of
momentum
about
dO
JO
= ''''^Tt=' dt'
Therefore the
moment
of
dt
Hence the
total
momentum
of the body relative to
dt
moment of momentum
= Mvp +
Mm
where
is
velocity v of the centre of inertia.
upon the
(2),
direction of the

Or
again, if the polar coordinates of the centre of inertia
referred to the fixed point
may
243
as origin be {R,
yjr),
be written
MI,f^M,^f^
The
192.
of
this expression
the
being a fixed point, the rate of change

axis through it
origin
moment
of
(3>-
momentum about an
perpendicular to the plane of rotation (for brevity called the
momentum about 0) is, by equation (3) of Art. 187,

moment of the impressed forces about 0. For the
moment of momentum we may take either of the expressions
moment
of
equal to the
(1), (2), or (3).
Thus taking
the
moment
we have
of the forces about 0.
M\x^-y'^] + Mt9 - L.
Hence
Similarly,
equation
(1)
if
we
took
moments about the point
(xo, y^),
the
is
Mr
= the moment
The use
d-y
._
d-x
of the impressed forces about
Mm
(aô, ô)-
of the expressions of this article often simplifies the
solution of a problem
but the beginner
is
very liable to
make
mistakes, and, to begin with, at any rate, he would do well

to confine himself to the formulae of Art, 187.
Instead of the equations (1) and (2) of Art. 187 may

193.
be used any other equations which give the motion of a particle,
e.g. we may use the expressions for the accelerations given in
Art. 49 or in Art. 88.
The remainder of this Chapter will consist of examples
illustrative of the foregoing principles.
162
244
A
19-4.
uniform sphere
donm an
rolls
inclined plane, rough cnoiigh to
prevent any sliding; to find the motion.

be the point of contact initially when the sphere was at rest
Let
At time t, when the centre of the sphere has
^/^
described a distance x, let A be the position

of the point of the sphere which was originally
at 0, so that CA is a line fixed in the body.
/^pjV
CW;
Let I KCA, being an angle that a line fixed

in the body makes with a line fixed in space,
be the normal reaction
be 0. Let R and
^^^
vJJ-r'^^'^^^
and the
Then
friction.
the equations of motion of Art. 187 are
M^^ = Jfg^ma-F
and
Since there
is
no
= Mgcoiia-R
(2),
3fk^^,=F.a
(3).
(3)
so that, throughout
x=-ad
d^x
and
KA=\ine KG,
sliding the arc
the motion,
(1)
(1),
give
^"^
k^ d^Q
"S^^
(4).
=^ "^ '
(l+^J)
*Xby(4),
=g
rf%
sm a.
a2
Hence the centre of the sphere moves with constant
-^-^ a sin a, and
therefore its velocity v = ^^j., a sm a
-??
[If
(7
a2
acceleration
and
o
,o <7sma.
^^TT^S'sma,
,
t'.
hence the acceleration =-^ sin
the body were a hollow sphere, k^ would =-o-. ^^^
a.
tîe
acceleration be
sin a.
If
^g
^^=-^
1
7;
2(^2
In a sphere
it
were a uniform solid
disc,
k"^
would
and the acceleration be
sin a.
If
it
were a uniform thin ring, k^ would =a^, and the acceleration be
^g sin a.]
From
and
(1 )
(2) gives
we have
F= Mg sin a - ^Mg sin a = f

R=
cos
a.
sin o
Examples
Motion in two dimensions.

Hence, since
must be
<
/i,
F must be < the coefficient of friction

-^
in order that there
may
he no shding
in
/x,
245
2
therefore - tan a
the case of a soHd
sphere.
Equation of Energy.
On
integrating equation
(5),
we have
the constant vanishing since the body started from rest.

Hence the kinetic energy at time t, by Art. 190,
= My .X sin a = the work
done by gravity.
uniform solid cylinder is placed with its axis horizontal on a

plane, whose inclination to the horizon is a.
Shew that the least coeflBcient
of friction between it and the plane, so that it ra&j roll and not slide, is
Ex.
tan
1.
a.
If the cylinder be hollow,
and
of small thickness, the least value is
\ tan a.
hollow cylinder rolls down a perfectly rough inclined plane in

shew that a solid cylinder will roll down the same distance in
52 seconds nearly, a hollow sphere in 55 seconds and a solid sphere in
50 seconds nearly.
Ex. 2.
one minute
Ex. 3. A uniform circular disc, 10 inches in diameter and weighing 5 lbs.,

supported on a spindle, \ inch in diameter, which rolls down an inclined
railway with a slope of 1 vertical in 30 horizontal. Find (1) the time it takes,
starting from rest, to roll 4 feet, and (2) the linear and angular velocities at the
is
end of that time.

Ex. 4, A cylinder roUs down a smooth plane whose inclination to the
horizon is a, unwrapping, as it goes, a fine string fixed to the highest point of
the plane find its acceleration and the tension of the string.
;
Ex.
One end
which
wound on
and the
and the unwound part of
the thread being vertical. If the reel be a solid cylinder of radius a and
weight W, shew that the acceleration of the centre of the reel is f and the
5.
reel falls in
of a thread,
a vertical
is
to a reel, is fixed,
line, its axis being horizontal
(/
tension of the thread
Ex.
6.
Two
elastic string,
^W.
equal cylinders, each of mass m, are bomid together by an

is T, and roll with their axes horizontal down
whose tension
a rough plane of inclination
where
/x
is
a.
Shew
i..
that their acceleration
is
mg sm aj
the coefficient of friction between the cylinders.
Ex. 7. A circular cylinder, whose centre of inertia is at a distance e from

on a horizontal plane. If it be just started from a position of
unstable equilibrium, shew that the normal reaction of the plane when the
its axis, rolls
246
4,c2
+ (a-c)2ô
centre of
mass
where k
the radius of gyration about an axis through the centre of mass.
is
195.
upon a
is
in its lowest position is 1
uniform rod
Let
is
held in a vertical position with one end resting
is
perfectly rough table,
Find
contact with the table.
and
and when
released rotates about the end in
the motion.
be the normal reaction and the friction when the rod
inclined at an angle 6 to the vertical
be the coordinates of
its centre,
x and y
x = asm6
let
so that
and y=aGosd.
The equations
'"
of Art. 187 are then
j.
-yfa
fiir
F=M^^=M[acos66-afim6e^]
...(1).
a/
2/
R-Mg = M^^.=M[-aamed-acoad.6^]...{2\
and
.^ = âsin ^ iâcos^
J/.
= Mga sin 6 - Ma^6,
by
(1)
ana
(2),
Me = Mgas,\n6
Affi
so that
..
(.3).
[This latter equation could have been written down at once by

is rotating about J. as a fixed point.]
Art. 171, since the rod

(3) gives,
Hence
on integration,
(1)
and
6^
=~
(1
i^=i/.^sin^(3eos^-2)
It will be
cos ^=-g-.
The
hence
noted that
The end
friction
R vanishes,
and
i?
is
zero
when ^ = 0.
= ^(l -3cos ^)2.
but does not change
its sign,
when
does not therefore leave the plane.
F changes its sign as 6 passes
its direction is
The
-cos^), since 6
(2) give
through the value cos ~ ^
then reversed.
ratio
rough there must be sliding then.

In any practical case the end A of the rod will begin to slip for some
value of 6 less than cos~^|-, and it will slip backwards or forwards
be
infinitely
according as the slipping occurs before or after the inclination of the
rod
is
196.
cos~if.
A uniform
straight rod slides doxon in
being in contact with

vertical.
If it started
motion.
vertical plane, its ends
two smooth planes, one horizontal
from
rest at
an angle
and
the
other
a with the horizontal, find the

R
Examples
247
S be the reactions of the two planes when the rod

inclined at 6 to the horizon.
Let x and y be the
Let
and
Then the
coordinates of the centre of gravity G.

equations of Art. 187 give
and
^S=^
(1),
M^=S-Mg
dfi
(2),
d^ R.a sin Sa
ifF
6
cos 6
df^''
Since k'^=
.(3).
these give
-^sm^ -^-cos^.^'-cos^
dfi
Now
and
^
df^
.(4).
ia
248
of motion
The equations
now take a
different form.
They become
(^')'
^w^-^
J/g='^.-%
(2'),
and Jf.|'.^=-*Si.acos0...(3').
Also y=asin0, so that
-^= -asin
(/).
and
On
integration
(3')
The constant
i.e.
when
^.^
sin
Hence
_,,
(5')
<^2^.c(cos0.
now
(2')
'<j).
give
we have
is
found from the fact that when the rod
= -sina,
the value of
L_
flsinar4
gives
so that
^,
was equal to
-j,
4sin2a~l
2ar
kI
2 sin a
_J=_^.__ +
[^_
left
the wall,
c,.
= 2i^[]-'^"].
Hence we have
When
the rod reaches the horizontal plane,

1
-.
angular velocity
ôfl
where Q^ - + 1
-,"1
is Q,
i.e.
when <^=0, the
20 sin a/, sinâN

=-^
1-
I
J,
p')-
--îM^-"?]
The equation
(1')
shews that during the second part of the motion
constant and equal to

of the motion.
Energy and Work.
is
its
value \ \J'iag sin^ a at the end of the
first
-j-
part
may he deduced from the

For as long as the rod is in
contact with the wall it is clear that GO=a, and GOB = d, so that tf is
Hence, by Art, 190, the
as centre with velocity ad.
turning round
The equation
(6)
principle of the Conservation of Energy.
kinetic energy of the rod is
a^
2Ma^
-MaW^+^M-^6^,
Equating this to the work done by gravity,

have equation (6).
i.e.
viz.
fi^.
Mga {sin a - sin 6), we
Examples
249
Ex. 1. A uniform rod is held in a vertical position with one end resting
upon a horizontal table and, when released, rotates about the end in contact
with the table. Shew that, when it is inclined at an angle of 30 to the
horizontal, the force of friction that must be exerted to prevent slipping is
approximately -32 of the weight.
Ex. 2.
and
table,
When
it
is
uniform rod is placed with one end in contact with a horizontal

then at an inclination o to the horizon and is allowed to fall.
becomes horizontal, shew that
angular velocity
its
whether the plane be perfectly smooth or perfectly rough.

the end of the rod will not leave the plane in either case.
Ex.
3.
rough uniform rod, of length 2a,
right angles to its edge;
sina,
also that
placed on a rough table at
is
centre of gravity be initially at a distance b
if its
beyond the edge, shew that the rod will begin to

through an angle tan-i
y/
is
Shew
'"",.,
where
u.
is
slide
when
has turned
it
the coefiQcient of friction.
Ex. 4. A uniform rod is held at an inclination a to the horizon with one

end in contact with a horizontal table whose coefficient of friction is u.
be then released, shew that it will commence to slide if
If it
3 sin a cos a
H< 1 + 3 sin2 a
Ex.
The lower end
5.
the horizon,
applied to
its
of a uniform rod, inclined initially at an angle o to

placed on a smooth horizontal table. A horizontal force is
lower end of such a magnitude that the rod rotates in a vertical
is
plane with constant angular velocity w. Shew that when the rod
an angle 9 to the horizon the magnitude of the force is
wp
where
m is
Ex.
the
6.
mass
cot $
- mau^ cos 6,
heavy rod, of length 2a,
the coefficient of friction being tan
is
inclination to the vertical
/c2
placed in a vertical plane with
Shew
is
that
it
ends
greater than 2e.
any time
is
down
will begin to slip
Prove also that the
given by
+ o COS 2e) - aê^ sin 2e = ag sin {d - 2e)
At the ends of a uniform beam are two small rings which

two equally rough rods, which are respectively horizontal and vertical
Ex.
its
and an equally rough horizontal plane,
e.
inclination 6 of the rod to the vertical at

(? {
inclined at
of the rod.
in contact with a rough vertical wall
if its initial
is
7.
the value of the angular velocity of the
beam when
it is
slide
;
on
obtain
inclined at any angle to
the vertical, the initial inclination being a.
197.
solid homogeneous sphere, resting
sphere, is slightly displaced

slip
when
the
and
begins to roll
common normal makes
on
the top
down
with the vertical
the equation
2sin(S~\) = 5
whej'e
is
the angle of friction.
it.
sin X (3 cos d
- 2),
of another fixed
Shew
that
it
will
an angle 6 given by
250
Assume
that the motion continues to be one of pure rolling.

Let CB be the jiosition, at time t, of the radius of the upper sphere
which was originally vertical, so that
if D be the point of contact and A
the highest point of the sphere, then
&rcAD=&rcBD,
a0==b4)
i.e.
(1).
F be
the normal reaction

friction acting on the upper
Let R,
and
sphere.
Since C describes a circle of radius

a+b about 0, its accelerations are
(a + 6) 6^ and {a + b) 6 along and perpendicular to CO.
Hence
M{a-{-b)6^ = Mgcose-R...i2),
M (a +
Also
6= Mg sin 6 - F... (3).
b)
be the angle that CB, a

line fixed in the moving body, makes
with a line fixed in space, viz. the vertical, then,
if
r//'
Mk-'^ = Fb.
But
f=e+(i)--
.'.
e and
262
=
'
M.^Jê^F.
5
so that
(3)
a+b
and
(4)
.5
give
^(1-cos^),
+
^^=-=
'la + h
sin
.(4).
6.
since the sphere

started from rest
'^
when
6 = 0.
[This equation could be directly obtained from the principle of energy.]

(2) and (3) then give
F=^gam6
and i2=^^(17cos^-10)
The sphere will slip when the

F=Rt&\i\, i.e. when
friction
becomes
limiting,
.(5).
i.e.
when
cosX. 2 sin ^ = sin\(l7cos ^10),
2sin(^-X) = 5sinX(3cos^-2).
i.e.
If the sphere
would be
lower,
when
zero,
cos
were rough enough to prevent any slipping, then by (5)

and change its sign, i.e. the upper sphere would leave the
6=\^.
[If the spheres
were both smooth
sphere would leave the lower when cos
it
(?
could be shewn that the upper
= .]
Examples

198.
inside
is
it
251
A hollow cylinder^ of radius a, is fixed with its axis horizontal;

moves a solid cylinder, of radius b, whose velocity in its loivest position
given; if the friction between the cylinders be sufficient
to
prevent any
sliding, find the motion.
Let
be the centre of the fixed cylinder, and
one at time t; let CN be the radius
that of the movable
movable cylinder which was

when it was in its lowest
position.
Since there has been no
sliding the arcs BA and BN are
of the
vertical
equal; therefore
Hence
CN, a line
a(i)
= by.LBCN.
if
6 be the angle which
makes
fixed in the body,
with the vertical,

space, then
i.e.
6 = lBCN-
a line fixed in
b
0...(1).
The accelerations of G are {a b)(f)'^

and {a~b)(f) along and perpendicular
Since the motion of the centre of inertia of the cylinder
to CO.
same as if all the forces were applied at it, therefore
M {a- b)<i>^=R-Mg cos
cj)
is
the normal reaction, and
the
(2),
M(a-b)'(i) = F-Mgsm(f)
and
where
is
(3),
F is the friction at B as marked.
Also for the motion relative to the centre of inertia, we have

i/^-^ = moment of the forces about
M.
Ifi
ab
G= -F.b,
(f>=-Fb
.(4).
These equations are sufficient to determine the motion.

Eliminating F between (3) and (4), we have
^
Integrating this equation,
S(a-b)
.(5).
we have
where Q is the value of

when the cylinder is in its lowest position.
This equation cannot in general be integrated further.
(2)
and
(6) give
-^= (a - 6) Q^ + 1 [7 cos 0-4]
In order that the cylinder
.(7).
may just make complete revolutions, R must
be just zero at the highest point, where
cp
ir.
252
In this case (a-b)Q,^-^, and hence the velocity of projection
= (a-6)J2 = V-y-gf(a-6).
Q
If
be less than this value,
(4)
and
The
be zero, and hence the inner
will
when cos^ = - 4
cylinder will leave the outer,
^^~
F=^sin(j)
(6) give
friction is therefore zero
when the
(8).
cylinder
is
in its lowest position,
and for any other position iîs positive, and therefore acts in the direction
marked in the figure,
Equation of Energy. The equation (6) may be deduced at once by
assuming that the change in the kinetic energy is equal to the work done.
When
the centre
Hence the
is
at
C the
energy (by Art. 190)
loss in the kinetic
lowest position = fi/ (a -5)2

against gravity,
viz.
(122
energy as the cylinder moves from its

Tj^jg equated to the work done
_02)_
Mg (a - b) (I - eos
(f)),
gives equation
(6).
Small oscillations. Suppose the cylinder to make small oscillations

about the lowest position so that
is always small.
Equation (5) then
gives
2(7
^=
<j),
so that the time of a small oscillation
=-y-^^9
Ex.
1.
disc rolls
on the inside of a
fixed hollow circular cylinder
axis is horizoutal, the plane of the disc being vertical
axis of the cylinder;
if,
when
and perpendicular to the

moving with a
in its lowest position, its centre is
vf.^ (-&), shew that the centre of the disc will describe an angle
about the centre of the cylinder in time
velocity
x/^--^''s
cf>
-(,-!)
E.V. 2.
A solid homogeneous sphere is rolling on the inside of a fixed
hollow sphere, the two centres being always in the same vertical plane.
Shew that the smaller sphere will make complete revolutions if, when it is
in its lowest position, the pressure on
it
is
greater than
-'j-
times
its
own
weight.
Ex. 3. A circular plate rolls down the inner circumference of a rough

under the action of gravity, the planes of both the plate and circle
When the line joining their centres is inclined at an angle 9
circle
being vertical.
the plate.
Motion
Ex.
4.
of radius 2a.
in two dimetisiotis.
253
rough fixed cylindrical cavity
cylinder, of radius a, lies within a
The centre
Examples
of gravity of the cylinder
is at a distance c from its

equilibrium at the lowest point of
the cavity. Shew that the smallest angular velocity with which the cylinder
must be started that it may roll right round the cavity is given by
axis,
and the
initial state is that of stable
where k is the radius of gyration about the centre of gravity.

Find also the normal reaction between the cylinders in any position.
An
199.
at
an angle
imperfectly rough sphere moves from rest doxmi
a plane inclined
a to the horizon; to determine the motion.
Let the centre G have described a distance x in time

have rolled through an angle 6 so that
6 is the angle between the normal CB
to the plane at time t and the radius
GA v?hich was normal at zero time.
Let us assume that the friction was
not enough to produce pure rolling,
and hence that the sphere slides as well
t,
and the sphere
as turns
be the
in this case the friction will
maximum
that the plane can
where
/x is the coefficient of friction.

Since the sphere remains in contact with the plane, its centre is always
at the same distance a from the plane, so that y and i/ are both zero.
Hence the equations of motions are
exert, viz.
[x/i,
M^=Mgsma-f.R
0=R Mgcost
M.k^.'^^^.R.a.
and
2a2
Since k^^"-^
6
and
(2)
(3) give
dd
,
l
the constants of
.(3).
= -^ cos a.
baa
2a
dt
and
-r^
(1),
(2),
(4),
hu.q
t^
2a
= -p.cosa.-
integration vanishing since 6
(5),
and 6 are both zero
initially.
So
(1)
and
(2) give
d^x
=5- (sin
dx
'
and
dt
a- /i cos a).
=g (sin a
/i
cos a)
x=g(smancoaa)~.
the constants vanishing as before.
(6),
(7).
254
The
velocity of the point
velocity of
down the plane = the
B relative to C= ^ - a ^ =^
sin a -
velocity of
cos a j
^m
C+the
?.
suppose sinu f /icosa to be positive, i.e. /Lt<f tana.

In this case the velocity of B is always positive and never vanishes; so
that the point of contact B has always a velocity of sliding, and the sphere
therefore never rolls the motion is then entirely given by equations (4),
Firsts
(5), (6)
and
(7).
Secondly, suppose sinu-^/xcosa to be zero, so that /i = f tana.

In this case the velocity of vanishes at the start and is always zero.
motion is then throughout one of pure rolling and the

^lR is always being exerted.
maximum
The
friction
Thirdly, suppose sin a - 1 /x cos a to be negative, so that > f tan a.

In this case the velocity of B appears to be negative which is imposfor friction only acts with force sufficient at the most to reduce tlie
sible
and then is only sufficient to keep this
point on which it acts to rest
point at rest. In this case then pure rolling takes place from the start,
and the maximum friction jxE is not always exerted.
The equations (1), (2), (3) should then be replaced by
/^t
ify = %sina-i^
(8),
= R-Mgcosa
(9)
MB'^^^F.a
and
Also, since the point of contact
is
(10).
at rest,
we have
d6
dx
-dt-^'^r''
,
(8)
d^x
^,
and (10) now give -^
.
Therefore,
by
(11),
+ -^=^ sui a
2ad'^6
x=a6=^g sin a.
.-.
x = ad = jgsma.t
5
x=ae = -gsma.
and
(12),
t-
(13),
the constants of integration vanishing as before.
Equation of Energy.
described a distance
The work done by gravity when the centre has

x sin a, and the kinetic energy then
x=Mg
In the
first
case the energy,
by
(4)
and
(6),
=îf^2^2[-(sin_^cosa)2+ t/x2cos2a]
and the work done by gravity, by
(14),
(7),
= il/<7. a;sina=2i/^V'^sin a(sina-/xco3ay
(15).
Examples
255
<
It is easily seen that (14) is less than (15) so long as /u

f tan a, i.e. so
long as there is any sliding. In this case then there is work lost on
account of the friction, and the equation of work and energy does not
hold.
In the third case the kinetic energy, by (12) and
and the work done, by
(13),
(13),
fi
=Mff .X sin a = Mg sin a. ^grsina-
= ~\ 31
= g'^ sin^ aA
In this case, and similarly in the second case, the kinetic energy
acquired is equal to the work done and the equation of work and energy
holds.
a simple example of a general principle, viz. that where there is

i.e. where there is pure sliding, or where there is pure rolling,
there is no loss of kinetic energy but where there is not pure rolling, but
sliding and rolling combined, energy is lost.
This
no
is
friction,
A homogeneous sphere, of radius a, rotating with angular

w about a horizontal diameter, is gently placed on a table whose
Shew that there will be slipping at the point of
coefficient of friction is /i.
Ex.
1.
velocity
contact for a time

^
velocity
and that then the sphere
will
roll
with angular
-^.
Ex. 2. A solid circular cylinder rotating about its axis is placed gently
with its axis horizontal on a rough plane, whose inclination to the horizon
Initially the friction acts up the plane and the coefficient of friction is /x.
is a.
Shew
that the cylinder will
move upwards
if
/n>tana, and find the time that
elapses before rolling takes place.
Ex.
is projected with an underhand twist down a rough

shew that it will turn back in the course of its motion if
- tan o) > 5upL, where u, w are the initial linear and angular velocities of
2aw
the sphere, n is the coefficient of friction, a the inclination of the plane and
3.
sphere
inclined plane
{/J,
/i>f tano.
Ex.
velocity
if
A
V and
up an inclined plane with

which would cause it to roll up
tano, shew that the sphere will
sphere, of radius a, is projected
4.
angular velocity
Y>aU, and
i2
in the sense
cease to ascend at the end of a time
>|
bg &in a
where o
is
the inclination of
the plane.
Ex.
5.
If
a sphere be projected up an inclined plane, for which ix = j tan a,

and an initial angular velocity i2 (m the direction in which
with velocity
would roll up), and if r>afi, shew that friction acts downwards at first,
and upwards afterwards, and prove that the whole time during which the
17r+4afi
it
rises
sphere
"^
is
I8g
sm
256
Ex.
6.
hoop
Fdown
is
> tan o).
a plane of incliuation
a,
has initially such a backward

spin O that after a time tj it starts moving uphill and continues to do so for
a time t2 after which it once more descends. The motion being in a vertical
the coefficient of friction being
fi
It
plane at right angles to the given inclined plane, shew that

(i
+ 9)5fsina = (ii2-
V.
about a horizontal
Ex. 7. A uniform
and is gently placed on a rough plane which
diameter with angular velocity
is incUned at an angle a to the horizontal, the sense of the rotation being such
as to tend to cause the sphere to move up the plane along the line of greatest
Shew that, if the coefficient of friction be tan a, the centre of the sphere
slope.
sphere, of radius a, is rotating
remain at
will
rest for a
time
and
;;
o^sina
will
then move downwards with
acceleration y^r sin a.
body be a thin circular hoop instead of a sphere, shew that the
If the
time
is
.
^
siu a
200.
and the acceleration - g
spliere,
c from its centre
that
sin o.
.i
of radius
G is placed
so that
will begin to roll or slide according as
it
G is at a distance
CO is horizontal; shew
whose centre of gravity
a,
on a rough plane
is
>
radius of gyration about a horizontal axis through G.

value,
If
ft,
ichere
is
equal
is the
to this
what happens ?
When CG is
contact, have
inclined at
an angle 6 to the horizontal
let
A, the point ol
moved through a horizontal distance
X from its initial position 0, and let OA = x.

Assume that the sphere rolls so that the
friction is F; since the point of contact A is at
rest,
.-.
The equations
of
x=ae
(1).
motion of Art. 187 are
d^
F=M-^\_x+c cos 6]
= M{{a-c&m6)e c cos 66'^']... {2),
d^
R- Mg = M-Y7^{a
-csmffl^M [-C cos 66 + esmee'^]
dt
^ccos 6- F{a-csm6) = Mk-'6
and
(3),
(4).
_
We
is
not
only want the initial motion
zero.
The equations (2), (3),

F=Ma'e,
R = Mg-Mcd,
and
when 6=0, and then

then give
(4)
I for
the MWiia^ values.
Rc-Fa=MIc%\
92.
Hence we have
F + a^ + c^'
P+
rt2
F_
gae
is zero
but 6

In order that the
F< fiR,
have
If
/i
<
be
i.e. ,x
initial
motion
> j^^^
may
257
be really one of
rolling,
we must
this value, the sphere will not roll, since the friction is not
sufficient.
If
Critical Case.
when
a
ii
jj,
^^ "^^^^
^ necessary to consider whether,
6 is small but not absolutely zero, the value of
little less
than
p is a little greater or
^
ft.
The question must therefore be solved from the beginning, keeping in

the work first powers of 6 and neglecting 6-, 6^, ... etc.
and R,
(2), (3) and (4) then give, on eliminating
+ a^ + c^ -2ac sin e}-ac cos 06'^ =ge cos d
[k'^
(5).
6^ [t^
If
Z'2=F + a2 + c^
Hence, to the
_^
+ a-^ + c^-2ac sin
d]
= 2gc sine
these give, neglecting squares of
first
power of
we have from
6,
{a-c6)e-ce\ _
ac
(2)
and
ZB-a'^
+ a2L
^'-
g-c'e
(6).
6,
''a^lc'
(3),
~]
+ a'f]'
on substitution and simplification.
lik^>
of friction
If
^'^
then
-5 is less
and the sphere
<
then
i.e.
-^ is less
than the
coefficient
rolls.
>
than y^
the coefficient of friction and the sphere slides.
Ex. 1. A homogeneous sphere, of mass M, is placed on an imperfectly

rough table, and a particle, of mass m, is attached to the end of a horizontal
diameter.
Shew
that the sphere will begin to roll or slide according as
greater or less than
the sphere will begin to
,,,,
7,
If
w be equal
to this value,
/i is
shew that
roll.
Ex. 2. A homogeneous solid hemisphere, of mass

and radius a, rests
with its vertex in contact with a rough horizontal pJane, and a particle, of
mass m, is placed on its base, which is smooth, at a distance c from the centre.
Shew that the hemisphere will commence to roll or slide according as the
coefficient of friction
L. D.
-^40mc-2
2b(il/ + m)a2
17
258
Ex,
3.
centre 0,
is
sphere, of radius a, whose centre of gravity G is not at its

placed on a rough table so that OG is inclined at an augle a to
shew that it will commence to slide along the
;
the upward drawn vertical

table
csina
the coefiScient of friction be
if
(a
+ ccoso)
but that otherwise
A;"+(a + ccosa)^
it
will roll.
Ex. 4. If a uniform semi-circular wire be placed in a vertical plane with

one extremity on a rough horizontal plane, and the diameter through that
extremity vertical, shew that the semi-circle will begin to roll or slide according
as
If
fi
r2-2
has this value, prove that the wire
fx
will slide.
Ex, 5. A heavy uniform sphere, of mass M, is resting on a perfectly

rough horizontal plane, and a particle, of mass m, is gently placed on it at
an angular distance a from its highest point. Shew that the particle will at
once
,,
sin a ^7il/-(-5ni (1-f cos a)}
.,
on the sphere
slip
if
uniform circular disc

a rough horizontal plane toith a
o about
velocity
Case
the centre.
V -^,
I.
<o
In this case the

direction
When
-*
'
r,'
between the sphere and the
coefficient of friction
201.
/*< irirT
and v
Find
>
is
is
,,
the
particle.
its plane vertical, along

of translation, and an angular
projected, with
velocity v
the motion.
aa>.
initial velocity of
and the
where u
friction is fiAlg
the point of contact
is
aoa
in the
~f-.
the centre has described a distance
and the disc has turned through an angle

the equations of motion are
x,
Mx= - fiMg,
and
J/. --
'6
.
= ixMga,
,',it=v-ngt and -0 = ~(o + iJigt
Hence the
6,
=x-a6=v-aai
Sliding therefore continues until
o~
...(1).
velocity of the point of contact
-'iy-gt.
and pure
Also at this time the velocity of the centre
rolling then begins.
.(2).
The equations of motion then become
Mx=-F
l.w here F is
and
J/|</>
= i^.aJ
the friction
-*-.
. x=a<^.
Also i=(i), since the point of contact is now at rest
These three equations give F=0, i.e. no friction is now required.
Also a(^=i = constant = the velocity at the commencement of the
;
rolling
=^,
by
(2).

