The Mercator Projection

THE
MERCATOR
PROJECTIONS
THE NORMAL AND TRANSVERSE
M ERCATOR PROJECTIONS ON
THE SPHERE AND THE ELLIPSOID

WITH FULL DERIVATIONS OF ALL FORMULAE
PETER OSBORNE
EDINBURGH
2013
This article describes the mathematics of the normal and transverse

Mercator projections on the sphere and the ellipsoid with full derivations of all formulae.
The Transverse Mercator projection is the basis of many maps covering individual countries, such as Australia and Great Britain, as
well as the set of UTM projections covering the whole world (other
than the polar regions). Such maps are invariably covered by a set of
grid lines. It is important to appreciate the following two facts about
the Transverse Mercator projection and the grids covering it:
1. Only one grid line runs true northsouth. Thus in Britain only
the grid line coincident with the central meridian at 2 W is
true: all other meridians deviate from grid lines. The UTM
series is a set of 60 distinct Transverse Mercator projections
each covering a width of 6 in latitude: the grid lines run true
northsouth only on the central meridians at 3 E, 9 E, 15 E,
...
2. The scale on the maps derived from Transverse Mercator projections is not uniform: it is a function of position. For example the Landranger maps of the Ordnance Survey of Great
Britain have a nominal scale of 1:50000: this value is only exact on two slightly curved lines almost parallel to the central
meridian at 2 W and distant approximately 180km east and
west of it. The scale on the central meridian is constant but it
is slightly less than the nominal value.
The above facts are unknown to the majority of map users. They are
the subject of this article together with the presentation of formulae
relating latitude and longitude to grid coordinates.
Preface
For many years I had been intrigued by the the statement on the (British) Ordnance
Survey maps pointing out that the grid lines are not exactly aligned with meridians and
parallels: four precise figures give the magnitude of the deviation at each corner of the
map sheets. My first retirement project has been to find out exactly how these figures
are calculated and this has led to an exploration of all aspects of the Transverse Mercator
projection on an ellipsoid of revolution (TME). This projection is also used for the Universal
Transverse Mercator series of maps covering the whole of the Earth, except for the polar
regions.
The formulae for TME are given in many books and web pages but the full derivations
are only to be found in original publications which are not readily accessible: therefore
I decided to write a short article explaining the derivation of the formulae. Pedagogical
reasons soon made it apparent that it would be necessary to start with the normal and transverse Mercator projection on the sphere (NMS and TMS) before going on to discuss the
normal and transverse Mercator projection on the ellipsoid (NME and TME). As a result,
the length of this document has doubled and redoubled but I have resisted the temptation
to cut out details which would be straightforward for a professional but daunting for a layman. The mathematics involved is not difficult (depending on your point of view) but it
does require the rudiments of complex analysis for the crucial steps. On the other hand
the algebra gets fairly heavy at times; Redfearn (1948) talks of a a particularly tough spot
of work and Hotine (1946) talks of reversing series by brute force and algebraso be
warned. Repeating this may be seen as a perverse undertaking on my part but this edition includes derivations using the computer algebra program Maxima (2009) . To make
this article as self-contained as possible I have added a number of appendices covering the
required mathematics.
My sources for the TME formulae are to be found in Empire Survey Review dating from
the nineteen forties to sixties. The actual papers are fairly terse, as is normal for papers by
professionals for their peers, and their perusal will certainly not add to the details presented
here. Books on mathematical cartography are also fairly thin on the ground, moreover they
usually try to cover all types of projections whereas we are concerned only with Mercator
projections. The few books that I found to be of assistance are listed in the Literature (L) or
References R but they are supplemented with research papers and web material.
I would like to thank Harry Kogon for reading, commenting on and even checking the
mathematics outlined in these pages. Any remaining errors (and typographical slips) must
be attributed to myselfwhen you find them please send an email to the address below.
Peter Osborne
Edinburgh, 2008, 2013
Source code
mercator99@virginmedia.com
Contents
Introduction
1.1
Geodesy and the Figure of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Topographic surveying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.3
Cartography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.4
The criteria for a faithful map projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.5
The representative fraction (RF) and the scale factor . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.6
Graticules, grids, azimuths and bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.7
Historical outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.8
Chapter outlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
Normal Mercator on the sphere: NMS
21
2.1
Coordinates and distance on the sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
2.2
Normal (equatorial) cylindrical projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.3
Four examples of normal cylindrical projections . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
2.4
The normal Mercator projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
2.5
Rhumb lines and loxodromes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
2.6
Distances on rhumbs and great circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
2.7
The secant normal Mercator projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
2.8
Summary of NMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
Transverse Mercator on the sphere: TMS
49
3.1
The derivation of the TMS formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
3.2
Features of the TMS projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
3.3
Meridian distance, footpoint and footpoint latitude . . . . . . . . . . .
60
3.4
The scale factor for the TMS projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
3.5
Azimuths and grid bearings in TMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
3.6
The grid convergence of the TMS projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
3.7
Conformality of general projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
3.8
Series expansions for the unmodified TMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
3.9
Secant TMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
NMS to TMS by complex variables
71
4.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
4.2
Closed formulae for the TMS transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
4.3
Transformation to the TMS series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
4.4
The inverse complex series: an alternative method . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
4.5
Scale and convergence in TMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
The geometry of the ellipsoid
87
5.1
Coordinates on the ellipsoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
5.2
The parameters of the ellipsoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
5.3
Parameterisation by geodetic latitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
5.4
Cartesian and geographic coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
5.5
The reduced or parametric latitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
5.6
The curvature of the ellipsoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
5.7
Distances on the ellipsoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
5.8
The meridian distance on the ellipsoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
5.9
Inverse meridian distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
101
5.10 Auxiliary latitudes double projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
102
5.11 The conformal latitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
104
5.12 The rectifying latitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
106
5.13 The authalic latitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
107
5.14 Ellipsoid: summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
109
Normal Mercator on the ellipsoid (NME)
111
6.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
111
6.2
The direct transformation for NME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
112
6.3
The inverse transformation for NME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
113
6.4
The scale factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
115
6.5
Rhumb lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
116
6.6
Modified NME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
116
Transverse Mercator on the ellipsoid (TME)
117
7.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
117
7.2
Derivation of the Redfearn series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
121
7.3
Convergence and scale in TME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
126
7.4
Convergence in geographical coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
128
7.5
Convergence in projection coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
129
7.6
Scale factor in geographical coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
129
7.7
Scale factor in projection coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
130
7.8
Redfearns modified (secant) TME series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
132
Applications of TME
135
8.1
Coordinates, grids and origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
135
8.2
The UTM projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
136
8.3
UTM coordinate systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
137
8.4
The British national grid: NGGB
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
139
8.5
Scale variation in TME projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
142
8.6
Convergence in the TME projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
145
8.7
The accuracy of the TME transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
146
8.8
The truncated TME series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
149
8.9
The OSGB series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
150
8.10 Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
151
A Curvature in 2 and 3 dimensions
153
A.1 Planar curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
153
A.2 Curves in three dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
156
A.3 Curvature of surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
157
A.4 Meusniers theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
158
A.5 Curvature of normal sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
159
B Lagrange expansions
163
B.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
163
B.2 Direct inversion of power series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
164
B.3 Lagranges theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
164
B.4 Application to a fourth order polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
165
B.5 Application to a trigonometric series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
166
B.6 Application to an eighth order polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
168
B.7 Application to a modified eighth order series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
170
B.8 Application to series for TME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
171
B.9 Proof of the Lagrange expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
173
C Plane Trigonometry
177
C.1 Trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
177
C.2 Hyperbolic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
179
C.3 Gudermannian functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
181
D Spherical trigonometry
183
D.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
183
D.2 Spherical cosine rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
184
D.3 Spherical sine rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
185
D.4 Solution of spherical triangles I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
187
D.5 Polar triangles and the supplemental cosine rules . . . . . . . . . . . .
188
D.6 The cotangent four-part formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
191
D.7 Half-angle and half-side formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
192
D.8 Right-angled triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
194
D.9 Quadrantal triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
195
D.10 Solution of spherical triangles V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
195
D.11 Geodetic problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
196
D.12 Area and spherical excess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
197
D.13 Legendres theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
199
E Power series expansions
202
E.1 General form of the Taylor and Maclaurin series . . . . . . . . . . . . .
202
E.2 Miscellaneous Taylor series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
202
E.3 Miscellaneous Maclaurin series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
203
E.4 Miscellaneous Binomial series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
204
F Calculus of variations
206
G Complex variable theory
210
G.1 Complex numbers and functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
210
G.2 Differentiation of complex functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
213
G.3 Functions and maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
217
H Maxima code
220
H.1 Common code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
220
H.2 Lagrange reversion examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
221
H.3 Meridian distance and rectifying latitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
222
H.4 Conformal latitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
224
H.5 Authalic latitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
225
H.6 Redfearn series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
227
H.7 Redfearn examples for NGGB and UTM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
231
L Literature and links
236
R References and Bibliography
244
X Index
252
Chapter
Introduction
1.1
Geodesy and the Figure of the Earth
Geodesy is the science concerned with the study of the exact size and shape of the Earth in
conjunction with the analysis of the variations of the Earths gravitational field. This combination of topics is readily appreciated when one realizes that (a) in traditional surveying
the instruments were levelled with respect to the gravitational field and (b) in modern satellite techniques we must consider the satellite as an object moving freely in the gravitational
field of the Earth. Geodesy is the scientific basis for both traditional triangulation on the
actual surface of the earth and modern surveying using GPS methods.
Whichever method we use, traditional or satellite, it is vital to work with well defined
reference surfaces to which measurements of latitude and longitude can be referred. Clearly,
the actual topographic surface of the Earth is very unsuitable as a reference surface since
it has a complicated shape, varying in height by up to twenty kilometres from the deepest oceans to the highest mountains. A much better reference surface is the gravitational
equipotential surface which coincides with the mean sea level continued under the continents. This surface is called the geoid and its shape is approximately a flattened sphere but
with many slight undulations due to the gravitational irregularities arising from the inhomogeneity in the Earths crust.
However, for the purpose of high precision geodetic surveys, the undulating geoid is not
a good enough reference surface and it is convenient to introduce a mathematically exact
reference surface which is a good fit to the shape of the geoid. The surface which has been
used for the last three hundred years is the oblate ellipsoid of revolution formed when an
ellipse is rotated about its minor axis. We shall abbreviate ellipsoid of revolution to simply
ellipsoid in this article, in preference to the term spheroid which is used in much of the older
literature. (We shall not consider triaxial ellipsoids which do not have an axis of symmetry).
The shape and size of the reference ellipsoid which approximates the geoid is usually called
the figure of the Earth.
Chapter 1. Introduction
10
The earliest accurate determinations of the figure of the earth were made by comparing
two high precision meridian arc surveys, each of which provided a measure of the distance
along the meridian per unit degree at a latitude in the middle of each arc. Two such measurements, preferably at very different latitudes, are sufficient to determine two parameters
which specify the ellipsoidthe major axis a together with the minor axis b or, more usually, the combination of the major axis with the flattening f (defined below). For example,
in the first half of the eighteenth century (from 17341749) , French scientists measured
a meridian arc of about one degree of latitude in Scandanavia crossing the Arctic circle
(French Geodesic Mission to Finland) and a second arc of about three degrees crossing the
equator in Peru ( French Geodesic Mission to Peru) and confirmed for the first time the
oblateness of the ellipsoid. (See Clarke (1880), pp 413) More accurate measurements of
a French arc, supervised by Delambre from 1792, determined the meridian quadrant from
equator to pole through Paris, as 5130766 toises (of Peru), the standard of length used in
the measurement of the Peruvian arc. The standard toise bar was held in Paris. The French
then defined the meridian quadrant to be 10,000,000 metres and the first standard metre bar
was constructed at a length of 0.5130766 toise. (Clarke (1880), pp 1822).
In 1830 George Everest calculated an ellipsoid using what he took to be the best two
arcs, an earlier Indian Arc surveyed by his predecessor William Lambton and once again
the arc of Peru. As more and longer arcs were measured the results were combined to give
more accurate ellipsoids. For example George Biddell Airy discussed sixteen arcs before
arriving at the result he published in 1830:
a = 6377563.4m
b = 6356256.9m
f = 1/299.32
[Airy1830]
(1.1)
where the flattening f , defined as (a b)/a, gives a measure of the departure from the
sphere. Similarly Alexander Ross Clarke used eight arcs to arrive at his 1866 ellipsoid:
a = 6378206.4m
b = 6356583.8m
f = 1/294.98
[Clarke1866]
(1.2)
Modern satellite methods have introduced global ellipsoid fits to the geoid, that for the
Geodetic Reference System of 1980 (GRS80) being
a = 6378137m
b = 6356752.3m
f = 1/298.26
[GRS80/WGS84] (1.3)
There are many ellipsoids in use today and they differ by no more than a kilometre from
each other, with an equatorial radius of approximately 6378km (3963 miles) and a polar
semi-axis of 6356km (3949 miles) shorter by approximately 22km (14 miles). Note that
modern satellite ellipsoids, whilst giving good global fits, are actually poorer fits in some
regions surveyed on a best-fit ellipsoid derived by traditional (pre-satellite) methods.
1.2
Topographic surveying
The aim of a topographic survey is to provide highly accurate maps of some region referenced to a specific datum. By this we mean a choice of a definite reference ellipsoid
11
together with a precise statement as to how the ellipsoid is related to the area under survey.
For example we could specify how the centre of the selected ellipsoid is related to the chosen origin of the survey and also how the orientation of the axes of the ellipsoid are related
to the vertical and meridian at the origin. It is very important to realize that the choice of
datum for any such survey work is completely arbitrary as long as it is a reasonable fit to
the geoid in the region of the survey. The chosen datum is usually stated on the final maps.
As an example, the maps produced by the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain (OSGB,
1999) are defined with respect to a datum OSGB36 (established for the 1936 re-survey)
which is still based on the Airy 1830 ellipsoid which was chosen at the start of the original
triangulation in the first half of the nineteenth century. This ellipsoid is indeed a good fit to
the geoid under Britain but it is a poor fit everywhere else on the globe so it is not used for
mapping any other country. The OSGB36 datum defines how the Airy ellipsoid is related
to the the ground stations of the survey. Originally, in the nineteenth century, the origin
was chosen at Greenwich observatory but, for the 1936 re-triangulation no single origin
was chosen, rather the survey was adjusted so that the latitude and longitude of 11 control
stations remained as close as possible to their values established in the original nineteenth
century triangulation.
Until 1983, the United States, Canada and Mexico used the North American datum
established in 1927, namely NAD27. This is based on the Clarke (1866) ellipsoid tied to
an origin at Meades Ranch in Kansas where the latitude, longitude, elevation above the
ellipsoid and azimuth toward a second station (Waldo) were all fixed. Likewise, much
of south east Asia uses the Indian datum, ID1830, which is based on the Everest (1830)
ellipsoid tied to an origin at Kalianpur. The modern satellite ellipsoids used in the World
Geodetic System suchs WGS72, GRS80, WGS84 are defined with respect to the Earths
centre of mass and a defined orientation of axes. See Global Positioning System.
In all, there are two or three hundred datums in use over the world, each with a chosen
reference ellipsoid attached to some origin. The ellipsoids used in the datums do not agree
in size or position and a major problem for geodesy (and military planners in particular)
is how to tie these datums together so that we have an integrated picture of the worlds
topography. In the past datums were tied together where they overlapped but now we can
relate each datum to a single geocentric global datum determined by satellite.
Once the datum for a survey has been chosen we would traditionally have proceeded
with a high precision triangulation from which, by using the measured angles and baseline,
we can calculate the latitude and longitude of every triangulation station from assumed
values of latitude and longitude at the origin. Note that it is the latitude and longitude values
on the reference ellipsoid beneath every triangulation station that are calculated and used
as input data for the map projections. It is important to realise that once a datum has been
chosen for a survey in some region of the Earth (such as Britain or North America) then
it should not be altered, otherwise the latitude and longitude of every feature in the survey
region would have to be changed (by recalculating the triangulation data). But this has
already happened and it will happen again. For example the North American datum NAD27
was replaced by a new datum NAD83 necessitating the recalculation of all coordinates, with
resulting changes in position ranging from 10m to 200m. If (when) we use one of the new
12
global datums fitted by satellite technology as the basis for new maps then the latitude and
longitude values of every feature will change slightly again.
1.3
Cartography
A topographic survey produces a set of geographical locations (latitude and longitude) referenced to some specified datum. The problem of cartography, the representation of the
latitudelongitude data on thedatum by a two-dimensional map. There are an infinite number of projections which address this problem but in this article we consider only the normal (N) and transverse (T) Mercator projections, first on the sphere (S) and then on the
ellipsoid (E). We shall abbreviate these projections as NMS, TMS, NME and TME: they
are considered in full detail in Chapters 2, 3, 6 and 7 respectively. Formulae (without
derivations) may also be found in in Map ProjectionsA Working Manual, (Snyder, 1987).
We define a map projection by two functions x( , ) and y( , ) which specify the
plane Cartesian coordinates (x, y) corresponding to the latitude and longitude coordinates
( , ). For the above projections the fundamental origin is taken as a point O on the equator, the positive x-axis is taken as the eastward direction of the projected equator and the
positive y-axis is taken as the northern direction of the projected meridian through O. This
convention agrees with that used in Snyders book but beware other conventions! Many
older texts, as well as most current continental sources, adopt a convention with the x-axis
as north and the y-axis as sometimes east and sometimes west! The convention x-north and
y-east is also useful when complex mathematics is used, for example Karney (2011),
1.4
The criteria for a faithful map projection
There are several basic criteria for a faithful map projection but it is important to understand
that it is impossible to satisfy all these criteria at the same time. This is simply a reflection
of the fact that it is impossible to deform a sphere or ellipsoid into a plane without creases
or cuts. (This follows from the Theorema Egregium of Gauss. See Gauss (1827)) Thus
all maps are compromises to some extent and they must fail to meet at least one of the
following five properties
1. One-to-one correspondence of points. This will normally be the case for large scale
maps of small regions but global maps will usually fail this criterion. Points at which
the map fails to be one-to-one are called singular points. For example, in the normal
Mercator projection the poles are singular because they project into lines.
2. Uniformity of point (or local) scale. By point scale we mean the ratio of the distance
between two nearby points on the map and the corresponding points on the ground.
Ideally the point scale factor should have the same value at all points. This criterion
is never satisfied. In the Mercator projections the scale is true only on two lines at
the most.
13
3. Isotropy of point scale. Ideally the scale factor would be isotropic (independent
of direction) at any point and as a corollary the shape of any small region would be
unalteredsuch a projection is said to be orthomorphic (right shape). By small we
mean that, at some level of measurement accuracy, the magnitude of the scale does
not vary over the small region. This condition is satisfied by the Mercator projections.
4. Conformal representation. Consider any two lines on the surface of the Earth which
intersect at a point P at an angle . Let P0 and 0 be the corresponding point and angle
on the map projection. The map is said to be conformal if = 0 at all non-singular
points of the map. This has the consequence that the shape of a local feature (such
as a short stretch of coastline or a river) is well represented even though there will be
distortion over large areas. All Mercator projections satisfy this criterion.
5. Equal area. We may wish to demand that equal areas on the Earth have equal areas
on the projection. This is considered to be politically correct by many proponents of
the Gall-Peters projection but the downside is that such equal area projections distort
shapes in the large. The Mercator projections do not preserve area .
In summary the normal Mercator projection has the properties: (a) there are singular
points at the poles, (b) the point scale is isotropic (so the map is orthomorphic) but the
magnitude of the scale varies with latitude, being true on two parallels at most, (c) the
projection is conformal, (d) the projection does not preserve area. The transverse Mercator
projection has the properties: (a) there are singular points on the equator, (b) the scale
is isotropic (so the map is orthomorphic) with magnitude varying with both latitude and
longitude, being true on at most two curved lines which cannot be identified with parallels
or meridians, (c) the projection is conformal, (d) the projection does not preserve area.
1.5
The representative fraction (RF) and the scale factor
The OSGB (1999) produces many series of maps of Great Britain. For example there are
over two hundred Landranger map sheets which are endorsed with the phrase 1:50,000
scale, implying that each 80cm80cm sheet covers an area of 40km40km on the ground.
This statement is misleading. To clarify the issue we distinguish two concepts: the representative fraction and the scale factor.
There are four conceptual steps involved in making a map: (1) a survey produces latitude, longitude data on a spherical or ellipsoidal datum; (2) the datum is reduced to a small
model, the reduction factor being the representative fraction; (3) the position locations on
the small model are projected (by specified formulae, not simply literally) onto a cylindrical
or conical sheet wrapped about the model; (4) the sheet is cut and opened out to give a planar map projection. If, in this construction, the cylinder was tangential to the model at the
equator, the map distances on the equator will equal these on the reduced model and we say
that the map scale factor is unity on the equator. The scale factor at other points will vary in
a way which is determined by the projection formulae and maintaining a small variation of
the scale factor over the map is an important criterion in the choice of projection. Note that
14
the second and third of the conceptual steps may be interchanged. Of course one doesnt
construct physical models, neither does one wrap them in sheets of paper: only one step is
needed from a data-base of locations straight to a printer by way of a computer program.
Returning to the example of the 1:50,000 map series produced by the OSGB we now
interpret that figure as the constant representative fraction. For the details of the projection
we have to consult the OSGB (1999) literature where we find that the map scale factor, the
ratio of nearby distances on the map divided by the corresponding distance on the reduced
datum model, is fixed as 0.9996 on the meridian at 2 W and elsewhere varies according to
precise formulae which we shall display later. This implies that 2cm on the map, the spacing
between the grid lines, represents a true distance on the ground of between 0.9996km and
1.0007km. Thus each 80cmx80cm map sheet covers only approximately 40km40km. The
precise variation of scale factor with position will be calculated in later chapters.
Note the usage that a printed map is large scale when the RF, considered as a mathematical fraction, is large and the map covers a small area. The OSGB 1:50000 maps are
considered to be in this category and the 1:5000 series are of even larger scale. Conversely
small scale maps having a small RF, say 1:1000000 (or simply 1:1M), are used to cover
greater regions.
This is an appropriate point to mention the concept of a zero dimension for a map projection. This is the smallest size that can be printed on the map and remain visible to the
naked eye. Before the age of digital maps this was often taken as 0.2mm, corresponding to
10m on a 1:50000 map. Thus narrow streams or roads cannot be shown to scale on such a
map. Even wide roads, such as motorways, are often shown at exaggerated scales. Modern
digital systems are more powerful since they can show more and more detail as the map is
zoomed.
1.6
Graticules, grids, azimuths and bearings
The set of meridians and parallels on the reference ellipsoid is called the graticule. There is
no obligation to show the projection of the graticule on the map projection but it is usually
shown on small scale maps covering large areas, such as world maps. and it is usually omitted on large scale maps of small areas. For the OSGB 1:50000 series there is no graticule
but small crosses indicate the intersections of the graticule at 50 intervals on the sheet and
latitude and longitude values are indicated at the edges of the sheet.
The projected map is usually constructed in a plane Cartesian coordinate system but
once again there is no obligation to show a reference grid of lines of constant x and y
values. In general small scale maps are not embellished with a grid whereas large scale
maps usually do have such a reference grid. The OSGB 1:50000 map sheets have a grid at
a 2cm intervals corresponding to a nominal (but not exact) spacing of 1km. Note that any
kind of grid may be superimposed on a map to meet a users requirements: it need not be
aligned to the Cartesian projection axes, nor need it be a Cartesian grid.
On the graticule the angle between the meridian at any point A and another short line
element AB is called the azimuth of that line element. Our convention is that azimuths are
15
measured clockwise from north but other conventions exist. (Occasionally azimuth has been
measured clockwise from south!) On a projection endowed with a grid the angle between
the grid line through the projected position of A and the projection of the line AB is called
the grid bearing. This clear distinction in terminology shall be adhered to in this work but
it is by no means universal.
On normal Mercator projections the projected graticule is aligned to the underlying
Cartesian system so the constant-x grid lines correspond to meridians running north-south.
The projection is also constructed to ensure that the azimuth and grid bearing are equal.
Therefore a rhumb line, a course of constant azimuth on the sphere, becomes a straight
line on the projection.
On the transverse Mercator projections the situation is more complicated. The projection of the graticule is a set of complex curves which, in general, are not aligned to the
underlying Cartesian reference grid: the only exceptions are the equator and the central
meridian. As a result the constant-x grid lines do not run north-south and the azimuth is not
equal to the grid-bearing, instead it is equal to the angle between the projected meridian and
the projected line segment AB. The angle between the projected meridian and the constant-x
grid line is called the grid convergence. On large scale maps of restricted regions it is a
small angle but nonetheless important for high accuracy work. The OSGB 1:50000 map
sheets state the value of the grid convergence at each corner of the sheet.
1.7
Historical outline
Gerardus Mercator (15121594) did not develop the mathematics that we shall present
for his projection (NMS) in Chapter 2; moreover he had nothing at all to do with three
other projections that now carry his nameTMS, NME, TME. In 1569 he published his
map-chart entitled Nova et aucta orbis terrae descriptio ad usum navigantium ementate
accommadata which may be translated as A new and enlarged description of the Earth
with corrections for use in navigation. His explanation is given on the map-chart:
In this mapping of the world we have [desired] to spread out the surface of the globe
into a plane that the places should everywhere be properly located, not only with respect to their true direction and distance from one another, but also in accordance with
their true longitude and latitude; and further, that the shape of the lands, as they appear
on the globe, shall be preserved as far as possible. For this there was needed a new
arrangement and placing of the meridians, so that they shall become parallels, for the
maps produced hereto by geographers are, on account of the curving and bending of
the meridians, unsuitable for navigation. Taking all this into consideration, we have
somewhat increased the degrees of latitude toward each pole, in proportion to the increase of the parallels beyond the ratio they really have to the equator. (Full text is
available on Wikipedia at Mercator 1569 world map, Legend 3).
This is an admirably clear statement of his approach. In order that the meridians should
be perpendicular to the equator, and parallel to each other, it is first necessary to increase
the length of a parallel on the projection as one moves away from the equator. Since the
16
circumference of a parallel at latitude is 2R cos it must be scaled up by a factor of sec