The
less
259
disc therefore continues to roll with a constant velocity
than
which
is
its initial velocity.
and
< aa.
Case II.
V ^-
Here the
initial velocity of
friction is fiJIg
")
Mx = \iMg^
rolling begins
is -*-
and hence the
of motion are then
and
x=v + ngt
giving
Hence pure
the point of contact
The equations
-*-.
M .6=
-fj. MgOy
and -d^^co-iigL
when x = aB,
when t=
i.e.
^~
Zfig
The velocity,
rolls
x, of
the centre then
on with constant velocity which
= -^^
and, as in Case
I,
the disc
greater than the initial velocity of
is
the centre.
v-^,io^.
Case III.
Initially the velocity of the point of contact is

friction is fj,Mg
--.
of motion are
Mx= fiMg,
and Md=î.Mga,
x=v-iigt and -
,'.
Pure
rolling begins
of the centre then
If
2i>
> aw,
v+aa
The equations
when x=âd,
-^, so that
the
6 = fj.gt - - a.
i.e.
when t=
^, and the velocity
this velocity is
--,
and the motion during pure
rolling is ^-
with constant velocity as before.

If however 2y
aw, the velocity of the centre when pure rolling
commences is -e- and the disc rolls back towards 0. In this particvdar
<
case the velocity of the centre vanishes
-jr
if
2v
< ao)
when t=
which
is less
than
hence the disc begins to move in the direction -^
Zfxg
before pure rolling commences.
[In this last case the motion
known experiment
velocity
Ex.
v~^ and a
is
of the
same kind
as that in the well-
of a napkin-ring projected along the table with a

sufficient angular velocity
to
in the direction
'\.'\
propelled forward on a rough horizontal

table with a linear velocity u and a backward spin w, which is > /a. Find the
motion and shew that the ring will return to the point of projection in time
napkin-ring, of radius
L- -^
4/t^ (aw - u)
where a
What happens
if
is
a, is
uâul
172
260
202-
Two unequal smooth
spheres are placed one on the top of the other
in unstable equilibrium, the lower sphere resting on
system
is slightly
a smooth
table.
The
disturbed; shew that the spheres will separate ichen the line
joining their centres makes an angle 6 with the vertical givenby the eqvMion
M+m cos^^
-zrz.
3 COS ^ + 2 = 0,
\chere
is
the
mass of
the lower,
and
of the
upper, sphere.
Let the radii of the two spheres be
<
and
b,
and
their centre of
gravity, so that
CG_^C;G^
There being no
the resultant
a-\-b
M+ m
friction at the table
horizontal
force
on
the
system consisting of the two spheres
is
zero.
Hence, by Art. 162, the horizontal

velocity of the centre of gravity
is
and equal
commence-
to its value at the
constant,
ment of the motion, i.e. it is always zero.

Hence the only velocity of G is vertical,
and
it
therefore
describes
vertical
was the initial position of the point of contact

GO, where
is a fixed point.
B, so that
For the horizontal motion of the lower sphere, we thus have
straight line
AS'sin^
For the
,os
= J/^2[(7G^.sin^J
vertical
Mm{a + b)
M+m
[cos<9i9-sin^^-']
...(1).
motion of the upper sphere
-mg=m -j-^[a + {a + b) cos e] = m {a + b)[-
sin
^<9
- cos (9(92]
___(2),
Eliminating S, we have
6
[M+ m sin^ d] + m sin
{3f+m)g
6 cos
(3).
a+b
Hence, by integration,
^2
since the
By
[M+m sin2 61=K {M+m) (1 -cos 6)
(1),
S vanishes,
i.e.
the spheres separate,

cos
(3)
.(4),
motion started from rest at the highest point.
and
(5)
give
6^=^
(9(9
when
= sin (9.52^
j- at this instant
.(5).
and then
(4) gives,
mcos'5=(i/'-l-m)(3cos 6 2).
There are no forces acting so as to turn either sphere about
so that neither of them has any rotatory motion.
on sub-
stitution,
its centre,
Varying mass
Equation
Work and Energy.
The
the principle of work.
may
(4)
be obtained thus, by assuming
horizontal velocity of the lower sphere
= -^(CG sm 6) = M+m
jj-
cos 00,'
-'
dt^
so that its kinetic energy
is
i
^
The
261
^cos2
M -r~,
{M+mY
66^.
horizontal and vertical velocities of the upper sphere are
^ {CG
'
^ [a + (a + 6) cos
and
sin &\
6],
^}^'^^h os6d and -{a + b)sm0d,
i.e.
so that its kinetic energy is
\JM+mf
Equating the sum of these two energies to the work done,

rag (a + b){\- cos 6), we obtain equation (4).
viz.
Varying mass. In obtaining the equations of Art.

203.
161 we assumed the mass of the body to remain constant. If
the mass
m of a particle is not constant, the component
dx\
The equation
161
(1) of Art.
d^
dx
Also the equation (6) of the same article
is
^ d
^ d
then
is
dx\
dy
=i[-f
effective
d'^x
d ^ [
dx~\
T,^
dy
dx\
dx
as in Art. 187.
Ex. A cylindrical mass of snow rolls doion an inclined plane covered with
snow of uniform depth E, gathering up all the anow it rolls over and ahcays
remaining circular; find the motion of the snow, and shew that it luill move
with an acceleration -^g sin a, if initially, lohen its radius is a, it be started
with velocity a
where a
is
the inclination of the plane.
262
At time t from the start, let x be the distance described down the plane,
and r be the radius, so that
IT (r2 - a2) = the amount of snow picted up
= E.x
(1).
be the friction up the plane, and

snow-ball, we have
If
^[7r)-2p.i] = 7rr2r7psina-F
(2),
^[7rr2p.fc2^] = ir.r
(3),
and
where p
is
the density of the snow-ball.
x-rdÔ
Also
since there
Since
is
lfi
no
= --
the equations
and
(2)
give
(3)
3i'-i-7-x = 2gsina,
from
On
x+
(1),
putting i^^xi and hence
solution
--^J^ = \g,\na.
= this equation
2i;
becomes
linear,
and
its
is
i2
(TTcfi
+ Ex)l = ^gs,ina.^
O
2a sin a
.
i.
(4),
sliding.
i.e.
or,
the angle turned through by the
a;2=
e.
---
(7rn2
iUxi
,
{â^
+ ExfT
-)-
C.
+ Ex) +
(Tra^
+ Ex)S
This equation cannot in general be integrated further.

If,'
however, x = a\/
'
--=
5E
'sina
when x 0, we have G = 0, and then
5E
5
so that the acceleration is
27râ2 sin a
2/7
'=0
'
sin a
g sin a
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

1.
uniform
stick, of length 2a,
hangs
freely
XIV.
by one end, the other
being close to the ground. An angular velocity is then given to the

stick, and when it has turned through a right angle the fixed end is let go.
Shew that on first touching the ground it will be in an upright position if
2a
3 + -^-
where p
is
any odd multiple
of
2.
circular disc rolls in one plane upon a fixed plane and its centre
describes a straight line with uniform acceleration /; find the magnitude
and line of action of the impressed forces.
Examples
263
3.
A spindle of radius a carries a wheel of radius 6, the mass of the
combination being
and the moment of inertia /; the spindle rolls down
a fixed track at inclination a to the horizon, and a string, wound round
the wheel and leaving it at its under side, passes over a light puUejr and
has a mass m attached to the end which hangs vertically, the string
between the wheel and pulley being parallel to the track. Shew that the
acceleration of the weight is
g(b-a) [Ma sin a + ?w
(6
a)} -^
[/+ Ma^ + m{b- af].
Three imiform spheres, each of radius a and of mass m, attract

one another according to the law of the inverse square of the distance.
Initially they are placed on a perfectly rough horizontal plane with their
centres forming a triangle whose sides are each of length 4a.
Shew that
4.
the velocity of their centres
when they
*/ y y-^
collide is
where y
is
the constant of gravitation.
5.
plane.
unifoiTH sphere, of
mass
and radius
acting at the centre of the sphere equal to
v~
on a horizontal
by a horizontal force
a, rolls
If the resistance of the air be represented
and a couple about it equal
any instant, and if V be

the velocity at zero time, shew that the distance described by the centre in
to
m^v% where
time
^ is
v is the velocity of the sphere at
log Fl + -^ Vt\' where A =
J.
'.
uniform sphere rolls in a straight line on a rough horizontal

is acted upon by a horizontal force
at its centre in a direction
opposite to the motion of the centre.
Shew that the centre of the sphere
moves as it would if its mass were collected there and the force reduced to
6.
plane and
jX, and that the
friction is equal to
jX
and
is
in a direction opposite to
that of X.
man walks on a rough sphere so as to make it roll straight up a

7.
plane inclined at an angle a to the horizon, always keeping himself at an
angle /3 from the highest point of the sphere if the masses of the sphere
;
and man be respectively If and
?.,
shew that the acceleration of the sphere
{m sin /3 - (M+m) sin a}

7if+5m{l+cos(a+^)}
5cf
'^
8.
a and radius of gyration k, rolls

b.
Shew that the plane through
a simple circular pendulum of length
circular cylinder, of radius
inside a fixed horizontal cylinder of radius
the axes will
move
like
(6-<.)(i4:).
If the fixed cylinder be instead free to
move about
its axis,
and have
264
centre of gravity in its axis, the correspouding
its
length (6
and
- a)
(1
?i),
pendulum
will
be of
where
M are respectively the masses of the inner and outer cylinders, and
K is the radius of gyration of the outer cylinder about its axis.

[In the second case,
an angle
-v//-,
if the outer cylinder has at time

the equations of motion are, as in Art. 198,
m{b-a)4''^=R-mffcos(f)
mk^ =-F.a;
turned through
m{h-a)'<^ = F~mgsm(P;
3/K 2^ = - Fb.
and
Also the geometrical equation
is
{6
(j))
= b{(})-\j/).]
uniform circular hoop has a fine string wound round it. The
hoop is jjlaced upright on a horizontal plane, and the string, leaving the
hoop at its highest point, passes over a smooth pulley at a height above the
plane equal to the diameter of the hoop and has a particle attached to its
other end. Find the motion of the system, supposed to be all in one vertical
plane and shew that whether the plane be smooth or rough the hoop will
roll without slipping.
9.
10.
disc rolls
upon a
straight line on a horizontal table, the flat
surface of the disc being in contact with the plane.
the centre of the disc at any instant, shew that
time ^,
where u
is
64,xg
If v be the velocity of
it will
be at rest after a
the coefficient of friction between the disc and
table.
11.
A perfectly rough cylindrical grindstone, of radius a, is rotating
with uniform acceleration about its axis, which is horizontal. If a sphere
in contact with its edge can remain with its centre at rest, shew that the
angular acceleration of the grindstone must not exceed
12.
garden
perfectly
and the
roller,
velocity
V.
If
>
V'^
rough ball is at rest within a hollow cylindrical

roller is then drawn along a level path with uniform
{b - a), shew that the ball will roll completely
^-f- g
roller,
a and
uniform
disc, of
radius
axis through its centre,
and an
round the inside of the
b being the radii of the ball
and
roller.
13.
from
its
solid
lowest point and
relative to the
disc
if
rim
a,
can turn freely about a horizontal
insect, of
mass - that of the
disc, starts
moves along the rim with constant
shew that
it
will
velocity
never get to the highest point of the
this constant velocity is less than
- j2ga{n + 2).
Examples
265
Inside a rough hollow cylinder, of radius a and mass
i/, which is
about its horizontal axis, is placed an insect of mass m if the
insect starts from the lowest generator and walks in a plane perpendicular
to the axis of the cylinder at a uniform rate v relatively to the cylinder,
shew that the plane containing it and the axis never makes with the
14.
free to turn
upward drawn
Mk'^
the
is
moment
an angle
vertical
<
2cos~^
r^
-
Mk'^
rr
where
of inertia of the cylinder about its axis
rough lamina, of mass
can turn freely about a horizontal

moment of inertia about
Initially the lamina was horizontal and a particle of
this axis being Mk"-.
mass m was placed on it at a distance c from the axis and then motion
15.
i/,
axis passing through its centre of gravity, the
was allowed
to ensue.
Shew
that the particle will begin to slide on the
lamina when the latter has turned through an angle tan"
where
is
/ix
uniform rod, of mass 3f and length I, stands upright on

on the top of it, which is flat, rests a weight of
mass m, the coefficient of friction between the beam and weight being fi.
16.
perfectly rough ground
beam
If the
is
allowed to
when the weight
fall to
slips is given
the ground,
its inclination
6 to the vertical
M sin ^ + /AM
\
---+3m cos 6 = M+2'm.
by -
rough cylinder, of mass M, is capable of motion about its axis,

a particle of mass m is placed on it vertically above
the axis and the system is slightly disturbed. Shew that the particle will
slip on the cylinder when it has moved through an angle 6 given by
sin 6 = Aîifx, where /a is the coefficient of friction.
fi {M-^ 6m) cos 6
17.
which
is
horizontal
A hemisphere rests
18.
with
its
base on a smooth horizontal plane
perfectly rough sphere is placed at rest on its highest point

displaced.
Shew
T -j^;-5ng
/
is
slightly
that in the subsequent motion the angular velocity of
the line joining the centres,
when
its inclination to
the vertical
-f and shew also that the sphere

\\_c{7n-5cos^d)J
hemisphere when 6 satisfies the equation
2 sin -
and
, ^,
,
'
is 6, is
will leave
the
5 ^3-^") 0053^ + 20 cos2^ + 7(15-17%)cos^ + 70(ji-l)=0,

the sum of the radii and n the ratio of the sum of the masses of
the sphere and hemisphere to that of the sphere.
[Use the Principles of Linear Momentum and Energy.]
where
c is
A thin hollow cylinder, of radius a and mass M, is free to turn

19.
about its axis, which is horizontal, and a similar cylinder, of radius b and
mass m, rolls inside it without slipping, the axes of the two cylinders being
266
Shew that, when the plane of the two axes is inclined at an angle
6 to the vertical, the angular velocity i2 of the larger is given by
parallel.
a^{M+m) (2J/+m)
Q.^
= 2gm-{a-b) (cos 5- cos a),
provided both cylinders are at rest when 6 = a.
A perfectly rough solid cylinder, of mass m and radius r, rests

20.
symmetrically on another solid cylinder, of mass
and radius R, which is
free to turn about its axis which is horizontal.
If 7n rolls down, shew that
at any time during the contact the angle (j) which the line joining the
centres makes with the vertical is given by
Find also the value of
^ when
the cylinders separate.
A locomotive engine, of mass M,
has two pairs of wheels, of radius

l/X;^
and the
engine exerts a couple Z on the forward axle. If both pairs of wheels
commence to roll without sliding when the engine starts, shew that the
friction between each of the front wheels and the line capable of being
21.
a,
the
moment
of inertia of each pair about its axis being
called into action
must be not
less
than
k'^
+ a?
rs
22.
A rod, of mass to, is moving in the direction of its length on a
smooth horizontal plane with velocity u. A second perfectly rough rod, of
the same mass and length 2a, which is in the same vertical plane as the
first rod, is gently placed with one end on the first rod; if the initial
inclination of the second rod to the vertical be a, shew that it will just rise
into a vertical position if Sw^ sin^ a = \ga (1 sin a) (5+3 cos^ a).
A rough wedge, of mass and inclination a, is free to move on a

23.
smooth horizontal plane on the inclined face is placed a uniform cylinder,
of mass m shew that the acceleration of the centre of the cylinder down
;
,
...
i
the face,' and relative to
24.
of
no
it,
is
i/+?rtsin2a
y^â^rsina.
"
^-^
3if+?rt + 2?nsm2a
uniform circular ring moves on a rough curve under the action

curvature of the curve being everywhere less than that of
If the ring be projected from a point A of the curve without
forces, the
the ring.
rotation and V)egin to roll at B, then the angle between the normals at
log 2
AHand
B is
A uniform rod has one end fastened by a pivot to the centre of a

25.
wheel which rolls on a rough horizontal plane, the other extremity resting
against a smooth vertical wall at right angles to the plane containing the
rod and wheel shew that the inclination 6 of the rod to the vertical, when
it leaves the wall, is given by the equation
;
where
M and
Qi/cos^ 6 + ^m cos 6
4m cos a 0,
are the masses of the wheel and rod and a
inclination to the vertical
when the system was
at rest.
is
the initial
Examples

Rope
round a drum of a
feet
radius.
267
Two
wheels
each of radius b are fitted to the ends of the drum, and the wheels and
drum form a rigid body having a common axis. The system stands on level
ground and a free end of the rope, after passing under the drum, is inclined
If a force P be applied to the rope,
at an angle of 60 to the horizon.
26.
coiled
is
shew that the drum starts to

"
acceleration
, .,
+ F)
f^jr
roll in
whore
2.1/ (6^
the opposite direction,
is
its
centre having
the mass of the system and k
its
radius
of gyration about the axis.

27.
thin circular cylinder, of mass
and radius 6, rests on a

and inside it is placed a perfectly rough
and radius a. If the system be disturbed in a plane
perfectly rough horizontal plane
sphere, of
mass
in
perpendicular to the generators of the cylinder, obtain the equations of

finite motion and two first integrals of them; if the motion be small,
shew that the length
of the simple equivalent
pendulum
is
..
A uniform sphere, of mass J/, rests on a rough plank of mass m

28.
which rests on a rough horizontal plane, and the plank is suddenly set in
motion with velocity u in the direction of its length. Shew that the
sphere will first slide, and then roll, on the plank, and that the whole system
will
come
to rest in time
r^?
r?
where a
is
the coefiicient of friction
at each of the points of contact.
M, whose upper surface is rough and under

smooth horizontal plane. A sphere of mass
m is placed on the board and the board is suddenly given a velocity V in
the direction of its length. Shew that the sphere will begin to roll after a
29.
board, of mass
surface smooth, rests on a
time
(^5)
MS'
On
a smooth table there is placed a board, of mass M, whose upper

rough and whose lower surface is smooth. Along the upper
surface of the board is projected a uniform sphere, of mass m, so that the
vertical plane through the direction of projection passes through the
30.
surface
is
centre of inertia of the board.
If the velocity of projection be
u and
the initial angular velocity of the sphere be about a horizontal axis

perpendicular to the initial direction of projection, shew that the motion
will
become uniform at the end of time
velocity of the board will then be
,.
zrr?
tM + 'zra
{u aca).
>
t^
and that the
fig
perfectly rough plane turns with uniform angular velocity a>

31.
about a horizontal axis lying in its plane ; initially when the plane was
horizontal a homogeneous sphere was in contact with it, and at rest
268
shew that at time

it at a distance a from the axis of rotation
the distance of the point of contact from the axis of rotation was
relative to
t
a cosh
(y^ ^^ + _0 sinh [y^^ ] - ^, sin
^t.
Find also when the sphere leaves the plane.

[For the motion of the centre of gravity use revolving axes, as in
Art. 51.]
In the previous question the plane turns about an axis parallel to

when the plane is horizontal and above
c from it
the axis the sphere, of radius 6, is gently placed on the plane so that its
centre is vertically over the axis shew that in time t the centre of the
sphere moves through a distance
32.
itself
and at a distance
CHAPTEH XV
MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS.
IMPULSIVE FORCES
In the case of impulsive forces the equations of

For if T be the time
during which the impulsive forces act we have, on inte204.
Art. 187 can be easily transformed.
where X' is the impulse of the force acting at any point {x, y).
Let u and v be the velocities of the centre of inertia parallel
to the axes just before the impulsive forces act, and u' and v'
the corresponding velocities just after their action.
Then
this equation gives
So
M{u'-u) = ^X'
(1).
M{v'-v) = tY'
(2).
These equations state that the change in the momentum

of the mass M, supposed collected at the centre of inertia, in
any direction is equal to the sum of the impulses in that
direction.
So, on integrating equation (4),
i.e.
if
ft)
and
on'
we have
be the angular velocities of the body before and

we have
after the action of the impulsive forces,
Mk' {co' -
ft))
= S {x
Y'
y'X').
270
Hence the change produced

centre of inertia
is
momentum
in the
equal to the
moment about
about the
the centre of
inertia of the impulses of the forces,
205-
-Ex.
perpendicular
1.
AB, of length 2a, is lying on a smooth

struck by a horizojital blow, of impulse P, in a direction
rod at a point distant b from its centre; to find the
uniforvi rod
and
horizontal plane
to
is
the
motion.
be the velocity of the centre of inertia perpendicular to the rod after

the blow, and w' the corresponding angular velocity about the centre. Then
the equations of the last article give
Let
u'
Mu' = P,
Hence we have
Ex.
2.
and
u'
uniform rod at
x from
length at a distance
M^w'=P.b.
and
w'.
rest is struck
centre.
its
by a blow at right angles
Fiiid the point about which
to
it
its
will
begin to turn.
Let
be the required centre of motion,
inertia,
and
Let
about
have
tlie
and
Solving, w =
'
The
position of O.
The
GO = y,
where
the centre of
Myu, = P
(1),
M^f- + "^'joj^P{y + x)
(2).
and y = w-,, giving the resulting angular velocity and the
velocity of the centre of inertia
kinetic energy acquired,
If the end
equation
G = yw=-
by Art. 190,
were fixed, the resulting angular velocity wj would be given by the
a^+
\wi = P (a + x),
so
that wi = jr^.
-^
energy generated would

1
The
is
GA = GB = a.
impulse of the blow be P, and the resulting angular velocity

be w. The velocity acquired by G is yui.
Hence, from Art. 204, we
-.
4a2
ratio of the energies given by
(iJJ
'
3P2(a+x)2
and
U)^^
'
3 (a
+ a;)2
and the
kinetic
Irtipidsive
The
motion in two dimensions
least value of this ratio is easily seen to be unity,
Hence the
kinetic energy generated
than that when the end
is fixed,
when the rod
always greater
is free is
when x=-,
except
when x =
271
in which case
is
the
centre of rotation.
Ex.
BC
Two uniform
3.
horizontal table
perpendicular
being 2a and
to
'2b
AB is
AB at
and
B
P
rods AB,
are freely jointed at
and laid on a
struck by a horizontal blow of impuUe
in a direction
a distance c from its centre; the lengths of AB, BC
M and M'
their masses
find the motion immediately after
the blow.
Q
AB
Let Ml and wj be the velocity of the centre of inertia of

velocity just after the blow ; uj and W2 similar quantities for
and its angular

BC. There will
be an impulsive action between the two rods at B when the blow

impulse be Q, in opposite directions on the two rods.
is
struck
let its
Then
for the rod
AB,
since
was
it
at rest before the blow,
we have
Mui = P-Q
and
So, fov
(2).
M'u2 = Q
(3),
3I'--.W2=-Q.b
(4).
BC, we have
and
Also, since the rods are
(1),
M^ .wi = P.c-Q.a
connected at B, the motion of B, as deduced from
each rod, must be the same.

Ui
.-.
These
we
five
+ aui=Û2-bcj2
simple equations give wj, wi, M2,
<>>2
(5).
and Q.
On
solving them,
obtain
3Prc
M'
/,
Ex.
ends,
table
/,
3c\
3c\
Three equal uniform rods AB, BC, CD are hinged freely at their
so as to form three sides of a square and are laid on a smooth
A is struck by a horizontal bloiv P at right angles to AB. Shew
4.
B
;
IP/
3c\-|
and C,
the end
that the initial velocity of A

actions at
and C are
is
nineteen times that of D, and that the impulsive
and P
5P
respectively
272
motion of the point B must be perpendicular

must be along BC similarly
the action at C must be along CB. Let
B
them be Xi and X^ as marked. Let the
velocities and angular velocities of the rods
be i and wi, W2> ^^^ "3 ^^^ "a as in the
The
initial
action at
to
AB,
so that the
figure.
AB
For the motion of

MlWi
we have
Gi
= P + Zi
G3
(1),
a2
.(2),
where
m is
the
mass and 2a the length
of
each rod.
For BC, we have
muo = Xi - X2
For CD, we have
mus^Xz
.(3).
..
and
.(5).
Also the motion of the point

same point B of the rod BC.
of the rod
AB
is
the same as that of the
Ui-au}i= -U2
.:
(6).
So, for the point G,
Us + au3 =
On
substituting from (1)...(5) in
(6)
5Zi-Z2 = 2P
Xi^^
12
giving
and
i(2
(7),
and
and
(7).
we obtain
XiôX^,
Z2
^
12
Hence we have
17P
7P
'^<î
= 4/
xz:'
P
2=^;
3m
"3=
and
12/u
A _ wi + awx
au3 - M3
P^
(1(^3-
4hi*
19.
EXAMPLES
BC are
two equal similar rods freely hinged at B and lie in a

straight line on a smooth table.
The end A is struck by a blow perpendicular to AB; shew that the resulting velocity of A is 3^ times that of B.
1.
AB,
2.
Two
uniform rods,
placed in a horizontal line

angles to
BC may
it
AB
and BO, are smoothly jointed at B and

BC is struck at 6* by a blow at right
O so that the angular velocities of AB and
the rod
find the position of
be equal in magnitude.
AB and AC, are freely hinged at A and

on a smooth table. A blow is struck at B perpendicular to the rods
shew that the kinetic energy generated is -j times
what it would be if the rods were rigidly fastened together at A.
3.
rest in
Two
equal uniform rods,
a straight
line
;
Impulsive motion hi two dimensions. Examples 273

4.
Two equal uniform rods, AB and BG, are freely jointed at B and
turn about a smooth joint at A. When the rods are in a straight line,
o) being the angular velocity oi AB and u the velocity of the centre of mass
oi BG, jBC impinges on a fixed inelastic obstacle at a point J); shew that
to rest
the rods are instantaneously brought
'
is
if
BI) = 2a
3u + 2aa)
,
'
where 2a
the length of either rod.
Two
AB and
BG, of lengths 2a and 2b and of masses proporB and are lying in a straight
line.
A blow is communicated to the end A shew that the resulting
kinetic energy when the system is free is to the energy when G is fixed as
5.
rods,
tional to their lengths, are freely jointed at
(4a + 36) (3a + 46)
12 (a +
6)2.
Three equal rods, AB, BG, GD, are freely jointed and placed in a
The rod AB \s, struck at its end .4 by a
straight line on a smooth table.
blow which is perpendicular to its length find the resulting motion, and
shew that the velocity of the centre of AB is 19 times that of GD, and
its angular velocity 11 times that of CD.
6.
Three equal uniform rods placed in a straight line are freely

and move with a velocity v perpendicular to their lengths. If the
middle point of the middle rod be suddenly fixed, shew that the ends of
7.
jointed
the other two rods will meet in time -
where a
is
the length of each
rod.
AB and AG, are freely jointed at A, and

smooth table so as to be at right angles. The rod ^4 C is
struck by a blow at G in a direction perpendicular to itself shew that the
resulting velocities of the middle points oi AB and AG are in the ratio
8.
Two
equal uniform rods,
are placed on a
Two uniform rods, AB, AG, are freely jointed at A and laid on a
9.
smooth horizontal table so that the angle BAG is a right angle. The rod
by a blow P at B in a direction perpendicular to AB; shew
AB is struck
that the initial velocity of

^
AB,
J.
10.
2P
-.
41)1+7)1
where
m and m' are the masses
of
C respectively.
AB and GD are two equal
and similar rods connected by a string
The point A of the

a blow in a direction perpendicular to the rod; shew
velocity of A is seven times that of D.
BG; AB, BG, and GD form

rod
is -
three sides of a square.
^5 is struck
that the initial
Three particles of equal mass are attached to the ends, A and G,

11.
and the middle point .B of a light rigid rod ABG, and the system is at
The particle G is struck a blow at right angles to
rest on a smooth table.
the rod shew that the energy communicated to the system when A is
fixed, is to the energy communicated when the system is free as 24 to 25.
;
L.
D.
18
274
12.
A uniform straight rod, of length 2 ft. and mass 2 lbs., has at
each end a mass of 1 lb., and at its middle point a mass of 4 lbs. One of
the 1 lb. masses is struck a blow at right angles to the rod and this end
shew that the other end of
starts off with a velocity of 5 ft. per second
the rod begins to move iu the opposite direction with a velocity of 2-5 ft.
;
per
sec.
206.
uniform sphere, rotating with an angular
velocity
to
about an axis perpendicular to the plane of motion of its centre,
impinges on a liorizontal plane ; find the resulting change in
its
motion.
suppose the plane rough enough to prevent any
First,
sliding.
Let u and v be the components of
marked
velocity before impact as
figure;
u'
and
v'
its
in the
the components, and
co'
the angular velocity, just after the impact.
R be the normal impulsive reaction

F the impulsive friction.
Let
and
Then the equations
of Art. 204 give
3I{u'-u)=-F
M(v' + v) = R
Mk- (co' - co) = Fa
and
Also since the point
(1),
(2),
(3).
instantaneously reduced to rest,
is
there being no sliding,
aco' =
u'
(4).
Also, if e be the coefficient of restitution,

V
Solving
(1), (3),
and
ev
(5).
aco
5?/.
2aco
.(6),
zz
F= M .f{ti-aco)
and
Case
I.
Case II.
Then
friction called into play,
u<
and u and w are unaltered.
aco.
F acts
A before
of contact
.(7).
= aco.
There is no
is
(4),
,
we have
>-
co'
<co,
impact
and u' >

moving
Hence when the point
u.
the angular velocity

decreased by the impact, the horizontal velocity is increased.
is
-*
Impact of a rotating sphere on
ground 275
the
and the direction of motion of the sphere after impact makes a

smaller angle with the plane than it would if there were no
friction.
u> aw.
Case III.
Then
acts
point of contact
velocity
is
w > a and
before impact
u'
is
< u.
Hence when the
moving
increased, the horizontal velocity
is
>-,
the angular
diminished, and
the direction of motion after impact makes a greater angle with

the plane than it would if there were no friction.
Let the angular velocity before the impact be ^.

&>, and have
Case IV.
We
must now change the sign of

,
u =a(o
bu
2aft)
..
\p),
F=M.}{u+aco)
and
If
w=
then
^r5
and
u'
&)'
(9).
are both zero, and the sphere
rebounds from the plane vertically with no spin.

If
w < --^
then
u' is
negative and the sphere after the
impact rebounds towards the direction from which it came.

[Compare the motion of a tennis ball on hitting the ground
when it has been given sufficient " under-cut."]
In each case the vertical velocity after the impact is ev and
R = {l+e)v.
In Cases
may be
I,
II and III, in order that the point of contact
instantaneously brought to rest,
the coefficient of friction,
i.e.
from
aco)
f- (a
If
f-
(u
am) > fi(l+e)v,
bring the point of contact

will
we must have n</^'

and
(2), (5)
</u,{l
+ e)v.
the friction
is
not sufficient to
to instantaneous rest, equation (4^
not hold and for equations
(1), (2), (3),
M(u'-u) = -fMR
and
(7),
M{v' + v) = R
Mk\<a' - (o) = fiE.
we must have
(1').
(2'),
(3').
182
276
These with equation
u'
and
(5) give
jxv (1 +
u
fo'
IV
In Case
ft)
e),
+ 2^ V (1 +
Hence from
we must have
(2), (5)
and
(9)
(!'),
(2'),
and
(4').
may
-\-
e).
e)
(5'),
we have
not sufficient, and
equations similar to
but with the sign of
(3'),
bring the point
we must have
+ aw) < fiv{l

f (m + aco) >/u,v(l +
however
is
e)
F < fxR.
f (u
the friction
ev,
in order that the friction
of contact to rest
If
v'
&>
changed.
They
will give
u'
= u fiv {\ +
and
ft)'
In this case
e),
= 1^ V (1 +
v'=ev,
e) -
ft).
from (5'), be possible for u to be less than

be large enough; hence, if the ball has
sufficiently large enough under-cut, u' can be negative, i.e. the
ball can rebound backwards
fxv {1
e),
if
it will,
ft)
[Compare again the motion of a tennis

Ex.
207.
1.
rod, of length 2a, is held in a position inclined at
angle a
to the vertical,
plane.
Shew
and
then
is
let
fall on to
a smooth
that the end which hits the plane will leave
the impact if the height through
which the rod falls
^â sec a cosec2 a

If
ball.]
u and w be the
the vertical velocity
(1
is
an
inelastic horizontal
it
immediately after
greater than
+ 3 sin^ a)2.
and angular velocity just after the impact, V

before the impact and E the impulse of the reaction of
vertical
the plane, then
m(V-u)=R,
= vertical
mk^w = Ra Bin
velocity of the
w=
T-T
Hence
a,
and
m- aw sin a
end in contact with the plane = 0.
u = a{lSFsino
-,
+
(1).
asina
3sin2a)
Assuming the end to remain in contact with the plane, and that S is the
normal reaction when the rod is inclined at 6 to the vertical, we have
S -mg = m
-r- (a
cos
6),
and
S. a sin d = )ii
(2).
Eliminating S, we have
'(l
+ 3sin2^) + 3bin6'cos6i^2= sin^
(3).
Impulsive motion in two dimensions

Now S
Hence, from
=a
when
negative
is
gives 3 sin a cos au)2
>
-^ sin
o,
ii
6 is negative then, so that equation (3)
w^
i. e.
277
then
a cos a
(1),
r.^^ Ml
9
+ 3sin2a)2
ga(l
^,
sin2 a
+ 3sinâ)a
9 cos a siu2 o
Hence the given answer

Ex. 2. Four equal rods, each of mass m and length 2a, are freely jointed at
their ends so as to form a rhombus.
The rhombus falls icith a diagonal vertical,
and is moving with velocity V when it hits a fixed horizontal inelastic plane.
Find the motion of the rods immediately after the impact, and shew that their
angular velocities are each equal
to
-^
,,
2 a(l
:.,9.
+ o3sin2a)
\
where a
>
is the
angle each
rod makes with the vertical.

Sheto also that the impact destroys a fraction
i. -{-
energy just before the impact.

After the impact it is clear that
BC
(ci^ about A, and

W2
of the kinetic
Ot
moving with some angular
is
velocity
with an angular velocity
about B.
Since
the impact,
by symmetry, moving
is,
its
horizontal velocity
= horizontal
.-.
AB
o sin
of
velocity of
relative to
vertically after
is zero.
B + horizontal velocity
2a wx cos a + 2aoj2 cos a,

ie-
'^1=
The horizontal
-''1
(!)
velocity of G^, similarly
= 2a(isx cos a + aw2 cos a = a wi cos

and
a -^
its vertical velocity
= 2a wi sin a.-auii sin a = 3a wi sin o
If X be the horizontal impulse at G as marked (there being no vertical

impulse there by symmetry) we have, as in Art. 192, on taking moments about
for the
BC
two rods AB,
m -5- wi + m
awi cos a 3a cos o + 3awi sin a

.
a sin a +
W2
2mVa sin
= Z.
2wi
i.e.
Similarly, taking
m
[
awj cos a. a cos
a-3wi
'
Solving
(2)
and
moments about
Wi
e.
(3),
sin a
for the rod
sin a. a 8ina
^^ A
9
\
TT -4sin'o
\3
J
we have
wi
2X
cos a
+
H -::-^cosa
ma
V
a
W2
(2).
BC, we have
-'"[- F]. a sin a = Z. 2a cos a,
smaH
and X, and the
4a cos o,
2A'
ma
.^.
cos a
(3).
'
^
results given are obtained.
278
The impulsive
actions Zj
and Fj
--
on the rod
at i?
BG
are clearly
given by
Xi->rX=m. horizontal
Yi
and
mx
velocity
communicated
communicated
vertical velocity
= m(- 3awi sin a) - m [
- F] = 7
Also the impulsive action A'2-*- at
total action Y^l^^t
A = total change
F - Sawj sin a].
A on AB
is
given by
X2 = Jn. horizontal velocity communicated
The
G2 = wi awj cos a,
to
to G^
to Gi
= m.
in the vertical
awj cos
a.
momentum
= Am V - Smaui sin a.
On
solving these equations,
_3F
we have
sin a
_jFtan
'^^~2^'l + 3sin2a'
_^^
Y'""2"
^2--2"
'
^"'^
^^^
v _
^^'U^S^^^'
wi2
+^
2Hi ra2wi2 cos2 a
+ daûi^
sin2 a
+ ~ u/]
sin2
+ 3sm2a
energy
final kinetic
= i 2m
+ 3sin2a
+ 3 sin2
_
_omFsinacosa
Also the
Scosâ- 1
^~_7hF
' l + Ssinâ'
tana
+ 3sin2a'
Scosâ-
original kinetic energy.
we are considering only the change in the

motion produced by the blow, the finite external forces (the weights of the
rods in this case) do not come into our equations. For these finite forces
produce no effect during the very short time that the blow lasts.
It will
be noted that, since
Ex.
3.
body, whose mass
of impulse X.
If
V and
is
the body,
i.e.
Take the
the
work done on
axis of
x parallel
it
round
m{u'
by the impulse,
parallel to
just before the action of X.
quantities just after the blow.
By
acted upon at a given point
-u)=X;
is
to the direction of
velocities of the centre of inertia
where
is
by a blow
after the action of X, shew that the change in the kinetic energy of
and just
velocity
m,
V be the vilocities of P in the direction of X just before
The equations
m(v' -v}=0,
and
1(F+F')X
X.
Let u and v be the

the angular
Ox and Oy, and w

Let
u', v',
and w' be the same

become
of Art. 204 then
mk^{u' -a})= -y'
.X
(1),
are the coordinates of P relative to G.

Art. 190, the change in the kinetic energy
(x', y')
= bn (m'2 + 1;'2 + /(2a,'2) _ ^, [ifi + v^ + k'^w^) = ^m (m'2 - u^) + |mA;2 (a;'2 - w2)
X{w' + w), by (l), = iX {(u'-y'w') + {u-y'^,
= ^X {u' + u)
Now F=the velocity of G parallel to Ox + the velocity of P relative to Q
= u-<x>. GP sin GPx = u- y'w,
F' = u' - y'w.
and similarly
Hence the change in the kinetic energy = ^X(F'+ V).
-W
\.
Impulsive motion in
Examples 279
dimensions.
tivo
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER XV
1.
uniform inelastic rod
without rotation, being inclined at any
falls
angle to the horizon, and hits a smooth fixed peg at a distance from its
upper end equal to one-third of its length. Shew that the lower end begins
to descend vertically.
light string is wound round the circumference of a uniform reel,

a and radius of gyration k about its axis. The free end of the
string being tied to a fixed point, the reel is lifted up and let fall so that,
at the moment when the string becomes tight, the velocity of the centre of
the reel is u and the string is vertical. Find the change in the motion and
2.
of radius
show that the impulsive tension
mu
is
k-
t7,
3.
A square plate, of side 2a, is falling with velocity m, a diagonal
being vertical, when an inelastic string attached to the middle point of
an upper edge becomes tight in a vertical position. Shew that the
impulsive tension of the string
jMu, where
is
is
the mass of the
plate.
Verify the theorem of Art. 207, Ex.
3.
If a hollow lawn tennis ball of elasticity e has on striking the

4.
ground, supposed perfectly rough, a vertical velocity u and an angular
velocity co about a horizontal axis, find its angular velocity after impact
and prove that the range of the rebound
will
be ^
eu.
An imperfectly elastic sphere descending vertically comes in contact

5.
with a fixed rough point, the impact taking place at a point distant a from
the lowest point, and the coefficient of elasticity being e. Find the motion,
and shew that the sphere will start moving horizontally after the impact
if
V
6.
billiard ball is at rest
on a horizontal table and
is
struck by a
horizontal blow in a vertical plane passing through the centre of the ball
if
the initial motion
is
one of pure
rolling, find
the height of the point
struck above the table.
[There
is
no impulsive
A rough
friction.]
is dropped vertically, and, when its

suddenly moves his racket forward in its own plane
with velocity U, and thus subjects the ball to pure cut in a downward
Shew that, on striking the
direction making an angle a with the horizon.
rough ground, the ball will not proceed beyond the point of impact,
7.
velocity
is
V, a
imperfectly elastic ball
man
provided (/- Fsina)(l-cosa)
>
(1
+ e)
f 1
+ ^-^j V sm a COS a.
280
of radius a, rolls down a flight of perfectly rough

the velocity of the centre on the first step exceeds
An inelastic sphere,
8.
steps;
shew that
if
be the same on every step, the steps being such that,

impinges on an edge,
[The sphere leaves each edge immediately.]
JgUi
its velocity will
in its flight, the sphere never
An
9.
equilateral triangle, formed of uniform rods freely hinged at
with one side horizontal and uppermost. If the

middle point of this side be suddenly stopped, shew that the impulsive
1.
actions at the upper and lower hinges are in the ratio ,^13
is falling freely
their ends,
lamina in the form of an equilateral triangle ABC lies on a

smooth horizontal plane. Suddenly it receives a blow at ^ in a direction
Determine the
parallel to BC, which causes A to move with velocity V.
instantaneous velocities of B and C and describe the subsequent motion of
10.
the lamina.
11.
rectangular lamina, whose sides are of length 2a and 26,
is
at
caught and suddenly made to move with prescribed speed V in the plane of the lamina. Shew that the greatest angular
rest
when one corner
velocity
is
which can thus be imparted to the lamina
is
37
"
/
,g
Four freely-jointed rods, of the same material and thickness, form

12.
a rectangle of sides 2a and 26 and of mass M'. When lying in this form
moving with velocity
on a horizontal plane an inelastic particle of mass
V in a direction perpendicular to the rod of length 2a impinges on it at a
Shew that the kinetic energy lost in the
distance c from its centre.
impact
IS
V^^\j^+jj, (1 +
^:^
-.)\-
Four equal uniform rods, AB, BC, CD, and DE, are freely jointed
The
at B, C and D and lie on a smooth table in the form of a square.
rod AB is struck by a blow at A at right angles to AB from the inside of
the square shew that the initial velocity of A is 79 times that of E.
13.
14.
rectangle formed of four uniform rods
ft-eely
jointed at their
moving on a smooth horizontal plane with velocity Fin a direction

along one of its diagonals which is perpendicular to a smooth inelastic
vertical wall on which it impinges shew that the loss of energy due to
ends
is
the impact
is
2 /
/ \mi
+ vi^
3 cos^ "
3^1 4-^2
where m^ and
3 sin^ a
?Hi-f3???2l'
i2 are the masses of the rods and a

diagonal makes with the side of mass wij.
is
the angle the above
Of two inelastic circular discs with milled edges, each of mass m

15.
and radius a, one is rotating with angular velocity m round its centre
which is fixed on a smooth plane, and the other is moving without spin in
the plane with velocity v directed towards 0. Find the motion immediately
afterwards,
and shew that the energy
lost
by the impact
is
m iv^+ -^
Impulsive motion in two dimensions. Examples
281
mass
and radius a, is rotating with
16.
A uniform
uniform angular velocity < on a smooth plane and impinges normally
rough
mass
with any velocity ^l upon a
rod, of
m, resting on the plane.
Find the resulting motion of the rod and disc, and shew that the angular
circular disc, of
velocity of the latter
is
immediately reduced to -^
w.
An elHptic disc, of mass m, is dropped in a vertical

V on a perfectly rough horizontal plane shew that
17.
velocity
by the impact
kinetic energy
-(1 e^)mF-.
is
a;^
.^
p^
^^
distance of the centre of the disc from the point of contact,
perpendicular on the tangent, and
Two
18.
e is
the horizontal
I
the string
is
When
is a.
which joins similarly situated rungs.
sphere of mass
Shew
M and
mass
of a string
Shew that the
jerk in
falls
ga
3
(sin a
- sin 6).
with velocity
V on
a perfectly rough
angle a which rests on a smooth horizontal
that the vertical velocity of the centre of the sphere immedi-
5(M+m)
- ^Fsinâ
.1
,,
T
ately after the impact is ---
,,
-k7i/+2m + 5msin2a'
posed perfectly
20.
their inclination to
by the tightening
is
inclined plane of
plane.
the
the coeflBcient of elasticity.
d they are brought to rest
V
19.
is
the central
p is
mass ?w and length 2a, smoothly hinged

are placed on a smooth floor and released from rest
their inclination to the horizontal
of length
where r
similar ladders, of
together at the top,
when
plane with
the loss of
j-
the bodies being
all
sup^
inelastic.
A sphere, of mass m, is resting on a

A second sphere, of mass m', falling
perfectly rough horizontal
vertically with velocity V

both spheres are inelastic and perfectly rough and the
common normal at the point of impact makes an angle y with the horizon.
Shew that the vertical velocity of the falling sphere will be instantaneously
plane.
strikes the first
reduced to
Shew
F(m + to') -f
m sec^ y + to' + = m' tau^ (j + Tj
but that the upper sphere
will
be set
be set in motion
spinning in any case.
also that the lower sphere will not
if
siny=f,
CHAPTER XVI
INSTANTANEOUS CENTRE. ANGULAR VELOCITIES.
MOTION IN THREE DIMENSIONS
To
208.
its
fix
the position of a point in space
three coordinates
saying that
it
this
may be
otherwise
we must knowexpressed by
has three degrees of freedom.
{e.g. a relation between its

on a fixed surface) it is said to
have two degrees of freedom and one of constraint.
If two conditions are given {e.g. two relations between its
coordinates so that it must be on a line, straight or curved) it is
said to have one degree of freedom and two of constraint.
A rigid body, free to move, has six degrees of freedom. For
its position is fully determined when three points of it are
If
one condition be
coordinates, so that
The nine
given.
it
given
must
lie
coordinates of these three points are con-
nected by three relations expressing the invariable lengths of

Hence, in all, the body has
the three lines joining them.
6 degrees of freedom.
body with one point fixed has 6
rigid
3,
three,
i.e.
degrees of freedom, and therefore three of constraint.
body with two of
rigid
about an
axis,
its
points fixed,
has one degree of freedom.
i.e.
free to
For the
move
six
co-
ordinates of these two points are equivalent to five constraining

conditions, since the distance
209.
know the
rigid
body has
between the two points
make with
lines,
GA
the axes of coordinates.
constant.
determined when we
G of it, and also
and GB, fixed in the body
its position
three coordinates of any given point
the angles which any two
is
GA
[If G and
round GA.]
r^
given
the
three
relations
(1)
+ m'^ + = 1 and (3) W + mm' + nn' = the

angle AGB, between the direction cosines
n''^
m',
{V,
only were given the body might revolve
are
Since there
(2)
283
n')
quantities,
known
two
of the
viz.
three
lines,
it
coordinates
+ m'^-irn- = \,
cosine of the
{I,
m, n) and
follows that, as before, six
and three angles must be
to fix the position of the body.
Uniplanar motion.
210.
At any
instant there is always an axis of pure rotation,

a body can be moved from one
position into any other by a
rotation about some point without any translation.
During any motion let three
points A, B, G fixed in the body
move
into the positions A',
B'
and G' respectively. Bisect A A',

BB' at
and
and erect perpendiculars to meet in 0, so that
OA = OA' and OB = OB'.
Then the triangles A OB,
A' OB' are equal in all respects, so that Z.
and
and
But
.%
by subtraction
Also
Hence the
triangles
Z A' OB',
(1),
OBG=Z OB'C.
and
BC = B'C.
OBG, OB'C'
0G=
are equal in
all respects,
00'
(2),
Z COB = z C'OB',
and
zCOC' = zBOB' = zAOA'

Hence the same
AOB =
aA0A' = zB0B'
Z OB A = z OB'A'.
z CBA = z G'B'A'.
OB=OB'
and hence
i.e.
i.
rotation about 0, which brings
to B', brings any point

required centre of rotation.
to its
new
position,
(3).
A
i.e.
to
A' and
is
the
284
The point
motion
corresponding point
true
for
very
small
uniplanar motion,
is
and BB' are
parallel,
one of simple translation and the
at infinity.
is
Since the proposition

is
A A'
always exists unless
in Avhich case the
true for
is
all finite
may be moved
displacements,
Hence a body,
displacements.
into the successive positions
it
in
it
occupies by successive instantaneous rotations about some centre

or centres.
To
obtain the position of the point
at
and A' be successive positions of one
any instant let A

and B and B'
point,
successive positions of another point, of the body.
Erect perpendiculars to
211.
The
A A'
or
centre,
and BB'
axis,
these meet in 0.
rotation
of
may be
either
perynanent, as in the case of the axis of rotation of an ordinary
pendulum, or instantaneous, as in the case of a wheel rolling in

a straight line on the ground, where the point of contact of the
wheel with the ground is, for the moment, the centre of
rotation.
The instantaneous centre has two loci according to whether

we consider its position with regard to the body, or in space.
Thus in the case of the cart-wheel the successive points of
contact are the points on the edge of the wheel; their locus
itself, i.e. a circle whose
In space the points of contact are
the successive points on the ground touched by the wheel, i.e. a
straight line on the ground.
These two loci are called the Body-Locus, or Body-Centrode,
and the Space-Locus, or Space-Centrode.
with regard to the body
centre
is
212.
is
the edge
that of the wheel.
The motion
of the body
is
given by the rolling of the
body-centrode, carrying the body with
it,
upon the space-centrode.

Let C/, G2, Gi, Gl,
...
be successive
points of the body-centrode, and Cj, Cg, 63,

64
...
successive points of the space-cen-
trode.
At any
so that the
instant let Gx and C/ coincide
body
is for
the instant moving
When
about Oi as centre.
the point
small angle
285
the body has turned through the

with G^
(7/ coincides
and becomes the new centre of rotation a

about G^ through a small angle
brings G^ to G^ and then a small rotation
about Cg brings C/ to G^ and so on.
In the case of the wheel the points 0/,
C/ ... lie on the wheel and the points G-^,
on the ground.
Cg
;
rotation
. . .
Hx.
lines
Bod
1.
CX and
a plane with
sliding on
ends on two perpendicular straight
its
CY.
At A and B draw perpendiculars to CX and GY and

The motions of A and B are instantaneously
is the instantaneous
along AX and BC, so that
let
them meet
in 0,
centre of rotation.
Since BOA is a right angle, the locus of

with respect to the body is a circle on AB as
diameter, and thus the body-centrode is a circle
of radius 2
of
circle
^B.
in space
CO = AB, the locus of
centre C and radius AB. Hence
Since
is
the
motion is given by the rolling of the smaller

circle, carrying AB with it, upon the outer circle
of double
its size,
the point of contact of the two circles being the instantaneous
centre.
2.
The end A of a given rod is compelled to move on a given straight
CY, whilst the rod itself always passes through a fixed point B.
Draw BC { = a) perpendicular to CY. The instantaneous motion of A IS
along CY, so that the instantaneous centre
Ex.
line
lies on the perpendicular AO.

The point B of the rod is for the moment
lies
moving in the direction AB, so that
on the perpendicular OB to AB.
By
Body-Centrode.
OAB,
ABC
d^=JL.
AO
similar
"
A0=
cos^ OAB'
AB' "
.
so that with respect to the

of
is
triangles
we have
body the locus
the curve
cos-^
Space-Centrode.
x=a+y
If
cotOBM=a + y
Therefore the locus of
.(1).
OM be perpendicular to
tan<l>,
CB, and C3I=x,
and
in space is the parabola
The motion is therefore given by the

rod with it, upon the parabola.
y'^
then
= a(x- a).
rolling of the curve
This motion is sometimes known as Conchoidal Motion

P on the rod clearly describes a conchoid whose pole
point
MO = y,
yCA = ata,n<p.
(1)
is
carrying the
for every fixed
B.
286
Ex. 3. Obtain the position of the centre of instantaneous motion, and the
body- and space-centrodes in the following; cases
:
rod
AB
rod
AB moves so that its end A describes a circle, of centre and

B is compelled to move on a fixed straight line passing through
(i)
moves with
its
ends upon two fixed straight lines not at
right angles.
(ii)
radius a, whilst
BD
Two
rods AB,
and revolves round
(iii)
at
Compare the
[Connecting rod motion.]
0.
which
is free
(iv)
whilst at
BD
to rotate about C.
velocities of
B AB
are hinged at
A and
B.
hinged to a fixed point

always passes through a small fixed ring at C
;
is
[Oscillating cylinder motion.]
The middle point G of a rod AB is forced to move on a given circle

the same time the rod passes through a small ring at a fixed point C
of the circle, the ring being free to rotate.
[Hence show that in a limapon the locus of the intersection

is a circle.]
of
normals at
the ends of a focal chord
Ex,
space
is
CB
The arms AC,
4.
circle,
of a wire bent at right angles slide
Shew
fixed circles in a plane.
and that
its
upon two
that the locus of the instantaneous centre in
locus in the body
a circle of double the radius
is
of the space-ceutrode.
Ex. 5. A straight thin rod moves in any manner in a plane ; shew that, at
any instant, the directions of motion of all its particles are tangents to a
parabola.
Ex. 6. AB, BC, CD are three bars connected by joints at B and C, and
with the ends A and D fixed, and the bars are capable of motion in one plane.
Shew
AB
and
CD
the point of intersection ot
AB
and CD.
that the angular velocities of the rods
AB.CO, where
is
The
213.
position
by
easily obtained
of the
Then the
G.
u PG
x,
instantaneous centre
velocities
to
may be
to
the angular velocity about
of any point P, whose coordinates
x and y and such that
PG
is
inclined at 6 to
are
sin ^
o)
and
+ PG
cos ^
u yw and
i.e.
These are zero
if
a;
=
CO
The coordinates
of
and ^y
&>
parallel to the axes,
+ xw.
=~
CO
the centre of no acceleration are also easily found.
For the accelerations of any point

PG w perpendicular to PG.
.
is
velocities parallel to the axes of the
of the body and
are
referred to
the axis of
BO .DC
analysis.
Let u and v be the

centre of mass
are as
relative to
are
PG
u^ along
PG
and
Therefore the acceleration of
= u - PG
and
its
0)2
acceleration parallel to
= v-PG
0)2,
parallel to
cos e -
287
OX
PG .usme = u- u'^x - uy,
Oy
sin^ + PG .d}COse = v-(a'^y + (bx.
These vanish at the point
X
Mw2 - vw
y
VW^
+ nu
W*
+ 0)2
The point P, whose coordinates referred to G are

being the instantaneous centre and L the moment of
the forces about it, the equation of Art. 192 gives
214.
(x,
y),
L = M [u) + yuwhere Mk^
Now,
is
the
since
moment
P is
the instantaneous centre,

u^
where
is
ki
xv]
of inertia about G,
+ v^ = PG'
(i)\
^=s[^''"'+^="'J = |f*>'J
w.
the radius of gyration about the instantaneous
centre.
If the instantaneous centre be fixed in the body, so
(1)
that
/i-f
is
constant, this quantity
If
(2)
PG (= r) be not
= if Aji^w,
constant, the quantity (1)
Z(o at
ii(o
= Mki^co + Mrrw.
Now
and
0)
if,
as in the case of a small oscillation, the quantities r
are such that their squares and products can be neglected,
this quantity
becomes Mk^w, so that in the case of a small
oscillation the equation of
moments
of
momentum
about the
instantaneous centre reduces to
moment
.
_ L ~
~ Mki'
of
momentum
about the instantaneous
centre /
moment
of inertia about
the squares of small quantities being neglected,

i.e.
as far as small oscillations are concerned
the instantaneous centre as
if it
we may
were fixed in space.
treat
288
215.
One point
may
of a rigid body being fixed,
from
be transferred
one
2iOsitio7i into
to sheiu that the
any
a rotation about a suitable axis.

Let the radii from
to any two given points
meet any spherical surface,
of centre 0, in the points
body
other position by
of a
a, /S
body
and B, and when the body

has been moved into a
second position let A and B
go to ^' and B' respectively.
Bisect A A' and BB' in
D and E and let great circles
perpenthrough D and
dicular to A A' and BB' meet
in
a
Then
GA =
CA',
.'.
.'.
and AB = A'B'.
ZAGB = ZA'GB'.
CB = GB'
/.AGA' = /.BGB',
which brings
Now
to
A'
will
so that the
bring
same rotation about
OG
to B'.
the position of any rigid body
is
given when three
are given, and as the three points 0, A, B have

been brought into their second positions 0, A', B' by the same
points of
it
it follows that any other point

second position by the same rotation.
rotation about OG,
brought into
216.
its
Next, remove the restriction that
take the most general motion of the body.
is
will
be
be fixed, and
Let 0' be the
to
in the second position of the body.

Give to the whole body the translation, without any rotation,
0' being now kept fixed, the same
which brings
to 0'.
rotation about some axis OG, which brings A and B into their
final positions, will bring any other point of the body into its
position of
final position.
Hence, generally, every displacement of a rigid body is

compounded of, and is equivalent to, (1) some motion of translation whereby every particle has the same translation as any
assumed point 0, and (2) some motion of rotation about some
axis passing through 0.
Composition of Angular
289
Velocities
These motions are clearly independent, and can take place

in either order or simultaneously.
Angular
217.
of a body about more than one axis.
velocities
Indefinitely small rotations.
A body
w about an
has an angular velocity
point of the body can be brought from

its
position at time
an angle
+ ht\>y
q>
its
when every
axis
position at time
to
rotation round the axis through
wht.
When
a body is said to have three angular velocities Wi, w^,

and 61)3 about three perpendicular axes Ox, Oy, and Oz it is
meant that during three successive intervals of time ht the body
is turned in succession through angles Wiht, w.^Zt and oicÛ about
these axes.
[The angular velocity w^ is taken as positive when its effect

body in the direction from Oy to Oz so Wj and
&)3 are positive when their effects are to turn the body from Oz
to Ox, and Ox to Oy respectively.
This is a convention always
is
to turn the
adopted.]
Provided that Zt is so small that its square may be neglected

can be shev/n that it is immaterial in what order these
rotations are performed, and hence that they can be considered
to take place simultaneously.
it
Let
dicular to
Ox and
let
an angle 6
clined at
xOy
be any point
{x, y, z)
PM
of a body
draw
PM perpen-
be in-
to the plane
so that
MP cos d,z = MP sin 6.
y=
Let a rotation asiht be made

about Ox so that P goes to P'
whose coordinates are
X,
Then
L. D.
i-
Sy, z
ht
above the
z-\-hz
\"f/W
/'
Sz.
y+8y = MP cos {6 + (o,8t)

= MP (cos e - sin e
powers of
So
first
co.Bt)
= y- zoM,
being neglected.
= MP sin {6 -f wM)
= MP (^sin ^ + cos ^
(aÛ)
= s + yw^Zt.
19
290
Hence a
Ox moves the point
rotation Wiht about
{x, y, z)
to
the point
y zwiht, z
(x,
So a rotation
co^St
+ ycoiSt)
(1).
about Oy would move the point
(x, y, z)
to the point
{x-\-zco2ht, y, z
x(ti.M)
(2).
Also a rotation w^ht about Oz would move the point

to
{x, y, z)
the point
{x
Now
218.
yw^ht, y + xcosSt,
z)
(3).
perform the three rotations, about the perpen-
dicular axes Ox, Oy, Oz, of magnitudes
a)iht,
wÛ,
oos^t
respectively
in succession.
By
(1) the rotation WiSt takes the point
point Pi,
{x,
By
i.e.
(x, y, z)
to the
+ yooiSt).
Pj to the point Pg,
viz.
+ (z + yooiSt) w^ht, y zcoiBt, z + yco^St xw^St],

[x + zco^St, y ztOiBt, z + (yooi xw^) Bt],
on neglecting squares of
Finally the rotation
viz.
zw^ht, z
(2) the rotation cozBt takes

[a}
viz.
Bt.
(OaBt
about Oz takes P^ to the point Pg,
[x + zWiBt {y zcoiBt) oo^Bt,
y zcoiBt + (x
+ zw^Bt) WsBt,
+ (2/&)i xw^ Bi\,
z
i.e.
Pa
[sc
is
the point
+ (zQ)2 yws)
Bt,
+ (a^wg zwi)
on again neglecting squares of
The symmetry
Bt,
-f {ycoi
xw^) Bt],
Bt.
of the final result shews, that,
if
the squares
of Bt be neglected, the rotations about the axes might have
been made in any order.