so that it has the same length as the equator on the projection (2R). Thus, to guarantee that
an azimuth is equal to its corresponding grid bearing, or equivalently rhumb lines project to
straight lines, it is necessary to increase the meridian scale at latitude by a factor of sec .
This leads to a gradual increase in the spacing of the parallels on the projection as against
the uniform spacing of the equirectangular projection.
Exactly how Mercator produced his map is not known: he left no account of his method.
He was familiar with the writing of Pedro Nunes (Randles, 2000) who had showed that
rhumb lines are spirals from pole to pole on the sphere, and he had found means of marking
such rhumbs on his terrestial globe of 1541. It is possible that he employed mechanical
means, using templates, one for each of the principal rhumbs. He could have measured the
coordinates of points on a rhumb and transferred them to a plane chart with the parallels
adjusted so that the rhhumbs became straight lines. On the other hand his latitude scale is
fairly accurate and most writers assume that he had some means of calculating the spacings.
Ten such methods are discussed by Hollander (2005).
The first to publish an account of the construction of a Mercator chart was a Cambridge
professor of mathematics named Edward Wright 1558?1615). His publication entitled
The correction of certain errors in navigation (Wright, 1599) discusses the errors of the
equirectangular projection and shows how the angles, at least, are correct in Mercators
chart and goes on to explain the construction of such a chart by using a table of secants. He
published a very fine chart based on accurate positions taken from a globe modelled by his
compatriot Emery Molyneux. For many years thereafter the charts were widely described
as Wright-Molyneux map projection.
In addition to his mathematical derivation of the projection Wright imagined a physical
construction:
Suppose a sphericall superficies with meridians, parallels, rumbes, and the whole hydrographical description drawne thereupon, to be inscribed into a concave cylinder,
their axes agreeing in one. Let this sphericall superficies swel like a bladder, (while
it is in blowing) equally always in every part thereof (that is, as much in longitude as
in latitude) till it apply, and join itself (round about and all alongst, also towards either pole) unto the concave superficies of the cylinder: each parallel on this sphericall
superficies increasing successively from the equinoctial [equator] towards either pole,
until it come to be of equal diameter with the cylinder, and consequently the meridians
still wideening themselves, til they become so far distant every where each from other
as they are at the equinoctial. Thus it may most easily be understood, how a sphericall
superficies may (by extension) be made cylindrical, . . .
It is easy to see how this works. Mercators projection is constructed to preserve angles
by stretching meridians to compensate exactly for the streching of the parallels. The angle
preserving projection is conformal. Now consider Wrights bladder: it must be infinitely extensible and able to withstand infinite pressure as it slides over the perfectly smooth cylinder.
The crucial phrase is swel . . . equally always in every part thereof. Therefore the tensions
over both the initial spherical surface and the final cylindrical surface are uniform, albeit
of very different magnitudes. This uniformity guarantees that a crossing of two lines on
17
the sphere will be at at exactly the same angle on the cylinder. Thus we have generated a
conformal projection from the sphere to the cylinder. And there is only one such conformal
projection.
The logarithm function was invented by John Napier in 1614 and numerical tables of
many logarithmic functions were soon readily available (although analytic Taylor expansions of functions had to wait another hundred years). In the 1640s, another English mathematician called Henry Bond (16001678) stumbled on the numerical agreement between
Wrights tables and those for ln[tan( )], as long as was identified with ( /2 + /4). The
mathematical proof of the equivalence immediately became noted as an important problem
but it was nearly thirty years before it was solved by James Gregory (16381675), Isaac
Barrow (16301677) and Edmond Halley (16561742) acting independently. See Halley
(1696) These proofs eventually coalesced into direct integration of the secant function as
presented in Chapter 2. The modification of this integration for the ellipsoid (and NME) is
trivial.
Having given credit to Wright, Bond and others it is now believed the English mathematician Thomas Harriot (15601621) was possibly the first to calculate the spacings of
the Mercator projection. His unpublished works have had to await study until very recently.
They contain evidence of a method equivalent to that of Edward Wright and moreover he
seems to have devised a formula equivalent to the logarithmic tangent formula derived from
calculus almost one hundred years later. (Pepper, 1967; Lohne, 1965, 1979; Taylor and
Sadler, 1953; Stedall, 2000)
The transverse Mercator projection on the sphere was included in a set of seven new
projections published (Lambert, 1772) by the Swiss mathematician and cartographer, Johann Heinrich Lambert. As we shall see in Chapter 3, the derivation of this projection on
the sphere is a straightforward application of spherical trigonometry starting from the normal Mercator result. The generalisation to the ellipsoid was carried out by Carl Friedrich
Gauss (17771855) in connection with the survey of Hanover commenced in 1818. His
projection is conformal and preserves true scale on one meridian: this is the projection we
shall term TME.
Gauss left few details of his work and the most accessible account is that of Kruger
(1912). For this reason the transverse Mercator projection on the ellipsoid is often called
the GaussKruger projection. Kruger developed two expressions for the TME projection,
one a power series in the longitude difference from a central meridian and a second using
a power series in the parameter which describes the flattening of the ellipsoid. The first of
these methods was extended to higher order by Lee (1945), and Redfearn (1948) in Britain
and by Thomas (1952) in the USA. Their results are used for the OSGB map series and
the UTM series respectively. (There are only sub-millimetre differences). It is this method
which is described in this article.
It should be noted that in addition to the representation of the projection by power series
approximations an exact solution was devised by E. H. Thompson and published by Lee
(1976). That solution and the second solution of Kruger are available in Karney (2011).
Finally, I give the abstract of the 1948 paper by Redfearn. The actual paper is highly
18
condensed (6 pages!) and although it is available (at a price) it will add nothing to the work
presented here.
The Transverse Mercator Projection, now in use for the new O.S. triangulation and
mapping of Great Britain, has been the subject of several recent articles in the Empire
Surpey Review. The formulae of the projection itself have been given by various writers, from Gauss, Schreiber and Jordan to Hristow, Tardi, Lee, Hotine and othernot,
it is to be regretted, with complete agreement, in all cases. For the purpose for which
these formulae have hitherto been employed, in zones of restricted width and in relatively low latitudes, the completeness with which they were given was adequate, and
the omission of certain smaller terms, in the fourth and higher powers of the eccentricity, was of no practical importance. In the case of the British grid, however, we have to
cover a zone which must be considered as having a total width of some ten to twelve
degrees of longitude at least, and extending to latitude 61N. This means, firstly, that
terms which have as their initial co-efficients the fourth and sixth powers of the longitude will be of greater magnitude than usual, and secondly that the powers of tan are
likewise greatly increased. Lastly, an inspection of the formulae (as hitherto available)
shows a definite tendency for the numerical co-efficients of terms to increase as the
terms themselves decrease.
1.8
Chapter outlines
Chapter 2 starts by describing by discussing angles and distances on a sphere of radius

equal to the mean radius of the WGA84 ellipsoid. We consider the class of all normal
(equatorial) cylindric projections onto a cylinder tangential to the equator of a sphere and
compare and contrast four important examples. The Mercator projection on the sphere
(NMS) is defined as the single member of the class which is such that an azimuth on the
sphere and its corresponding grid bearing on the map are equal. This property of conformality is then used to derive the projection formulae by a comparison of infinitesimal elements
on the sphere and the plane. Rhumb lines and their properties are defined in detail and
contrasted with great-circles. Secant projections are introduced to control scale variation.
Chapter 3 discusses the transverse Mercator projection on the sphere (TMS). In this case
we are considering a projection onto a cylinder which is tangential to the sphere on a great
circle formed by a meridian and its continuation, e.g. the meridian at 21 E and 159 W.
These projections are rather unusual when applied to the whole globe but in practice we
intend to apply them to a narrow strip on either side of the meridian of tangency which is
then termed the central meridian of the transverse projection. The crux is that by considering
a large number of such projection strips we can cover the whole sphere (except near the
poles) at high accuracy. The derivation of the projection formulae is a straightforward
exercise in spherical trigonometry. An important new feature is that corresponding azimuths
and grid bearings are not equal (even though the transformation remains conformal) and
we define their difference as the grid convergence. Finally we present low order series
expansions for the projection formulae.
19
Chapter 4 is the crunch. Our ultimate aim is to derive the projection equations for the
transverse Mercator projection on the ellipsoid (TME) in the form of series expansions.
The only satisfactory way of obtaining these results is by using a small amount of complex
variable theory. This method is complicated by both the geometrical problems of the ellipsoid and also by the fact that we need to carry the series to many terms in order to achieve the
required accuracy. Thus, for purely pedagogical reasons, in this chapter we use the complex
variable methods to derive the low order series solutions for TMS (derived in Chapter 3)
from the standard solution for NMS. That it works is encouragement for proceeding with
the major problem of constructing the TME projections from NME.
Chapter 5 derives the properties of the ellipse and ellipsoid. In particular we introduce
(a) the principal curvatures in the meridian plane and its principal normal plane, (b) the
distinction between geocentric, geodetic and reduced latitudes, (c) the distance metric on
the ellipsoid and (d) the series expansion which gives the distance along the meridian as a
function of latitude, (e) auxiliary latitudes and double projections.
Chapter 6 derives the normal Mercator projection (NME) on the ellipsoid. The method
is a simple generalization of the methods used in Chapter 2 the only difference being in
the different form of the infinitesimal distance element on the ellipsoid. The results for
the projection equations are obtained in non-trivial closed forms. The inversion of these
formulae is not possible in closed form and we must revert to Taylor series expansions.
Chapter 7 uses the techniques developed in Chapter 4 to derive the transverse Mercator
projection on the ellipsoid (TME) from that of NME. This derivation requires distinctly
heavy algebraic manipulation to achieve our main result, the Redfearn formulae for TME.
Chapter 8 applies the general results of Chapter 7 to two important cases, namely the
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) and the National Grid of Great Britain (NGGB). The
former is actually a set of 60 TME projections each covering 6 degrees of longitude between
the latitudes of 80 S and 84 N and the latter is a single projection over approximately 10
degrees of longitude centred on 2 W and covering the latitudes between 50 N and 60 N. We
then discuss the variation of scale and grid convergence over the regions of the projection
and also assess the accuracy of the TME formulae by examining the terms of the series one
by one. We find that for practical purposes some terms may be dropped, as indeed they are
in both the UTM and NGGB formulae. Finally the projection formulae are rewritten in the
completely different notation used in the OSGB published formulae (see bibliography).
Appendices There are eight mathematical appendices. Some of these were developed for
teaching purposes so they are more general in nature.
A Curvature in two and three dimensions.
B Inversion of series by Lagrange expansions.
C Plane Trigonometry.
D Spherical Trigonometry.
E Series expansions.
F Calculus of variations.
G Complex variable theory.
H Maxima code.
Blank page. A contradiction.
20
21
Chapter
Normal Mercator on the sphere: NMS