Hence when a body has
the rotations
may
three instantaneous angular velocities
he treated as taking place in
any order and
therefore as taking place simultaneously.
If the rotations are of finite magnitude, this statement
not correct, as will be seen in Art. 225.
is
Composition of Angular Velocities

219.
If a body
possesses two angular velocities
291
and
coi
co^,
which are represented in magnitude by

distances OA and OB measured along these two lines, then the
resultant angular velocity is about a line 00, where OACB is a
parallelogram, and tvill be represented in magnitude by 00.
Consider any point P lying on 00 and draw
and
perpendicular to OA and OB,
The rotations Wiht and w^ht
N/
about OA and OB respectively
would move P through a small
about
tivo
given
lilies
PM
distance
perpendicular
to
/-^""^'^
the
'
plane of the paper which
PN
/"
'
=.-PM.a>Û-vPN .^.U
^\[-PM.OA+PN.OB]k = 2\[-APOA+APOB]Bt = 0.
Hence P, and similarly any point on 00, is at rest.
Hence 00 must be the resultant axis of rotation
know, by Art. 215, that there is always one definite
for
we
axis of
rotation for any motion.

If (0 be the resultant angular velocity about 00, then the
motion of any point, A say, will be the same whether we
consider it due to the motion about 00, or about OA and OB
together.
Hence
from
to x perpendicular from
on OB.
.-.
CO
CO
*
CO,
on
OC = twa
OA sin AOG = <ooxOA
sin
x perpendicular
AOB.
^ sin AOB ^ si n AC ^00 ^00

sinAOC~ sin AOG~ AG ~ OB'
Hence on the same scale that Wj is represented by OB, or 0i

by OA, the resultant angular velocity co about 00 is represented
by OC.
Angular velocities are therefore compounded by the same
rules as forces or linear velocities,
i.e.
they follow the Parallelo-
gram Law.
Similarly, as in Statics and Elementary Dynamics, the
Parallelogram of Angular Accelerations and the Parallelepiped
of Angular Velocities and Accelerations would follow.
192
292
Hence an angular velocity w about a line OP is equivalent

an angular velocity w cos a about Ox, where xOP = ot, and
an angular velocity co sin a. about a perpendicular line.
Also angular velocities Wi, 0)3 and CO3 about three rectangular
axes Ox, Oy and Oz are equivalent to an angular velocity
to
0)
(= Jci^ + a>i + Wi) about a
line
whose direction-cosines are
^,^ând-^
220.
has avgular
hodij
velocities,
and
coi
(O2,
find the motion.

the plane of the paper through any point
parallel axes
about two
to
Take
body perpendicular to the two
axes, meeting them in 0^ and
of the
0,.
Then the
velocities of
are
along PK^, and
ri&>i
and
PK^
perpendicular to O^P and
r^w.i
0-iP respectively.
Take
on 0^0., such that Wj O^N = w^ NO...
The velocities of P are cdj PO^ and cdj PO2 perpendicular to
POi and PO2 respectively.
Hence by the ordinary rule their resultant is (wj + w.) PN
perpendicular to PN, i.e. P moves as it would if it had an
angular velocity (wj + Wo) about N.
Hence two angular velocities Wj and w^ about two parallel
axes Oi and O2 are equivalent to an angular velocity w^ + Wg
about an axis which divides the distance OÔ-z inversely in the
.
ratio of
then
that wi
tOg.
If the angular velocities are unlike
221.
cally,
to
(Wj
N divides
velocities
and w^ > a^ numeri-
O1O2 externally so
OiN=a>. OoN, and the resultant
angular velocity
Exceptional
equal,
are
is
is (o^
ay^.
case.
unlike
at infinity
If the angular
'ti
6^
and numerically
and the resultant angular velocity
is
Composition of Angular' Velocities

The
resultant motion
case, the velocities of
then a linear velocity.
is
resultant
its
perpendicular and proportional
is
to OiOn,
For, in this
are perpendicular and proportional to
OiP and PO2, and hence

velocity
293
i.e.
ft)i
Aliter.
N^-'-'^
it is
The
O1O2
'
''^
Y^wa
o1^
velocity of
P parallel
to
0,0,
= &)i 0,P sin PO.Oo. -
ft)i
and
its
OoP. sin POÔ,
= 0,
velocity perpendicular to OiO,
= 0), OiP cos PO1O2 +

.
<0i
OoP. cos PO2O1
ft)i
0,0.,
222.
An angular velocity eo about an axis is equivalent to
an angular velocity ca about a parallel axis distant a from the
former together with a linear velocity to a.
Let the two axes meet the plane of the paper in Oi and O2
and be perpendicular to it.
The velocity of any point P in the plane
^^-^"^^
of the paper due to a rotation &> about 0,
Â"^'^''^
^
'
= a).OiP perpendicular to OiP,
*
.
and
()
by the triangle of velocities, is equivalent to velocities

w O2P perpendicular to 0,0, and 0,P in the same
this,
0,0, and
sense
.a\ together with a
Hence the
velocity
about
angular velocity
o)
velocity
w O2P perpendicular
.
to O2P.
any point P, given by an angular

equivalent to that given by an equal
velocity of
0,, is
(o
about
0,, together
with a linear velocity
0,0, perpendicular to 0,0,.

223.
In practice the results of Arts.
membered most
Thus
0)2)
0,P)
CO,
220222
by taking the point
(1) the velocity of
= (O, (0,0, +
= (CO, +
easily
P = Wi
0,P +
O2P = {(o, +
NP, where NO, =
""^
a>,)
(o,
re-
0,P
(0,P +
-^^
0)1+0)2
0,0^.
are
on 0,0,
0,0^
/
294
The
(2)
h(0
(&)i
(3)
0,
P=
velocity of
+ 0,P) -
CO,
ewj
O.P =
O^P -
(o),
0)
f2)
The
where O^N--
iV^P,
is
O^P
\o,P +
^^
0,0^
0,0,.
P = co 0,P -
velocity of
0,0,= a constant
(4)
CO,)
CO,
Oj
w^
The
co
0,P
velocity perpendicular to O1O2.
velocity oi
P=
co
0,P =
a>
0,0,
+ co
O^P, and
therefore equivalent to a
Oi/(^
linear velocity
a>
angular velocity
O2
0,0^ perpendicular to OiO, together with an
co
about
0,.
To shew that the instantaneous motion of a body may

a twist, i.e. to a linear velocity along a certain line
together with an angular velocity about the line.
By Art. 216 the instantaneous motion of a rigid body is
equivalent to a translational velocity of any point
together
with an angular velocity about a straight line passing through
224.
be reduced to
0.
vsin^ O'
Let
OA
vsin
be the direction of this linear velocity

axis of the angular velocity co.
v,
and Oz the
Instantaneous Motioti of a
In the plane
Oy
zOA draw Ox
Body
Oz and draw
at right angles to
at right angles to the plane zOx.
Let Z
295
zOA = 0.
On Oy take 00' such that 00' (o = v sin 6.

Then, by Art. 222, the angular velocity m about Oz is
equivalent to (o about a parallel axis OV to 0^ together with a
linear velocity cd 00', i.e. wsin^, through
perpendicular to
.
the plane zOO'.
Also a linear velocity -y may be transferred to a parallel

through 0', and then resolved into two velocities
linear velocity
and v sin 6. We thus obtain the second figure.

In it the two linear velocities v sin destroy one another, and
we have left the motion consisting of a linear velocity vcos6
along OV and an angular velocity co about it.
This construction is clearly similar to that for Poinsot's
Central Axis in Statics; and properties similar to those for
Poinsot's Central Axis follow.
It will be noticed that, in the preceding constructions, an
angular velocity corresponds to a force in Statics, and a linear
V cos
velocity corresponds to a couple.

225. rinite Rotations. If the rotations are through finite angles it is
about the axes is important. As a
simple case suppose the body to be rotated through a right angle about each
of two perpendicular axes Ox and Oy.
easily seen that the order of the rotations
The
Ox would bring any point P on Oz

on the negative axis of y, and a second rotation about Oy would
rotation through a right angle about
to a position
not further alter
its position.
rotation, first about the axis of y,
would have brought P to a position on

Ox would not have had any
the axis of x, and then a second rotation about

effect
on
Thus
its position.
in the case of finite rotations their order is clearly material.
226-
2'o
OA and OB
Jind the effect of two finite rotations about axes
in
succession.
Let the rotations be through angles 2a and 2^ about

directions marked.
On the geometrical
sphere with
as centre draw the arcs AC
and BC, such that
/.BAG=a and
the directions
AG
and
/.ABC=^,
BC
being taken, one
same direction as the rotation about

OA, and the second in the opposite direction
rotation
about OB.
to the
on the other side of AB, symTake
metrical with C, so that iCAC' = 2o. and
in the
ACBC' = 2B.
OA and OB
q
,-"-,
in the
296
A
body through an angle 2a about OA would bring

OC, and a second rotation 2^3 about OB would bring
rotation of the
the position
Hence the
effect
OC is unaltered,
of the two component rotations would be that the position
Magnitude of
The point A
is
the resultant rotation.
unaltered by a rotation about
is
lABP = 1^
where
to the point P,
it
the arc
OA
the rotation
2/3
about
OB
and
BP=the arc BA, and therefore

aBAP:^ iBPA.
Hence the
If
first about OB and secondly about OA it

would have been the resultant axis of rotation.]
OG
clear, similarly, that
angle
OC is the resultant axis of rotation.
i.e.
the rotations had been
[If
takes
back
DC.
again into the position

of
OC into
OG
resultant rotation
AC'P{=x) about
G',
and
is
through an
CA = G'P.
N is the middle
BC meets AP in N, then
AP and ACN=NCP=^
point of the arc

If the axes
then
AB = y.
OA and OB meet
Let
AC
at
an angle
7,
be p.
Then
7
sin
sin j3= sin
AN= sin p sin
Also, from the triangle

cos
.(1).
ABG', we have
7 cos a = sin7Cotp-
which gives
sin
^
Hence
(1)
^Ji
^sin2 7+(cosacos7 + sinacotj3)2'
+ cot^p
gives
.
sin -
= sin/3;^sin2 7+(cos 7 cos a + siuacotj8)2.
Hence the position
of the resultant axis
resultant rotation, are given for
any
OC, and
the magnitude of the
case.
Ex. 1. If a plane figure be rotated through 90 about a fixed point A, and

then through 90 (in the same sense) about a fixed point B, the result is
equivalent to a rotation of 180 about a certain fixed point
find the position
ofC.
Ex. 2. Find the resultant rotation when a body revolves through a right
angle in succession about two axes which are inclined to one another at an
angle of 60.
Ex.
3.
When
the rotations are each through two right angles, shew that
is perpendicular to the plane through the two
the resultant axis of rotation
component
axes,
and that the resultant angle
angle between them.
of rotation is equal to twice the
297
three dimensio7is
Motion in
Velocity of any point of a body parallel to fixed

227.
axes in terms of the instantaneous angular velocities of the body
about the axes.
perLet
be any point (w, y, z) of the body. Draw
PM
MN
pendicular to the plane of xy,

perpendicular to the axis of x, and
PT
NP
perpendicular to
NPM
plane
meet
to
The angular
Ox
gives to
equal to
twi
NM
velocity
Di
PN cos PTN,
coi PN. sin PNT, i.e.

Wi
a velocity
ro,.
PN cos PNM,
i.e.
-co^.z along
NT, and
about
o)i
a velocity along TP
which is equivalent
PN
to a velocity
i.e.
the
in
in T.
PN sin PTN,
i.e.
toi
y along
MP.
Hence the
Wi-rotation about
gives a component velocity
Ox
i.^
parallel to
Oy and
(o^.y
parallel to Oz.
So the rotation about Oy by symmetry gives component

w^. x parallel to Oz and cog z parallel to Ox.
Finally the rotation about Oz gives w-i.y parallel to Ox
velocities
and
(Wg
X parallel
Summing
and
If
to Oy.
up, the
be at
component
velocities are
w^.z
w^.y
Q)i.x
ci)i.z
Oy,
(Oi.y
C0.2.X
Oz.
parallel to Ox,
these are the component velocities of
rest,
parallel to the axes.
If
be in motion and
u,
v,
component
velocities of
are the components of its
in space are
u+ (ji^.z oi^.y
parallel to Ox,
Wi.Z
Oy,
V-{-
and
axes of coordinates, then the
velocity parallel to the fixed
w+
W3.X
(Oi
y (Oj
Oz.
298
228.
rigid body is moving about a fixed point
But, by the previous
dy
-^
where Wx,
(Oy
= (Oz.x
and
cog
article, since
dz
and
cox-z
-j-
to
moments of momentum about any axes through

space, and (2) the kinetic energy of the body.
The moment of momentum of the body about the
find
fixed
(1) the
axis of
is fixed,
= w^.y - Wy.x
are the angular velocities of the
body about
the axes.
On substitution, the moment of momentum about Ox

= Xm [(y^ + z^) cox soywy zxco^] = A .Wx F.Wy-E.tOz'
Similarly the
moment
of
momentum
about Oy
= Bo3y Dcoz FtOx,

and that about Oz
= C0)z
(2)
The
Eq)x
DWy.
kinetic energy
= ^ Sm [{(Oy .z-a)z.yy-\-{(i)z.x-o3x. zf + (w^ - Wy xY\

= iSmKH3/' + ^') + --+-"-22/2. 2/^-. -]
= \ {Aw^ + iiw/ + Gai - 2DcOyO)z - 2Ea)zCOx - 2FcoxO)y).
.
229.
i/
In the previous article the axes are fixed in space,
and therefore since the body moves with respect to them, the
moments and products of inertia A, B, G ... are in general
variable.
Other formulae, more suitable
for
many
cases,
may be
obtained as follows.
Let
Ox', Oy'
and Oz' be three axes fixed in
the body,
therefore not in general fixed in space, passing through
and
and
be the angular velocities of the body about them.

The fixed axes Ox, Oy and Oz are any whatever, but let
them be so chosen that at the instant under consideration the
moving axes Ox', Oy' and Oz' coincide with them. Then
let
G>i, 0)2, &)3
<a;=Wi, ft)y=CD2, &)2=Ci>3.
The
expressions for the
moments
of
momentum
of the last
Motion in
now Acoi
and the kinetic energy
article are
299
three dimeoisions
and two similar expressions,
F(o.2 Ecos
is
+ Bwi + Co)^^ - 2Dco.Ms - 2'ft)3ft)i - 2F&)i&),),

G are now the moments of inertia and D, E, F the
(A(o^^
where A, B,
products of inertia about axes fixed in the body and moving
with
it.
If these latter axes are the principal axes at 0, then D,
E and
vanish and the expressions for the component moments of

momentum are Aw^, Bco^ and Ccos, and that for the kinetic
energy
is
^ (Aq),'
Bco.,-
+ Cq)s%
General equations of motion of a body tvith one point

fixed which is acted îpon by given bloius.
The fixed point being the origin, let the axes be three
230.
rectangular axes through
it.
be the angular velocities of the body about

the axes just before the action of the blows, and oox, (Oy, &)/ the
Let Wa,
(Oy,
(Oz
corresponding quantities just

the axis of
after.
momentum of the body, just before,

Aax Fwy Ewg and just after it is
The moment
x, is
of
Fwy Eq)z.
moment of momentum about
about
Acoas'
Hence the change
in the
the axis
(&>/ <z).
^x) E((Oy (Oy)
But, by Art. 166, the change in the moment of momentum
about any axis is equal to the moments of the blows about that
of
is il ((Ox
a;
axis.
If then L,
M,
axes of X, y and
z,
N are
the
moments
of the blows about the
we have
A {(Ox (Ox) - F{(Oy' (Oy) - E {(Oz
ft)z)
= L,
and similarly
B {(Oy
G {(Oz
and
(Oy)
-(Oz)
D {(Oz (Oz) F {(Ox cox) = M,

E {(oj (Ox)-D {(Oy (Oy) = N.
These three equations determine (Ox, (Oy and <y/.

The axes of reference should be chosen so that A, B,C, D,
and F may be most easily found. In general the principal
axes are the most suitable. If they be taken as the axes of
reference the equations
{(Ox
-(Ox)
become
= L, B {(Oy -
(Oy)
= M and G (&>; - (Oz) = N.
300
body
If the
231.
zero,
from
start
that w^,
rest, so
(Oy
and
coj
are
we have
,
a;
Hence the
The
,
,
and
wg
=-^.
direction cosines of the instantaneous axis are
A'
B^C)
N'
(1>-
direction cosines of the axis of the impulsive couple are

{L,
In general
same,
= -g
it is
(2).
therefore clear that (1) and (2) are not the
in general the
i.e.
M, N)
body does not
start to rotate
about a
perpendicular to the plane of the impulsive couple.
A=B
= G, in which case the

(1) and (2) coincide if
momental ellipsoid at the fixed point becomes a sphere.
= 0, i.e. if the axis of the impulsive couple
Again if
M=N
coincides with the axis of w, one of the principal axes at the

fixed point, then the direction cosines (1)
to
(1, 0, 0),
axis of
ic,
Similarly
become proportional
and the instantaneous axis
also coincides with the
with the direction of
the impulsive couple.
i.e.
if
the axis of the impulsive couple coincides with
either of the other two principal axes at the fixed point.
In the general case the instantaneous axis may be found

For the plane of the impulsive couple is
geometrically.
Lx + My +Nz = 0.
Its conjugate
diameter with respect to the momental ellipsoid
Ax^
is
easily seen to
be
-r-
A
i.e. it
is
~=
^,
Gz^
=k
the instantaneous axis.
Hence
and
+ By' +
if
an impulsive couple
initially at rest, the
act on
body begins
of the momental ellipsoid at

the impulsive couple.
to
a body, fixed at a point

turn about the diameter
ivhich is conjugate to the
plane of
Motion in
232-
-Ea?. 1.
three dimensions
lamina in the form of a quadrant of a
301
circle
OHO', whose
P at
centre is H, has one extremity

of its arc fixed and is struck by a blow
other extremity 0' perpendicular to its plane ; find the resulting motion.
as the axis of y,
Take
as the axis of x, the tangent at
OH
as the axis of z.
perpendicular to the plane at
Let G be the centre of gravity, GL perpendicular to
OH,
the
and a
so that
HL=LG = ^^.
A=m'^;
Then
(by Art.
U1) =
M^- M
HL^ + 3I
The
i '^
OU = M
(|
- ^-^ a^;
D = E = 0;
C = A+B;
rdedr (a - r C03
6)
r Bin e
= J\I.~a^.
bir
J
J
equations of Art. 230 then give
A<oJ - Fwy
= Pa
Bwy'~Fu^'= -Pa
and
Ccog
These give
= -IA-F\ ~ AB -F^
'
^^^
'ê'
= ^>
^^^ *^6 solution can be
completed.
If
be the inclination to
Ox
of the instantaneous axis,

wj,'
Ex.
is
Ex.
about
is
2.
uniform cube has
struck by a blow along one of
3.
it.
normal
its
its
A-F
centre fixed
edges
uniform solid ellipsoid
is
we have
IO-Stt
and
is free to
turn about
it
it
find the instantaneous axis.
fixed at its centre
and
is free
to turn
by a blow whose direction

instantaneous axis.
It is struck at a given point of its surface
to the ellipsoid.
Find the equation to
its
Ex. 4. A disc, in the form of a portion of a parabola bounded by its latus

rectum and its axis, has its vertex A fixed, and is struck by a blow through
the end of its latus rectum perpendicular to its plane. Shew that the disc
starts revolving about a line
through
inclined at
tan"i^f
to the axis.
uniform triangular lamina ABG is free to turn in any way

about A which is fixed. A blow is given to it at B perpendicular to its plane.
Shew that the lamina begins to turn about AD, wliere Z) is a point on BG such
Ex.
that
5.
GD = lCB.
233.
General equations of motion of a body in three dimenaxes whose directions arê fixed.
y. z) be the coordinates of the centre of gravity of the
sions, referred to
If (x,
body we have, by Art. 162,
d'^x
= sum
M-^
of the components of
the impressed forces parallel to Ox, and similar equations for

the motion parallel to the other axes.
302
a Rigid Body
Dynavfiics of
If
be the angular velocities at any instant about
Q)x, coy, coz
axes through the centre
of inertia parallel
coordinates then, by Arts. 164 and 228,
d
dt
= moment about
forces
[A (Ox
Fwy - Eoi^
a line parallel to
d
[Bo)y
dt
M,.
DcOy]
of the effective
= N.
body be a uniform sphere, of mass
^ =^= C
and
Ox through O
- Dcoz - i^w J = ill
^[Ca,,-â,,
and
= 0,
the axes of
= L.
So
[If the
to
we have
2a2 dcox
2tt2
2a^^^
-r
dt
then
B=E=F
these equations then become
-^;
M-^,
and if,.^^^"
dt
N.I
dt
Impulsive forces. If u, v, w, m^, Wy, Wz be the component

and the component angular
velocities of the centre of inertia
velocities about lines through G parallel to the fixed axes of
coordinates just before the action of the impulsive forces, and
u', v',
w',
Wx,
(Oy, ft)/
similar quantities just after them,
166 and 228 the dynamical equations are

and A {w^ a>x) F {coy coy) E (ft)/ oog)
= the moment
and two similar
Em. A homogeneous billiard

moves on a billiard table
which is not rough enough to
always prevent sliding ; to shew
that the path of the centre is at
an arc of a parabola
then a straight line.
first
position
contact,
initial
If u
origin as the
of
the
point
and
ini-
of
and the axis of x in the
direction
and
be the
Arts.
etc.
of the impulsive forces about Ox,
234.
Take the
by
u) = X^,
equations-.
axis,
tial
{u'
of its
sliding.
initial velocities
of the centre parallel to the axes,
hall,
spinning about any
General Motion of a Billiard Ball
303
angular velocities about the axes, then since the initial velocity
of the point of contact parallel to the axis of y is zero, we have
v
+ aD.^ =
(1).
and w^ be the component angular

velocities, and F^^, Fy the component frictions as marked.
The equations of motion are
At any time
t let w-b, coy
Mx = -F^
My = -Fy
= R-Mgj
(2),
and
2a-
,^
dwx
r,
M:^'^
= F^.a
o
at
at
The
must be opposite
resultant friction
motion of
and equal
(3).
to the instantaneous
to fiMg.
Fy y + aoa;
-w =
Fx x-acoy
Hence
(4),
''
^
and
F^^
Fy^
= ix^Y
(5).
Equations (2) and (3) give
Fy
Fx
Hence
^y ^ -
(ba:
(by
ic
^ y + arji^
awy
id
(4) gives
y
if
.'.
log {y
+ ad>a; _x ad}y
+ aa>x X aoDy
aoix)
acoy
'
= log {x acoy) + const.

u ally
'
and F^ = /x3Ig.
moves under the action
of a constant force parallel to the axis of x and hence it
describes an arc of a parabola, whose axis lies along the negative
Hence
From
(4)
and
(5) give
Fy=0
(2) it follows that the centre
direction of the axis of x.
Di/ncwiics of a Rigid
304
(1), (2),
and
(3)
now
Body
give
= -ixgtû\
= const. = w
x
2/
and
awx
= const. = aD.^]
ctwy
=^figt
(7).
At time
+ any
the velocity of the point of contact parallel to
Ox
~x acoy = u aVty -7 figt,

and
parallel to
The
Oy
= ^ + acoa; = v + aOa; = 0, by
it
velocity of the point of contact
rolling begins
when
t
y
-.
X
and then
i.e.
_2_
^^^ (u
=
u
figt
the direction of motion
inclined at tan
(1).
vanishes and pure

ou + 2any
aQy),
7v
=,-?.-
0U+
zaily
when pure
rolling
commences
is
to the original
direction of motion
^
of the point of contact.
On
integrating
(6),
it
is
easily
seen that pure rolling
commences at the point whose coordinates are
2(u- aVty ) {Qu + gOy )
2v (u
^^
- any)
7^
4>9fig
motion continues to be one of pure

and the motion of the centre is now in a straight line.
It is easily seen that the

rolling,
EXAMPLES
homogeneous sphere roll on a fixed rough plane undei* the
action of any forces, whose resultant passes through the centre of the
sphere, shew that the motion is the same as if the plane were smooth
and the forces reduced to five-sevenths of their given value.
1.
If a
2.
sphere
is
projected obliquely
up a
perfectly rough plane
shew
that the equation of the path of the point of contact of the sphere and
plane
f
is
:ry=^tan/3
^
"^
14
to the horizon,
horizontal.
and
~,
F''
is
-^, where a
cos^jS
is
the inclination of the plane

'
the initial velocity at an angle
j3
to
the
Motion in
Examples
three dimensions.
305
3.
A homogeneous sphere is projected, so as to roll, in any direction
along the surface of a rough plane inclined at a to the horizontal shew
that the coefficient of friction must be
f tan a.
;
>
4i.
perfectly rough sphere, of
Q about an
angular velocity
mass 3/ and radius
a, is
rotating with
axis at right angles to the direction of motion
impinges directly on another rough sphere of mass m

Shew that after separation the component velocities
of the two spheres at right angles to the original direction of motion of
2
2
J/
aQ. and = t?
Q.
the first sphere are respectively = -j-.
of its centre.
which
is
It
at rest.
5.
A homogeneous sphere spinning about its vertical axis moves on
a smooth horizontal table and impinges directly on a perfectly rough
vertical cushion.
by the impact
Shew
that the kinetic energy of the sphere
in the ratio 26^ (5
+ 7 tan^ 5)
coefficient of restitution of the ball

6.
and 6
is diminished
10+49e2tan2^, where e is the
is
the angle of reflection.
a about an
and moving in the vertical
with velocity \t in a direction making an
sphere, of radius a, rotating with angular velocity
axis inclined at
an angle
(3
to the vertical,
plane containing that axis

angle a with the horizon, strikes a perfectly rough horizontal j)lane.
Find the resulting motion, and shew that the vertical plane containing
new
the
direction of motion
makes an angle tan~i
with the
original plane.
7.
ball,
moving horizontally with velocity and spinning about a

<a, impinges directly on an equal ball at
vertical axis with angular velocity

rest.
Shew
that the
maximum
deviation of the
direction of motion produced
by the impact
the coefficient of friction and
e of restitution
is
first ball
between the
that the least value of which will produce this deviation
8.
Shew
from
tan~^^^^
balls,
its initial
where
ya
is
and shew
j~ (1 +e).
is
that the loss of kinetic energy at the impact of two perfectly
I'ough inelastic
uuiform spheres, of masses
M and M', which
before impact with their centres in one plane,
is
are
moving
rrp-{2u''--\-lc'^),
where u and v are the relative velocities before impact of the points of
contact tangentially, in the plane of motion of the centres, and normally.
20
CHAPTER XVII
ON THE PRINCIPLES OF THE CONSERVATION OP
MOMENTUM AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
235.
If X, y,
of a
motion
and z be the coordinates of any point
body at time t referred

are, by Art. 164,
to fixed axes, its equations of
i^^^t='-^
^^-1=2^
'^^
iH^m-4)-^^y'-^^^
w-
jM4-4)-^'^'^-^^
()
(^^'-2'^'>
^>'
r.2'"(4f-40=2
Suppose the axis of x
forces
throughout the motion, i.e. such that

Equation (1) then gives
or
.^
sum
to be such that the
resolved parts of the external
i.e.
(2)'
dx
parallel
XmX =
to
it
of the
is
zero
always.
r\
Sw^=constant
(7),
= constant,
M -^
dt
where x is the a;-coordinate of the centre of gravity.

Equation (7) states that in this case the total momentum of
Momentum
Conservation of
307
the body measured parallel to the axis of x remains constant

This is the Principle of the
Conservation of Linear
Momentum.
Again suppose the external
of their
moments about the

(4),
we have
0-7^1
Then, by equation
and
..
Now ^y
-,
dt
velocity of the
total
is
moment
2m
^ -r
dt
forces to
-77
axis of
be such that the sum

zero, i.e. such that
is
= constant
= the moment
(8).
about the axis of x of the
mass m, and hence equation (8) states that the

momentum of the system about the axis of
of
constant.
of the Conservation of the Moment

Angular Momentum), viz.
If the sum of the moments of the external forces, acting on a
rigid body, about a given line he zero throughout the motion, the
Hence the Principle
of
Momentum (or
moment of momentum of
the body about that line remains un-
altered throughout the motion.
The same theorems
236.
For
forces.
we
if
are true in the case of impulsive
the duration of the impulse be a small time t
have, as in Art. 166, on integrating equation (1),
where Xi is the impulse of the forces

the change in the total momentum
i.e.
is
equal
to
the
sum
parallel to the axis of x,
of the impulses
of the forces in that
direction.
If then the axis of
x be such that the sum of the impulses
parallel to it vanish, there is

parallel to
i.e.
no change in the
total
momentum
it,
the total
momentum
action of the impulsive forces
= the
total
x before the
momentum
in that
direction after their action.
20
308
Again, integrating equation
i.e.
the change in the angular
sum
equal to the
(4),
momentum
moments
of the
we have
about the axis of x
is
of the impulses of the forces
about that same direction.

If then the axis of x be such that the sum of the moments
of the impulsive forces about it vanishes, there is no change in
the angular momentum about it,
the angular
i.e.
momentum about it just before

= the angular momentum
of the impulsive forces
same
line just after their action.
237.
radius
a,
head, of mass
vi,
M and
on a circular wire, of mass

a vertical diameter. If w and
slides
-E.r.
1.
and
the icire turns freely about
the angular velocities of the wire
when
(o
of inertia of the wire about any diameter = it/
The moment
may
the wire
is
=-;
= M+2in
0}'
the bead
w' be
the head is respectively at the ends of
a horizontal and vertical diameter, shew that
on
the action
about the
be on the wire, the action of
it
Wherever
on
equal and opposite to that of the wire
it.
Hence the only external forces acting on the

system are (1) the action of the vertical axis AA',
which has no moment about ^^', and (2) the weights
of the bead and wire, neither of which has any
moment with respect to the vertical axis AA'.
Hence the moment of momentum of the system
(wire and bead) about AA' is constant throughout
the motion.
Also the velocity of the bead along
the wire has no moment about AA', since its direction intersects
When
also,
the bead
when
^, the
at B, this
it
moment
moment
is
of
momentum
il/ w
+ ma^w.
about
^^'
is
AA
ill
w'
Equating these two, we
M+2m
have
Ex.
is at
31
2.
perpendicular
distance c
rod, of length 2a, is

to
from
its
its
moving on a smooth table with a velocity v

on a small inelastic obstacle at a
the end leaves the obstacle, shew that the
length and impinges
When
centre.
angular velocity of the rod
is
and throughout the subsequent motion whilst the rod

is in contact with the obstacle, the only action on the rod is at the obstacle
Hence there is no change in the moment of momentum about the
itself.
But before the impact this moment was Mcv. Also, if w be the
obstacle.
Both
at the impact,
Momentum
Conservation of
angular velocity of the rod when
momentum
about the obstacle
end
its
is,
by
309
leaving the obstacle,
is
Ai't.
its
M (--+a^\ u,
191,
moment
of
w.
i.e.
il/
Equating these two, we have '^=j-Îf w'
were the angular velocity of the rod immediately after the impact, we
have, similarly,
Mcv=:M + c^\
u'.
uniform circular plate is turning in its own plane about a point A

on its circumference with unifoi'm angular velocity w ; suddenly A is released and
another point B of the circumference is fixed ; shew that the angular velocity
Ex.
about
3.
is
(1 + 2
cos
where a
a),
angle
the
is
that
AB
subtends
at
the
and
its
centre.
In this case the only impulsive force acting on the plate
moment about
JB
Hence, by Art. 235, the

the fixing as before.
momentum
is
at
vanishes.
moment
If w'
the fixing = lf (a2 +
after
momentum
of
about
is
the same after
be the required angular velocity, the

Z;2)
w'
= iU.
moment
of
&,'.
The moment of momentum before the fixing

= the moment of momentum of a mass M moving with the centre of
+ the moment of momentum about the centre of gravity (Art. 191)
= Mau a cos a + Mkû = iloja^ (cos a + 2)
gravity
since before the fixing the centre
was moving
at right angles to
^0
with
velocity aw.
Hence
,r3n2
3/-^
w'
= il/wa2
f
(
1\
cos tt + - j
u=w
,
.-.
+2
cos a
.
always less than w, so that the energy, ^m {k^ + a^) w'2,

This is a simple case of the
after the impact is always less than it was before.
general principle that kinetic energy is always diminished whenever an impact,
or anything in the nature of a jerk, takes place.
It is clear that w' is
If a
= 120,
brought to
Ex.
4.
i.e. if
the arc
AB
is
one-third of the circumference, the disc
uniform square lamina, of mass
about a diagonal with uniform angular velocity
M and
side 2a, is
w when one of
moving freely
the corners not in
T and
the impulse of the force on the fixed point is
AC be
Let
As
that
Let the
Let
v/2
~-
Mau.
the original axis of rotation.
in Art. 149, the
a2
il/
moment
of inertia about
initial direction of rotation
it is
be such
was moving upwards from the paper.

D be the point that becomes fixed and w' the
DX, a hne parallel
resulting angular velocity about

to
AC.
at
its
moment
Since the impulsive force at the fixing acts
moment about
of
the fixing.
is
rest.
momentum
DX
vanishes.
about DA'
is
Hence the
unaltered by
that
310
After the fixing
it
= M7cV
= M r^ + DOÎ
Also before the fixing
= moment
of
momentum
and moving with
at
w'
= M (^ +2a2)
moment
of
Hence
velocity
the
moment
momentum
after
the
= J/ Z^ w'.
of
momentum
of a particle
= M w.
it
Equating these two quantities, we have

Similarly,
a,'
by Art. 191,
about ^C + the moment
it,
of
w'
momentum
= -^
DB
about
after
the fixing
= the
before = zero.
square
the
fixing
moving about DA' with angular
is
Again, before the fixing the centre of gravity
moving with
fixing
it is
in its
momentum
is
velocity
therefore
itf
DO
""
and
was
at rest,
and
sj2a. ^, about D.
u', i.e.
by Art. 166,
this,
is
after the
The change
equal to the
impulse of the force required.
EXAMPLES
1.
If the Earth, supposed to be a unifonn sphere,
period contracted slightly so that
shew that the length

2.
An
is fixed.
is
angular velocity
is
in a certain
hours.
revolving in a horizontal plane about its
insect, of
mass -th that of the
from the centre along a radius and then

final
had
radius was less by - th than before,
day would have shortened by
of the
heavy circular disc
centre which
its
--^ times the
flies
away.
walks
disc,
Shew
that the
original angular velocity of the
disc.
and radius a, is placed on

3.
A uniform circular board, of mass
a perfectly smooth horizontal plane and is free to rotate about a vertical
a man, of mass M', walks round the edge of the
axis through its centre
board whose upper surface is rough enough to prevent his slipping when
he has walked completely round the board to his starting point, shew that
;
the board has turned through an angle

4.
circular ring,
horizontal plane,
of
and an
mass
insect,
4 n.
and radius a, lies on a smooth

of mass m, resting on it starts and
with uniform velocity v relative to the ring. Shew that

the centre of the ring describes a circle with angular velocity
walks round
it
m
M+2m
a'
Examples
Conservation of Mo77ientum.
k^n,
its axis
(2)
greatest velocity, (2) be most

place himself at a distance from the centre equal to
of gyration of the
mass equal
machine about
man.
ratio of its weight to that of the
uniform circular wire, of radius a,

is movable about a fixed point
and
shew that
left to itself,
move with the
(1)
/^, k b&ing the radius
and n the
6.
table
man may
he must
likely to slip,
(1)
motion and
If a merry-go-round be set in
5.
in order that a
311
on a smooth horizontal
lies
on
An
circumference.
its
from the other end of

and crawls along the wire with a uniform
the diameter through
Shew that at the end of time t the wire
velocity v relative to the wire.
insect, of
to that of the wire, starts
has turned through an angle
[When
the diameter
initial position, let

is
OA
the insect be at
Since the
the centre of the wire.
tan-^
-p:
tan
p-
has turned through an angle
from
(\)
vt
so that
moment
of
AGP=6 =
momentum
its
where
about
C
is
constant,
.'.
7.
(Ic^ -h
a^)
(/)
+m
6~\
4a.-
cos^ -
-|-
2a cos^ -
= constant = 0.]
small insect moves along a uniform bar, of mass equal to
and of length
2a, the
circumference of a fixed
circle,
whose radius
If the insect start
is -r-.
from the middle point of the bar and move along the bar with
velocity V, shew that the bar in time t will turn through an angle
-jr
8.
circular disc is
tan-1
relative
moAing with an angular
velocity
axis through its centre perpendicular to its plane.

its
itself
ends of which are constrained to remain on the

2a
An
about an
i2
insect alights on
edge and crawls along a curve drawn on the disc in the form of a
lemniscate with uniform relative angular velocity

the edge of the disc.
to the centre
is -j-
V7
9.
lies
rod
OA
at rest.
tan ~ ^
-gQ,
the curve touching
of the insect being xgth of that of the
shew that the angle turned through by the
disc,
and
The mass
disc
when the
insect gets
-6
can turn freely in a horizontal plane about
An insect, whose mass is one-third

A and commences crawling along the
tlie
end
that of the rod,
rod with uniform

in such
prove
a way that the initial velocity of .4 is V when the insect reaches
that the rod has rotated through a right angle, and that the angular
velocity of the rod is then twice the initial angular velocity.
alights
on the end
V; at the same instant the rod
velocity
is
set in rotation about
312
10.
A particle, of mass m, moves within a rough circular tube, of
mass M, lying on a smooth horizontal plane and initially the tube is at
Shew
rest while the particle has an angular velocity round the tube.
that by the time the relative motion ceases the fraction

'
r
M+
^r?
of the
2iii
energy has been dissipated by friction.

[The linear momentum of the common centre of gravity, and the
about it, are both constant throughout the
momentum
moment of
initial kinetic
motion.]
11.
moving about one end with uniform
of length 2a, is
rod,
angular velocity upon a smooth horizontal plane. Suddenly this end

find the motion,
is loosed and a point, distant b from this end, is fixed
;
considering the cases
when
&< = >
an axis through its centre perpenThis axis is set free and

a point in the circumference of the plate fixed shew that the resulting
12.
circular plate rotates about
dicular to its plane with angular velocity a.
angular velocity
is
Three equal particles are attached to the corners of an equilateral

ABC, whose mass is negligible, and the system is rotating
A is released and the middle point of AB is
in its own plane about A.
suddenly fixed. Shew that the angular velocity is unaltered.
13.
triangular area
14.
A uniform square plate ABCD, of mass and side 2a, lies on
it is struck at .4 by a particle of mass M'
a smooth horizontal plane
moving with velocity V in the direction AB, the particle remaining
attached to the plate. Determine the subsequent motion of the system,
;
and shew that
its
angular velocity
is
,,
,,,
A lamina in the form of an ellipse is rotating in

15.
about one of its foci with angular velocity w. This focus
the other focus at the same instant
about
it
16.
velocity
with angular velocity w
An
elliptic
is fixed
fixed.
shew that the
its
is
ellipse
own plane
set free
-g
is rotating with
e,
suddenly this latus-rectum
Shew that the new angular velocity is
area,
of
and
now rotates
be^
eccentricity
w about one latus-rectum
and the other
angular
is
loosed
l-4e2
A uniform circular disc is spinning with angular velocity co about

17.
a diameter when a point P on its rim is suddenly fixed. If the radius
vector to P make an angle a with this diameter, show that the angular
velocities after the fixing
and
o)
cos
a.
about the tangent and normal at
P are
\ w sin a
Energy
Conservatio7i of
18.
cube
is
rotating with angular velocity
suddenly the diagonal

this diagonal is fixed
edge
is
<b
313
about a diagonal when
and one of the edges which does not meet

shew that the resulting angular velocity about this
is let go,
^3.
bounded by three principal planes be

<a about the axis a, and if this
axis be suddenly freed and the axis b fixed, shew that the new angular
If an octant of
19.
an
ellipsoid
rotating with uniform angular velocity
velocity
IS
r.
5,
In many previous articles we have met with examples
238.
which the change of kinetic energy of a particle, or system of
particles, is equal to the work done on the particle, or system of
in
particles.
The formal enunciation
of the principle
may be
given as
follows
If a system move under the action of finite forces, and if the

geometrical equations of the system do not contain the time
explicitly, the change in the kinetic energy of the system in passing
from
one configuration
work done by
By
the
to
any other
is
equal
to the
corresponding
the forces.
of
principles
Art.
161,
the
forces
X-m-r-,
{x, y, z)
and similar
d'Z
dHi
Y m-~^, Z m-TT^^
acting at the point
forces acting on the other particles of the system are a system
of forces in equilibrium.
Let
m at
hx, 8y. Bz
(x, y. z)
be small virtual displacements of the particle
consistent with the geometrical conditions of the
system at the time t.

Then the principle of Virtual
Work
states that
If the geometrical relations of the system do not contain
the time explicitly, then
displacements
-j- 8t,
-^
we may
8t
replace hx, 8y, 8z
and -^
8t.
by the actual
314
Hence the above equation gives
^
^"'
\d?ccdx
\_dt-
dt
d'y
dy
dt^
dt^df-di]
d?z dzl
Integrating with respect to
t,
dy
doc
~^[^Tt'^^
dz\
'
di'^'^dt)
we have
ax
change in the kinetic energy of the system from
time ti to time tz is equal to the work done by the external
forces on the body from the configuration of the body at time t^
to the configuration at time ^2i.e.
the
239.
When
the forces are such that l{Xdx
the complete differential of some quantity

forces
have a potential V, the quantity l.m
+ Ydy + Zdz)
V,
i.e.
is
when the
j{Xdx+ Ydy + Zdz)
independent of the path pursued from the initial to the final

and depends only on the configuration of
the body at the times ti and t^. The forces are then said to be
is
position of the body,
conservative.
Let the configurations of the body at times î and U be

A and B. The equation (1) of the previous article
called
gives
Kinetic Energy at the time
Kinetic
Energy
at the time
^2]
t^j
[^
_
~ J ^ ^y ~ V^
T^
^
(2).
The potential energy of the body in any position is the

work the forces do on it whilst it moves from that position to a
standard position.
be called
Then
Let
its
configuration in the latter position
C.
the potential energy at the time
1^ {Xdx+
ti
Ydy + Zdz)=\^hV= Vo-
So the potential energy at the time
Vj,
t^
= l^{Xdx+ Ydy + Zdz)=rSV= Vc-
Vb-
...(3).
Hence the equation
315
(2) gives
Potential Energy at the
Kinetic Energy at the time
Kinetic
Energy at the time
time
t._
t-^
time
sum
= the sum
the
i.e.
ti
Potential Energy at the

<2.
of the kinetic and potential energies at the time
of the same quantities at the time t^.

Hence when a hody moves under the action of a system of
Conservative Forces the sum of its Kinetic and Potential
^2
Energies
is constant
240. As an illustration of the necessity that the geometrical equations

must not contain the time explicitly, let the body be a particle moving on a
smooth plane which revolves uniformly round a horizontal axis through which
it
from a position of rest relative to the plane.

OA be the plane at time t and P the position of the particle then;
and Q' the corresponding positions at time
passes, the particle starting
Let
OB
~
at
Then
that
-^ are the
at
velocities at time
t,
so
-^ 8t are the corresponding distances
dt,
parallel to the axes described in time dt
hence
dx
di
of PQ'.
Now 5a;, Sij are by the Theory of Virtual Work the projections of a small
displacement which is consistent ivith the geometrical conditions at time t, i.e. of
a small displacement along the plane OA.
Hence 5a; and 8y are the projections of some such displacement as PQ.
Hence
in this case
5t
and -^
8t
cannot be replaced by
and
5a;
5y.
contains the time explicitly.
The same argument holds
for
the general case where the geometrical
relation is
<p{x,y,z,t)^0
For the
latter at
each time
virtual displacement
But
dt,
-J-
-J-
-r- dt
8t,
gives a surface
(1).
on which
P must
lie
and
also the
PQ.
are the projections on the axes of PQ', where Q' lies
on the neighbouring surface

^{x, y,
Hence
Sx,
8y,
dz
z, t
+ 5t}=0
cannot be replaced by
(2).
-j- 5(,
(tt
surfaces
(1)
and
(2)
coincide,
coincide with those at time
contain the time
explicitly.
i.e.
-^
(it
8t,
5(
unless the
at
unless the geometrical conditions at time
+ d(, and
then the geometrical eq,uation cannot
316
In the result of Art. 238 all forces ma}'- be omitted

241.
which do not come into the equation of Virtual Work, i.e. all
forces whose Virtual Work is zero.
Thus rolling friction may be omitted because the point of
application of such a force of friction
but sliding
application
friction
is
not at
is
instautaneously at rest
must not be omitted
since the point of
rest.
So the I'eactions of smooth fixed surfaces may be omitted,

and generally all forces whose direction is perpendicular to the
direction of motion of the point of application.
Similarly the tensions of an inextensible string may be left
out for they do no work since the length of such a string is
but the tension of an extensible string must be
constant
included for the work done in stretching an extensible string
from length a to length h is known to be equal to (6 a) x the
mean of the initial and final tensions.
Again, if we have two rigid bodies which roll on one another
and we write down the energy equation for the two bodies
treated as one system we can omit the reaction between them.
;
The
242.
manner,
is at
kinetic energy
mass, supposed collected at

it.
its
of a rigid body, moving in any

to the kinetic energy of the whole
any instant equal

its
centre of inertia
together with the kinetic energy of the whole
and moving with

mass relative to
centre of inertia.
Let {x, y, z) be the coordinates of the centre of inertia of the

body at any time t referred to axes fixed in space, and let {x, y, z)
be the coordinates then of any element m of the body; also
let {x' y z) be the coordinates of m relative to G at the same
instant, so that x = x-\- x', y = y -\-y' and z = z \- z'.
,
Then the
1
=2
V
2m
V
2.m
=
=
77
V
+ kSto
1
total kinetic
4t)
energy of the body
\dt) '^[dt.01
e-fy-(i-fj^
Kinetic Energy
317
Now, since {x, y\ z) are the coordinates of

centre of inertia O,
.'.
-^
the i2;-coordinate of the centre of inertia

to
,*.
Swta;'
= 0,
itself
^
dx
G relative
0.
dx
d ^
dt
dt
dx'
_dx ^
dt dt
= Mv^,
to the
for all values of t
Similarly
m relative
when x
where
is
is
dt'
dx
_
dt~
changed into y or
'
z.
the velocity of the centre of inertia.
i^-m-m^m
And
= - Xm X
the square of the velocity of
= the
m relative
to
kinetic energy of the body relative to G.
Hence (1) gives

The total kinetic energy of the body = the kinetic energy of
the mass M, if it be supposed collected into a particle at the
centre of inertia G and to move with the velocity of G^ + the
kinetic energy of the body relative to G.
243.
Kinetic energy relative
to the centre
of inertia in space of
three dimensions.
Let (Ox, (Oy, (Oz be the angular velocities of the body about
through G parallel to the axes.
Then, as in Art. 227,
lines
dx
-j^=Z(Oy- ywg,
dy'
-^=xa)i- zwg and
d/
-^-
= yw^ - xwy.
318
Therefore the kinetic energy relative to the centre of inertia
2D(0yW^ -
= - [AaJ" + Bccy" + Co) J" -
moments
are the
where A, B,
of inertia about axes through
and D, E,
the centre of inertia
IzxoizWy^ 2xy(Ox(o,j]
Êw^w^, - ^Fw^coy],
are the products of inertia
about the same axes.

If these axes are the principal axes of the
kinetic energy becomes
to
body at G, the
i-Bcoy-+ Ccof].
\_Aa3x'
244. Ex. 1. An ordinary window-blind, of length I and mass m, attached

a horizontal roller, of mass M, and having a horizontal rod, of mass /x, fixed
Neglecting
to unroll under the action of gravity.
to its free end, is alloiued
friction, sheio that the length of the hlind unrolled in time
where o = a/-
When
s-
M+2m+2jLt
the angular velocity of the roller
total kinetic
is
is
then -
it is
where a
energy
= \m
x2
+ ^M
i2 + \Mk'^ .
0)2
= \mx^+llxi? + lMx^
__
2mg
x^
principle of
mg
~ "i 7^ ~ 2
The
'
TT^
.^
Energy and Work gives

1
mg
mx
i2.2[,2^.^,z].
i.e.
nl
x+.'.
(cosh at - 1),
the thickness of the blind being negligible.
the blind has unrolled a distance x, each point of
velocity x
The
"^-^
t.a= f
the constant vanishing since x and

..
= cosh-1
are both zero together.
x = [cosh
at
1].
moving with a
is its
radius.
Ex.
rod, of length 2a, hangs in a horizontal position heing

each of length I, attached to its ends, the other
A uniform
2.
supported by
319
tivo vertical strings,
The rod
extremities being attached to fixed points.
about a vertical axis through
centre; find
its
turned through any angle, and shew that
it
given an angular velocity u>

angular velocity when it has
is
its
will rise through a distance -rr
Prove also that the time of a small oscillation about the position of equilibrium
T
AB
Let
be the initial position of the rod with the strings
CA and DB
its position when it has risen

through a vertical distance x and turned
Let the horizontal
through an angle 6.
plane through A'B' cut GA and BD in
and L, and let j.A'GA=<j>.
The equation of energy then gives
A'B'
vertical,
^mifi
Now,
+ \mm^=\mk''-ur' ~ mgx...{l).
angle A'KC is a right
since the
angle,
.-.
where
Also
is
x = AC-CK^l-lcosct>
...(2),
the length of a vertical string.

lsm(j> =
.'.
A'K=2a&m-^
.(3).
i=isin(/>^ = tan^
^^
Hence equation
(1)
4fl2
sin2
maH^
a2
2"'- 3
\^-4a2 sin2
.(4).
This equation gives the angular velocity in any position.

instantaneous rest when ^=0,
For a small
gives
oscillation
i.e.
when x =
The rod comes
we have, on taking moments about
0', if
T be
the
tension of either string,
'= - 2rsin
4>
X perpendicular from 0' on
= -T sin.(p .2a cos - =

Also
i.e.
2T Gos (p-mg = mx = m
ma2
d2
21
dt^
Therefore
(5)
gives
fi
dt2
G*')'
'
'
ma-
W/T
A'K
Tsin
when
.(5).
<i>
is
(,,)^^^^.,^2^2^.^^,
Hence the required time = 27r
2a2
d2
to the first order of small quantities,
to
a2&j2
21
2T-mg = 0.
small.
(6),
320
Ex. 3. A uniform rod, of length 2a, is placed with one end in contact with a
smooth horizontal table and is then alloiced to fall; if a be its initial inclination
to the vertical, shew that its angular velocity when it is inclined at an angle 6 is
cos a - cos
(617
[a
Find
'
^j
+ 3sin26'
h
*
also the reaction of the table.
There is no horizontal force acting on the rod

has no horizontal velocity during the
motion since it had none initially. Hence
G describes a vertical straight line GO.
When
inclined
the
6 to
at
vertical
hence
its
centre of inertia
its
kinetic energy
1,, a2.
Equating this to the work done,

(cos o - cos 6), we get
viz.
Mga
cosa- cos5
60
a
Differentiating,
we have
3.9
4-6 cos a cos ^ + 3

(l
Also, for the vertical motion of G,
.(1).
+ 3sin2^
sin ^
cos2 d
+ 3sin2^)2
we have
E-Mg = M -^ {a cos e) = M[-a sin 66 - a cos

On
substitution,
es"^].
we have
U=
- 6 cos
(l
^ cos o + 8 coB^
+ 3sin2^2
EXAMPLES
uniform rod, of given length and mass, is hinged at one end to

a fixed point and has a string fastened to its other end which, after
passing over a light pulley in the same horizontal line with the fixed
point, is attached to a particle of given weight.
The rod is initially
find how far the weight goes up.
horizontal and is allowed to fall
1.
2.
A light elastic string of natural length 2a has one end, A, fixed
and the other, B, attached to one end of a uniform rod BC of length 2a
and mass m. This can turn freely in a vertical plane about its other
end C, which is fixed at a distance 2a vertically below A. Initially the
rod
is
vertical, and,
and then
on being slightly displaced,
rises again.
Shew
falls until it is horizontal,
that the modulus of elasticity

j^(.3
+ 2v'2).
is
Examples
Conservatio7i of Energy.
321
A uuiform
rod moves in a vertical plane, its ends being in contact

with the interior of a fixed smooth sphere
when it is inclined at an
angle 6 to the horizon, shew that the square of its angular velocity is
3.
^2'Vrî (^^ ^ ~ ^^^
the rod, and
c is
")>
"where a
the initial value of
is
the distance of
its
2a
6,
is
the length of
middle point from the centre of the
sphere.
4.
hemisphere, of mass
and radius a, is placed with its plane
base on a smooth table, and a heavy rod, of mass m, is constrained to
move in a vertical line with one end
on the curved surface of the
hemisphere ; if at any time t the radius to P makes an angle d with the
vertical,
5.
shew that ad^
[M cos^ d + rn sin^ 6] = 2mg (cos a - cos 6).
uTiiform rod, of length 2a,
held with one end on a smooth
is
horizontal plane, this end being attached by a light inextensible string to

a point in the plane the string is tight and in the same vertical plane as
the rod and makes with it an acute angle a. If the rod be now allowed to
;
under the action of gravity, find its inclination to the horizon when
the string ceases to be tight, and shew that its angular velocity Q, just
before it becomes horizontal is given by the equation
fall
6aQ2=5' sin a
(8
+cos2 a).
uniform straight rod, of length 2a, has two small rings at its
ends which can respectively slide on thin smooth horizontal and vertical
wires Ox and Oy. The rod starts at an angle a to the horizon with an
6.
angular velocity
*/^(l-sina), and moves downwards.
will strike the horizontal wire at the
cot -
\/3^^^g{*^Kl
7.
mass m,
straight uniform rod, of
Shew
is
placed at right angles to
a smooth plane of inclination a with one end in contact with

is
Shew
then released.
. ,,
that,
.
reaction of the plane will be
when
its inclination to
of its
it
the plane
the rod
is
0, the
3(1 -sin 0)2+1
mg -^
(3
8.
that it
end of time
008^0+
_,
,so
1)2
cos
a.
hoop, of mass M, carrying a particle of mass vi fixed to a point

circumference, rolls down a rough inclined plane find the motion.
;
Two
AB
and BC, each of length 2a, are freely jointed

at B; AB can turn round the end A and C can move freely on a vertical
Initially the rods are held in a horizontal line,
straight line through A.
C being in coincidence with A, and they are then released. Shew that
9.
like rods
when the rods
are inclined at an angle d to the horizontal, the angular
velocity of either
is
x/
3g
a"
sin 6
l+3cos2^*
322
10.
sphere, of radius
without slipping down the cycloid
6, rolls
^=a(^ + sin^), y=a(l-cos^).

It starts
from rest with
centre on the horizontal line y = 2a.

when at its lowest point is given by
its
Fof its
that the velocity
Shew
centre
P=J7V(2a-i).
11.
of length
string,
2Z,
is
attached to two points in the same
m at its middle
a uniform rod, of length 2a and mass i/", has at each end a ring
through which the string passes and is let fall from a symmetrical
position in the straight line joining the ends of the string ; shew that
horizontal plane at a distance 26 and carries a particle
point
the rod will not reach the particle
if
{l-Vh- 2a) (i/+2TO)

.
If
M=m
and
placement when
= a,
it is
-11
.
n
01 a small oscillation
and the
M< 2 (2a-
6) m^.
particle be given a small vertical dis-
in a position of equilibrium,
is
w/273a
shew that the time
27r
Two
equal perfectly rough spheres are placed in unstable equilibrium one on the top of the other, the lower sphere resting on a smooth
table.
If the equilibrium be disturbed, shew that the spheres will
continue to touch at the same point, and that when the line joining
their centres is inclined at an angle 6 to the vertical its angular velocity a>
12.
is given by the equation

jadius of each sphere.
13.
An
aû)^ (5 sin-
+ 7) = lOâ (1 cos 6),
where a
inextensible uniform band, of small thickness r,
is
is
the
wound
form a coil of radius h. The coil is

unrolled until a length a hangs freely and then begins to unroll freely
under the action of gravity, starting from rest. Shew that, if the small
horizontal motion be neglected, the time which will elapse before the
hanging part is of length x is approximately
round a thin
fixed axis so as to
14.
A roll
/Z
flog
^_^Î^ + _I_ V.r^^^l
of cloth, of small thickness
rough horizontal table
is {jropelled
with
e,
lying at rest on a perfectly
angular velocity
initial
so that
the cloth unrolls. Apply the Principle of Energy to shew that the radius
of the roll will diminish from a tor (so long as r is not small compared
with a) in time
./^y^^^-\/c^^^]
V oj
where
3Slâ^
= A {c^ - a^)
ff.
Is the application of the principle correct
In many cases of motion the application of the

Chapter will give two first integrals of the
motion, and hence determine the motion,
245.
principles of this
Ex. A perfectly rough inelastic sphere, of radius a, is rolling with velocity v

on a horizontal plane tvhen it meets a fixed obstacle of height h. Find the
Momentum Mnd Energy
Conservation of
condition that the sphere will surmount the obstacle and, if

it
will continue rolling on the plane with velocity
(l s-)
it does,
323
shew that
v.
be the angular velocity immediately after the impact about the point
Let
of contact, K, with the obstacle.
The
was v
velocity of the centre before the impact
and the angular

Since the
velocity
moment
was - about the
momentum
of
in a horizontal direction,
centre.
about
unaltered,
is
as
only
the
impulsive force acts at K, we have
m [k- + a'-) fl = mv {a - h) + vik^
"
^="^'Z''^
(1).
Let w be the angular velocity of the sphere about

when tbe radius to
inchned at to the horizontal. The equation of Energy gives
-m. (w2-02j= _mg (h + a sin 6 -a)

R
be the normal reaction at this instant,

celeration of the ceutre is aw^ towards K,
Also,
if
mau- = mg
(2).
we have,
since the ac-
-R
sin e
(3).
w2 = fi2__ .|^(/i + asin6>-a)
(2) gives
and
K is
7a2
-=^
(3) gives
[lOh - 10a
+ na sin
(4),
d]-ail^
(5).
In order that the sphere may surmount the obstacle without leaving it,
(i) w must not vanish before the sphere gets to its highest point, i.e. w^ must
be positive when d-dO, and (ii) R must not be negative when it is least,
I.e.
when
The
sm^=
first
condition gives Q.'^>-=^
and the second
gives fi2<;
^(^~
ta^
Hence, from
a'
(1),
la 5h
and
JlOgh,
'
For both these conditions

If these conditions are
to be true
it is
<
satisfied so that
leaving, the obstacle, its angular velocity
^ Jg
{a
;=
7a oh
- h).
clear that /3>t^.
the sphere
when
it
surmounts, without
hits the plane again is 0.
If its angular velocity immediately after hitting the plane be wj, we have,
by the Principle of the Conservation of Momentum,
'''i^
wi
^
= m nQ
.
since just before the impact the centre
(a
,,
h)
2a2
+ m ^-
0,
was moving with
velocity
aQ perpen-
dicular to the radius to the obstacle.
so that the sphere will continue to roll on the plane with velocity v (l
212
Dyiiwtmcs of a Rigid Body
324
EXAMPLES
A smooth
1.
end which
from the
is
fixed
uniform rod is moving on a horizontal table about one

fixed
it impinges on an inelastic particle whose distance
;
end was - th of the length of the rod
when
[For the impact we have
The
Principles of
it
find the ratio of the
leaves the rod to its initial velocity.
= J/ -
4(^2
4(X^
M.~
co
4(^2
<u'
+ m ^r
a>'.
Energy and Momentum then give
1
4q,2
4^2
1 4a2 .1
1
2.. e2 + _,(^2 + ^2^2) = _J/._,2+_^__'2
.
M
,,
and
4a2
.-^r- e
,,42
4Qr2
+ mxê = M - + m k w
,.
2.
A uniform rod, of mass i/, is moving on a smooth horizontal table
about one end which is fixed it drives before it a particle, of mass nM,
which initially was at rest close to the fixed end of the rod when the
;
particle is at a distance - th of the length of the rod
shew that
its direction of
from the
fixed end,
motion makes with the rod an angle
uniform rod, of length 2a, lying on a smooth horizontal plane

3.
passes through a small ring on the plane which allows it to rotate freely.
Initially the
velocity
is
<o
middle point of the rod is very near the ring, and an angular
impressed on it find the motion, and shew that when the
;
'5
rod leaves the ring the velocity of

velocity is
its
centre
is
aa, and
its
angular
j.
piece of a smooth paraboloid, of mass M, cut off by a plane

4.
perpendicular to the axis rests on a smooth horizontal plane with its
A particle, of mass m, is placed at the highest point
vertex upwards.
and
slightly displaced
shew that when the
particle has descended
distance x, the square of the velocity of the paraboloid
is
2m-ja.v
+ m) {{M+m)x + Ma}'
momentum of the system is always zero and
(31
[The horizontal
energy
is
its
kinetic
equal to the work done by gravity.]
A thin spherical shell, of mass

5.
and radius R, is placed upon
smooth horizontal plane and a smooth sphere, of mass m and radius r,
slides down its inner surface starting from a position in which the line of
a
Conservation of Momentuin and Energy. Exs.

centres
angle
Shew
horizontal.
is
that
when the
with the horizontal the velocity of the

^ (i/+m) (J/+?n cos^ 0)
[Compare with the example of Art.