Coordinates and distance on the sphere. Infinitesimal elements and the metric.
Normal cylindrical projection. Angle transformations and scale factors. Four
examples of normal cylindrical projections. Derivation of the Mercator projection. Rhumb lines and loxodromes. Distances on the Mercator projection.
Secant (modified) normal cylindrical projections.
2.1
Coordinates and distance on the sphere
Basic definitions
The intersection of a plane through the centre of the
(spherical) Earth with its surface is a great circle: other
planes intersect the surface in small circles. The intersections of the rotation axis of the Earth with its surface
define the poles N and S. The meridians are those lines
joining the poles which are defined by the intersection
of planes through the rotation axis with the surface: the
meridians are great circles. The parallels are defined
by the intersections of planes normal to the rotation axis
with the surface and the equator is the special case when
the plane is through the centre: the equator is a great
circle and other parallels are small circles.
Z
N
K
Q
M
Y
Figure 2.1
The position of a point P on the sphere is denoted by an ordered pair ( , ) of latitude

and longitude values. Latitude is the angle between the normal at P and the equatorial
plane: it is constrained to the interval of [90 , 90 ] or [/2, /2] radians. On the sphere
any normal to the surface passes through the centre. Longitude is the angle between the
meridian through P and an arbitrarily chosen reference meridian (established at Greenwich
by the Prime Meridian Conference (1884)): it may be defined on either of the intervals
[180 , 180 ] or [0 , 360 ] with radian equivalents [, ] and [0, 2] radians respectively.
The meridians ( constant), the equator ( = 0) and the small circles ( constant, non-zero)
constitute the graticule on the sphere. The figure shows a second point Q with coordinates
( + , + ), the meridians through P and Q, arcs of parallels PM, KQ and the great
circle through the points P and Q.
Chapter 2. Normal Mercator on the sphere: NMS
22
Geographical coordinates are normally given as degrees, minutes and decimal seconds
or in degrees and decimal minutes or simply in decimal degrees. In equations, however,
all angles must be in radiansexcept where explicitly stated. The unit mil, such that
6400mil=2 radians=360 , is sometimes used for small angles, in particular the grid convergence defined in Section 3.6. The relations between these units are as follows:
1 rad = 57 .29578 = 57 170 4400 .8 = 34370 .75 = 20626400 .8 = 1018.6mil
1 = 0.0174533 rad,
10 = 0.000291 rad = 0.296 mil,
100 = 0.00000485 rad.
(2.1)
1mil = 0.000982 rad = 0 .0563 = 30 .37 = 20200 .

Radius of the sphere
The Earth is more accurately represented by an ellipsoid (Chapter 5) with semi-major axis
(equatorial radius), a, and semi-minor axis b (often mistakenly called the polar radius) and
there are several choices for the radius, R, of a sphere approximating such an ellipsoid. (The
notation R will be applied to both the full size approximation or to the sphere reduced by
the representative fraction, RF). The most important possibilities are:
the major axis of the ellipsoid, a,
the tri-axial arithmetic mean, (a + a + b)/3) ,

1/2
radius of equal area sphere, (a/ 2) 1 + e1 (1 e2 ) tanh1 e
, (Section 5.13),
radius of equal volume sphere, (a2 b)1/3 .
For other possible choices see Maling 1992 (page 76) and Wikipedia Earth radius For WGS
(1984) the values to within 10 cm. are
a = 6, 378, 137.0m,
b = 6, 356, 752.3m,
triaxial mean radius: 6,371,008.8m,
equal volume radius: 6,371,000.8m,
equal area radius: 6,371,007.2m.
In practical calculations with a spherical model it is acceptable to take the mean radius as
R = 6371km (3958 miles). For example this is the value taken by the FAI (International
Air Federation). No higher accuracy is required since we must use an ellipsoidal model for
more precise calculations. For this radius the circumference is 40,030km (24,868 miles)
and the meridional quadrant (pole to equator) is 10,007km (6217 miles). One degree of
latitude corresponds to 111.2km. and one minute of latitude corresponds to 1853m.
23
Cartesian coordinates
If the radius of a parallel circle is p( ) = R cos the Cartesian coordinates of P are
X = p( ) cos = R cos cos ,
Y = p( ) sin = R cos sin ,
Z = R sin ,
(2.2)
with inverse relations

Z
Z
= arctan
,
= arctan
p
X 2 +Y 2

Y
= arctan
.
X
(2.3)
For a point at a height h above the surface at P we simply replace R by R + h in the direct
transformations: the inverse relations for and are unchanged but they are supplemented
with the equation
p
(2.4)
h = X 2 +Y 2 + Z 2 R.
The unit vector, n, from the centre of the sphere toward a point on the surface is
n = (cos cos , cos sin , sin ).
(2.5)
Distances on the sphere

In Figure 2.1 the distance PQ in three dimensions is unique but the distance on the surface of
the sphere depends on the path taken between the points. For two points in general position
the important distances are along a great circle, which is the shortest distance, or along
a rhumb line which, by definition, intersects meridians at constant azimuth. (Rhumb line
distances are discussed in Section 2.5). For example, if the points are at the same latitude we
can calculate the rhumb distance between them by measuring along the parallel circle; the
shorter great circle distance deviates north (south) in the northern (southern) hemisphere.
The only trivially calculated distances are those measured along meridians or parallels:
on the meridian in Figure 2.1 we have PK = R and on the parallel PM = p( ) =
R cos (where and are in radians). For widely separated points these become
PK = R(2 1 ) and PM = R cos (2 1 ). It is useful to have some feel for the distances
on meridians and parallels on the sphere (radius 6371km). To the nearest metre:
radius (m)
circumference
10
100
meridian
6,371,008
40,030,173
111,195
1853
31
equator
6,371,008
40,030,173
111,195
1853
31
parallel at
15
6,153,921
38,666,178
107,406
1790
30
parallel at
30
5,517,454
34,667,147
96,297
1604
27
parallel at
45
4,504,983
28,305,607
78,626
1310
22
parallel at
60
3,185,504
20,015,096
55,597
927
15
parallel at
75
1,648,938
10,360,571
28,779
480
Table 2.1
24
One minute of arc on the meridian (of a spherical Earth) was the original definition of
the nautical mile (nml). On the ellipsoid this definition of the nautical mile would depend
on latitude and the choice of ellipsoid therefore, to avoid discrepancies, the nautical mile is
now defined by international treaty as exactly 1852m (1.151 miles). The original definition
remains a good rule of thumb for approximate calculations but note that it corresponds to a
spherical Earth model of radius equal to 6366.7km rather than the value of 6371km which
we used for the previous table.
The great circle distance, g12 between two points in general position is R times the
angle (in radians) which the circular arc between them subtends at the centre. That angle is
defined by the two unit vectors giving the positions of the end points.
n1 = (cos 1 cos 1 , cos 1 sin 1 , sin 1 ),
n2 = (cos 2 cos 2 , cos 2 sin 2 , sin 2 ),
n1 n2 = cos 1 cos 2 cos(2 1 ) + sin 1 sin 2
g12 = R cos1 [cos 1 cos 2 cos(2 1 ) + sin 1 sin 2 ] .
(2.6)
This formula is not well conditioned at short distances and alternative forms are preferable.
(See Wikipedia Great-circle distance). There are a number of great circle distance calculators available on the web. The FAI use the mean sphere (and WGS84). The Ed Williams
Aviation page has a more comprehensive list of Earth models. The csgnetwork uses a model
a model with radius 6366.7km: it may also be used to calculate way point values.
Infinitesimal elements
In practical terms an element of area on the sphere can be said to be infinitesimal if, for
a given measurement accuracy, we cannot distinguish deviations from the plane. To be
specific, consider the spherical element PMQK shown in Figure 2.1, and in enlarged form
in Figure 2.2a, where the solid lines PK, MQ, PQ are arcs of great circles, the solid
Figure 2.2
lines PM and KQ are arcs of parallel circles and the dashed lines are straight lines in
three dimensions. From Figure 2.2b, for (rad) 1 the arcchord difference is

1 3
R 3
arc (AB) AB = R 2R sin = R 2R
+ =
+ O(R 5 ). (2.7)
2
2 3! 8
24
Suppose the accuracy of measurement is 1m. Setting = we see that the difference
between the arc and chord PK will be less than 1m, and hence undetectable by measurement,
25
if we take < (24/R)1/3 0.0155rad, corresponding to 530 or a meridian arc length of

99km. Similarly, setting = and replacing R by p = R
cos , the difference between the
arc and chord PM at a latitude of 45 (where cos = 1/ 2) is less than 1m if is less
than 590 , corresponding to an arc length of 78km on that parallel. If we take our limiting
accuracy to be 1mm the above values become 9.9km and 7.8km. A surface element of
this order or smaller can therefore be well approximated by a planar element which can be
mapped without need for projection.
Figure 2.3
We now prove that the small surface element PKQM may be well approximated by
a rectangular element. Figure 2.3a shows the planar trapezium which approximates the
surface element. Since PM = R cos we have
KQ PM =
d
(R cos ) = R sin .
d
(2.8)
Now the distance PK R so the small angle , called spherical convergence (note [1] )
is given by
PM KQ 1
1
= sin .
(2.9)
2
PK 2
Clearly becomes arbitrarily small as Q approaches P and the infinitesimal element is
arbitrarily close to the rectangle with sides R and R cos shown in Figure 2.3b. The
planar geometry of the right angled triangle PQM in that figure gives two important results
for the azimuth and distance PQ:
sin =
R cos
d
= cos
,
QP
R
d
tan = lim
s2 = PQ2 = R2 2 + R2 cos2 2 .
(2.10)
(2.11)
The latter result also follows directly from equations (2.2):

X = (R sin cos ) (R cos sin )
Y = (R sin sin ) + (R cos cos )

Z = (R cos ) ,
(2.12)
s2 = X 2 + Y 2 + Z 2 ,
s2 = R2 cos2 2 + R2 2 .
This expression defines the metric on the surface of the sphere.
(2.13)
2.2
26
Normal (equatorial) cylindrical projections
The normal, or equatorial, aspect of cylindrical projections of a (reduced) sphere of radius R are defined on a cylinder of radius R which is tangential to the sphere on the equator
as shown in Figure (2.4). (When the cylinder is tangential to a meridian the aspect is said
to be transverse: for other orientations the aspect is oblique.) The axis of the cylinder
coincides with the polar diameter NS and the planes through this axis intersect the sphere
in its meridians and intersect the cylinder in its generators.
Figure 2.4: The normal cylindrical projection

The projection takes points on the meridian to points on the corresponding generator of
the cylinder according to some formula which is NOT usually a geometric constructionin
particular the Mercator projection is not generated by a literal projection from the centre (as
stated on many web sites): see the next section. The cylinder is then cut along a generator
which has been taken at = 180 in Figure 2.4 but could have been chosen at any longitude.
Finally the cylinder is unrolled to form the flat map. Note that the last step of unrolling introduces no further distortions. Axes on the map are chosen with the x-axis along the equator
and the y-axis coincident with one particular generator, taken as the Greenwich meridian
( = 0) in Figure (2.4). Clearly the meridians on the sphere map into lines of constant x
on the projection so the x-equation of the projection is simply x = R (radians). For the
y-equation of the projection we admit any sensible function of , irrespective of whether
or not there is a geometrical interpretation. Therefore normal cylindrical projections are
defined by (note [2] )
x( , ) = R ,
(2.14)
y( , ) = R f ( ),
(2.15)
where and are in radians. With transformations of this form we see that the parallels on
the sphere ( constant) project into lines of constant y so that the orthogonal intersections
of meridians and parallels of the graticule on the sphere are transformed into orthogonal
intersections on the map projection. The spacing of the meridians on the projection is
uniform but the spacing of the parallels depends on the choice of the function f ( ).
Note that all normal cylindrical projections have singular points: the points N, S at
27
the poles transform into lines given by y = R f (/2). On the sphere meridians intersect
at the poles but on normal cylindrical projections meridians do not intersect. All other
points of the sphere are non-singular points. Of course there is nothing special about the
poles; if we use oblique or transverse aspects the geographic poles are regular points and
other points become singularthe singularities at the poles are artifacts of the coordinate
transformations. For example we shall find that the transverse Mercator projection has
singular points on the equator.
The equations (2.14, 2.15) define a projection to a map of constant width, W , equal to
the length of the equator, 2R. Since the true length of a parallel is 2R cos , the scale
factor, the map projection length divided by the corresponding true length (on the reduced
sphere), along a parallel is equal to sec : this factor increases from 1 on the equator to
infinity at the poles. Note that this statement about scale on a parallel applies to any normal
cylindrical projection but the scale on the meridians, and other lines, will depend on f ( ).
The actual printed projection in Figure 2.4 has a value of W approximately equal to
8cm, corresponding to R = 1.27cm and an RF (representative fraction) of approximately 1
over 500 million or 1:500M.
Angle transformations on normal cylindrical projections: conformality
In Figure 2.5 we compare the rectangular infinitesimal element PMQK on the sphere with
the corresponding rectangular element P0 M 0 Q0 K 0 on the projection. We define the angle
on the sphere to be the azimuth and the corresponding angle on the projection to be the
grid bearing. This distinction in terminology is not widespread.
Figure 2.5
The geometry of the rectangular elements gives
(a)
tan =
R cos
R
and
so that
tan =
(b)
tan =
sec
tan .
f 0 ( )
= 0
,
y
f ( )
(2.16)
(2.17)
If = it follows that the angle between any two azimuths is equal to the angle between
the corresponding grid bearings. In this case we say that the projection is conformal. The
condition for this is that f 0 ( ) = sec : this is the basis for the derivation of the Mercator
projection given in Section 2.4.
28
The point scale factor

Define , the point scale at the point P0 on the projection by
distance P0 Q0 on projection
QP
distance PQ on sphere
p
x 2 + y2
.
= lim p
QP
R2 cos2 2 + R2 2
= lim
(2.18)
(2.19)
Point scale factors on meridians (h) and parallels (k)

When PQ lies along the meridian and x are zero
and y = R f ( ). The scale factor in this case is conventionally denoted by h. Therefore (2.19) gives
meridian scale:
h( ) = f 0 ( ).
(2.20)
On a parallel and y are zero and x = R . The

scale factor in this case is conventionally denoted by k.
parallel scale:
k( ) = sec .
k()
12
9
6
3
(2.21)
0
The parallel scale factor, plotted alongside, is the same

for all normal cylindrical projections.
30
60
90
Figure 2.6
Point scale factor in a general direction: isotropy of scale

Equations (2.16) give = cot cos and y= cot x. Therefore equation (2.19)
gives the scale factor at azimuth as
p
x2 (1 + cot2 )
( ) = lim p
,
(2.22)
QP
R2 cos2 2 (1 + cot2 )

sin
= sec
,
(2.23)
sin (, )
where (, ) can be found from Equation (2.17). For a conformal projection with =
the general scale factor is equal to sec , independent of : it is isotropic.
Area scale factor The area scale is obtained by comparing the areas of the two rectangles
PMQK and P0 M 0 Q0 K 0 . Denoting this scale factor by A and using (2.20) and (2.21).
A ( ) = lim
QP
xy
= sec f 0 ( ) = hk.
(R cos )(R )
(2.24)
NB. All of these scale factors apply only to the normal cylindrical projections. They are
independent of , a reflection of the rotational symmetry.
2.3
29
Four examples of normal cylindrical projections
Consider the following projections of the unit sphere, R = 1:

1. The equirectangular (or equidistant or Plate Carree) projection: f ( ) = .
2. Lamberts equal area projection: f ( ) = sin .
3. Mercators projection: f ( ) = ln [tan( /2 + /4)]. (Derived in Section 2.4).
4. The central cylindrical projection: f ( ) = tan .
The following table summarizes the properties of these projections.
x
x-range
y = f ( )
y-range
f 0 ( )
meridian h
parallel k
equator k
area (hk)
(2.17): tan =
aspect ratio
equirectangular
(, )
(/2, /2)
1
1
sec
1
sec
sec tan
2
Figure 2.7
equal-area
(, )
sin
(1, 1)
cos
cos
sec
1
1
sec2 tan
Figure 2.8
Mercator
(, )
ln[tan( /2 + /4)]
(, )
sec
sec
sec
1
sec2
tan
0
Figure 2.10
central
(, )
tan
(, )
sec2
sec2
sec
1
sec3
cos tan
0
Figure 2.11
Table 2.2
The four projections are shown in Figures (2.72.11). The maps all have the same
x-range of (, ) (on the unit sphere) but varying y-ranges. They are portrayed on the
printed page with a width of 12cm corresponding to an RF of approximately 1/300M. Each
of the projections is annotated on the right with a chequered column corresponding to 5 5
regions on the sphere. The width of these rectangles is the same for all projections but their
height depends on f ( ).
On the equator = 0 so that both cos and sec are equal to unity. All the scale
factors are unity and equation (2.17) shows that = where any line segment crosses the
equator. The projections are perfectly well behaved and quite suitable for accurate large
scale mapping close to the equator: both relative distance and shape are well preserved in
a comparison with their actual representations on the sphere. Look at an actual globe and
compare all four projections in locations such as Africa, the Caribbean and Indonesia.
Away from the equator all the projections have a parallel scale factor equal to sec :
a necessary consequence of the attempt to project the spherical surface onto a rectangular
domain. This factor increases to infinity as /2 so that the poles of the sphere
are stretched out to lines across the full width of the projection, at finite or infinite values
30
of the y-coordinate. The poles are singular points of the projection where the one-to-one
correspondence between sphere and projection breaks down. The horizontal stretching at
high latitudes is leads to distortions in all four projections when they are compared with an
actual globe. The shape of Alaska is good measure of this distortion. Only the Mercator
projection preserves good local shape.
Relative area is another good criterion in assessing the projections. On the globe the
area of Greenland is 1/8 that of South America and 1/13 that of Africa. Only the Lambert
equal-area projection preserves these values.
-180
/2
-90
=0
90
180
90
60
30
=0
y=0
-30
1
/2
-60
-90
/2
x=0
/2
Figure 2.7: Equirectangular projection (R=1)

The equirectangular projection: f ( ) =
This projection, the simplest of all, has been in use since the time of Ptolemy (83?161AD)
who attributes its first use to Marinus (Snyder, 1993, page 6). The meridians and parallels
of latitude are equidistant parallel lines intersecting at right angles. (It becomes a rectangular grid when applied to a secant projection; see Section 2.7). The overall aspect ratio
(width:height) is 2. The projection is also known as the Plate Carree, the Plane Chart
or the equidistant projection. The projection was very important in the sixteenth century
because it was used to underpin the new portolans and charts which were being extended
to cover ocean sailing as against the local European sailing of earlier times. The projection
is still useful for many applications where the metric properties are irrelevant, for example
index map sheets for all sorts of topics.
Like all normal cylindrical projections the equirectangular is well behaved near the
equator but as we move away from the equator the failings of its simplicity become more
pronounced. Note first Equation 2.17 reduces to tan = cos tan so that 6= unless
= = 0 or /2. The projection is certainly not conformal and the attractive compass
roses shown on early charts give incorrect values for the corresponding azimuths on the
31
sphere. This may be of no concern for short journeys in equatorial regions but it is very
significant on long oceanic voyages and at extreme latitudes, even if the sailors of the sixteenth century were aware of this deficiency and had evolved rules of thumb to compensate. Note
that the errors are not small: if we take = 45 and a latitude = 30 then
= arctan 3/2 = 40.9 but at latitude = 60 and = arctan 0.5 = 26.6
The alternative name equidistant is also misleading because the scale factor is uniform, equal to 1, only on the equator and the meridians where the true distance is equal to
the ruler distance divided by the RF. On a parallel we must first divide by a factor of sec .
Along any other line in the projection the scale factor depends on both the grid bearing
and the latitude: from Equation (2.23) we have = sec sin ( , ) cosec where, from
Equation (2.17), = arctan [tan cos ]. It is then possible to relate elements of length, ds0
on the projection and ds on the sphere, and even construct an integral for finite segments
but there is basically no point in doing so since the path on the sphere corresponding to
this straight line on the projection is neither a rhumb nor a great circle. It cant be a rhumb
because the azimuth, is not constant. It is, moreover, a curve on the sphere which, if we
assume that it starts at = = 0, attains the pole. For example if the line on the projection
is = 3 it reaches the pole on the sphere when = /6. But the only great circles through
the pole are the meridians so the path on the sphere cannot be a great circle. For the true
great circle distance between general points on the equirectangular projection we must use
the standard geodesic formulae of equation 2.6.
-180
-90
=0
90
180
90
1
60
30
=0
y=0
-30
1
-60
-90
/2
x=0
/2
Figure 2.8: Lambert equal area projection (R=1)

Lamberts equal area projection: f ( ) = sin
This projection (Lambert, 1772) is constructed to guarantee the equality of corresponding
area elements on the (reduced) sphere and the projection. Since the parallel scale factor is
still as k = sec we must have a scale factor on the meridian given by h = cos . It follows
from Equation eq:02nms:20 that f ( ) = sin . Thus the ratio of the area of Greenland to
that of Africa is correctly portrayed (as 1/13). In common with all cylindrical projections it
is well behaved with good shapes and distances near the equator but it is distorted at high
latitudes: look at look at Alaska for example. The projection is not conformal.
There are problems with angles, exactly as for the equirectangular projection. We now
32
have tan = cos2 tan so that if we again take = 45 and a latitude = 30 then
= arctan 0.75 = 36.9 and at latitude = 60 we have = arctan 0.25 = 14.0 . The grid
bearings are completely unreliable.
Once again, interpreting ruler distances on the projection is trivial only on the equator
and parallels (where we must first divide by a factor of sec ). This time a ruler distance
on the meridian has no simple interpretation because of the of the varying scale factor
h = cos . However if we measure the ruler distances of two points on a meridian from
the equator, say y1 and y2 , not just their separation, we can then use y = sin to find the
corresponding latitudes, 1 and 2 : the length y2 y1 then corresponds to a distance on the
sphere equal to R(2 1 ). On oblique lines of the projection we have exactly the same
difficulties that we encountered with the equirectangular projection.
The projection is one of the few which admits of a geometric
interpretation because y = R sin is simply the distance NP0
of a point P at latitude above the equatorial plane. P is projected from the sphere to cylinder along the line KPP0 parallel
to the equatorial plane drawn from the axis of the spherenot
projected from the origin. Thus any narrow (in longitude) strip
of the map is basically the view of a classroom globe from a
distant side position.
Figure 2.9
Mercators projection: f ( ) = ln[tan( /2 + /4)]

Figure 2.10 shows Mercators projection. Since f (/2) = the projection extends to infinity in the y direction and the map must be truncated at an arbitrarily chosen latitude.
Here we have chosen = 85.051 so that the aspect ratio is equal to 1. Truncation at
these high latitudes emphasizes the great distortion near the poleswitness the diverging
area of Antarctica and Greenland as big as Africa. Note that the original (Mercator, 1569)
projection was truncated asymmetrically and as a result Europe, already at a larger scale
than Africa, moved nearer to the centre: a source of controversy in the twentieth century
(Monmonier, 2004).
The fundamental property of the Mercator projection is that it is conformal, i.e. it is an
angle preserving projection. This follows from equation (2.17) since f 0 ( ) = sec implies
that = . One important corollary is that a rhumb line on the sphere, which crosses the
converging meridians on the sphere at a constant angle , projects into a straight line of
constant grid bearing on the projection where the meridians are parallel verticals. This is
discussed more fully in Section 2.5.
Conformality implies isotropy of scale: meridian scale (h), parallel scale (k) and general scale ( ) are all equal to sec in the Mercator projection. Therefore a small region
of the sphere is projected with very little change of shape, hence the use of the term orthomorphic projection, (greek: right shape). Witness the realistic shape of small islands far
from the equator, for example Iceland or Great Britain: larger regions such as Greenland or
Antarctica are distorted because the scale factor changes markedly over their extent.
-180
-90
=0
33
90
180
85
80
2
70
60
1
30
=0
y=0
-30
1
-60
-70
2
-80
3
-85
/2
x=0
/2
Figure 2.10: Mercator projection truncated at 83.05 (R=1)
The words conformality and orthomorphism are often used interchangeably: this is
misleading. Conformality is an exact local (point) property: the angle between two lines
intersecting at a point on the sphere is the same on the projection. Orthomorphism is an
approximate non-local property because the shape of small elements is preserved only to
the extent that the latitude variation of scale is undetectable: this depends on the accuracy
of measurement. Conformality and low scale distortion near the equator, where sec is
approximately unity, means that the Mercator projection is suitable for accurate large scale
mapping near the equator. This is discussed more quantitatively in Section 2.7. It is quite
inappropriate for small scale projections of the world, or large regions of the world, oceanic
charts excepted.
Ruler distances on the equator and parallels can be simply related to true distances, as in
the previous projections, but there are no simple interpretations for ruler distances of other
lines on the projection. Since straight lines on the projection correspond to rhumb lines
these distances are important and we shall return to their calculation in Section 2.6.
34
Central cylindric projection: f ( ) = tan
-180
-90
=0
90
180
72
70
2
60
1
30
=0
y=0
-30
1
-60
2
-70
3
-72
/2
x=0
/2
Figure 2.11: Central cylindrical projection truncated at 72 (R=1)

The only reason for including the central cylindric projection, a direct projection from the centre of the sphere with
y = NP0 = R tan , is that it is often often claimed to show the
construction of the Mercator projection. This is of course completely wrong: the Mercator projection is NOT constructed in
this way. The projection is shown truncated at 72.34 to give
unit aspect ratio. The central projection is completely lacking
in any virtues and it has never been used for any practical mapping. We shall not consider it further.
Figure 2.12
2.4
35
The normal Mercator projection
Derivation of the Mercator projection

The generic function f ( ) will be replaced by ( ) for the normal Mercator projection.
The condition that the projection is conformal, = , follows from Equation (2.17):
d
= sec ,
d
0 ( ) =
and therefore
( ) =
(2.25)
sec d ,
(2.26)
choosing a lower limit such that y(0) = R (0) = 0. The integrand may be rewritten using
cos = sin ( + /2)
= 2 sin ( /2+/4) cos ( /2+/4)
= 2 tan ( /2+/4) cos2 ( /2+/4)
so that (note [3] )
R
y = R ( ) =
2
Z
sec2 ( /2 + /4)
0

d = R ln tan
+
.
tan ( /2 + /4)
2 4
(2.27)
Therefore the Mercator projection in normal (equatorial) aspect is

x = R
y = R( )

+
( ) = ln tan
2 4
(2.28)
The following table gives the value of ( ) at some selected latitudes. Note that since
tan( /2 + /4) = cot( /2 + /4) we must have ( ) = ( ).
( )
( )
( )
0.00
40
0.76
74.6
0.09
45
0.88
75
2.03
10
0.18
49.6
80
2.44
15
0.26
50
1.01
84.3
20
0.36
55
1.15
85
3.13
25
0.45
60
1.32
85.05
30
0.55
65
1.51
89
4.74
35
0.65
70
1.73
90
()
4
3
2
1
0
30
60
Figure 2.13
90
36
Mercator parameter and isometric latitude

The function ( ) which occurs in the expression for the y-coordinate in the Mercator projection is of importance in much that follows. We shall call it the Mercator parameter: this
is not standard usage although the term Mercator latitude was suggested by Lee (1946a).
In advanced texts, such Snyder (1987), it is called the isometric latitude. But beware; other
authors (see Adams, 1921) use the term for a different, but related, function. Note, too, that
the symbol is not universal: Lee (1945) and Redfearn (1948) use , Maling (1992) use q
and so on.
The term isometric latitude arises because the metric can be written in terms of and
as ds2 = R2 cos2 (d 2 +d 2 ). The coefficients in the metric are now both equal to R2 cos2
so that equal increments of and correspond to the same linear displacements (at the
latitude concerned).
Having urged care with notation we must flag a small problem in notation. When we
define the Mercator projection on the ellipsoid (NME in Chapter 6) we must define the
Mercator parameter in a slightly different way, but such that it reduces to (2.28) as the
eccentricity e tends to zero. It would therefore have been natural to define the Mercator parameter on the sphere as 0 . We have not done this, assuming that the correct interpretation
will be obvious from the context.
Alternative forms of the Mercator parameter
The Mercator parameter can be cast into many forms which may be useful at times; here
we present five such. Consider the argument of the logarithm in (2.28):
tan( /2 + /4) =
=
1 + tan( /2) cos( /2) + sin( /2)

=
1 tan( /2) cos( /2) sin( /2)
(cos( /2) + sin( /2))2 1 + sin
=
= sec + tan .
cos
cos2 ( /2) sin2 ( /2)
(2.29)
Hence
( ) = ln[sec + tan ].
(2.30)
Rearrange the penultimate term in (2.29):

1/2

1 + sin
(1 + sin )2
1 + sin 1/2
=
=
.
cos
1 sin
1 sin2
Therefore

1
1 + sin
ln
.
2
1 sin
Exponentiate each side of (2.30) and then invert:
( ) =
e = sec + tan ,
e = sec tan ,
(2.31)
37
so that
2 sinh = e e = 2 tan ,
and therefore
(a)
sinh = tan ,
(b)
sech = cos ,
(c)
tanh = sin ,
(2.32)
from which we obtain further variants for ( ):

= sinh1 tan = sech1 cos = cosh1 sec = tanh1 sin .
(2.33)
Inverse transformations and inverse scale factor

The inverse transformation for is trivial: = x/R (if 0 = 0). To find first set = y/R
and use the inverse of any of the expressions for given above. For example:
= 2 tan1 e
= sin1 tanh = tan1 sinh = gd ,

2
y
R
(2.34)
where we have introduced the gudermannian function gd defined below. (It may be recast
into many forms; see appendices at C.59, G.24 and web Weisstein, 2012):
gd(x) =
Z x
sech d = tan
sinh x,
gd (x) =
Z x
sec d = sinh1 tan x.
(2.35)
The scale factor can also be considered as a function of the coordinates on the projection.
Using Equation (2.32b) we have
k(x, y) = cosh = cosh(y/a).
2.5
(2.36)
Rhumb lines and loxodromes
Rhumb lines were first discussed in the sixteenth century by Pedro Nunes as curves of
constant azimuth which spiralled from pole to pole. The more academic word loxodrome
(Greek loxos: oblique + dromos: running) appeared early in the seventeenth century. At
that time both of these terms excluded simple parallel or meridian sailing but modern usage
includes these cases. This is unfortunate. We shall permit rhumb lines to include all possible
directions but we shall restrict the use of loxodrome to azimuths which are neither parallels nor meridians. This is consistent with the definition of the loxodrome in mathematics
as a spherical helix: see Weisstein (2012). The distinction is important for there are two
topologically distinct classes of rhumbs: (a) closed parallels; (b) open lines, loxodromes,
running from pole to pole with meridians as degenerate cases. The importance of rhumb
lines follows from the conformality property: = implies that a rhumb line with constant
is projected to a straight line on the Mercator projection.
38
75
60
30
0
-30
-60
-75
Figure 2.14: Rhumb line on the sphere and the Mercator projection
Figure 2.14 shows a loxodrome crossing the equator at 30 W and maintaining a constant
azimuth of 83 : it spirals round the sphere covering a finite distance from pole to pole even
though it makes an infinite number of turns about the axis. (These statements are proved
below). On the projection, it is a repeated straight line of infinite total length as |y| .
The intercepts with the Greenwich meridian are calculated later using Equation 2.43.
Figure 2.15: Infinitesimal elements of a rhumb on the sphere and the projection
Consider the rhumb distance, r12 , on the sphere between P(1 , 1 ) and Q(2 , 2 ). If
the rhumb is a parallel the distance is the radius of the parallel circle times the change of
longitude. On a meridian the distance is simply the radius of the sphere times the change of
latitude. For an infinitesimal element of a loxodrome on the sphere, PQ in Figure 2.15a we
have cos = R d /ds. Since is a constant this integrates trivially. In summary:
r12 = R cos (2 1 ),
parallel,
(2.37)
meridian,
(2.38)
r12 = R sec (2 1 ),
loxodrome.
(2.39)
r12 = R(2 1 ),
Therefore, to calculate the distance along a loxodrome, we need know only the constant
azimuth and the change of latitude. This is an important result. Note (a) the meridian result
can be deduced as the 0 limit of the loxodrome result (although the figure is inappropriate); (b) the parallel result is not related to the loxodrome result by any limiting process.
The latter is a reflection of the different topological nature of parallels and loxodromes.
The above equations show that the length of a loxodrome is finite. Setting 1 = /2
and 2 = /2 in Equation 2.39 we obtain the total length from one pole to another as
R sec . This reduces to R on a meridian.
39
Equations of the loxodrome