6.
325
makes an
given by
line of centres
shell
is
202.]
fine circular tube, of radius
a and mass M,
lies
on a smooth
are two equal particles, each of mass m,

connected by an elastic string in the tube, whose natural length is equal
horizontal plane
within
it
The particles are in contact and fastened

being stretched round the circumference. If the
become separated, shew that the velocity of the tube when
to the semi-circumference.
together, the string
particles
the string has regained
its
natural length
27rXTOa
is
,^'^'^^""'^_^
kJ i/(i7+2m)'
where X
is
the modulus of elasticity.

If one of the particles be fixed in the tube and the tube be movable
about the point at which it is fixed, shew that the corresponding velocity
of the centre of the tube is ^2 times its value in the first case.
heavy pendulum can turn freely about a horizontal axis, and

into it at a depth p below the axis with a velocity which
is horizontal and perpendicular to the axis
the pendulum is observed to
swing through an angle Q before coming to rest shew that the velocity
7.
a bullet
is fired
of the bullet
was 2
a/
sin -
)('"' '~~ )
dP-' '^^here
M and m are
the masses of the pendulum and bullet, and h and k are the depth of the
centre of inertia below, and the radius of gyration about, the axis of the
pendulum.
8.
To the pendulum
of the previous question is attached a
horizontal position at a depth
a bullet of mass
below the axis and from
shew that the velocity of the

2
sm -
^Jgh
rifle in
it
is
fired
bullet is
where i/' is the mass of the pendulum and gun, and h' and k' are the
depth of the centre of inertia below, and the radius of gyration about, the
axis of M'.
9.
A thin uniform circular wire, of radius a, can revolve freely about
a vertical diameter, and a bead slides freely along the wire. If initially
the wire was rotating with angular velocity Q, and the bead was at rest
relatively to the wire very close to its highest point, shew that when the
bead is at its greatest distance from the axis of rotation the angular
velocity of the wire is
-^
and that the angular velocity of the bead
V/ n + 2 + a
relative to the wire is ^
that of the bead.
the mass of the wire being
7t
times
326
rods AB, BC are jointed at B and can rotate on a

10.
smooth horizontal plane about the end A which is fixed. From the
principles of the Conservation of Energy and Momentum obtain equations
to give their angular velocities in any position.
Two uniform
One end of a light inextensible string, of length a, is attached to

11.
of a smooth horizontal table and the other end to one
a fixed point
extremity of a uniform rod of length 12a. When the string and rod ai'e
at rest in one straight line a perpendicular blow is applied to the rod
Apply the principles of Energy and Momentum to
at its middle point.
shew that when in the subsequent motion the string and rod are at right
angles they have the
on a smooth
line
same angular
AB, BC, and
12.
CD
table,
and they are
initial
BC at any
time,
shew that the angular
A blow is
C.
velocity then is
Vl + sin^^
A uniform
13.
B and
freely jointed at
BC in
a direction perpendicular to BC. If w be

angular velocity of AB or CD, and 6 the angle they make with
applied at the centre of
the
velocity.
are three equal uniform rods lying in a straight
rod,
moving perpendicularly
to its length on a
smooth
horizontal plane, strikes a fixed circular disc of radius 6 at a point

Find the magnitude of the impulse
distant c from the centre of the rod.
;
be no sliding between the rod and the disc, the

centre of the rod will come into contact with the disc after a time
and shew
that, if there
c + VFT?!
721
,-pno
-^^joV^^
+ c^ + ^-^log
},
\/+?-
the radius of gyration of the rod about

velocity of the rod.
where k
initial
14.
is
small ring, whose mass

slide
The
initially it is at rest
ring
an angle Q to the
through the wire.
vertical,
shew that
'Zg
its
is
the
end to a
is free
and the rod
and below the ring and rotating with angular velocity
in a vertical plane passing
at
and v
freely jointed at one
equal to that of the rod.
is
on a smooth horizontal wire and
vertical
is
its centre,
to
is
\J
When the rod is inclined

angular velocity is
+ 4cos5
J\^8-3cos'^^'
and
find the velocity of the ring then.
[The horizontal momentum of the system is constant throughout the

motion, and the change in the kinetic energy is equal to the work done
against gravity.]
AB
hangs from a smooth horizontal wire by

a blow is given to the end A which causes
shew that the angular
it to start off with velocity u along the wire
velocity a> of the rod when it is inclined at an angle 6 to the vertical is
15.
means
uniform rod
of a small ring at
.4
given by the equation w^ (1
+ 3 cos^ 6) = j^g
(^
~ ^" ^}
Consei'vation of Momentum
and Energy. Exs. 327
a, rolling on a horizontal road with velocity v

with a rough inelastic kerb of height h, which is
perpendicular to the plane of the hoop. Shew that, if the hoop is to
clear the kerb without jumping, v must be
16.
hoop, of radius
comes into
collision
An
uniform sphere, of radius a, is moving without

when it impinges on a thin rough horizontal
rod, at right angles to its direction of motion and at a height h from
the plane shew that it will just roll over the rod if its velocity be
17.
inelastic
rotation on a smooth table
IWg
a-bV
A
18.
breadth
<
be
y=
sphere, of radius a, rolling on a rough table
comes to a
slit,
of
path if V be its velocity, shew that the

should cross the slit without jumping is
perpendicular to
b,
condition
and
it
its
14-
10sin2a
172^100
F2>
-^ga (1 -cos a), sm^ ^^-^^^^3
._
where
19.
= 2a sin a,
and \lga cos a>lV^+lOga.
sphere, of radius a, rests between two thin parallel perfectly
A and B in the same horizontal plane at a distance apart

equal to 2b ; the sphere is turned about A till its centre is very nearly
vertically over A ; it is then allowed to fall back
shew that it will
roiigh rods
rock between A and B if lQ)b'^<la', and that, after the nth impact, it will
turn till the radius vector to the point of contact is inclined at an angle
On to the vertical given
cos
Shew
by the equation
0n=
0-^r
also that the successive
maximum
heights of the centre above
its
equilibrium position form a descending geometrical progression.

20.
An
inelastic
cube
slides
down a plane
inclined at a to the horizon
and comes with velocity V against a small fixed nail. If it tumble over
the nail and go on sliding down the plane, shew that the least value of F*
.
is
IQqa
,^
-~- r[^2
- cos a - sm a].n
21.
cube, of side 2a, rests with one edge on a rough plane and the
opposite edge vertically over the
shew that
it will start
inertia will rise to a height
22.
first
it falls
over and hits the plane
rotating about another edge and that its centre of
(15 +
^/2).
uniform cube, of side 2a,
rolls
succession along a rough horizontal plane.
round four parallel edges in

Initially,
with a face just in
328
contact,
till
the
Q. is
first
the angular velocity round the edge which remains in contact

impact. Shew that the cube will continue to roll forward
after the nth.
23.
42'*-i
impact as long as
ABCD rests
on a horizontal plane
is 3a and
moving with a horizontal velocity
vertical face which stands on AB,
The height
Shew
<aQ2 (^/2 + l)-^35r.
rectangular parallelepiped, of mass w, having a square base
and
of the solid
is
CD
movable about
the side of the base
a.
as a hinge.
A particle
rfi
v strikes directly the middle of that
and
sticks there without penetrating.
that the solid will not upset unless v'^>-^ga.
uniform cubical block stands on a railway truck, which is

velocity F, two of its faces being perpendicular to the
direction of motion.
If the lower edge of the front face of the block be
hinged to the truck and the truck be suddenly stopped, shew that the
24.
moving with
block will turn over
if
V is
greater than
f \/^ga {^2 -
where 2a
1),
is
the
side of the block.

25.
end,
is
string, of length
b,
with a particle of mass
m attached
fastened to a point on the edge of a circular disc, of mass
radius a, free to turn about its centre.
The whole
lies
to one
M and
on a smooth table
with the string along a radius produced, and the particle is set in motion.
Shew that the string will never wrap round the disc if aM<Abm.
uniform rod, of length 2a and mass nvi, has a string attached

end of the string being attached to a particle,
of ma.ss m the rod and string being placed in a straight line on a smooth
table, the particle is projected with velocity F perpendicular to the string;
shew that the greatest angle that the string makes with the rod is
26.
to
it
at one end, the other

;
and that the angular
velocities of the rod
and string then are each
Vr
where h is the length of the string.

[The linear momentum of the centre of inertia of the system and the
angular momentum about it are both con.stant also the kinetic energy is
;
constant.]
27.
A smooth
circular disc is fixed on a
a string, having masses
M and m at
its
smooth horizontal table and

smooth rim
ends, passes round the
leaving free straight portions in the position of tangents

l)erpendicularly to the tangent to
any instant of
this tangent be
?/,
it
with velocity
T'',
if
be projected
and the length at
shew that
(i)/-l-wi)7;V= V^
{{M+m)a'^ + m{r{^-)l
where a is the radius of the disc and b is the initial value of rf.
[The total kinetic energy is constant, and also the moment of
about the centre of the disc]
momentum
Conservation of Momentum
and Energy. Exs. 329
28.
homogeneous elliptic cylinder rests on a rough plane shew
that the least impulsive couple that will make it roll along the plane is
;
/ ff(a-6)(a^ + 56^)
^
where
29.
m is the mass and a,

Explain
why
b the semi-axes.
a boy in a swing can increase the arc of his swing

of his swing and standing erect
by crouching when at the highest point

when at the lowest jjoint.
OHAPTEE
XYIII
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS IN GENERALISED COORDINATES

In the previous chapter we have shewn how we can
down equations which do not involve reactions.
In the present chapter we shall obtain equations which will
often give us the whole motion of the system.
They will be obtained in terms of any coordinates that
we may find convenient to use, the word coordinates being
246.
directly write
extended to mean any independent quantities which, when

they are given, determine the positions of the body or bodies
under consideration. The number of these coordinates must
be equal to the number of independent motions that the
system can have, i.e. they must be equal in number to that of
the degrees of freedom of the system.
Lagrange's Equations.
be the coordinates of any particle m of the system
referred to rectangular axes, and let them be expressed in
terms of a certain number of independent variables 6,
Îr ...
so that, if t be the time, we have
247.
Let
(x, y, z)
(j),
w=f{t,
0,
differential coefficients
As
(1),
<f>,...)
with similar expressions for y and z.

These equations are not to contain
0,
...
or any other
with regard to the time.
usual, let dots denote differential coefficients with regard
Lagrange's Equations
to
the time, and let
331
denote partial
'Thy -tt---
differential
coefficients.
Then, differentiating
(1),
we have
dx
cLv
dx
^-dt+T0-' + d-^-^+
On
(2).
differentiating (2) partially with regard to d,
we have
dx
dec
(3).
Te^dd
Again, differentiating (2) with regard to
dx _ d^x
dd ~ dMt
If
T be
d-x
^d&'^^ ded4>
^^
rdxi
dt
Idd]
we have
6,
d^x
'P
.(4).
the kinetic energy of the system, then
2'=iSm[i;^+2/^+i^]
(5).
Now the reversed effective forces and the impressed forces

form a system of forces in equilibrium, so that their equation of
virtual work vanishes in other words the virtual work of the
effective forces = the virtual work of the impressed forces.
;
The
first
of these, for a variation of
only,
he
by equations
(3)
and
(4),
:=^.4x^7n.^{x' +
dt
dd
y''
+ z')Sd-4-^lvi.^[x^- + f + z']Se
dd
If-S^^^^^'^"^''"'^^^*
(^>'
332
if V be the Work, or Potential function, we have the

work of the impressed forces, for a variation of 6 alone,
Again,
virtual
\_dx dd'^
Equating
(6)
and
dy dd
(7),
"*"
dz dd_
we have
^(dT\_dT_dV
(dT\dT^dV
dt\dd)
Similarly,
we have
de
dd
''
the equations
dt\d^l
dcfi
d(}>'
dt \dyjr)
dy^
dyjr
'
and
so on, there being one equation corresponding to
each
independent coordinate of the system.
These equations are known as Lagrange's equations in
Generalised Coordinates.
Cor.
F= a
If
constant
be the potential energy of the system, since

equation (8) becomes
K,
dK_Q
d_(dT\_dT
dt\ddl
If
we put T K = L,
dd^ dd~
so that
is
'
equal to the difference
between the kinetic and potential energies then, since V does

not contain 6, 4>, etc., this equation can be written in the form
is
called the
d_
dLr\_dL_
dt
dd\
dd~
Lagrangian Function or Kinetic Potential.
When
a system is such that the coordinates of any

can be expressed in terms of independent
coordinates by equations which do not contain differential
coefficients with regard to the time, the system is said to be
248.
particle
of
it
holonomous.
249. ^x- ! -^ homogeneous rod OA, of mass m^ and length 2a, is freely
hinged at O to a fixed point; at its other end is freely attached another
homogeneous rod AB, of mass m^ and length 2b; the syntein moves under gravity ;
find equations to determine the motion.
333
Let Gi and Gn be the centres of mass of the rods, and

q.
and
<t>
their inclina-
tions to the vertical at time t.

The kinetic energy of OA is
4a2
turning round
with velocity 60,
G3
is
whilst
Hence
the square of the velocity of
= {2ad
cos e
turning round
is
+ b<p cos
with velocity 2ad.

G^
i))^
+ (2a9
+ 60
sin e
sin 0)2
= 4a2^2 + 62^2 4. 4a6^0 cos (0 - 0).

Also the kinetic energy of the rod about G^
4a2
+ -m2['la2&2
62
COS(0-e)] + -7H2.-0''
4.52^2 +
= |.f^ + m2).4a2^^ + ^m2.^'02 + ^n/2.4a6^0cos(0-^)

Also the work function
...(1).
= m-^ga cose + 17129
+b
{2a cos
cos
<p)
+C
(2).
Lagrange's ^-equation then gives

|-
U ^ + m^j
ia-e
OTg
2a 60 cos 0-0~j - 2m2a6e0 sin (0 -
d)
_d
/dT\ _dT_dV
~ dt\ dd J dd~ d$
= - (m^ + 2jn2) ga sin 6,
f^ + mj
iad + 2mjb [0 cos
- 0- sin (p-d]=
-g
{in^
+ 2m2)
sin ^
(3).
So the 0-equation
rf_
dt
[^h
46
Multiplying
(3)
is
i^0 + 2rt6^cos(0- ^)M+7n2-2a6^0sin (0-^)

...
+ 2ad cos
by
a0, (4)
(0
by
- m^bg sin 0,
6)
+ 2ae2
m^bi),
sin (0
^)
-^
sin
= (mi + 2m2)S'cos^ + 725'ocos0 + c;

This is the equation of Energy.
Again multiplying (3) by a, and
A r^B + mA
ia^d
= -ag
This
is
(m-y
by
j2^ '"^
|^
+ 2a6
(4)
+ m^
.(4).
adding and integrating, we have
+ 2m^
sin d
the equation derived by taking
(o
have, on adding,
(^
- m^bg
+ 0)
cos (0 - ^)}-]
sin 0.
moments about
for the system.
334
Ex.
and
2.
it is set
velocity u.
inclined at an acute angle a to the doivnward draton vertical
-'
motion
its
it is
rotating about a vertical axis through its fixed end with angular
Shew that, during the motion, the rod is always inclined to the
an anqle ivhich
vertical at
case
itniform rod, of length 2a, can turn freely about one end, which it
Initially
fixed.
is
$
^
is
'
according
^ as
a,
'
ufl
$ 4a cos a and
-;
--
that in each
included between the inclinations a and
cos-i[-
f-
\/l-2cosa + Ji2]
aco2 sin^
where
If
it
when revolving
be slightly disturbed
steadily at a constant inclination a,
oscillation is 2ir
4a cos a
/
/ ^-j- 3 cos-a)
0/7 (1
d to the vertical,
At any time t let the rod be inclined at

through it and the vertical have
from its
turned through an angle
and
let
the plane
initial position.
Consider any element
of
rod at P, where OP=i.

If
be drawn perpendicular to
the vertical through the end O of the
PN
rod, then
to
is
moving perpendicular
NP with velocity
</> .
NP,
i.e.
$sin e^,
and
it is
moving perpendicular
OP
to
VOA
with velocity ^'dHence the kinetic energy of this

element
in the plane
_1
rf
m[_^-&\\\-e^-
~2"2a
Therefore the whole kinetic energy
+ ^-0'-'].
T
{(l)-s\\\^d
= m .g a cos
.
Hence Lagrange's equations

d r4ma^
;"1
'+0.
give
2Hia'
- ^^^^ 0^ 2
'
dt
+ d-).
sin d
cobO - mga sm
and
i.e.
e -qflam 6 cos^;
and
4>
(1)
and
(2) give,
sin^ d
%.,
sm
constant = w
on the elimination of
u^ sin* a
(1),
sin- a
.(2).
^,
cos5 = -
-'dg
Ja
sin d.
.(3).
The rod goes round
be zero when d = a, i.e. if
Steady motion.
at a
vertical
if
When w
has not this particular value, equation
335
constant inclination a to the
u^-^^T^^
4a cos a
from the
gives on integration
initial conditions,
Hence
6 is zero
sin^"^
when
= a,
cos
3ff
[cos2^ + 2ncos^-l
i.e. initially,
or
+ 2ncosa].
when
+ 2COS^-l + 2KCOStt = 0,
C0S2 ^
when
sin2 a"!
o-cos5^
39 cos
~ia
r,
3;;k
ao
I.e.
(4).
'
^
(3)
6= -n+ Jl - 2n cos a + n^
(6).
[The + sign must be taken for the - sign would give a value of cos d
numerically greater than unity.]
The motion is therefore included between the values d = a and 6 = 61 where
cos 61 is equal to the right hand of (6).
;
Now
^1
a, i.e. the
according as cos
6^
rod will rise higher than or
fall
below
its initial position,
< cos o,
i.e.
according as ^^1 - 2n cos a + n-
i.e.
according as sin^ a
i.e.
according as
> cosa + n,
^ An cos a,
siu2 a ^ aaj2 sin- a
ofl
-.
4a cos a
according as the initial angular velocity is greater or legs than that for
steady motion at the inclination a.
It is clear that equation (2) might have been obtained from the principle that
i.e.
the
moment of momentum about the vertical OV is constant.

Also the Principle of the Conservation of Energy gives
- (02 sin2 e +
e'')
= mga
(cos d
- cos
a)
+ --
substituting for
from
to^
sin^ a.
On
(2) this gives equation
(5).
Small oscillations about the steady motion.
then
(3) gives
e='/['^^^-sinel
4a Lcos a sm'^ o
J
Here put
= a + ^,
where
\f/
is
small,
and therefore
= sin a + ^ cos u,
^= cos a- sin a.
sin ^
and
cos
i/*
(7).
*
336
Hence
(7)
gives

_ 3^ sin a [(1 -
sin o
3(7
a) (1
1//
cot a)-3
(1
+ ^ cot a)]
,,,
^[4 cot a + tau
--J
tan
\h
a]
3g(l + 3cos'a)
^_
on neglecting squares of
\p.
Hence the required time

/
""
4a cos
35((l
+ 3cos2a)
Ex. 8. Four equal rods, each of length 2a, are hinged at their ends so as
The angles B and D are connected by an elastic
to form a rhombus ABCD.
string and the lowest end A rests on a horizontal plane whilst the end C slides on
a smooth vertical tvire passing through A ; in the position of equilibrium the
Sheio
string is stretched to twice its natural length and the angle BAD is 2a.
that the time of a small oscillation about this position is
2a
(l
+ 3sin2a)cosa
^
)
Sg cos 2a
When
the rods are inclined at an angle 6 to the vertical, the component

upper rods are
velocities of the centre of either of the
[3a cos 6]
Hence T, the
and
(a sin 6),
-3a&ind .6 and a cos
i.e.
0.
total kinetic energy,
r4a2
= ^2
^2
+ ( - 3a sin
69)"^
cos 66}^
{a
o"
^M
= 8ma26>2[l + sin2^].
- mg
(a cos ^
+ 3a cos
f2asmB X -
- 2\
^)
=
where 2c
is
- 8mga cos
(2a sin
c
.
J c
dx
c)2,
the unstretched length of
the
string
and \ the modulus of
elasticity.
Lagrange's equation
is
therefore
ri6a2m^ (^ + sin^yi - 16ma2^2 sin
6 cos
= 8m(/asin
Now we
are given that d and
'9
are zero
a cos ^ (2a sin ^ -c)
when
2mgc
d=.a, and that
= a sin
(1).
a.
In (1) putting 6 = a + \f/, where
products of ip and ^, we have
16a2mi/;(|
337
and neglecting squares and
small,
is
+ sin2a)
= %mga (sin a +
- Qamg\p
vi-
cos a)
[cos
cos a
(cos a
a-ip
r sin
a]J [a
sin o
L
+ 2iia
r
cos alJ
sin a tan a),
3oco8 2a
l.e.
y}/
2a cos a
(1
+ 3 sin^
/2 cos a
Therefore the required time = 27r ,
Ex.
(1
+ 3 sin^ g)
^
3^ cos
2a.
Small oscillations about the stable position of equilibrium for the

case of Ex. 1 ichen the masses and lengths of the rods are equal.
When mi = m2 and a = b, the equations (3) and (4) of Ex. 1 become
4.
-^6 + 24^008 (9i-t?)-202sin {<p-e)= o
sin
a
(9,
2^cos(</)-^)+-0 + 2^3sin {<p-e)= - -sin0.
and
The
stands for
Taking 6 and
and
<f>
for
sin d
<^
to be
and sin
small,
these
<p,
(l^D^+^y + 2D^ =
(1),
2D^.e+{~D^- + ^\cp = Q
(2),
<p,
we have
solve this equation put ^ =
Lp cos
^j2=^^(7 + 2V7),
giving
..
so that the
= (p = 0.
dt
Eliminating
To
and putting
(i>^,
and
where
by
stable position is given
and neglecting 6'^ and

equations become
= 1,1 cos
motion of 6
motions of periods
is
and
+ ap), and we have
^^2 =
(7.3
^^^
{pit + ai) + L2C0S
(pit
^/7).
+ a2),
given as the compounding of two simple harmonic
and
Pi
(pt
P2
we obtain ^ = il/iCos (pi + ai) +il/2Cos (p2< + 02)

The constants Li, L^, Mi and M2 are not independent. For if we substitute
the values of d and
in equations (1) and (2) we obtain two relations between
Similarly,
them.
These are found to be
-^
and
^ = ^
The independent constants ultimately arrived
at
may
be determined from
the initial conditions of the motion.

L. D.
22
338
Equations
and add
and (2) may be otherwise solved as

and we have
D2
X<^) =
r(^^^)^+(^'''l^) ^l+f (3^ +
Choose X so that -2
Putting these values in
and
Multiply
follows.
(1)
to (1),
(3),
2_
i.e.
we have,
X=
after
--5i
(2)
by\
(3).
some reduction,
D2[9^-(2V7 + l)0]=-j^^[7 + 2V7][9^-(2V7 + l)^]
(4),
D2[9^+C2^7-l).^]=-j^[7-2V7][9e+(2V7-l)0]
(5).
.-.
^d-{2 Jl +
!)(}>
Acqs
95 + (277"- 1)0 = 5 cos
and
[pit + ai),
+ 02).
(2^2^
This method of solution has the advantage of only bringing in the four
necessary arbitrary constants.
250.
If in the last
example we put
9^-(2V7+l)0 = Z,
9^ + (2V7-l)</)=F,
and
the equations (4) and (5) become
-^ = -XZ,
where
X,
and
jx
and
-^ = -/.F,
are numerical quantities.
and Y, which are such that the correor Y, are called

sponding equations each contain only
Principal Coordinates or Normal Coordinates.
More generally let the Kinetic Energy T, and the Work
Function V, be expressible in terms of 6,
yfr, 0, 4> and -^ in
the case of a small oscillation about a position of equilibrium,
The
quantities
cf),
so that
T= Aj' + A^(j>''+A,,yjr^+2AJ4> + 2Ajyjr + 2A,4ylr ...(1),

V= G + a,6 +
+ .(2).
+ a^^jr + Ond^ + a^c^"" +
and
a^cj)
a^r^y^r''
be expressed in terms of
equations of the form
If
6,
yjr
by
linear
= \,X+\2Y+\sZ,
= fl^X + /^2 F+ flsZ,
i^ = I'lX + 1^2!^+ Vs^,
and
and
Y,
A^,
(f>,
\,
^-2)
^3,
H-i)
/^2>
f^s,
^1,
v^,
Vg
be so chosen that on substitution in (1) and (2) there are no

Y, and none in V containing
terms in T containing YZ, ZX,
Lagrange's Equations for Blows
XY,
YZ, ZX,
Coordinates.
then X, Y,
For then
339
are called Principal or
Norma
T=A,^t^ + A^Y^ + A,:Z\
F = Ci + a^X + ao!Y+ a^'Z + a^^X' + a^ Y^ + a,.^Z\
and
and the typical Lagrange equation
then
is
1A,^X = a/ + 2a'X,
only.
an equation containing
On solving this and the two similar equations for F and Z,
we have 6 given by sum of three simple harmonic motions.
i.e.
Similarly if the original equations contained more coordinates
than three.
251.
Let
i'o
Lagrange's equations for Blows.

and i\ denote the values of x before and
Since the virtual
action of the blows.
impulses
Sm (î ô).
the impressed blows,
Let Tq and
etc. is
we
equal to the virtual
Then, from equations (3) and (5) of Art. 247,

\
dx
K-
d6
y dx
\dd\
.dy
^
.
de
dy
dz~\
dd\^
dz
"Td^^'de
and
r|
=Sm
\de)r
Hence the
left
\x
I
hand of
+ ^y-^ + z
de
dd
de.
(1) is
~dT-]
rdT
dd}^" Idd
Also the right hand of (1)
_\dVj,dx dV^dy dVj_dzl

~\ dx dd^ dy dd^ dz dd\
where
Fj
is tiie
virtual
moment
of
just before and just after
the blows.
(dT
after the
of the effective
have, for a variation in 6 only,
be the values of
T-^
moment
work of the blows.
..
^dV,
de
340
Hence
if S
V^ be expressed in the form
the equation (1) can be written in the form
and similarly
for the other equations.
The equation
(2)
may
and
between the limits

the blows last.
The
be obtained by integrating equation (8) of Art. 247

t, where t is the infinitesimal time during which
^ (^^
integral of
is
^'\deJ
Since -j
^
.dV
We
252.
do
ad
['^1 -
i.e.
f^l
UJi UJo
(2).
Many of
give two examples of the preceding Article.
272274 and
of pp.
dVi
t^
of -j^ is
Hence equation
f^l^
Ld^Jo'
integral during the small time t is ultimately zero.
is finite, its
do
_,,
The mtegral
.(2),
\ddJo
\de)i
and Ex. 14
also Ex. 2 of p. 277
of p. 280
the examples
may
well be
solved by this method.
Three equal imiform rods AB, BG, CD are freely jointed at B and
A and D are fastened to smooth fixed pivots ivhose distance
apart is equal to the length of either rod.
The frame being at rest in the form
of a square, a blow J is given perpendicularly to AB at its middle point and in
Ex.
C and
1.
the ends
Q T2
Shew
the plane of the square.
that the energy set
up
is
lohere
is
the
Find also the bloios at the joints B and C.

AB, or CD, has turned through an angle 6, the energy of either
mass of each rod.
When
4a2
^ = 2.-m.
T
1
.-.
(dT\
,-.
If
about
^m{2ad)K
^ e\
fdT\
=0.
is
+ ^mia^2=
10;((2
and
5\\ = J.a^d.
3J
^
= J.
a, i.e. 6=
.
,,
0-^
20ma2
20ma2.
2Qma-
4a^
=-^-e,
Also
u
Hence we have
is
^-m. -Q- ^^ ^^^ that of BC, which remains parallel to AD,
^^1""-^'^ energy
3J2
10ma2^2
^^ = ^^
Y and Y^ be the blows at the joints B and C

A and D for the rods AB and DC, we have
Tn.d-J.a~Y.2a,
20ma
and
7n
then, by taking
e=Yi.2a.
moments
Examples
341
Ex. 2. Solve by the same method Ex. 12 of page 280.