To find the equation, on the sphere, of the loxodrome which starts at the point (1 , 1 ) at an
azimuth note that on the projection it is the straight line
y y1 = (x x1 ) cot .
(2.40)
where y1 = R(1 ) and x1 = R1 . Using Equations 2.33 and 2.34 gives

( ) = (1 ) + ( 1 ) cot ,
h
i
1
1
( ) = 1 + tan tanh sin tanh sin 1 ,
(2.41)
(2.42)

( ) = sin1 tanh tanh1 sin 1 + ( 1 ) cot .
(2.43)
As an example take 1 = 1 = 10 and = 2 = 2 = 40 . Transforming to radian

measure, Equation 2.41 gives
tan =
50
= 0.929
180 [(40) (10)]
and therefore = 42.9 . Note that this is just the shortest rhumb line through the two
points. If the rhumb makes one complete revolution before getting to the second point, then
replacing = 50 by = 410 we find = 82.5 and so on.
Once has been determined further points on the rhumb are found from Equation 2.43.
For example, for the loxodrome with = 83 , 1 = 0 and 1 = 30 (Figure 2.14), we
calculate the intercepts on the Greenwich meridian ( = 0, 360, 720, . . .) as
3.7 ,
43.1 ,
67.3 ,
79.4 ,
85.0 ,
87.7 ,
88.9 ,
89.5 ,
89.8 . . ..
Equation 2.42 shows that becomes infinite at the poles so that the loxodrome must
encircle the pole an infinite number of times as it approaches, even though it is of finite
length. This is a geometrical version of Zenos paradox.
Mercator sailing
The above results solve the two basic problem of Mercator sailing, by which we mean
loxodromic sailing; i.e. the trivial cases of sailing along parallels or meridians are excluded
from the discussion. The two problems are
1. Given a starting point P(1 , 1 ) and a destination Q(2 , 2 ) find the azimuth of the
loxodrome line and the sailing distance, d. (The inverse problem).
2. Given an initial point P(1 , 1 ), a loxodrome of azimuth and a sailing distance d,
find the destination Q(2 , 2 ). (The direct problem).
We now outline the solution of these problems
40
For the inverse problem we are given 1 , 1 , 2 , 2 . First calculate 1 , 2 from 2.33
(or simply use a table of meridian parts as described below): then follows from 2.41 and
the distance from 2.39 (in nautical miles if the latitudes are given in minutes of arc). On
a chart the angle is measured from the slope of PQ and and the distance, if moderate, can
be approximated without calculation by using dividers to transfer the interval PQ to the
latitude scale on the chart, taking care to place the dividers symmetrically with respect to
the mid-latitude point so that the latitude scale is approximately uniform for that interval.
The latitude difference in minutes gives the distance in nautical miles.
For the direct problem we are given 1 , 1 , r12 , . Equation 2.39 gives ; hence 2 .
Calculate (or use tables for) 1 , 2 and then is found from 2.41; hence 2 . Again,
without calculation, open the dividers to a distance d (given in nautical miles measured as
minutes on the latitude scale and transfer the dividers to the line through P with azimuth ,
fixing Q; 2 , 2 can then be read from the chart.
Meridian parts
At the end of the sixteenth century Edward Wright published Certaine Errors in Navigation (Wright, 1599) in which he criticised the Plane Chart, i.e. the equirectangular chart. He
stressed that over large regions the plane chart was unreliable in respect of both distance and
direction. (See Section 2.3). He advocated the use of Mercators chart and constructed his
own version, stressing that he had no assistance in devising his method. He did exploit Mercators statement that conformality, not that he used the word, is achieved by compensating
the stretching of parallels to the same width as the equator by an equal amount of stretching
in the meridian direction. He implemented this by dividing the plane chart he divides it into
one minute (of latitude) strips and stretches each by a factor of the sec evaluated at the
upper edge of the strip; hence giving a slight overestimate. The amount any point moves up
is the sum of the increments of all the strips beneath. His results are summarised in a table
of cumulative secants at intervals of one second of arc and beginning
sec 10
1.000000042
sec 10 + sec 20
2.000000211
sec 10 + sec 20 + sec 30
3.000000592
sec 10 + sec 20 + sec 30 + sec 40
4.000001269
In the first edition of the book he listed only rounded values at intervals of 100 but the full
table appears in later editions (Monmonier, 2004, Chapter5). We consider only the first
table. The cumulative secants, multiplied by a factor of 10, later became called meridional
parts and the number of such parts in the interval from zero up to an angle is denoted by
MP( ) = 10 sec i
at intervals of 10 .
N.B. Modern tables and web calculators usually omit this factor of 10.
(2.44)
41
Some values selected from the published table are shown in the following table: Wright
truncated his calculated values for simplicity of use. He also chose the unit of the meridional
part (MP) to be one tenth of the length of an equatorial minute of longitude. Therefore if
the width of a given chart is W cm. the unit of the meridional part is W /216000 cm. An
extra line has been interpolated in the table at 85 30 corresponding to the latitude at which
Wrights figure in Certaine Errors was truncated at 108000MP so that the aspect ratio (of
the northern hemisphere only) was exactly 2. Note that the first entries, up to 2 300 , show
the increased spacing was undetectable up to that point in the rounded figures of his table.
Lat.
MP
Lat.
MP
Lat.
MP
100
100
10
6030
70
59667
200
200
20
12251
80
83773
300
300
30
18884
85 30
108000
40
26228
89
163176
1500
50
34746
89 500
226223
1601
60
45277
90
2 300
2 400
Table 2.3
Wright asserted that the MP values gave the correct spacing of the Mercator parallels.
This is obvious since his construction is just a numerical integration of sec replacing Equation 2.27. Of course the calculus hadnt been invented in his day and the log-tan formula
was derived only one hundred years later, (although Wrights contemporary and compatriot,
Thomas Harriot, seems to have arrived at the formula by his own original method, Lohne
(1965)). The numerical integration may be written as
( ) =
Z
0
sec d sec i i
in radians.
(2.45)
An interval of 10 corresponds to = 0.000291rad = 1/3437.75rad. Therefore
MP( ) = 10 sec i = 34377.5 ( ).
(2.46)
A table of meridional parts may be used to solve the Mercator sailing problems by calculation. For example, in the inverse problem the direction of the azimuth may be evaluated
from Equation 2.40:
cot =
3437.75
y
MP(2 ) MP(1 )
=
=
=
0
x
10(20 10 )
(2.47)
and the distance (in nautical miles) from Equation 2.39: d = R sec 0 follows . In the
direct problem = (d/R) cos is known and hence we have 2 . Then 2 follows from
the last equation.
42
Wrights tables of rhumbs

In addition to the table of Meridian parts Wright published tables of rhumb line coordinates, meaning by rhumb the seven loxodromes of the first quadrant making angles of
11.25 , 22.5 , 33.75 , 45 , 56.25 , 67.50 , 78.75 with the equator at the point of crossing: these angles are the complements of their azimuths. With these values he was able
to plot rhumb lines on globes and also map projections other than mercator. (He mentions
stereographic projections particularly.)
Without loss of generality we assume the rhumbs cross the equator at the zero of longitude. He observes that if we take a step of 1 of longitude (600 MP) along the equator the
ordinate of the next point on the first rhumb is 600 tan(11.25 ) = 117.8097 MP. Therefore,
since the rhumb is a straight line on the projection, the ordinates of successive points are
simple multiples: 0, 117.81, 235.62, 353.43, . He then used the (full) table of meridian
parts to invert these MP values to give latitudes at steps of one degree of longitude along
the rhumb. Some selected values for the first rhumb are given in the following table:
Long.
Lat.
Long.
Lat.
Long.
Lat.
60
110 50
360
58 10
10
1 590
70
13 470
2360
80 360
20
3 580
80
15 420
3360
87 180
30
5 570
90
17 370
4360
89 130
40
7 550
180
33 400
5360
89 460
50
9 530
270
47 130
6360
89 590
Table 2.4
He gives similar tables for each of the seven rhumbs, all in steps of one degree of
longitude from zero up to a value at which the latitude is equal to 89 590 . For example the
table for the fourth rhumb terminates at 540 and that for the seventh rhumb at 114 .
2.6
Distances on rhumbs and great circles
The distinction between rhumb distance and great circle distance was clearly understood by
Mercator but he stressed that the rhumb line distance is an acceptable approximation for true
great circle distance for courses of short or moderate distance, particularly at lower latitudes.
(See Mercator, 1569, Legend 12 on the 1569 map.) He even quantifies his statement: When
the great circle distances which are to be measured in the vicinity of the equator do not
exceed 20 degrees of a great circle, or 15 degrees near Spain and France, or 8 and even
10 degrees in northern parts it is convenient to use rhumb line distances. Moreover he
explains how the rhumb distance could be calculated directly from his projection, essentially
by the method we have outlined in Section 2.5, and he would have known how to derive
Equation 2.6 for it is the just the cosine rule of spherical trigonometry: see Appendix D.
-180
-90
43
=0
90
180
85
80
12060
2
60
3336
14932
5706
5778
y=0
12617
6672
6672
2431
30
12568
3336
10422
6672
1
70
1342
3220
=0
10396
-30
3336
6560
6672
-60
-70
5180
5706
3336
3336
3336
-80
-85
/2
x=0
/2
Figure 2.16: Rhumb lines (red) and shorter great circles (blue dash)
In Figure 2.16 we illustrate the differences between ruler distances d, rhumb line distances r (solid red in the figure) and true great circle distances g (dashed blue in the figure).
The great circle distances are always less than or equal to the rhumb line distances.
On the equator
This case is trivial:
d
= g = r.
RF
(2.48)
With radius and great circle circumference equal to 6,371km and 40,030km respectively the
60 degree segment shown has length 40030/6 = 6672km. On a map printed with an RF of
1/300M, for which R = 2.12cm and W = 13.34cm, the ruler measurement would be 2.22cm.
44
On other parallels
Parallels are rhumb lines but, apart from the equator, they are not great circles. In the
northern (southern) hemisphere the great circle joining two points on a parallel runs north
(south) of the parallel. The rhumb distances are calculated from Equation 2.37 and the great
circle distances are calculated from Equation 2.6, both using the mean radius of 6371km.

d cos
= r > g = R cos2 cos + sin2 .
RF
(2.49)
Figure 2.16 shows two segments of parallels above the equator which have the same ruler
length as that on the equator. There are two segments below the equator which have the
same rhumb lengths as that on the equator.
Note the special case shown at latitude 75 S. The separation in longitude is 180 so the
great circle route is the meridian over the pole: it is considerably shorter even though it
has infinite distance on un-truncated Mercator projection. The length of the great circle is
equal to 40030/12 = 3336km. Note that this distance, and twice its value, appears in several
places in the figure.
On meridians
A meridian on the projection is a great circle but the continuous scale variation means that
ruler distance is not simply related to true distance. If the projection is marked with an
accurate latitude scale, as is usually the case for nautical charts, the meridian distance may
be obtained directly as R (Equation 2.38). Otherwise it is necessary to measure the ruler
distances of each point from the equator. If these are y1 and y2 , with y2 > y1 , first find the
latitudes using y = R gd and evaluate R(2 1 ):
y
y
h
y i
h
y i
2
1
2
1
r = g = R gd1
R gd1
= R tan1 sinh
R tan1 sinh
. (2.50)
R
R
R
R
General distances
The figure shows a large triangle joining the cities of New York (40.7 N, 74.0 W), Cape
Town (33.0 S, 18.4 E) and Lhasa (29.7 N, 91.1 E). Once again the ruler distance measurements are not simply related to either rhumb distances or great circle distances which were
calculated from Equations 2.39 and 2.6 respectively. Note the great difference for the two
routes between New York and Lhasa. Where the rhumb joins two points across the equator
it is close to the great circle and the differences are small.
Short distances
Over a small region centred on latitude , where the scale factor does not vary too much, the
ruler distance d corresponds to a true distance of (d cos )/RF and moreover this is equal
to the rhumb distance, r and the great circle distance, g.
2.7
45
The secant normal Mercator projection
Zones of high accuracy in scale

When the Earth is modelled by a sphere reduced by the representative fraction (RF) and then
projected to the plane the scale factor is unity on the equator. Near the equator the Mercator
projection is perfectly suitable for high accuracy conformal mapping. We can make this
statement more quantitative by demanding that the scale variation must remain within (say)
0.1% of the exact scale on the equator. This value is illustrative only.
With this choice, the scale factor varies from 1 on the equator to 1.001, a value which
is attained at latitudes given by k = sec = 1.001, or = 2.56 . Therefore the accuracy
of the projection is within 0.1% in a zone of width of 5.12 , corresponding to a north south
distance of 570km centred on the equator.
It could be argued that that the absolute value of the scale is not relevantonly the
variation of scale over the mapped region is of interest. Consider, for example, a band of
latitudes starting at 10 N, where k = 1.0154. We find that the scale has increased by 0.1%
to k = 1.0164 when we reach 10.32 N so that the width of the zone of accuracy starting at
10 N is only 190 (or 35km) . Clearly such narrow zones are unsuitable for accurate mapping.
Figure 2.17: The modified normal cylindrical projection

Secant projections
Secant (or modified) projections provide a means of extending the zone of accuracy of a
map projection. The basic idea is that the scale factor is allowed to be less than 1 and it is
only the modulus of the difference between the scale factor and unity that is confined to a
given range. This is achieved for cylindrical projections by projecting the sphere (according
to a defined mathematical function, not just literally) to a cylinder which cuts the sphere in
two parallels at 1 . Hence the terminology secant meaning cutting. The parallels at 1
are called the standard parallels of the secant projection.
Clearly the points on the parallel at 1 lie on both the sphere and on the cylinder and
therefore the scale factor at that latitude must be k = 1 and the width of the projection
must be 2 cos 1 . Parallels on the projection between latitudes 1 must be contracted and
46
outside that interval they must be stretched. In general the scale factor on a parallel is
k( ) =
projected length 2 cos 1

=
= cos 1 sec .
true length
2 cos
(2.51)
The usual parallel scale factor on the normal cylindrical, sec , follows from Equation 2.19
using x = R . To obtain the modified scale factor we must augment the x-transformation
equation by a factor k0 equal to cos 1 . To preserve conformality we must also multiply the
y-transformation equation by the same factor (so that the ratio of x/ y in Equation 2.16 is
unchanged). The equations of the secant equatorial Mercator projection are therefore:

x = k0 R , y = k0 R ln tan
+
,
k0 = cos 1 , k( ) = k0 sec .
(2.52)
2 4
If, as before, we allow a 0.1% variation in the scale factor we have k(0) = k0 = 0.999
on the equator and therefore 1 = 2.56 . The scale factor will then be equal to its maximum
permitted value at a latitude 2 such that 1.001 = 0.999 cos 2 : this gives 2 = 3.62 and the
width of the zone of high accuracy is now 7.24 degrees corresponding to 805km. This is to
be compared with the previous zone width of 570km. The secant projection has achieved a
50% greater zone at the same accuracy.
If we take 1 = 40 then the scale at the equator is k = 0.76 and the latitudes at which
k = 1.24 are 52 . Between these latitudes the projection is accurate to within 24%.
For the highly accurate large scale maps (of narrow zones) of the value of k0 is taken as
0.9996. (Web links: UTM, OSGB ). See also UTM (1989) and OSGB (1999).
Other secant projections
All cylindrical projections have a secant form. There are two standard parallels at 1 on
which parallel scale is unity and the x-transformation equation is as above for Mercator with
k0 = cos 1 . The y-transformation equation depends on the projection.
For the secant equirectangular projection the equations are
x = k0 R ,
y = R ,
k( ) = k0 sec ,
h = 1.
(2.53)
The very earliest (Greek) example of this projection used a value of k0 = 0.81 corresponding to the latitude of Rhodes at 1 = 36 N. For this value the spacing of the meridians
is about 4/5 that of the parallels so that the graticule takes on a rectangular appearance
(Snyder, 1993).
For the secant equal area projection the equations are
x = k0 R ,
y = k01 R sin ,
k( ) = k0 sec ,
h = k01 cos .
(2.54)
The product fo the scale factors

remains unchanged at unity. With standard parallels at
1 = 45 the value of k0 is / 2 = 0.707 so that the equator is contracted by 30%. This
form of the equal area projection was presented by Gall in 1855 and later republished by
Peters in 1973. The distortion of shape in the Gall-Peters projection is well known: central
Africa becomes much too narrow compared with its Mediterranean coastline.
2.8
47
Summary of NMS
Mercator parameter
Inverse parameter
Direct projection
Inverse projection
( )
()

ln tan
+
=
2 4

1
1+ sin
ln
,
2
1 sin
ln(sec + tan ) =
sinh1 tan ,
sech1 cos
cosh1 sec ,
tanh1 sin
= gd1 ( ) .
tan1 sinh
=
2
=
sec1 cosh
= 2 tan1 exp
sin1 tanh ,
cos1 sech ,
gd .
(2.56)
x( , ) = k0 R( 0 ),
(2.57)
y( , ) = k0 R( ),
(2.58)
x
,
k0 R
(2.59)
(x, y) = 0 +
(x, y) =
Scale factors
(2.55)
gd (y),
(y) =
y
k0 R
k( , ) = k0 sec
k(x, y) = k0 cosh (y),
(2.60)
(2.61)
(y) =
y
k0 R
(2.62)
Notes
[1] The angle 2 sin in Figure 2.3 may be taken as a measure of the spherical
convergence of the meridians on the sphere; it must not be confused with the projection
(grid) convergence defined in Section 3.6. There is no accepted definition of spherical
convergence (Lee, 1946b). That it is a suitable measure of meridian convergence on
the sphere may be seen from the fact that it sensibly interpolates between zero on the
equator, where meridians are parallel, and the value at the pole, the angle at which
the meridians PK and MQ intersect there.
[2] In referring to geographic positions it is conventional to use latitudelongitude ordering
as in P( , ) but for mathematical functions of these coordinates it is more natural to
use the reverse order as in x( , ).
[3] Note that there is no need for modulus signs inside the logarithm. For /2 /2
the argument of the tangent is in the interval [0, /2], therefore the argument of the
logarithm is in the range [0, ) and the logarithm itself varies from to .
48
49
Chapter
Transverse Mercator on the sphere: TMS