Let mi be the mass of the rod struck, and m^ that of an adjacent rod, so that
mi
a
Let
that
is
II
_ OT2 _ 1 M'
" b ~2a + b'
be the velocity and w the angular velocity communicated to the rod
struck.
T=
Then
a2
iw.|v=ttL'
and
01
a).
X=M[V -u-cw]
(2),
5Fi = ilf [F-u-cco][5x + c56i]
(3),
Also the blow
where u = x and
^.2mi{u'^+-^-'A+~vi2l{u + au}Y + {ii-awf]
= ^.
Hence the equations of the
last article give
M'u= j^ = M{V-u-cu)
M'
rt
+ 36
dVi
^^
(4),
^^^
T'"''TTb = ^=^^'^^-''-"'^
^""^
Also, by Ex.
3, Art.
(5)-
207, the total loss of kinetic energy
= lA'[F+(M + cw)]-iZ[H + cw]
= lA. F= 1 1/F [F-(w + ceo)] = etc.
EXAMPLES
A bead,
of mass M, slides on a smooth fixed wire, whose inclination

to the vertical is a, and has hinged to it a rod, of mass
and length 21,
which can move freely in the vertical plane through the wire. If the
1.
system starts from rest with the rod hanging
vertically,
shew that
{AM+m (1 + 3 cos2 6)] W = Q (M+m) g sin a (sin ^ -sin a),

where 6
2.
is
the angle between the rod and the lower part of the wire.
A solid uniform sphere has
a light rod rigidly attached to it which

This rod is so jointed to a fixed vertical axis
between the rod and the axis may alter but the rod must
passes through its centre.

that the angle,
8,
turn with the axis. If the vertical axis be forced to revolve constantly
with uniform angular velocity, shew that the equation of motion is
of the form d^ = n^ (cos 6- cos ^) {cos a -cos 6).
Shew also that the total
energy imparted to the sphere as 6 increases from 61 to d^ varies as
cos^ 01
cos"'' 62.
342
3.
A uniform rod, of mass Zm and length 2Z, has its middle point fixed
and a mass m attached at one extremity. The rod when in a horizontal
position is set rotating about a vertical axis through its centre with an
angular velocity equal to
/ -y^.
Shew
that the heavy end of the rod
the inclination of the rod to the vertical

and will then rise again.
will fall till
is
cos~^ [\/^^+
n\
rod OA, whose weight may be neglected, is attached at

to a
OB, so that OA can freely rotate round OB in a horizontal
A rod XY, of length 2a, is attached by small smooth rings at
4.
fixed vertical rod
plane.
and
OA and OB
Find an equation to give 5, the

inclination of the rod
to the vertical at time t, if the system be started
initially with angular velocity fl about OB.
Shew that the motion will
to
respectively.
XY
be steady with the rod
and
that, if the rod
ZF inclined
at a to the vertical,
be slightly disturbed from
the time of a small oscillation
is 47r
its
if Q.'^=
&eGa,
4a
position of steady motion,
3g{l+3cosâ)
5.
If in the preceding question the rod OA be compelled to rotate
with constant angular velocity to, shew that, if 4a>â
3g, the motion will
>
be steady when cos a
= ~j-
and that the time of a small
oscillation will
87raa>
be
Vl6a)*a2_9^2[Reduce the system to rest by putting on the " centrifugal force " for
each element of the rod XY, and apply the principle of Energy.]
Three equal uniform rods AB, BC, CD, each of mass m and length
smoothly jointed at B and 0. A blow /
given to the middle rod at a distance c from its centre
in a direction
6.
2a, are at rest in a straight line

is
perpendicular to
it
shew that the initial
velocity of
is
2/
^
3 Ml
initial
and that the
angular velocities of the rods are

{5a + 9c)
lOma^
6cl
'
(5a
- 9c) I
lOma^
57na-'
Six equal uniform rods form a regular hexagon, loosely jointed at

7.
the angular points, and rest on a smooth table a blow is given perpen;
dicularly to one of
them
at its middle point
motion
and shew that the opposite rod begins to move with one-tenth of the
;
find the resulting
velocity of the rod that is struck.
8.
A framework
in the
form of a regular hexagon ^ .SCZ).'i^ consists

and rests on a smooth table
of uniform rods loosely jointed at the corners
a string tied to the middle point of
AB is jerked in
the direction of
AB.
Examples
343
Find the resulting initial motion and shew that the velocities along AB
and
of their middle points are in opposite directions and in the ratio
DE
of 59
4.
AB
[Let Ux and v^ be the resulting velocities of the middle point of

along and perpendicular to
and wi its angular velocity; and let ^2, ^2
and 0)2 gi^6 the motion of BC similarly, and so on. From the motion of
the corners A, B, C, etc., we obtain
AB
v,
and a.,=
^-^%etc.
Hence
h\\=J .bxi,
Also
The equations
where Ui=Xi.
down by
written
Art. 251 then completely determine
the motion.]
A perfectly rough sphere lying inside a hollow cylinder, which

on a perfectly rough plane, is slightly displaced from its position of
equilibrium. Shew that the time of a small oscillation is
9.
rests
14J/
J'where a
is
10J/+7m'
the radius of the cylinder and b that of the sphere.
perfectly rough sphere, of mass

10.
and radius h, rests at the
lowest point of a fixed spherical cavity of radius a. To the highest point
of the movable sphere is attached a particle of mass m' and the system is
disturbed.
Shew that the
oscillations are the

^
47n+
'
pendulum
of length
same
as those of a simple
7wi
{a-h)
m+m
11.
A hollow cylindrical garden roller is fitted with a counterpoise
which can turn on the axis of the cylinder the system is placed on a
;
rough horizontal plane and
oscillates
small oscillation, shew that

jo2
where
M and
M'
[(2J/+ J/')
is
y[;2
under gravity
if
be the time of a
given by
- i/'A2] = (2JI/+i/') gh
are the masses of the roller and counterpoise, k
radius of gyration of
M' about
the axis of the cylinder and k
is
the
is
the
distance of its centre of mass from the axis.

12.
thin circular ring, of radius a and mass M,
lies
on a smooth
horizontal plane and two tight elastic strings are attached to it at opposite
ends of a diameter, the other ends of the strings being fastened to fixed
344
points in the diameter produced.
Shew that
for small oscillations in the
plane of the ring the periods are the values of

or
T the
or -
where b
the natural length,
is
given by
^ 1=0
the equilibrium length,
and
equilibrium tension of each string.
uniform rod AB, of length 2a, can turn freely about a point
its centre, and is at rest at an angle a to the horizon
when a particle is hung by a light string of length I from one end. If
13.
distant c from
the particle be displaced slightly in the vertical plane of the rod, shew that
it will oscillate in the same time as a simple pendulum of length
-
a2 + Zac cos2 a
+ 3c2 sin^ a
a^ + Zac
A plank, of mass M, radius of gyration k and length 26, can

14.
swing like a see-saw across a perfectly rough cylinder of radius a. At its
ends hang two particles, each of mass m, by strings of length I. Shew
that, as the system swings, the lengths of its equivalent pendula are I and
M-2 + 2m62
{M+ 2m) a
15.
At the
radius a,
is
lowest point of a smooth circular tube, of mass
M'
placed a particle of mass
M and
the tube hangs in a vertical

fixed, and can turn freely in its own
plane from
its highest point, which is

plane about this point. If the system be slightly displaced, shew that the
periods of the two independent oscillations of the system are
~M
and
277
27r
\/
V.
A string AG is tied to a fixed point at A and has a particle attached

and another equal one at B the middle point of AG. The system
makes small oscillations under gravity if at zero time ABG is vertical and
the angular velocities of AB, BG are a and &>', shew that at time t the
inclinations 6 and (f) to the vertical of AB, BG are given by the equations
16.
at C,
<b
+ J2d = -
sin nt
AB = BG=a,
17.
and di-J2d = -
^^
sin n'L
w2 = 5'(2_^2)andw'2=^(2
uniform straight rod, of length 2a,
is
+ v/2).
freely
movable about
centre and a particle of mass one-third that of the rod

light inextensible string, of length a, to
period of principal oscillation
is
where
is
one end of the rod
(^/5-hl)
*/
-.
its
attached by a
shew that one
Examples
18.
fixed point
uniform rod, of length 2a, which has one end attached to a
by a
*/
is
fixed
rod, of
;
is
performing small
Find
position of equilibrium.
its
of its principal oscilla-
mass
bin
and length
about one
end of a hght
other end a particle of mass m
2a, turns freely
to its other extremity is attached one
string, of length 2a,
which carries at
shew that the periods
same
its
*/
and n
A uniform
19.
about
and shew that the periods
position at any time,

tions are 2iv
bet
light inextensible string, of length
oscillations in a vertical plane
end which
345
its
of the small oscillations in a vertical plane are the
as those of simple
pendulums
of lengths
and ^^
rough plank, 2a feet long, is placed symmetrically across a

which rests and is free to roll on a jierfectly
rough horizontal plane. A heavy particle whose mass is thirteen times
20.
light cylinder, of radius a,
that of the cylinder

If the
system
the values of
is
is
imbedded
slightly displaced,
A
in the cylinder at its lowest point.
shew that
its
periods of oscillation are
/ given by the equation Ap^ {n + l^) p^ + Z
{n l)
0.
21.
To a point of a solid homogeneous sphere, of mass M, is freely
hinged one end of a homogeneous rod, of mass nM, and the other end is
If the system make small oscillations under
freely hinged to a fixed point.
gravity about the position of equilibrium, the centre of the sphere and the
rod being always in a vertical plane passing through the fixed point, shew
that the periods of the principal oscillations are the values of
given by
the equation
2a6
where a
is
(6
+ 7?i)i9* - jo^^r {lOa (3 + w) + 216 (2 +)} + 155r2 (2 + ?i) = 0,
the length of the rod and h
is
the radius of the sphere.
CHAPTER XIX
SMALL OSCILLATIONS. INITIAL MOTIONS.
TENDENCY TO BREAK
In the preceding chapters we have had several
253.
examples of small oscillations, and in the last chapter we
considered the application of Lagrange's equations to some
problems of this class.
When the oscillation is that of a single body and the
motion is in one plane, it is often convenient to make use of the
properties of the instantaneous centre.
that, if the
motion be a small
oscillation,
about the instantaneous centre
By Art. 214 we know

we may take moments
as if it were a fixed point,
and the equation of motion becomes Mk^
-j-
the impressed forces about I.

Since the motion is a small oscillation
= the moment
of
the right-hand
and therefore 6 must be small. Hence

any terms in Mk^ which contain 6 may be neglected since we
member must be
small,
all quantities of the second order, i.e. we may in

Mk^ take the body in its undisturbed position. In
the right-hand member we have no small quantity as multiplier;
hence in finding it we must take the disturbed position.
The student will best understand the theory by a careful
are leaving out
calculating
study of an example.
254.
through
if
Ex.
its
One-half of a thin uniform hollow cylinder, cut off by a plane

on a horizontal floor. Shew that,
axis, is performing small oscillations
a be the radius of the cylinder, the time of a small oscillation

2,r
V/
~27r^
according as the plane
is
rough enough
is 2ir
to prevent
</
any
'
sliding,
Small Oscillations
C
Let
be the centre of the
inertia, so that
CG =
347
-^
through GG, and
^^
e= INCG.
the instantaneous centre of rotation
moments about
taking
about
(?,
A;
\,^
\/ /
^^^~--^.
_^-^^^
i^
M[A-2 + ^-G2]6l=-ilfsf.CG.sin0
(1).
A^G2 = a2 +
Now
CG2-2a.CG.cos^,
il/ (7.2 +CG2) = moment of inertia about C = J/a2.
and
Hence
\r
we
it
is
^^
fK
/"^
;
if
centre of
^^^\
If the floor be perfectly rough, iV is
hence,
have,
its
^^^^^
be the
point of contact with the floor in the

vertical plane
base of the cylinder, and
flat
let iV
IT
,
(1)
___^^__
2a
sin d
6= _^._
gives
IT
a- CG
-,
Hence the required time
(tt
since 6
very small,
is
.(2).
2)
/(7r-2) a
is 2ir
Next, let the plane be perfectly smooth, and draw GL perpendicular to ON

then L is the instantaneous centre. For, since there are no horizontal forces
G moves in a vertical straight hne, and hence the inmoves horizontally, the centre
stantaneous centre is in GL. So, since
must be in NC ; hence it is at L. Taking moments about L, we have
acting on the body,
[A;2
M[k^+ CG^
i.e.
Hence, when d
is
+ LG2] '(?=- If. ^.CG sine

sin2 eye= -M .g CG .sine.
(3),
very small,
TT
12-CG2
OLr--tOUa"
+ CG2.
.
a
e
,
2a()
(7"
Or,
2g
Hence the required time = 27r,v/
(4).
'
-CG^
-^
applied the priuciple enunciated at the end of the previous

article, then in calculating the left-hand side of (1) we should have taken
its undisturbed value, viz. AG, i.e. a-CG, and then (1) gives
for
If
we had
NG
2a
-q.CG.e
;,2+cG2 + a2-2a.CG
'
IT
,
,
d, etc.
2a2-2a.?^
TT
In calculating the left hand of

undisturbed position which is zero.
-9
(3)
then gives
(3),
for
LG
2a
= ^ZcG^
^' ^*'
we
take
its
value in the
348
EXAMPLES
1.
thin rod, whose centre of mass divides
lengths h and
radius
if it
rests
c,
in
it into portions of
a vertical plane inside a smooth bowl of
be slightly displaced, shew that
the same as that
pendulum
of a simple
time of oscillation
its
==^
^
of length
the radius of gyration of the rod about
its
where k
is
is
be
centre of mass.
Two rings, of masses m and on', are connected by a light rigid rod
2.
and are free to slide on a smooth vertical circular wire of radius a. If the
system be slightly displaced from its position of equilibrium, shew that
the length of the simple equivalent pendulum
is
\/m^ + m'2 + 2mm' cos a
where a
is
the angle subtended by the rod at the centre of the wire.
3.
Two uniform rods, of the same mass and of the same length 2a
and freely jointed at a common extremity, rest upon two smooth pegs
which are in the same horizontal plane so that each rod is inclined at
the same angle a to the vertical shew that the time of a small oscillation,
when the joint moves in a vertical straight line through the centre is
;
fa
%~
V9^4.
+ 3cos2
Two heavy uniform rods, AB and AG, each of mass M and

A and placed symmetrically over a smooth
length 2a, are hinged at
is horizontal.
If it be slightly and
c, whose axis
symmetrically displaced from the position of equilibrium, shew that
cylinder, of radius
the time of a small oscillation
"
is Stt
a./
Zg
+ a2 smô"a
where
acos^ a = c&\na.
5.
on a rough
solid elliptic cylinder rests in stable equilibrium
horizontal plane.
Shew
that the time of a small oscillation
is
/6a2 + 562
9
homogeneous hemisphere rests on an inclined plane, rough

enough to prevent any sliding, which is inclined at a to the horizon.
If it be slightly displaced, shew that its time of oscillation is the same
"1
2a r28 - 40 sin^
,
.1
=- - 5 cos a
where a is
as that of a pendulum of length -r6.
LV9-64sin2a
the radius of the hemisphere.

7.
centre
A
C
whose centre of gravity G* is at a distance c from its

placed upon a perfectly smooth horizontal table ; shew that
sphere,
is
Small
the time of a small oscillation of
xf 1+
centre is Stt
about O, and a
is
Examples
Oscillations.
its
centre of gravity about
în^^
.,o
where k
349
its
geometrical
radius of gyration
is its
CG makes
the initial small angle which
with the
vertical.
A uniform rod is movable about its middle point, and its ends are
8.
connected by elastic strings to a fixed point ; shew that the period of the
rod's oscillations about a position of equilibrium is
/ -^
where
the mass of the rod, X the modulus of elasticity of either string, h its
length in the position of equilibrium, and c the distance of the fixed point
is
from the middle point of the
A uniform beam
9.
and the other end

to a fixed point
plane
1
is Stt
*//2^
rod.
rests with
one end on a smooth horizontal plane,

supported by a string of length I which is attached
shew that the time of a small oscillation in a vertical
is
uniform heavy rod OA swings from a hinge at 0, and an

a point C in the rod, the other end of the
string being fastened to a point B vertically below 0.
In the position of
10.
elastic string is attached to
equilibrium the string

elasticity is
horizontal position
velocity
is
at its natural length and the coefficient of
n times the weight
when
and then
it is vertical,
of the rod.
If the rod be held in
set free, prove that, if
then -a?<ji^=ga-\-ny\
be
\/h'-+c^->fh-c
where 2a = length of the rod, OC=c, and OB=k.

Find also the time of a small oscillation and prove that
afifected by the elastic string.
A uniform
11.
end
A which
length
from
ly
it.
rod
is fixed.
the angular
it
is
not
AB can turn freely in a vertical plane about the

B is connected by a light elastic string, of natural
to a fixed point which is vertically above

If the rod is in equilibrium
when
and at a distance h
inclined at an angle a to the
and the length of the string then is k, shew that the time of a
small oscillation about this position is the same as that of a simple
vertical,
- r-r^-9
pendulum of length
^
3 hi sm^ a
A rhombus, formed of four equal rods freely jointed, is placed

12.
over a fixed smooth sphere in a vertical plane so that only the upper
in
contact with the sphere. Shew that the time of a symmetrical
are
pair
-
where 2a
V/ 3^(H-2cosâ)'
plane is 77 *
oscillation in the vertical ^
length of each rod and a
position of equilibrium.
is
the angle
it
--
.,
makes with the
is
the
vertical in
350
13.
circular arc, of radiua a, is fixed in a vertical plane
uniform circular
on the
g-
When
arc.
fixed to
is
disc, of
the disc
is
and a
placed inside so as to
roll
diameter through the centre and at a
Shew that the time of
centre.
the position of equilibrium
j, is
a position of equilibrium, a particle of mass
is in
in the vertical
it
^ from the
distance
mass i/and radius
a small oscillation about
14.
uniform rod rests in equilibrium in contact with a rough
sphere, under the influence of the attraction of the sphere only.
Shew
that
if
displaced
oscillation is Stt
it will
^^
always
r-
where v
the constant of gravitation,
is
(3ym)*
mass and a the radius of the sphere, and

15.
Two
SH= 2b.
a uniform rod, of mass

oscillation
At
J^
^ê situated at two points
-^
the middle point of Sff
M and length
2a
m the
21 the length of the rod.
centres of force
and H, where
and that the period of a small
oscillate,
is
fixed the centre of
about the position of equilibrium
is Stt {b'^-a^)-r-'\/G{jib.
A shop-sign consists of a rectangle A BCD which can turn freely

about its side AB which is horizontal. The wind blows horizontally with
16.
a steady velocity v and the sign is at rest inclined at an angle a to the

vertical
assuming the wind-thrust on each element of the sign to be
k times the relative normal velocity, find the value of a and shew that the
time of a small oscillation about the position of equilibrium is
;
27r
a/ -
g
)^
;
'i,v^
COS
COS^
".
a-ga sin^ a
where
BC= 2a.
heavy ring J, of mass nm, is free to move on a smooth

a string has one end attached to the ring and, after
passing through another small fixed ring
at a depth h below the wii'e
has its other end attached to a particle of mass m. Shew that the
inclination 6 of the string OA to the vertical is given by the equation
17.
horizontal wire
A ( + sin'''
where
6)6'^
a is the initial value of
Hence shew that the time

equilibrium
is
= 2g cos* 6 (sec a - sec 6),
6.
of a small oscillation about the position of
the same as that of a simple pendulum of length nh.
A straight rod AB, of mass m, hangs vertically, being sujjported at

upper end A by an inextensible string of length a. A string attached
to B passes through a small fixed ring at a depth b below B and supports
Shew that the rod, if displaced to a neighat its extremity.
a mass
18.
its
Initial motions
351
bouring vertical position, will remain vertical during the subsequent

lilh
if
oscillation
i- =
-r
and that the equivalent pendulum
Find the times of the other principal
A uniform heavy rod AB is
is
of length
oscillations.
motion in a vertical plane with its

on a fixed straight horizontal bar.
If the inclination of the rod to the vertical is always very small, shew
that the time of a small oscillation is half that in the arc of a similar
motion in which A is fixed.
19.
upper end
20.
in
sliding without friction
uniform rod, of length
and rocks without any slipping
in a horizontal position
21, i-ests
fixed horizontal cylinder of radius
if
it is
on a
displaced in a vertical plane
w be its angular
shew that
velocity
when
inclined at an angle 6 to the horizontal,
+ a2^2
(^
^2
^ <2,ga (cos ^ +
If the oscillation be small,
(9
sin
<9)
is
shew that the time
constant.
is 27r
^ /
V
^
.iga
A smooth
circular wire, of radius a, rotates with constant angular

about a vertical diameter, and a uniform rod, of length 26, can
Shew that the position of equilibrium
slide with its ends on the wire.
in which the rod is horizontal and below the centre of the wire is stable
21.
velocity
if
a)2<
oj
f^ ^
3 (3a- 46-)
oscillation
where c^^/a^ b^, and that then the time of a small
position
about the stable ^
V/ 3gc -
is 27r *
.,
<a^
,_
.,
{Za^
t-,,7
40^)
Initial motions
We
have problems in which initial

and initial radii of curvature are
We write down the equations of motion and the
required.
geometrical equations in the usual manner, differentiate the
latter and simplify the results thus obtained by inserting for
the variables their initial values, and by neglecting the initial
velocities and angular velocities.
We then have equations to give us the second differentials
of the coordinates for small values of the time t, and hence
obtain approximate values of the coordinates in terms of t.
The initial values of the radius of curvature of the path of
255.
sometimes
accelerations, initial reactions,
any point
is
often easily obtained
direction of its motion.
the axis of
y,
This
by finding the
and y and x being
its
initial
being taken as
initial displacements
initial direction
352
expressed in terms of the time

curvature
Some
= Lt ^
t,
the value of the radius of
easy examples are given in the next
article.
uniform rod AB, of mass m and length 2a, has attached to

it at its ends two strings, each of length I, and their other ends are attached
and 0', in the same horizontal line ; the rod rests in a
to tiDO fixed points,
horizontal position and the strings are inclined at an angle a to the vertical.
The string O'B is now cut; find the change in the tension of the string OA and
256.
-Ea;.
1.
the instantaneous angular accelerations of the string
When
the string
is
cut
and
rod.
the string turn through a small angle 6 whilst
let
the rod turns through the small angle (p, and let T be the tension then.
Let X and y be the horizontal and vertical coordinates of the centre of the
rod at this instant, so that
sin (a
e)
y=
cos, [a
6)
a;
squares of d and
<p
The equations
cj>
sin a. d
a^
and
Solving
sin
cos(a-^) =
-=
^^
[90-0- (a- 61)]=
-^-a
(1)
+ a^
(2),
T
r7
cos a
(3),
T
.acos{a +
sin a
and
(5)
mgcosa_
+ 3 cos2 a
(4),
T
(p- d)= -.a cos a
(5).
ni
ni
VI
(3), (4)
(sin
(cosa + ^ sina)
motion are then

..
+ a^ = y = g
-lcosad = x=
T
--^=-a.
a- 6 cos a)
being neglected.
of initial
..
+ a cos
+ a sin ^ =
we have
sin a
g^g
'
+ 3 cos2 a
'
cosâ
^^3g
^^^
+3
a 1
'
co&2 a
Ex. 2. Tivo uniform rods, OA and AB, of masses vii and m^ and lengths 2a
lohich is fixed.
and 2b, are freely jointed at A and move about the end
If the
rods start from a horizontal position, find the initial radius of curvature and the
initial path of the end B.
By writing down Lagrange's equations for the initial state only, we have
T=
and
Uii
.ê^ + m2^
V=mig
<t>^
+ m2 (2ae + b4>)2\
ad + m2g (2a9 +
b(p).
MBq
A"
B
Hence Lagrange's equations
(^+"2)
give
iae
+ 2m2h^=-- g
4b
<p+2ae =
g.
{mi
+ 2mi),
Examples
Initial Motioii.
_
Hence
^=5 +j2
3fl
..
2/71,
Hence, for small values of
t,
If
0, <p,
and
mi*
we have
2mi + m2
2a 8mi + 6m2
Sgfi
since
ig
..
<p=--^
and
353
3gt^
wtj
26
8mi + 67n2
.(1),
are zero initially.
X and y be the coordinates at this small time
of the
end
of the rod,
we have
a:
and
2/
= 2a cos 5 + 2& cos = 2a + 2& - 0^2 _ 5^2^

= 2sin^ + 26sin0 = 2a^ + 260.
MBq
2{2a + 2b-x)
,
{2mi
+ m2)'^b + miâ'
ae-^
+ b<tfi
on substitution from
(1).
B is easily seen to be the parabola

y^
_ 4:{ae + b(pY^ _ 4ab
+ 1112)~ am{- + b {21111 + 1112)^'
2a + 2b-x~ ad- +
Also the initial path of
{1111
b<p'^
EXAMPLES
1.
and
Two
have each an end tied to a weight C,

two points A and B in the same horizontal line.
strings of equal length
their other ends tied to
If one be cut,
shew that the tension of the other
altered in the ratio 1
2 cos^
will
be instantaneously
2.
A uniform beam is supported in a horizontal position by two
props placed at its ends
if one prop be removed, shew that the
reaction of the other suddenly changes to one-quarter of the weight
;
of the beam,
3.
The ends
of a heavy
beam
are attached
by cords of equal length

making an angle of 30
to two fixed points in a horizontal line, the cords
with the beam. If one of the cords be cut, shew that the
of the other is two-sevenths of the weight of the beam.
4.
uniform triangular disc
initial tension
supported horizontally by three equal

If one thread be cut, shew that
at once halved.
is
vertical threads attached to its corners.
the tension of each of the others

5.
attached to
strings
is
uniform square lamina
is
the ratio 5
and
so that
cut, the tension

:
AB
A BCD
is
of the
is
suspended by vertical strings

Shew that, if one of the
horizontal.
other
is
instantaneously altered
in
4.
6.
A uniform circular disc is supported in a vertical plane by two
threads attached to the ends of a horizontal diameter, each of which
makes an angle a with the horizontal. If one of the threads be cut,
shew that the tension of the other is suddenly altered in the ratio
2sin2a
h. D.
H-2siu2a.
23
354
particle is suspended by three equal strings, of length a, from

7.
three points forming an equilateral triangle, of side 26, in a horizontal
If one string be cut, the tension of each of the others will be
plane.
instantaneously changed in the ratio
'
,^
a and weight
Tf, is supported, with its

plane horizontal, by three equal strings tied to three symmetrical points
8.
circular disc, of radius
of its rim, their other ends being tied to a point at a height
the centre of the disc.
One
of the strings
An
cut
h above
shew that the tension
becomes Wy. -^
of each of the others immediately

9.
is
5.
equilateral triangle is suspended from a point
by three
strings,
each equal in length to a side of the triangle, attached to its angular

points if one of the strings be cut, shew that the tensions of the other
two are diminished in the ratio of 12 25.
;
10.
uniform hemispherical
shell, of
against a smooth vertical wall and
The
shell is
11.
on
W and
-j--
circular half-cylinder supports
its flat surface,
is
Shew that the
then suddenly released.
the wall and floor are respectively
weight W,
held with
its
lowest point on a smooth
its
17
base
floor.
initial thrusts
on
W
.
two rods symmetrically placed
the rods being parallel to the axis of the cylinder, and
curved surface on a perfectly smooth horizontal plane.

one of the rods be removed, determine the initial acceleration of the
rests with its

If
remaining rod.
A straight
uniform rod, of mass m, passes through a smooth fixed

mass M, attached to one of its ends. Initially
the rod is at rest with its middle point at the ring and inclined at an
angle a to the hoi'izontal. Shew that the initial acceleration of the particle
12.
ring and has a particle, of
^
makes with the rod an angle tan
13.
end and
from the
string.
M+^
X
M
and length 2a, is movable about one

held in a horizontal position ; to a point of the rod distant b
fixed end is attached a heavy particle, of mass m, by means of a
The rod is suddenly released ; shew that the tension of the string
uniform rod, of mass
is
at once changes to
14.
"
Mmqa(.Aa-^b)
-^--,^^3^^.
horizontal rod, of
mass
m and
strings, of length 2a, attached to its
suddenly communicated to
it
about a vertical axis through
shew that the tension of each string

maar
4
length 2a, hangs by two parallel

an angular velocity w being
ends
is
its
centre,
instantaneously increased by
Examples
Initial Motion.
365
uniform rod, movable about one extremity, has attached to

15.
the other end a heavy particle by means of a string, the rod and string
being initially in one horizontal straight line at rest ; prove that the
radius of curvature of the initial path of the particle
a and
and
b are the lengths of the rod
16.
-t, where
is
string.
... a, are jointed at their ends and lie

given to one of them so that their initial
rods, of lengths ai, a^,
in one straight line
a blow
is
angular accelerations are coi, 0)2, ... <>. If one end of the rods be
initial radius of curvature of the other end is
fixed,
shew that the
(aicoi
Uico^^
+ a2a>2 + + o-n^^n)"^
+ a2<02^ + ... + a^ton^'

ABC, of length I, is constrained to pass through a fixed

attached to another rod OA, of length a, which can turn
situated at a distance d from B.
The system is
about a fixed point
arranged so that A, 0, B, C are all in a straight line in the order given.
If A be given a small displacement, shew that the initial radius of
17.
point B.
rod
is
cm'vature of the locus of
is
--^
{a+d)^ la
A uniform smooth circular lamina, of radius a and mass i/,

movable about a horizontal diameter is initially horizontal, and on it is
shew that the
placed, at a distance c from the axis, a particle of mass
18.
initial
radius of curvature of the path of
m is equal to
12 -tt^.
[The distance of the particle from the axis being r when the inclination of
is a small angle d, the equations of motion are
the disc
r-re- = gsin0 = ge
and
-r
[M
.e.
Now
is of
(1),
[Mk-e + mr^d] = mrg cos
e,
dt'
6,
and
the order
Hence, from
2,
(1)
e+
2mre = mrg
and therefore r and r - c
(2),
on neglecting powers of
.-.
Therefore
j+7nr2
gives
r=c
= Agt,
42^2^2 +
and
t,
= j^^2
2p=Lt
+ lji^2~^9'
^-y-
^^^2,2=^^2(1 + 40) tK
-r-^
r cos
t,
d:=iAgt2.
M^Hence
(2).
and hence, from

of the order 3 and 4 in t.
6 are respectively of the order 0, 1, 2 in
a-c
12'
=Lt
i
ÂY-t^
4
''
= Lt
etc.]
232
(1),
356
19.
A uniform rod, of length 2a and mass M, can freely rotate about
one end which is fixed it is held in a horizontal position and on it is
placed a particle, of mass on, at a distance h from the fixed end and it is
then let go. Shew that the initial radius of curvature of the path of the
;
particle IS
^^-^^(^l
+
-j^J.
Find also the
20.
between the rod and the
homogeneous rod ACDB,
particle.
of length 2a, is supported
and D, each distant - from the end of the
smooth pegs, C
peg
initial reaction
D is suddenly
destroyed
the path of the end
is
shew that the
-^
initial radius of
rod,
by two
and the
curvature of
and that the reaction of the peg
instantaneously increased in the ratio of 7
is
8.
In the previous question, if E be the middle point of AB, and the

single rod ABhe replaced by two uniform rods AE, EB freely jointed at
and each of the same density, shew that the same results are true.
21.
22.
A solid cj'linder,
of mass m, is placed on the top of another solid

mass J/, on a horizontal plane and, being slightly displaced,
moving from rest. Shew that the initial radius of curvtiture of the
cylinder, of
starts
path of
its
centres and
centre
all
is
c,
where
c is
the distance between
the surfaces are rough enough to prevent any
its
sliding.
Tendency to break
If we have a rod AB, of small section, which is in
257.
equilibrium under the action of any given forces, and if we
consider separately the equilibrium of a portion PB, it is clear
at the section at P must balance
on
that the action of
AP
PB
the external forces acting on
PB.
Now we
know, from Statics, that the action at the section

at P consists of a tension T along the tangent at P, a shear
perpendicular to T, and a couple G called the stress-couple.
The external forces acting on PB being known we therefore
obtain T, S, and G by the ordinary processes of resolving and
taking moments.
If the rod be in motion we must, by D'Alembert's Principle,
*S'
amongst
the
forces acting
external
forces
include
the reversed effective
on the different elements of PB.
Tendency
Now we know
break
to
357
that in the case of a rod
the couple
it is
which breaks it, and we shall therefore take it as the measure

of the tendency of the rod to break.
Hence the measure of the tendency to break at P is the
moment about
the
of all
external
forces,
and reversed
impressed, on one side of P.

The rod may be straight, or curved, but
in one plane
it is
otherwise the problem

If
we had a
vanish,
and in
is supposed to be
supposed to be of very small section
also
more complicated.
is
G would
which causes it to
string instead of a rod the couple
this case it is the tension
break.
The following two examples

adopted in any particular case.
258. -Ea;.
about one end
1.
shew the method
will
to
be
is moving in a vertical plane

find the actions across the section of the rod at a
luhich is fixed
point P, distant x from 0.
Consider any element dy of the rod at a point

weight
is
The
distant y from P.
Its
mg.
reversed effective forces are
mdy
{x + y)d
mdii
and
2a
as marked.
These three forces, together with similar

on all the other elements of the
forces
+ 2/)^
body, and the external forces give a system

of forces in equilibrium.
The
actions at
dicular to the rod
along and perpen-
and the
stress couple
2a(^ + ^^'^|.m,
at P, together with all such forces acting
on the part PA,
Hence the
will be in equilibrium.
stress couple at
in the direction
r^"- mdy
{x
2a
^
+ y)e.
mg sin 6
4a
But, by taking
(2a
e[li2o
moments about
the end
3f)
and therefore
where
a.
was the
0^
.t)2
(2a - x}
of the rod,
1we have
sin^
=
:r^ (cos ^-cos a)
:
2a
initial inclination of the
rod to the vertical.
(1),
(2).
358
Hence the
This
stress-couple
The tension
PA
acting on
maximum when
seen to be a
is easily
does, at a distance
if it
at
from
at
^
an
against
is
will break,
P0 = the sum
of the forces
cos ^-1-3 {2a -(- x) (cos - cos a)]
'^ (2a - a;)

mg sin
sin d
OP
(3),
and upwards
+^^ (2a - x)
(2a
+ x)
held at
rest,
(2-^)(2-33^)-
16a2
One end of a thin straight rod
is
inelastic table until the rod breaks
a distance from the fixed end equal
at
hence the rod
PA
perpendicular to
2.
(2).
The shear
Ex.
of the rod in the direction
in the direction
= 1^ (2a -x) [4a

by equation
.r
equal to one-third of the length of the rod.
and
the other is struck
shew that the point of fracture
^
/3
to
times the total length of the
rod.
When
let
the rod strikes the table let it be inclined at an angle a to the horizon
be the angular velocity just before the impact and B the blpw. Taking
oj
moments about
we have
the fixed end,
4rt2
(1).
where
m is
the
mass and 2a the length
of the rod.
Let us obtain the stress-couple at P.
The
(x
effective
effective
+ y) .w
on an element
impulse
Hence
upwards.
impulse at
is
the
^-m
at
Q,
PQ = y,
where
reversed
in the direction marked.
Taking moments about P, the measure of the
tendency to break
= B{2a-x)cQsa-
f2a-x^y
^m(x + y)w.y
(I
:B.(2a-a;)cosa-^
= Bcosa [(2.
.-
.)
(2a -x)^ (\a
'
m.r^ + y).
vi.^^{x
'^"-
+ x)
_ l?îZî^^)]
..
(4- x^)
is
Tendency
This
is
maximum when x= -
Examples
to break.
and when
is
big
359
enough the rod
will
break here.
EXAMPLES
A
thin straight rod, of length 2a, can turn about one end which is fixed
struck by a blow of given impulse at a distance h from the fixed end
if
1.
and
is
6>-^
shew that
it
will be
most
likely to
snap
at a distance
from the
fixed
end
equal
4a
If
&< -A
>
prove that
it
snap at the point of impact.
will
cracked at a point A and is placed with the

diameter AB through A vertical ; B is fixed and the wire is made to rotate
with angular velocity w about AB. Find the tendency to break at auy point P.
If it revolve with constant angular velocity in a horizontal plane about its
centre, shew that the tendency to break at a point whose angular distance from
2.
the crack
thin circular wire
is
is
a varies as sin- -
semi-circular wire, of radius a, lying on a
smooth horizontal
turns round one extremity A with a constant angular velocity w. If
<f>
angle that any arc AP subtends at the centre, shew that the tendency to
at P is a maximum when tan (p = Tr-(p.
If A be suddenly let go and the other end of the diameter through A
3.
the tendency to break
is
greatest at
table,
be the
break
fixed,
where tan ~ = (p.
4. A cracked hoop rolls uniformly in a straight line on a perfectly rough

horizontal plane. When the tendency to break at the point of the hoop
opposite to the crack
is greatest,
shew that the diameter through the crack
inclined to the horizon at an angle tan"^
is
A wire in the form of the portion of the curve r=a (l + cos(9) cut off by
5.
the initial line rotates about the origin with angular velocity w. Shew that the
'
tendency to break at the point
Two
6= ^
is
measured by
"
'^
mu-a\
heavy square lamina, a side of which is a, are

connected with two points equally distant from the centre of a rod of length 2a,
so that the square can rotate with the rod.
The weight of the square is equal
to that of the rod, and the rod when supported by its ends in a horizontal
position is on the point of breaking.
The rod is then held by its extremities in
a vertical position and an angular velocity w given to the square. Shew that
the rod will break if au^>3g.
6.
of the angles of a
CHAPTER XX
MOTION OF A TOP
259.
two of whose principal moments about the centre
top,
of inertia are equal, moves under the action of gravity about a

in the axis of unequal moment; find the motion if
fixed point
the top be initially set spinning about ita axis
which ivas
initially
at rest
Let
OZ
OGG
be the axis of the top, G the centre of inertia,

ZOX the plane in which the axis 00 was at
the vertical,
zero time,
OX
At time
the plane
position
and
ZOO
OY
horizontal and at right angles.
00
be inclined at 6 to the vertical, and let

have turned through an angle i/r from its initial
t let
ZOX.
Let OA, OB be two perpendicular lines, each perpendicular

Let A be the moment of inertia about OA or OB, and
that about 00.
to 00.
Motion of a top
361
At time t let Wi, co^, and 6)3 be the angular velocities of the
OA, OB, and 00.
To obtain the relations between a)i, m^, wg and 6, <^, -v^
consider the motions of A and G. If 00 be unity, we have
top about
= velocity
along the arc
of
ZO =
w^ sin
(ft
+CO2 cos
(1),
yjr
.smd =
^|r
= velocity of
= coi cos(j) +
Also
By
C03
on
X perpendiciilar from
OZ
perpendicular to the plane

0)2
sin
ZOO
(2).
(^
= velocity of A along AB
= ^ +^ X perpendicular from N on OZ
= 4>+^jrsin {90 -6) = (}>+^jr cos d
(3).
Art. 229, the kinetic energy
T=i[Aco^+Aai,' +
=Â
by equations
(6'
(1), (2)
and
(4),
(3).
V= Mg(hcosi hcosd)
Also
where h
Cco^]
+ yjr'sin'' d) + i 0(4, + ^jrcosey
= OG and
was the
initial
value of
(5),
6.
Hence Lagrange's equations give
j[A6]-Af'' sin ecosd +
(j>
+ ^jr cos 6) ^jr sin = Mgh sin d

(6),
^^[O(cp
and
j^[^^^sin2^
Equation (7) gives
i.e.
ircose)]
(7),
+ Ccos6>(0+^cos^)]=O
(8).
+ '^coa6 = constant,
= + cos 6 = n,
(f)
ci)3
<j)
-\fr
the original angular velocity about the axis 00.

(8)
then gives
Ayjr sin^ d
Also,
by
(4)
and
(5),
C?i cos
= const. = On cos i
A (6' + f'- sin- 0) + On" = On^ + IMgli (cos i - cos 0).

since the top
which was
was
(9).
the equation of Energy gives
initially
initially at rest.
set spinning
.(10),
about the axis
00
Dynamics of a
362
Body
liigid
Equations (9) and (10) give
= A sin- S 2Mgh (cos i - cos 0) - Gh\^ (cos i - cos Oy,

=
A A>Mghp, we have
i.e., if G-n^
6.6^
= 2Mgh (cos i - cos 0) [sin- ^ - 2jj (cos i - cos ^)]
A sin^
= 2i\Igh (cos ^ - cos i) [(cos 6-pf- (p^ - 2p cos i + 1)]
^2
sin^ ed^
cos i) [cos 6 p
(cos 6
2il/(//
Hence 6 vanishes when 6 = i
=p-
cos 6i
and
cos
Also
^1
>*
Vjj-
since
Again, from (10),
6^ is
or again, from (11), if ^

cos ^
2p cos i +
>
1,
imaginary.]
is
wp^ 2p cos i +
negative
<
cos
<
cos
i,
since
1.
i, i.e.
if cos
>
cos
6^, i.e. if
< p - V^2 -
greater inclination than
if
(11).
i -f 1.
therefore 62
never at a
is
1]
where
d^,
'^P ^^s
+ 1]
easily seen that cos d^
it is
p cos i <
Hence the top
or 6^ or
^g = p + "V^^ ~
> unity and
[Clearly cos 6^
Np^ 2p cos
-\-
^-_p- \7)2-2p cost +
[cos
2jj
1.
less inclination
motion
61, i.e. its
is
than
or at a
included between
these limits.
Now
gives
(9)
A'^
sin-
6=
Cn
(cos i
cos 0)
a,
positive
quantity throughout the motion.
Hence
so long as the centre of inertia
is
above the point
and the plane ZOO rotates in the same way

the hands of a watch when looked at from above. This
expressed often by saying that the precessional motion
0,
yjr
is
positive
as
is
is
direct.
[If
be below the peg, this motion
is
found to be retro-
grade.]
It is clear from equations (9)
vanish
when
and (11) that both 6 and
i.
Also
d^lA_ jl
cos
t- cos ^ _ l-2cos^cost + cos''^
dd lOn "^j'dOl
sin^
which is always positive when
"1
]~
6>
i.
sin^
-^
Motion of a top
-^ continually increases, as 6 increases, for values of
Rence
6 between
easily seen
and
to
The motion
its
363
be
and has
6-^,
fT~
>
of the top
angular velocity about
maximum
its
when
may
value,
which
is
6-y.
therefore be
summed up
thus
of figure remains constant
its axis
throughout the motion and equal to the initial value n; the

axis drops from the vertical until it reaches a position defined
by d = 9i, and at the same time this axis revolves round the
vertical with a varying angular velocity which is zero when
d = i and is a maximum when 6 = 6^.
The motion of the axis due to a change in 6 only is called
its "
nutation."
Ex.
If the top
1.
be started when
its axis
makes an angle
.
upward-drawn
vertical, so that the initial spin
and the angular
azimuth
velocity of its axis in
in the meridian plane being initially zero,

to the vertical at
any time
is
about
is
its
of 60 with the
axis is
/ -~-
its
/SMcih
-^
angular velocity
shew that the inclination
6 of its axis
sece = l-fsech-(
^^-|-
^
is/-
so that the axis continually approaches to the vertical without ever reaching
Ex.
2.
equal to
its
it.
Shew that the vertical pressure of the top on the point of support is
weight when the inclination of its axis to the vertical is given by the
least root of the equation
ÂMgh cos2 5 - cos

where a and
b are constants
^ [Chi^
+ 2AMhgK] + C%â - A Mgh = 0,
depending on the
initial
circumstances of the
motion.
It
260.
must have
can easily be seen from
first
principles that the axis of the top
a precessional motion.
Let OC be a length measured along the axis of the

top to represent the angular velocity n at time t. In
time dt the weight of the cone, if G be above 0, would
tend to create an angular velocity which, with the
usual convention as to sense, would be represented by
a very small horizontal straight line OK perpendicular
to
OC.
The
resultant of the two angular velocities repre-
OK and 00 is represented by OD, and the

motion of the axis is thus a direct precession.
If the centre of inertia G be under 0, OK would be
drawn in an opposite direction and the motion would
sented by
be retrograde.
364
Two
261.
as
If,
is
particular cases.
generally the case, n
very large, so that p
is
is
very
large also, then

r,
/^
1U1
sin^z
cos^,=^^l-(^l--cos* + -jJ=cos*-^^,
/)
on neglecting squares of -
Hence the motion

/I
is
=1
included between
sin
0=1 + ,
/I
and
2p
^
Again
and
if i
= 0,
between
I.e.
2AMqh sin i
+
^^^
then cos
î
= 1,
so that
0^ is
axis remains vertical throughout the motion

slightly displaced, the
motion of the top
Steady motion of the
262.
is
In
top.
zero also and the

but, if the axis
is
not necessarily stable.
this case the axis of the
top describes a cone round the vertical with constant rate of

rotation.
Hence
all
0= a,
The equation
through the motion
= 0,
(6) of Art.
^6)2 cos a
and
-^
= const. =
Gnco
+ Mgh =
This equation gives two possible values of
they
may be
>4<AMgh cos
value whilst
rjr
(8) of Art.
in order that
a.
can shew that in either case the motion
supposing that the disturbance
and
(1).
we must have
real
G^n-
We
&>.
259 then gives
is
unaltered
is
such that
initially,
For,
is stable.
is
given a small
the equations
(6), (7),
259 give
cos + Gnyjr sin = Mgh sin 0,
+ Gn cos = const. = Aco sin- a + Gn cos
A6- Ayjr^ sin

A-^
and
sin-
a.
Eliminating ^, we have
^^'6
.^T7i
[ô
[A(o sin^ a
sm^
Gn
+-
sin^
"-
sinO^
+ Gn cos a Gji
cos ^]-
+ Gn cos a Gn cos ^1 = A Mgh sin 0.
Motion of a top
Putting
(9
=a+
6'i,
where
e^ is
small,
365
we
have, after
some
reduction and using equation (1) above,

Q
^_Q
- 2AMghQ}'' cos a + My-h
^'ft)^
A-co-
Now
the numerator of the right hand
motion
positive, so that the
by
is
clearly always
is
stable for both values of
o)
given
(1).
Also the time of a small oscillation
27r^(y
V^
-=-
W _ 2AMgh(o'
cos a
+ My-h^
...(2).
If the top be set in motion in the usual manner, then
very great.
Solving
On
(1),
\/G-n'^
Cn
= "1
In the
first
2AMgh cos a
cos a
is
4fAMgh cos a
2 A cos a
2A
7i
we have
C^^
'
,..)]
Mqh
Cn
cos a
or ~Fr-
Un
of these cases the precession
o) is
very large and
in the second case it is very small.
Also,
when w
is
very small, the time given by (2)

27rAco
_27rA
~ Cn
'
This will be shewn independently in the next

263.
and
article.
top is set spinning with very great angular velocity,
initially its axis
was
at rest
to
find the
mean
preccssional
motion and the corj'esponding period of nutation.

From Art. 259 the equation for 6 is
sin^
d.B-^=
2Mgh
(cos
- cos 6) [sin^ d-2p (cos - cos 6)]

i
(!)
and therefore p, be great the second factor on the righthand side cannot be positive unless cos i cos 6 be very small,
i.e. unless 6 be very nearly equal to i, i.e. unless the top go
round inclined at very nearly the same angle to the vertical,
and then, from (9), i^ is nearly constant and the motion nearly
If n,
steady.
366
= i-{- X,
Put 6
where x
cos
is
very small, so that
cos 6
i
:
-p:
sin^
Then
(1)
X approx.
^^
becomes
2px)
= 2Mghx [sin i (2p cos i) x'\
= 2Mghx [sin i 2px\ since p is very
AdF = 2Mgkx (sin
sin
where
(7?z^
r-
,'.
.'.
^^^
[Tp
-^
=
J
t^5^'
dx
Q
COS-^ 3
,
\/2qx -x""
^
.
Cntl
r,
7= i + x=i + q\lcos
.
of the nutation
On
2itA
Cti
Agam,
- ^ ^'
_ AMgh sin i
f
J
Hence the period
large.
cos
^=Z-
cos
sitfg
'
from equation (9) of Art. 259.
On
^=Z
no
-v^.
>in t V
The
second
first
is
sliT^
On
Cn \
Mqh
- cos
- n = ^f-
Mqh
approximately
slTz
Cn
AMqh
/,
\
.
lJnt\
- cos
r
Cnt
term increases uniformly with the time, and the
periodic and smaller, containing
Hence, to a
first
approximation,
of -PT- per unit of time.

On ^
>/r
increases at a
mean
rate
Motion of a top
Thus,
367
a top be spun with very great angular velocity n,

vsîth, the axis makes small nutations of period
if
then, to start
Y?
and
precesses with a
it
-^
mately equal to
At
mean angular
velocity approxi-
these oscillations are hardly
first
n diminishes through the resistance of the air

they are more apparent, and finally we come to the
noticeable; as
and
friction
case of Art. 259.
264.
axis which
an angular velocity n about its

find the condition of stability, if the axis
top is spinning with
is vertical ;
be given a slight nutation.
The work of Art. 262 will not apply here because in it we

assumed that sin a. was not small.
We shall want the value of ^'when 6 is small; equation (6)
of Art. 259 gives
Ad = Aylr^s,m.ecosd-
Cnyjr sin
+Mgh sin d
...(1).
Also equation (9) gives
A^
since the top
= On (cos i - cos
sin''
was
initially vertical.
6)
= On (1 - cos
6)
.(2),
being small, (2) gives
Cn
On
^ = X TT^^ ^ 21 + *"'^' mvolvmg

(1)
.
6^ etc.
then gives
A6=^
G'^n^
-g-T-
44
G^n^
- -x-j-
24
+ MghO + terms
involving 6^
etc.
-\^-^-Mgh\e.
^44
Hence,
if
vertical, the
the top be given a small displacement from the
motion
44
is
stable, if
> Mgh,
I.e.
if
?i
> a/
Also the time of a nutation
44^
= ^^V
0^
4>AMgh
^7.;^^
368
Cor. If the body, instead of being a top, be a uniform

sphere of radius a spinning about a vertical axis, and supported
at its lowest point, then
h
A=M.~5
= a,
and G =
a/
Therefore n must be greater than

If
a = one
in order that the
the least
= ^^=
iTT
Ex.
735732
^
= about
o^
Ait
,
circular disc, of radius a, has a thin rod
perpendicular to
disc;
number of
motion may be stable
foot,
its
M~.
o
.
rotations per second
^,
51.
pushed through
its
centre
plane, the length of the rod being equal to the radius of the
shew that the system cannot spin with the rod
velocity is greater than
a/ ~,
vertical unless the angular
APPENDIX
ON THE SOLUTION OF SOME OF THE MORE COMMON
FORMS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
I-
vvhere
dx^^^^^'
P and Q
[Linear equation of the
Multiply the equation by
Hence
t,x.
Here
yeJ"^'^
are functions of x.
first order.]
= J<2e/^''^-+a
J^'^'',
and
it
becomes
constant.
-f+y tan X = sec X

^/-Ptfa:_^Jtana;(to_
-logcosa;_
COS
Hence the equation becomes

dit
cos
77
X ax
.-.
^^'
d^^^K'ft^) ^^'
sin
+y COS'' X =sec^.y.
->
"^
-^
= tiiux +
cos.r
^^'^""^
C.
^ ^^^ ^ ^^^ functions of y.
OnpUig(|;=r,e.a.|.g.f,.t.atg =
|f.
The equation then becomes
a linear equation between

III.
T and
v,
and
is
thus reduced to the form
I.
:;4=-V
dx-
Multiplying by 2
^^ and
integrating,
we have
24
Appendix.
370
y=C sm{n.v +!))== Lsm7ix + McosnJi!,
.'.
where
D, L, and
C,
We obtain,
as in ITI,
{J.\
.'.
D, L, and
C,
Similarly,
= nY + a
nx=
constant = n^
^
\
(ji/^
C'-).
= cosh ~^^+ const.
7/=Ccosh{nx + D)Le'^''+Me-"'',
.'.
where
Differential Equations
we have
in this case
J)='h^P''''^lf(>^''yLinear equation with constant coefficients, such as
VI.
[The methods which follow are the same, whatever be the order of the
equation.]
Let
T)
be any solution of this equation, so that

{D^ + aD' + bD + c)r]=f{x)
y= T+rj, we then have
{D^+aD'^ + bD + c)r=0
and we have
(2), put Y=
p^ + ap'^ + bp + c =
On
putting
To
solve
(1).
(2).
e'*^,
(3),
an equation whose roots arepi^p^, and ^3.
Hence
Ae^''^, Be^^", Ce^^"
are solutions of
(2),
(where A, B, and
and hence
are arbitrary constants)
Ae^'''+Be'^'^''+C'e''^'^ is
This solution, since
it
Hence
r=ê''''^ + 5e^2%Ce''^^
a solution
also.
contains three arbitrary and independent

constants, is the most general solution that an equation of the third
order, such as (2), can have.
This part of the solution
is called
the
(4).
Complementary Function.
Appendix.
371
some
of the roots of equation (3) are imaginary, the equation (4)

takes another form.
If
For
let
a+/3 \/-l, a-/3\/-l and p^ be the
roots.
= A e"^ [cos /3x + i sin ^x\ + 5e^ [cos '^x - 1 sin

= e=^ [J
cos
^x 4- -Si
sin
/3.i-]
/3.r]
+ 06"^'
+ Ce''^*,
where î and Bi are new arbitrary constants.

In some cases two of the quantities pu p^, pa are equal, and then the
(4) for the Complementary Function must be modified.
form
Let p2=pi+y, where y

Then the form (4)
is
ultimately to be zero.
= Ai
where A^, Bi are fresh arbitrary constants.

If y be now made^ equal to zero, this becomes
{Ai + Bix)e''^'' +
If three roots î, p2, ps are all equal,
as the form of the
The value of
The method
?;
(1) is called
of obtaining
rj
the Particular Integral.
depends on the form of f{x).
x'\ e^% ^^g
Xx and
f{x)=x\
Here, by the principles of operators,

'^'"
'^^Di
+ aD'^ + bD+c'
on expanding the operator in powers of D.
Every term
(ii)
is
have, similarly,
Complementary Function.
given by
forms we need consider are

(i)
Ce''^\
we
now known, and hence
f{x) = e^'^.
"We easily see that
D''e^^
= X''e^.
e'^''
^^g Xx.
The only
372
Ap2>eiidix.
= (.40 + ^1^+^2X2+.. O'^^'^
so that in ibis case

(iii)
/(a;)
obtained by substituting X for D.
is
r;
= sinXA'.
"We know that D- sin
X^= - X^ sin \x, and that

sin \x={- \^y sin X^,
Z>2'-
and
in general that
i^ (i)2) sin
= (i)3-aZ)2 + 6/)-c).
cos X.r (aX^ -
sinX.r
- X3 COS \x + aX^ sin X^' + b\ cos Xa;
X2(X--6y^ + (aX2-c)2
- 6X)
sin X^.
_^,^^_^,^/_^_^^,^^^3
(X3
X^ = Z' ( - X2)
c sin X.r)
sin X.r
c)
X2(X2-6)2 + (aX2-c)2
(iv)
We
/(.r)
= e''^sinX.r.
easily obtain
sin X.r)
(e*^^
= e''^ (D +
/it)
sin
X.r,
i)2 (e^st .sin X.r)
= 6^^* {D+fif sin X.r,
sin X.r)
= ef"^ (-0 +/i)'' sin X.r,
sin X.r)
= e*^^ F{D + ^x) sin
i)*" (e/^^
and, generally,
i^ (/))
Hence
>?
(ef^^^
X./;.
= ^ + ,^2 + ;,z) + c ^^^^^^^^

3
"'^
the value of which
(i)+;i)3
is
+ a(Z) + ;i)2 + 6(i> +
obtained as in
/x)
+C
sinXjp,
(iii).
In some cases we have to adjust the form of the Particular

Thus, in the equation
{D-l){D-2){D-Z)y = e^-,
lutegi-f
Appendix.
the particular integral obtained as above becomes infinite

corrected form
we may proceed
373
to get the
as follows:
{D-\){D-2){D-Z)
_l
=_
Lt-e2.ev
=._e2a:Ltiri+ya:+^'+...'l
1-2
y=oyL
J
= something infinite which

Function xe^^.
may
Hence the complete solution
be included in the Complementary
is
y=Ae'+ Be^^ + Ce^^ - xe'^\

As another example take the equation
(i)2
+ 4)(Z)-3)y = cos2a\
The Complementary Function = î cos 2ar+5sin 2.r + C(e^.

The Particular Integral as found by the rule of (iii) becomes
But we may write
i?
j^
Lt
YZ ]i,
+3
-p^ [3 cos (2 + y)
4-(2+y)2
1^^ ^"'
.r
^'^
-2
sin
(2+y) x\
^ ^'" ^'^) '"' y-^
(3 sin
infinite.
2.r 4-
2 cos
'ix)
sin y.r]
-^ U 347T,2[(3coB2.-2sin2..) (l-^~4-...)
-(3sin2A' + 2cos2.r)
= something
infinite included in the
(3 sin
2a.'
fy^r-^+.-.j
Complementary Function
+2
cos
'Ix)
x.
374
VII.
Appendix.
Linear equations with two independent variables,
/i(^)y+/2(^)^=o
Fi{D)y+F^{D)z =
e.g.
..(1),
(2),
D=~r
ax
where
Perform the operation FiiD) on

thus have
(1)
and /a
(2))
on
(2)
and subtract; we
{MD).F,{D)-MD)F,{D)]y = (\
a linear equation which
is soluble as in VI.
Substitute the solution for y thus obtained in
equation for z.
(1),
and we have a linear
i+^+s=l
^ + ^ + 2"^^-ol
(Z)2+l)y+6Z>0=O,-|
i.e.
i>y + (Z>2 + 2)
and
.-.
[(i)2
i.e.
Hence
3=0.1
+ 2)(Z)2 + l)-2).6Z>]y = 0,
(Z>2-i)(Z)2-2)?/ = 0.
(1)
dz
^^^+2.4e:
and hence we have the
+ 25e-'= + 3(7eV2a:4.3i>e-v2x=o,
Vcilue of
z.
(U
.(2),
Cambritigt
PKINTED BY JOHN CLAY,
JI.A
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS,

Elementary Treatise On Rigid Body Mechanics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Elementary Treatise On Rigid Body Mechanics

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Elementary Treatise On Rigid Body Mechanics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ijp S.

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE DATE

INDICATED BELOW AND IS SUBJECT TO AN OVERDUE FINE AS

150M/01 -92 920179

BY THE SAME AUTHOR

AN ARITHMETIC FOR SCHOOLS.

Tenth Edition. Globe

A NEW EDITION OF DR TODHUNTER'S ALGEBRA

Globe 8vo. Ninth Impression, with

8s. 6d. net.

A NEW EDITION OF DR TODHUNTER'S EUCLID.

BY THE SAME AUTHOR

SOLUTIONS OF THE EXAMPLES

THE ELEMENTS OF STATICS AND DYNAMICS.

Crown Svo. Tenth Edition.

Moivre's Theorem and the Higher Portions.

SOLUTIONS OF THE EXAMPLES

THE ELEMENTS OF HYDROSTATICS, being a

to the Elements of Statics

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

All rights reserved

Professor of Mathematics at the Royal

(University of London), sometime Fellow of

Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge

Published, November. 1909.

Second Edition, 1913.

the following work I have tried to write an elementary

Rigid D3'naraics which are usually read by Students attending

a course of lectures in Applied Mathematics

Engineering Degi-ee, and by Junior Students

assume that the Student has previously read some such

that he possesses a fair working knowledge of Differential and

the Differential Equations, with which he

will meet, are solved in the Text,

methods of solution of such equations.

I have included in the book a large

mostly collected from University and College Examination

be found a large number of serious

corrections, or suggestions for

eoyal holloway college,

Fundamental Definitions and Principles

Uniplanar motion referred to Polar Coordinates

Uniplanar motion when the acceleration is towards a fixed

The Simple Pendulum

Motion in a Resisting Medium

the Forces are Periodic

Motion of a pendulum in a Resisting Medium

Motion in Three Dimensions.

Accelerations in terms of Cartesian Coordinates

Tangential and Normal Accelerations

Uniplanar motion where the accelerations parallel to

DYNAMICS OF A KIGID BODY

Moments and Products of

Motion about a Fixed Axis

The Compound Pendulum

Motion in Two Dimensions. Impulsive Forces

Conservation of Linear and Angular

Lagrange's Equations for Blows

Lagrange's Equations in Generalised Coordinates