Abstract
TMS transformations from NMS by rotation of the graticule. Four global TMS
projections. Meridian distance, footpoint and footpoint latitude. Scale factors.
Relation between azimuth and grid bearing. Grid convergence. Conformality,
the CauchyRiemann conditions and isotropy of scale. Series expansions for
the TMS transformation formulae. Secant TMS.
3.1
The derivation of the TMS formulae
In Chapter 2 we constructed the normal Mercator projection (NMS). The strength of NMS
is its conformality, preserving local angles exactly and preserving shapes in small regions
(orthomorphism). Furthermore, meridians project to grid lines and conformality implies
that rhumb lines project to constant grid bearings, thereby guaranteeing the continuing usefulness of NMS as an aid to navigation.
As a topographic map of the globe NMS has shortcomings in that the projection greatly
distorts shapes as one approaches the polesbecause of the rapid change of scale with
latitude. However, the (unmodified) NMS is exactly to scale on the equator and is very
accurate within a narrow strip of about three degrees centred on the equator (extending to
five degrees for the secant NMS). It is this accuracy near the equator that we wish to exploit
by constructing a projection which takes a complete meridian great circle as a kind of
equator and uses NMS on its side to achieve a conformal and accurate projection within
a narrow band adjoining the chosen meridian. This is the transverse Mercator projection
(TMS) first demonstrated by Lambert (1772).
The crucial point is that if we have a projection which is very accurate close to one
meridian then a set of such projections will provide accurate coverage of the whole sphere.
The secant versions of the transverse Mercator projection on the ellipsoid (TME), are of
great importance. One such projection may be used for map projections of countries which
have a predominantly north-south orientation, for example the Ordnance Survey of Great
Britain; see also OSGB (1999). The Universal Transverse Mercator set of projections cover
the entire sphere (between the latitudes of 84 N and 80 S) using 60 zones of width 6 in
longitude centred on meridians at 3 , 9 , 15 , . . . (UTM, 1989).
Chapter 3. Transverse Mercator on the sphere: TMS
50
In unmodified NMS the equator has unit scale because we project onto a cylinder tangential to the sphere at the equator, (Figure 2.3) Therefore, for TMS we seek a projection
onto a cylinder which is tangential to the sphere on some chosen meridian or strictly, a pair
of meridians such as the great circle formed by meridians at Greenwich and 180 E: the geometry is shown in Figure 3.1a. This will guarantee that the scale is unity on the meridian:
the problem is to construct the functions x( , ) and y( , ) such that the projection is also
conformal.

'

$
&

!
"
%
#

Figure 3.1
The solution is remarkably simple. We first introduce a new graticule which is simply
the normal graticule of Figure 3.1a rotated so that its equator coincides with the chosen
meridian great circle as in Figure 3.1b. Let 0 and 0 be the coordinates of P with respect
to the new graticule: they are the angles PCM 0 and OCM 0 on the figure. Note that 0 is
measured positive from the origin O towards M 0 : this is opposite to the sense of in the
standard graticule of Figure 3.1a. In Figure 3.1b we have also shown x0 and y0 axes which
are related to the rotated graticule in the same way that the axes were assigned for the
normal NMS projection in Figure 3.1a. Therefore, bearing in mind the sense of 0 , the
equations (2.28) for NMS with respect to the rotated graticule are
0

0
0
0
0
x = R ,
y = R( ) = R ln tan
+
.
(3.1)
2
4
Now the relation between the actual TMS axes and the primed axes is simply x = y0 and
y = x0 , so that we immediately have the projection formulae with respect to the angles
( 0 , 0 , ) of the rotated graticule:

x = R( 0 ) = a ln tan 0 /2 + /4 ,
y = R 0 .
(3.2)
It is more useful to adopt one of the alternative forms of the Mercator parameter given in
Equation (2.55). (Each would give a different expression for our final result.) We choose
x = R tanh1 sin 0 ,
y = R 0 .
(3.3)
All that remains is to derive the relation between ( 0 , 0 ) and ( , ) by applying spherical
trigonometry to the triangle NM 0 P defined by the (true) meridians through the origin and
an arbitrary point P and by the great circle W M 0 PE (Figure 3.2a) which is a meridian of
51
the rotated graticule. The right-hand figure shows a similar spherical triangle in standard
notation for which the sine and cosine rules (Appendix D) are (for a unit sphere)
sin A sin B sinC
=
=
,
sin a
sin b
sin c
(3.4)
cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos A,
(3.5)
cos b = cos c cos a + sin c sin a cos B,
(3.6)
cos c = cos a cos b + sin a sin b cosC.
(3.7)

=0
Figure 3.2
With the identifications
,
2
b ,
2
A ,
a 0,
C ,
c
0,
2
(3.8)
the first two terms of the sine rule and the first two cosine rules give
sin 0 = sin cos ,
0
(3.9)
0
cos = sin sin + cos cos cos ,

0
sin = sin cos + 0.
(3.10)
(3.11)
Note the simple expression for sin 0 in terms of and ; this explains why we chose the
alternative form of the NMS transformations in equation (3.3). To obtain the expression for
0 we eliminate cos 0 from the last two of these equations. On simplification we find
tan 0 = sec tan .
(3.12)
Our choice (3.3) gives the equations for TMS centred on the Greenwich meridian as
x( , ) = R tanh1 [sin cos ]
y( , )
= R tan1 [sec tan ]
For a different central meridian we simply replace by 0 .
(3.13)
52
Alternative notation
Using Equation 2.31 instead of Equation 2.33 we can replace Equation 3.3 by

R
1 + sin 0
x = ln
,
y = R 0 .
2
1 sin 0
(3.14)
The corresponding equations are:

R
1 + sin cos
x( , ) = ln
2
1 sin cos
y( , )
=R
tan1 [sec
(3.15)
tan ]
Central meridian
On the central meridian, where =0, the TMS equations become x=0 and y=R so the
scale on the central meridian is constant and the range of y is [R/2, R/2].
Equator
On the equator, where =0, we have y=0 but the equation for x diverges to infinity as
/2. Thus it would appear that only the front hemisphere, between longitudes /2
and /2 ( or 90 to 90 ), can be mapped by the projection.
Extended transformation
The rear hemisphere, remote from the central meridian, can be mapped in the same projection by modifying the equation for y noting that the inverse tangent is arbitrary to within an
additive factor of N (integer N). If we restrict the value of tan1 [sec tan ] to the interval
[/2, /2] then we can set
R
y=
+ R tan1 [sec tan ]
0
| | > /2,
for
| | /2,
| | > /2,
0 /2
.
| | /2
0 /2
(3.16)
For example, where | |>/2 and >0 we have sec tan < 0 and as increases from 0 to
/2 the value of y decreases from R to R/2. Therefore the rear northern hemisphere appears inverted above the north pole. Similarly the rear southern hemisphere appears inverted
below the south pole. This is how Figures 3.33.6, were constructed. Note that the equator
now includes the top and bottom edges of the projection (y= R); latitude increases from
these lines towards the poles. Note that above and below the poles longitudes increase from
right to left. The meridians at /2 (90 ) from the central meridian project to lines R/2.
53
The inverse transformations

Invert Equations 3.13:
sin cos = tanh(x/R),
(3.17)
sec tan = tan(y/R).
(3.18)
Eliminating gives
sec2 = sin2 coth2 (x/R) = 1 + cos2 tan2 (y/R),

tan2 coth2 (x/R) 1 = sec2 (y/R),
tan = sinh(x/R) sec(y/R),
(3.19)
thus determining as a function of x and y. To find as a function of x and y first multiply

equations (3.17) and (3.18) to give
tan sin = tanh(x/R) tan(y/R).
(3.20)
Eliminating tan from the last two equations gives

sin = sech(x/R) sin(y/R).
(3.21)
Thus the the inverse transformations are

(x, y) = tan1 [sinh(x/R) sec(y/R)] ,
(3.22)
(x, y) = sin1 [sech(x/R) sin(y/R)] .
(3.23)
If |y|/2 the inverse sine and tangent are restricted to the interval [/2, /2] thus giving
points on the front of the sphere. If |y| /2 the inverse tangent must be taken outwith the
interval [/2, /2] to give points on the rear of the sphere.
3.2
Features of the TMS projection
Figures 3.33.6, show the TMS projections centred on (a) Greenwich (0 =0), (b) Africa
(0 =21 ), (c) the Americas (0 = 87 ); (c) Australasia and Japan (0 =135 ). The axes of
these projections are labelled in units of Earth radius, equivalent to setting R=1. They have
been truncated at x = to give a unit aspect ratio. The figures are overlain by a 15 graticule (relative to the equator and central meridian) and annotated with (latitude,longitude) coordinates of selected interior intersections and boundary points. The Greenwich meridian
and its great circle continuation is shown in green (Figures 3.43.6 only).
These slightly bizarre (x-truncated) TMS projections covering most the Earth are not
of practical use. On the other hand, when these projections are generalised to the ellipsoid
(TME), the small regions within the narrow (red) rectangles on the central meridian (Figures 3.43.6 only) are the areas covered by the highly accurate large scale projections for
UTM zones 34, 16 and 53. In general the central part of the projection is suitable for large
scale maps of predominantly north-south land masses, such as Great Britain.
The following table compares and contrasts the features of NMS and TMS.
(0,-105) (0,-120)
(0,180)
54
(0,130.4)
(0,105.4)
(0,95.7)
(0.7,94.5)
(4.5,92.1)
/2
(4.9,90)
(4.2,87.3)
y=0
(0,-60)
(0,0) (0,30)
(0,60)
(0,85.1)
(0,75)
(-15,60)
(-15,75)
(-30,75)
/2
(-15,-90)
(-15,90)
(-15,-105)
x=0
NMS
Meridians
project to lines of constant x.

Central meridian is x=0.
The
TMS
meridian is x=0. Meridians at 90
are lines of constant y through poles. Other
meridians project to complicated curves.
Central
equator projects to the straight line y=0. The equator projects to three straight lines:
y=0 and the top and bottom edges. At top
and bottom longitude increases to the left.
Parallel
circles project to straight lines of

constant y.
The
Figure 3.3 : Transverse Mercator centred on Greenwich
poles project to lines, y = for R=1.
Meridians
angles.
and parallels intersect at right
Parallel
circles project to closed curves

around poles.
The
poles project to points.
Meridians
and parallels intersect at right
angles.
(continued)
(0,-84) (0,-99)
(0,-159)
55
(0,151.4)
(0,126.4)
(0,116.7)
(0.7,155.5)
(4.5,113.1)
/2
(4.9,111)
(4.2,108.3)
y=0
(0,-39)
(0,0)(0,21)(0,51)
(0,81)
(0,106.1)
(0,96)
(-15,81)
(-15,96)
1
/2
2
(-30,96)
(-15,-69)
(-15,111)
(-15,-84)
x=0
Figure 3.4 : Transverse Mercator centred on 21E

NMS
TMS
The
The
The
The
Distortion
Distortion
Distortion
Distortion
projection is unbounded in y. The poles

lie at infinity. Figure 2.8 is truncated at
latitude 85 to give unit aspect ratio.
projection is conformal. The shapes of
small elements are well preserved.
increases with y. The projection
is not suited for world maps.
is small near the equator: the
projection is suitable for accurate mapping
of equatorial regions
projection is unbounded in x. The

points on the equator at 0 90 are
projected to infinity. The TMS projections
are truncated at the x-value corresponding to
longitudes 0 85 on the equator.
projection is conformal. The shapes of
small elements are well preserved.
increases with x. The projection
is not suited for world maps.
is small near the central meridian:
the projection is suitable for accurate
mapping near the central meridian.
(continued)
(0,168) (0,153)
(0,93)
56
(0,43.4)
(0,18.4)
(0,8.7)
(0.7,7.5)
2
/2
(4.5,5.1)
(15,180)
(4.9,3)
(15,0)
(4.2,0.3)
(3.9,0)
y=0
(0,-147)
(0,-87)(0,-57)
(0,-1.9)
(0,-27) (0,-12)
(-15,-27)
(-15,-12)
1
/2
2
(-3.9,0)
(-30,-12)
(-15,0)
(-15,3)
(-15,-177)
(-15,180)
(-15,168)
x=0
Figure 3.5 : Transverse Mercator centred on 87W

NMS
point scale factor is independent of
direction (isotropic). It is a function of y on
the projection so that it depends on latitude
only. The scale is true on the equator.
TMS
The
The
The
The
In
In
projection is reasonably accurate near

the equator. The scale factorincreses by 1%
(10%) at latitudes of 8 (25 ).
the secant version the scale is reduced on

the equator and it is true on two standard
parallels.
point scale factor is independent of

direction (isotropic). It is a function of x on
the projection but depends on both latitude
and longitude. The scale is true on the
central meridian.
projection is reasonably accurate near

the central meridian. The scale factor
increases by 1% (10%) at when x=0.14R,
(0.44R). A strip x<const. is not readily
related to regions defined in terms of
geographical coordinates.
the secant version the scale is reduced on
the central meridian: it is true on two lines
parallel to the central meridian on the
projection.
(continued)
(0,30)
(0,15)(0,0)
(0,-45)
57
(0,-94.6)
(0,-119.6)
(0,-129.3)
(0.7,-130.5)
(4.5,-132.9)
/2
(4.9,-135)
y=0
(4.2,-137.7)
(0,60)
(0,75)
(0,105)(0,135)
(0,180)
(0,-139.9)
(0,-150)
(-15,-165)
(-15,-150)
1
/2
2
(-30,-150)
(-15,45)
(-15,-135)
(-15,30)
x=0
Figure 3.6 : Transverse Mercator centred on 135E
NMS
(the angle between projected
meridians and grid lines) is identically zero.
Grid north and true north coincide.
TMS
Convergence
Convergence
Loxodromes
Loxodromes
Area
Area
running from pole to pole on

the sphere project to straight lines.
is not conserved but is approximately
so near the equator. Greenland is much
larger than Australia: it should be about one
third of the size.
is zero on the equator and

increases towards the poles. Grid north and
true north do not coincide.
running from pole to pole on
the sphere cannot project to straight lines.
is not conserved but is approximately
so near the central meridian. For =135 E
the shapes and relative sizes of Greenland
and Australia are both good. Areas far from
the central meridian are enlarged, e.g.
Ethiopia.
Comment The following pages contain versions of Figures 3.33.6 which are suitable for
printing.
(0,-105)(0,-120)
58
(0,180) (0,130.4) (0,105.4)
(0,95.7)
(0.7,94.5)
(4.5,92.1)
2
/2
(4.9,90)
(4.2,87.3)
y=0
(0,-60)
(0,85.1)
(0,0) (0,30) (0,60) (0,75)

(-15,60)
(-15,75)
1
/2
(-30,75)
(-15,-90)
(-15,90)
2
(-15,-105)
3
(0,-84) (0,-99)
x=0
(0,-159)
(0,151.4) (0,126.4) (0,116.7)

(0.7,155.5)
(4.5,113.1)
/2
(4.9,111)
(4.2,108.3)
y=0
(0,-39)
(0,0)
(0,21)(0,51) (0,81) (0,96)
(0,106.1)
(-15,81)
(-15,96)
1
/2
2
(-30,96)
(-15,-69)
(-15,111)
(-15,-84)
x=0
Figure 3.7 : Transverse Mercator centred on Greenwich (top) and 21E (bottom)
(0,168)(0,153)
(0,93)
59
(0,43.4)
(0,18.4)
(0,8.7)
(0.7,7.5)
2
/2
(4.5,5.1)
(15,180)
(4.9,3)
(15,0)
(4.2,0.3)
(3.9,0)
y=0
(0,-147)
(0,-1.9)
(0,-87)
(0,-57) (0,-27) (0,-12)
(-15,-27)
(-15,-12)
1
/2
2
(-15,-177)
(-15,180)
(-15,168)
(0,30) (0,15)
(0,0)
x=0
(0,-45)
(0,-94.6) (0,-119.6) (0,-129.3)

(0.7,-130.5)
(4.5,-132.9)
2
/2
(4.9,-135)
(4.2,-137.7)
y=0
(-3.9,0)
(-30,-12)
(-15,0)
(-15,3)
(0,60) (0,75) (0,105)

(0,135) (0,180)
(0,-150)
(0,-139.9)
(-15,-165)
(-15,-150)
1
/2
(-30,-150)
(-15,45)
(-15,-135)
2
(-15,30)
3
x=0
Figure 3.8 : Transverse Mercator centred on 87W (top) and 135E (bottom)
3.3
60
Meridian distance, footpoint and footpoint latitude
We introduce three definitions which, whilst both trivial and superfluous for the sphere,
become very important when we study the transformations on the ellipsoid (TME). Let
P( , ) be a general point on the sphere which projects to P0 (x, y).
The meridian distance, m( ), is the distance measured along a meridian from the
equator to a point at latitude :

!" !

m( ) = R .
(3.24)
On the central meridian of TMS we have y(0, ) = m( ).
The footpoint associated with any point P0 (x, y) on the projection is that point P10
on the central meridian of the projection which has the same ordinate as P0 . The
coordinates of the footpoint are P10 (0, y).
The footpoint latitude, 1 , is the latitude of the point P1 on the central meridian of
the sphere which projects into the footpoint P10 (0, y). In general this latitude is not
equal to that at the point P( , ) which is the inverse of P0 (x, y).
=0
Figure 3.9
From these definitions and equation (3.23) we have
1 = (0, y) = sin1 [sin(y/R)] = y/R.
(3.25)
This is obvious because, by construction, the scale of the projection is true on the central
meridian so that y = R1 and hence 1 = y/R. Equation (3.24) implies
m(1 ) = y.
(3.26)
We now take this equation as a definition of the footpoint latitude which will continue to
hold on the ellipsoid where m( ) is a non-trivial function. For future reference we write
equations (3.22) and (3.23) in terms of the footpoint latitude as
(x, y) = tan1 [sinh(x/R) sec 1 ] ,
(x, y) = sin1 [sech(x/R) sin 1 ]
(3.27)
m(1 ) = y.
(3.28)
The reason for stressing the role of the footpoint is that the series solutions for the inverse
transformation of TME must be expressed as Taylor series about the footpoint latitude where
m( ) is a non-trivial relation, unlike the simple m( )=R in the present case.
3.4
61
The scale factor for the TMS projection
Because of the way in which the TMS was constructed, by applying NMS to a rotated
graticule, we know that the scale factor for TMS is isotropic and, in terms of the rotated
latitude 0 , its value is k = sec 0 . Using (3.9) and (3.17) we find the scale factor in terms of
either geographical or projection coordinates:
k( , ) =
1
(1 sin cos2 )1/2
2
k(x, y) = cosh(x/R).
(3.29)
(3.30)
Scale variation is complicated in terms of geographical coordinates but is very simple in

terms of projection coordinates. For example cosh 0.14 = 1.01 so that within the strip x <
0.14R (x < 0.44R) the scale variation is less than 1% (10%).
3.5
Azimuths and grid bearings in TMS
To investigate the relation between azimuths on the sphere and grid bearings on the projection we consider the infinitesimal elements shown in Figure 3.10. Now strictly, an infinitesimal element on the projection would be a quadrilateral but we have drawn it as curvilinear
quadrilateral to emphasize the fact that the meridian MP, the parallel PN and the displacement PQ will in general project to curved lines on the projection. The relevant angles must
be defined with respect to the tangents of these lines at P0 . The angles of interest are
Figure 3.10
, the azimuth at P between the meridian PM and a displacement PQ on the sphere.
0 , the angle at P0 between the projected meridian P0 M 0 and the displacement P0 Q0 .
, the grid bearing at P0 between the projected displacement P0 Q0 and the y-axis.
, the (grid) convergence between the projected meridian and the y-axis.
Clearly 0 = + .
62
The construction of TMS guarantees conformality so the corresponding angles and 0

must be equal. Therefore
= +
(3.31)
or, in words:
AZIMUTH
= GRID BEARING +CONVERGENCE
This equation is to be used in both directions. If we are given an azimuth at P( , )

on the sphere then the corresponding bearing at P0 on the map projection can be calculated
from = ( , ). Likewise, given a bearing at a point P0 (x, y) on the projection we
find the azimuth at the corresponding point at P on the sphere from = + (x, y). Clearly
we need to find expressions for the convergence in terms of both geographic and projection
coordinates.
Although the convergence can take a wide range of values on small scale TMS projections (such as Figure 3.3), remember that the projection (generalised to the ellipsoid) will
be applied only in the region very close to the central meridian where the the non-central
meridian lines make very small angles with the y-axis. For example, over Great Britain
the convergence of the OSGB maps is never greater than 5 and in a UTM zone it is never
greater than 3%.
3.6

The grid convergence of the TMS projection
The figure shows a section of the 45 E meridian between

the equator and the north pole of the TMS projection of
Figure 3.3. Since TMS is conformal the angle between
this projected meridian and the y-axis must be 45 at the
pole. The figure also shows some grid lines and the (y increasing) direction of these lines is defined as grid north
even though these lines, the y-axis excepted, do not pass
through the north pole on the projection. We also define
the tangent of the meridian at P0 to be the direction of true
north at that point even though the tangent does not point
directly to the pole at N.
/2
Figure 3.11
We can therefore recast the definition of convergence given in the last section. It is
the angle between grid north and true north at a point P0 on the projection and it is usually
specified as so many degrees west or east of grid north. For more general mathematical
work we use a signed convergence defined by

dx
tan =
(3.32)
dy P0
so that in the quadrant shown in the figure, where x < 0 when y > 0, the convergence
is positive. (Thus a positive convergence is to the west of grid north).
The increments in x( , ) and y( , ) for arbitrary changes in and are

x
x
x =
+
= x + x ,

y
y
+
= y + y ,
y =
63
(3.33)
(3.34)
but the tangent at P0 is along the projection of a meridian on which = 0. Therefore

x
x
tan = lim
= ,
(3.35)
y =0
y
x
= tan1 y .
(3.36)
The partial derivatives are evaluated from equations (3.13); to put them in simpler forms we
use equation (3.9) and some equivalent forms
sin 0 = sin cos ,
(3.37)
cos2 0 = 1 sin2 cos2 = sin2 + cos2 cos2

= cos2 + sin2 sin2 = cos2 cos2 (1 + sec2 tan2 ).
(3.38)
Therefore
x=
R
tanh1 [sin cos ]
2
y = R tan1 [sec tan ] ,
(3.39)
x = R sec2 0 cos cos ,
y = R sec2 0 sin sin cos ,
(3.40)
x = R sec2 0 sin sin ,
y = R sec2 0 cos .
(3.41)
The convergence as a function of geographic coordinates follows from equation (3.36):

( , ) = tan1 (tan sin ) .
(3.42)
This result can be written in terms of x and y by using equation (3.20) giving
(x, y) = tan1 [tanh (x/R) tan (y/R)]
It will prove useful to write this result in terms of x and the footpoint latitude as

(x, y) = tan1 tanh(x/R) tan 1 ,
m(1 ) = y.
(3.43)
(3.44)
3.7
64
Conformality of general projections
So far we have claimed, fairly, that TMS is conformal with an isotropic scale factor by
virtue of the method we used to derive the projection, viz NMS on its side. It is instructive
to ask how we may decide that an arbitrary projection from the sphere is conformal. To this
end consider Figure 3.10 where the azimuth angle of the displacement PQ on the sphere is
given by
cos
.
QP
tan = lim
(3.45)
Consider the grid bearing of the corresponding displacement P0 Q0 for an arbitrary projection. Using equations (3.33, 3.34), with the constraint implied by the above equation, we
have

x + x
x tan + x cos
x
tan = lim
= lim
=
.
(3.46)
cos
y
y + y
y tan + y cos
= tan
We already know tan from equation (3.35), therefore we can calculate 0 , the angle between the projected meridian and parallel, as
tan 0 = tan( + ) =
=
=
tan + tan
1 tan tan
(3.47)
y (x tan + x cos ) x (y tan + y cos )

y (y tan + y cos ) + x (x tan + x cos )
cos
(x2
(x y x y ) tan
.
+ y2 ) + (x x + y y ) tan
The projection will be conformal if tan 0 = tan so that

(x x + y y ) tan + cos (x2 + y2 ) (x y x y ) 0.
(3.48)
(3.49)
This is an identity which must hold for all values of , therefore the coefficient of tan and
the constant term must both vanish. This gives two conditions:
x x + y y = 0
cos (x2 + y2 ) = (x y x y ).
Using (3.50), the second of these equations can be written as

cos y2 1 + x2 /y2 = x y 1 + x2 /y2 ,
(3.50)
(3.51)
(3.52)
so that we must have x = cos y . If we then substitute this back into (3.50) we obtain
y = cos x . Thus the following conditions are necessary (and trivially sufficient) for a
conformal transformation from the sphere to the plane.
CAUCHY RIEMANN
x = cos y ,
y = cos x
(3.53)
It is trivial to check that these CauchyRiemann conditions are satisfied for both NMS and
TMS: in the first case have (from 2.28) x =a, y =a sec and x =y =0; TMS follows
immediately from equations (3.40, 3.41).
65
Conformality implies scale isotropy

Consider now the scale factor for an arbitrary transformation. Substituting x and y from
equations (3.33 , 3.34) into the definition of the scale factor (equation 2.18) we have
s02
x 2 + y2
=
lim
QP s2
QP R2 2 + R2 cos2 2
2 = lim
E 2 + 2F + G 2
.
QP R2 2 + R2 cos2 2
= lim
where
E( , ) = x2 + y2 ,
F( , )
= x x + y y ,
(3.54)
G( , ) = x2 + y2 .
(3.55)
The CauchyRiemann equations (3.53) imply that F = 0 and G = cos2 E so the above
limit reduces to E/R2 independent of . Therefore the scale factor is isotropic with a value
given by
ISOTROPIC SCALE
1
k( , ) = R
q
q
1
2
2
x + y = R cos x2 + y2 .
(3.56)
Therefore ALL conformal transformations have isotropic scale factors. It is a simple exercise
to show that the above equation reduces to sec for NMS and to sec 0 for TMS; for the
latter use equations (3.373.41) to confirm the results of Section 3.4.
3.8
Series expansions for the unmodified TMS
The transverse Mercator on the ellipsoid (TME) will be determined as power series. Here
we derive the corresponding series for TMS; thy will provide a check for the TME series in
the limit of the eccentricity of the ellipsoid tending to zero. For the direct transformations
we hold constant and expand in terms of and for the inverse transformations we hold y
constant and expand in terms of x/a. Typically the half-width (at the equator) of a transverse
projection is about 3 on the sphere and about 330km on the projection so that < .05
(radians) and x/a < 0.05. In this section we shall drop terms involving fifth or higher
powers of these small parameters but when we construct the series for TME we will retain
higher orders
The coefficients of the direct series involve trigonometric functions of which not not
necessarily small: for example tan is about 1.7 at 60 N. Likewise, the coefficients of the
inverse series will be functions of the footpoint latitude 1 which again is not generally
small. It is convenient to introduce the following compact notation for the trigonometric
functions of and 1 :
s = sin
c = cos
t = tan
s1 = sin 1
c1 = cos 1
t1 = tan 1
(3.57)
m(1 ) = y,
(3.58)
where m( ) = a is the meridian distance and 1 is the footpoint latitude.

All of the Taylor series that we need for the expansions are collected in Appendix E.
66
Direct transformation for x

R
1 + sin cos
R
1 + c sin
Equation (3.13a) is
x = ln
= ln
.
2
1 sin cos
2
1 c sin
Since sin 1 we first expand the logarithm with (E.12) and then substitute for sin
with (E.13) to obtain
1
1
x( , ) = Rc( 3 + ) + Rc3 ( )3 +
6
3
1
= Rc + Rc3 (1 t 2 ) 3 + .
6
(3.59)
Direct transformation for y

y( , ) = R tan1 [sec tan ] = R tan1 [t sec ] .
Equation (3.13b) is
The argument of the arctan is not small but, using (E.16), we have

1 2 5 4
t sec = t 1 + + +
2
24

1 2 5 4
+ + 1.
= t + z,
with z = t
2
24
Using (E.9) with b = t we have
y( , ) = R tan1 (t + z)
1
= R tan (t) + Rt
1 2 5 4
+
2
24
1
+ Rt 2
1 + t2
1 2
+
2
2
(t)
.
(1 + t 2 )2
Now R tan1 (t) = R tan1 (tan ) = R = m( ) so we can write

y( , ) = m( ) +

Rsc 2 Rsc3 4
+
5 t2 + .
2
24
(3.60)
Inverse transformation for

Setting y/R = 1 , the footpoint latitude, equation (3.22) is

(x, y) = tan1 [sinh(x/R) sec(y/R)] = tan1 c1
1 sinh(x/R) .
Since sinh(x/R) 1 we can expand with (E.20) and then substitute with (E.21) giving

3
1 x 1 x3
1 x
(x, y) =
+
+
+
+
c1 R 6 R3
3c31 R

1 x 1 1 1 2 x 3
=
+
c
+
c1 R
c1 6 3 1
R
1 x (1 + 2t12 ) x 3
=
+
where m(1 ) = y.
(3.61)
c1 R
6c1
R
67
Inverse transformation for

Setting y/R = 1 in equation (3.23) gives
(x, y) = sin1 [sech(x/R) sin(y/R)] = sin1 [s1 sech(x/R)] .
Use (E.24) to write

1 x 2 5 x 4
s1 sech(x/R) = s1 1
+
+
2 R
24 R

1 x 2 5 x 4
+
+
= s1 + z
with z = s1
2 R
24 R
Using (E.8) with b = s1 we obtain

1 x 2 5 x 4
(x, y) = sin
+
2 R
24 R

2

1
s1
1 x 2
2
+
s
+ +
2 (1 s21 )3/2 1
2 R
x 4
t1 x 2 t1
2
+ (5 + 3t1 )
+ .
where m(1 ) = y.
= 1
2 R
24
R
1
s1
s1 +
(1 s21 )1/2
(3.62)
Series expansion for the scale factor

Using the binomial series (E.29) with z = sin2 cos2 = c2 sin2 and substituting for
sin with (E.13), we find that equation (3.29) gives
k( , ) = [1 sin2 cos2 ]1/2

2
1 2
1 3
3
= 1 + c + + c4 ( )4
2
6
8
1 2 2 1 4 4
= 1 + c + c (5 4t 2 ) +
2
24
(3.63)
Similarly equations (3.30) and (E.22) give

k(x, y) = cosh
x
R
= 1+
1 x 2 1 x 4
+
+ .
2! R
4! R
(3.64)
Series expansion for convergence

Equation (3.42) is ( , )= tan1 tan sin . Expanding tan with (E.15) and using the
expansion for arctan in equation (E.20) gives
( , ) =s( + (1/3) 3 + ) (1/3)s3 ( + )3
1
=s + sc2 3 +
3
(3.65)
68
Equation (3.43) is

(x, y)= tan1 tanh(x/R) tan(y/R) = tan1 t1 tanh(x/R) .
Expanding tanh(x/a) for small x with (E.23) and again using (E.20) for arctan gives

3
x 1 x 3
1 x
(x, y) = t1
+ t13
+
R 3 R
3
R
x 1
x 3
= t1
+
where m(1 ) = y.
(3.66)
t1 (1 + t12 )
R
3
R
3.9
Secant TMS
In Section 2.7 we showed how the NMS was modified to obtain greater accuracy over
wider areas by reducing the scale factor on the equator. We do the same for the TMS,
reducing the scale on the central meridian by multiplying the transformation formulae in
equations (3.13) by a factor of k0 . The corresponding modifications for the inverses, scale
factors and convergence are easily deduced: they are listed below along with the corresponding series solutions. On the central meridian we now have y(0, ) = k0 m( ) where
we still have m( ) = R . The corresponding definition of the footpoint latitude becomes
y
m(1 ) = .
(3.67)
k0
We continue to use the abbreviations for the trig functions of and 1 (equations 3.57, 3.58)
Direct transformations

1
1 + sin cos
1 3 3
2
x( , ) = k0 R ln
= k0 R c + c (1 t ) +
(3.68)
2
1 sin cos
6

sc 2 sc3 4
1
2
5t + (3.69)
y( , ) = k0 R tan [sec tan ]
= k0 m( )+k0 R
+
2
24
Inverse transformations

x
y
1
x
(1 + 2t12 )
x 3
1
(x, y) = tan
sinh
sec
=
+
(3.70)
k0 R
k0 R
c1 k0 R
6c1
k0 R

x
y
t1
x 2 t1
x 4
1
2
(x, y) = sin
sech
sin
= 1
+ (5+3t1 )
+
k0 R
k0 R
2 k0 R
24
k0 R
(3.71)
Convergence
1
( , ) = tan1 (tan sin )
= s + sc2 3 +
3

x
y
x
1
x 3
1
2
(x, y) = tan
tanh
tan
= t1
t1 (1 + t1 )
+
k0 R
k0 R
k0 R
3
k0 R
(3.72)
(3.73)
69
Scale factors

k0
1 2 2 1 4 4
2
=
k
1
+
c
+
c
(5
4t
)
+
0
2
24
(1 sin2 cos2 )1/2
"
#

2

x
1
x
1
x 4
= k0 1 +
+
+
k(x, y) = k0 cosh
k0 R
2 k0 R
24 k0 R
k( , ) =
(3.74)
(3.75)
Consider the scale factor in terms of projection coordinates, that is k(x, y). If we choose
k0 = 0.9996 then we find that the scale is true (k=1) when x/R = 0.0282 corresponding
to x = 180km (approximately). Once outside these lines the accuracy decreases as k
increases. The value of k reaches 1.0004 when x = 255km so that k increases from 1 to
1.0004 in a distance of 75km. This is less than half of the distance over which the scale
changes from k = 0.9996 on the central meridian to k = 1 at x = 180km.
Thus we see that the modified TMS is very accurate, within 0.04% over a width of
approximately 510km. We shall see later that this includes most of the area covered by the
British grid. These values are only slightly altered on the ellipsoid (TME) but the lines of
unit scale are no longer straight on the projection.
70
71
Chapter
NMS to TMS by complex variables

Abstract
Complex variable theory is used to derive TMS from NMS by closed formulae
and Taylor series expansions. Scale and convergence are written in terms of the
derivative of the complex function describing the transformation.
4.1
Introduction
In Chapter 2 we derived the NMS projection: it takes a point P( , ) on the sphere to a

point P0 on a plane with projection coordinates ( , ) where (from 2.55)

= ln tan
(4.1)
+
= tanh1 (sin ) = gd1 .
2 4
In Chapter 3 we derived the TMS projection: it takes a point P( , ) on the sphere to a
point P00 on a plane with projection coordinates (x, y) where (from 3.13)
x( , ) = R tanh1 [sin cos ],
y( , ) = R tan1 [sec tan ] .
(4.2)
(4.3)
In addition to these exact closed forms we obtained low order series such as (3.593.66):
1
x( , ) = Rc + Rc3 (1 t 2 ) 3 + ,
(4.4)
6

Rsc 2 Rsc3 4
y( , ) = R +
+
5 t2 + .
(4.5)
2
24
We shall show how the above equations for TMS, both exact closed forms and low order
series, may be derived from NMS by using the theory of complex variables. This should be
possible since both NMS and TMS are conformal transformations from the sphere and the
theory of analytic complex functions incorporates conformality in a natural way.
Let ( , ) be the real and imaginary axes of a complex -plane with = +i. Likewise, (x, y) are the real and imaginary axes of a complex z-plane with z = x+iy. For the
direct transformation we seek functions x( , ) and y( , ) and for the inverse transformations functions (x, y) and (x, y). The transformations to and from the sphere are accomplished through the known relations between and . Almost any function z( ) defines a
conformal transformation between the two complex planes but we shall find that imposition
of boundary conditions on the central meridian fixes the function uniquely.

Chapter 4. NMS to TMS by complex variables
72
(,)
(,)
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.1 (with aR twice) summarizes the properties of the two projections. A general point P on the sphere with coordinates ( , ) projects into P0 ( , ) for NMS and
P00 (x, y) for TMS A general point K(0, ) on the central meridian of the sphere, taken as the
Greenwich meridian for simplicity, projects into points K 0 (0, ) and K 00 (0, y).
NMS is conformal, of finite extent in and infinite extent in . It is true to scale on the
equator: k = 1 when = 0 (equation 2.21).
TMS is also conformal, of finite extent in y and infinite extent in x. It is true to scale
on the central meridian: k = 1 when x = 0, (equation 3.30). Equations 3.13 also imply that
where = 0 we must have y(0, ) = R = m( ). We shall show that if we demand that TMS
has these properties then the functions x( , ) and y( , ) are completely determined.
The meridian distance as a function of
The condition that =0 maps to x=0 is trivial but the second, true scale on the central
meridian, implies that y(0, ) must equal the meridian distance which we have written as a
function of , namely m( ) = R . It is convenient to introduce M(), the meridian distance
as a function of , by
M() = m ( ()) = R (),
(4.6)
and write the scale condition in two equivalent ways.

y(0, ) = M ,
y(0, ( )) = m( ) = R .
(4.7)
(4.8)
On the sphere we can use any one of the equations (2.56) to obtain an explicit expression
for M(): we choose

M() = R tan1 sinh .
(4.9)
In subsequent calculations we need the first four derivatives of M() with respect to .
These are straightforward enough to obtain as functions of , For example
M 0 () =
R cosh
= R sech .
1 + sinh2
(4.10)
73
However, it will prove more useful to express the derivatives of M in terms of . For
example we have
M 0 (( ))
dM(( ))
dm( ) d
=
= R cos ,
d
d d
(4.11)
where we have used the defining equation for NMS (2.25)

d
= sec
d
(4.12)

Proceeding in this way we can construct the first four derivatives of M() with respect to
but with the results expressed as functions of . Using the compact notation of Section 3.8,
( s= sin etc. ).
M 0 = R cos
d(Rc) d
M 00 =
d d
= Rsc,
M 000 = R(c2 s2 )c
= Rc3 (1 t 2 ),
= Rc,
M 0000 = R(3sc2 2sc2 + s3 )c = Rsc3 (5 t 2 ).
(4.13)
Figure 4.2
The footpoint parameter 1
In Section 3.1, where we discussed the inverse TMS transformations, we introduced the
footpoint and the footpoint latitude. We shall drive the inverse transformations from TMS
to NMS as Taylor series expansions about the footpoint parameter 1 . Figure 4.2 shows
the (x, y) plane of TMS and the central meridians only of NMS and the sphere. For any point
P00 (x, y) its footpoint is at K 00 (0, y). The footpoint latitude is that of the point K(0, 1 ) on the
sphere such that m(1 ) = y: the footpoint parameter is the ordinate of that point K 0 (0, 1 )
in the NMS plane such that M(1 ) = y. We have
y = m(1 ) = R1 = M(1 ) = R tan1 sinh 1 .
(4.14)
74
Conformality and complex functions

There is a very brief introduction to the theory of complex functions in Appendix G (and
in the first chapter of any book on complex functions). The central point is that a complex
function, w(z), of a complex variable z, has a unique derivative independent of direction if,
and only if, the CauchyRiemann conditions are satisfied: in the notation of this section
the partial derivatives of the real and imaginary parts of z( ), namely x( , ) and y( , ),
must satisfy
CAUCHYR IEMANN
x = y ,
y = x
(4.15)
In Appendix G we show that if the Cauchy-Riemann conditions are satisfied then the transformation preserves angles. Two lines intersecting at an angle at a point P in the -plane
intersect at the same angle when transformed to the z-plane: the definition of conformality.
4.2
Closed formulae for the TMS transformation
The transformation z( ) from the -plane to the z-plane must satisfy boundary conditions
x(0, ) = 0,
or
y(0, ( )) = m( ) = R ,
1
(4.16)
1
z(0, ) = iR = iR gd = R gd (i) = R gd (Im ),
(4.17)
where we have set = gd (equation 2.56) and i gd() = gd1 (i) (equation C.63).
Therefore it is obvious that we should consider the transformation
or, in full,
z( ) = R gd1 ( )
(4.18)
x( , ) + i y( , ) = R gd1 ( + i).
(4.19)
When =0, this becomes

x(0, ) + i y(0, ) = R gd1 (i) = iR gd() = iR ,
reproducing the boundary condition as above.
Comment on notation. In more advanced treatments, such as Lee (1976) and Karney
(2011), the complex planes are chosen with the imaginary axes along the equator and the
real axis along the central meridian. As a result the transformation is simply z = R gd( )
with = +i and z = y + ix. The final results are the same.
Evaluating the real and imaginary parts of Equation 4.18 and its inverse, = gd(z/R), is
straightforward but non-trivial. The details are given in Appendix G, Equations G.24G.40.
The results are
x = R tanh1 [sin sech ] ,
= tan1 [sinh(x/R) sec(y/R)] ,
y = R tan1 [sec sinh ] ,
= tanh1 [sech(x/R) sin(y/R)] .
(4.20)
From Equation 2.55 we substitute sech = cos , sinh = tan and tanh = sin to
give the direct and inverse equations for TMS, 3.13 and 3.22.
75
The CauchyRiemann conditions

To check the CauchyRiemann equations (4.15) we evaluate the partial derivatives of x
and y from Equations 4.20 (setting R=1 for clarity),
tanh x =
2
(sech x) x =
tan y = sec sinh ,
sin sech ,
2
cos sech ,
(sech2 x) x = sin sinh sech2 ,
(4.21)
(sec y) y = sin sec sinh ,
(4.22)
(sec2 y) y = sec cosh
(4.23)
and simplify using

sech2 x = 1 sin2 sech2 = sech2 cosh2 sin2 ,

sec2 y = 1 + sec2 sinh2 = sec2 cosh2 sin2 .
4.3
(4.24)
(4.25)
Transformation to the TMS series
Figure 4.3
The steps of the transformation are summarized in the figure: anti-clockwise from the
sphere to the normal Mercator projection, to the ( , ) complex plane and then to the (x, y)
complex plane by means of the function z( ). This transformation is expressed as a complex
Taylor series expansion about a point 0 = i0 on the imaginary axis of the -plane. The
real and imaginary parts of the complex series generate the direct series Equations 4.4, 4.4.
We expect that the series to be valid for small values of | 0 |.
The coefficients in the Taylor series are related to the values of z( ) and its derivatives
at 0 . The clever trick is to use the fact that the derivatives of an analytic function may be
evaluated in any direction in the complex plane. By taking them along the imaginary axis
we shall find that they reduce to derivatives of the meridian distance function M() with
respect to . These are the derivatives evaluated in Section 4.1.
The inverse transformations (x, y) and (x, y) are evaluated by inverting the complex
Taylor series and then taking the real and imaginary parts. Finally (x, y) is calculated from
(x, y) by a further Taylor series.

76
=+
Figure 4.4
The direct complex Taylor series
The Taylor series for z( ) about a point 0 = i0 on the imaginary axis of the -plane is
1
1
( 0 )2 z00 (0 ) + ( 0 )3 z000 (0 ) +
2!
3!
and it must satisfy boundary conditions
z( ) = z0 + ( 0 )z0 (0 ) +
(4.26)
x(0, ) = 0,
(4.27)
y(0, ) = M().
(4.28)
z0 = z(0 ) = iy0 = iM(0 ) = iM0
(4.29)
so that at = 0 = i0
Construct the derivatives of z( ) from first principles, (as in G.45):
z( + ) z( )
.
z0 ( ) = lim
(4.30)
Conformality demands that z( ) be analytic and this limit must be independent of direction:
we choose to take it in the direction so that = 0 and = i . Therefore we have

d
1 d
1
0
z( )
iM()
(4.31)
z ( ) =
=
i d
i d
=0
Therefore the derivatives at 0 are

d
0
z (0 ) = i
d

d
00
z (0 ) = i
d

d
000
z (0 ) = i
d

d
0000
z (0 ) = i
d

iM()
0

M 0 ()
= M 0 (0 ),
= iM 00 (0 ),

iM () = M 000 (0 ),
0

M 000 () = iM 0000 (0 ).
00
(4.32)
Finally, if we abbreviate M 0 (0 )= M 00 , M 00 (0 )=M000 etc., the Taylor series (4.26) may be

written as
z = z0 +( 0 )M00
i
1
i
( 0 )2 M000 ( 0 )3 M0000 + ( 0 )4 M00000 +
2!
3!
4!
(4.33)

77
=+
()
Figure 4.5
The direct series for x and y
When we derived the direct series for TMS in Section 3.8 we expanded x and y as power
series in keeping constant, corresponding to constant in the -plane. Therefore, if we
start from a given point at = + i, we must choose 0 at K 0 with the same ordinate, that
is 0 = i: see Figure 4.5. In the Taylor series (4.33) we therefore set 0 = ( +i)
i = so that the complex series reduces to a power series in with complex coefficients.
Since M and its derivatives are evaluated at 0 = we have z0 = iM0 iM and M00 M 0
etc. The series is now
z = x + iy = iM+ M 0
i 2 00 1 3 000 i 4 0000
M M + M +
2!
3!
4!
(4.34)
The real and imaginary parts of equation (4.34) give x and y as functions of and . The
derivatives of M are real so that the transformations from NMSTMS are
1 3 000
M +
3!
1
1
y( , ) = M 2 M 00 + 4 M 0000 + .
2!
4!
x( , ) = M 0
(4.35)
(4.36)
On substituting for M and its derivatives using equations (4.13), we obtain the corresponding
expressions in terms of and (with s = sin etc. )
1 3
Rc (1 t 2 ) 3 + ,
3!
1
1
y( , ) = R + Rsc 2 + Rsc3 (5 t 2 ) 4 + .
2!
4!
x( , ) = Rc +
(4.37)
(4.38)
These results agree with the expansions obtained in equations (3.59, 3.60).
The CauchyRiemann equations
It is instructive to verify that the (plane to plane) CauchyRiemann equations (4.15) are
indeed satisfied by equations (4.35) and (4.36) (at least if the series are continued to infinity).
Evaluating the four partial derivatives we have
1 2 000
M +
2!
1
y = x = M 00 + 3 M 0000 + .
3!
x = y = M 0
(4.39)
(4.40)
78
Note also that the equations (4.37, 4.38) satisfy the CauchyRiemann equations (3.53)
which apply to the transformation from the sphere to the TMS plane. Explicitly
1 3
Rc (1 t 2 ) 2 ,
2!
1
y = cos x = Rsc + Rsc3 (5 t 2 ) 3 + .
3!
x =
cos y = Rc +
(4.41)
(4.42)
The inverse complex series: method of Lagrange series reversion

The simplest method of obtaining the inverse series is to use the Lagrange method described
in Appendix B; in particular we use the reversion of a fourth order polynomial as described
in Section B.4. The beauty of the Lagrange expansions for simple polynomials is that the
coefficients can be determined once and for all and applied in various contexts as need
arises.
We start by writing the direct Taylor series (4.33) as
z z0
b2
b3
b4
= ( 0 ) + ( 0 )2 + ( 0 )3 + ( 0 )4 +
M00
2!
3!
4!
(4.43)
where
b2 = i
M000
,
M00
b3 =
M0000
,
M00
b4 = i
M00000
.
M00
(4.44)
The series (4.43) and (B.13) are identical if we replace z and in the latter by (z z0 )/M00
and 0 respectively. Using (B.14) we can immediately find the inverse series of (4.43):

p2 z z0 2 p3 z z0 3 p4 z z0 4
z z0
+
0 =
M00
2! M00
3! M00
4! M00
(4.45)
where the p-coefficients follow from (B.12):

p2 = b2
iM000
M00
p3 = b3 3b22
M0000
(M000 )2
+
3
M00
(M00 )2
p4 = b4 10b2 b3 + 15b32 =
iM00000
M000 M0000
(M000 )3
10i
+15i
.
M00
(M00 )2
(M00 )3
(4.46)
Using equations (4.13), these become

p2 = is0
p3 = c20 (1 + 2t02 )
p4 = is0 c20 (5 + 6t02 ),
with c0 = cos 0 etc. where 0 = gd 0 .
(4.47)

=+
79
Figure 4.6
The inverse series for the Mercator parameter

For the direct series we kept constant in the plane, Figure 4.5. For the inverse we
keep y constant in the z-plane, Figure 4.6: K 00 is the footpoint for P00 . Therefore z0 = iy
and z z0 = (x + iy) iy = x and therefore the complex series (4.45) reduces to a power
series in x with the complex coefficients given in Equations 4.46. The coefficients are
expressed in terms of the derivatives of the meridian function M() evaluated at 1 but
if we use equations (4.13) the derivatives must be evaluated at the footpoint latitude 1 .
Setting M1 = M(1 ) = m(1 ) = y etc. equation (4.45) becomes

x
p2 x 2 p3 x 3 p4 x 4
( + i) i1 = 0
+
(4.48)
M1 2! M10
3! M10
4! M10
and the real and imaginary parts are
3
1
x
x
+
p
3
M10 3!
M10
2
4
1
x
1
x
(x, y) = 1 Im (p2 )
Im (p4 )
+ .
0
2!
M1
4!
M10
(x, y) =
(4.49)
(4.50)
Substitute for the p-coefficients (4.47) and M10 (from 4.13), all evaluated at the footpoint
latitude 1 = (1 ) = gd 1 .
x 3
1 1
1 x
1 + 2t12
+ ,
(4.51)
(x, y) =
c1 R 3! c1
R
(x, y) = 1
x 4
1 t1 x 2 1 t1
+
5+6t12
+ ,
2! c1 R
4! c1
R
(4.52)
where c1 = cos 1 , t1 = tan 1 , m(1 ) = R1 = y and 1 = gd1 1 = tanh1 sin 1 . Term by

term the derivatives satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann conditions for the inverse function (z):
x = y =
y = x =
1
1 + 2t12 x 2
+ ,
Rc1
2Rc1 R
(4.53)
x 3
t1 x
t1
5+6t12
+ .
Rc1 R 6Rc1
R
(4.54)
80
Relating latitude and the Mercator parameter

The series (4.53) for is in agreement with equation (3.61) but we must now derive the
series for from that for .
Equation 4.52 determines 1 as a power series in x with coefficients evaluated at
the footpoint latitude 1 . To obtain the corresponding series for we first construct the
Taylor series expansion of () about the footpoint parameter 1 :

2
d
1
2 d
() = (1 ) + ( 1 )
+ .
(4.55)
+ ( 1 )
d
2!
d 2
1
The derivatives of () are easily obtained from the defining equation for , (2.25):

d
d 1
d
= sec ,
=
= cos ,
(4.56)
d
d
d
d
d
d2
=
(cos ) = sin
= sin cos .
(4.57)
2
d
d
d
Substituting these derivatives into the Taylor series, and setting (1 ) = 1 , we have
1
= 1 + ( 1 ) cos 1 ( 1 )2 sin 1 cos 1 + .
(4.58)
2!
The inverse series for latitude
In Equation 4.58 we substitute for 1 from equation (4.52). To order (x/a)4 ,

t1
1 x 2 1 x 4
2
+
5+6t1
c1
(x, y) = 1 +
2! R
4! R
c1

2 2
1
1 x 2
t1
+
s1 c1
2!
2! R
c1
which simplifies to
x 4
t1 x 2 t1
+
5 + 3t12
+ ,
(x, y) = 1
2 R
24
R
where m(1 ) = R1 = y, in agreement with equation (3.62).
4.4
(4.59)
The inverse complex series: an alternative method
Another way of deriving the inverse series is to take the development given in the first part
of Section 4.3 and run it backwards from the z-plane to the -plane. That is, we assume the
existence of an analytic function (z) such that (a) the central meridian maps from x = 0 to
= 0 and (b) (0, y) is prescribed. Therefore
(z) = (x, y) + i(x, y),
(4.60)
(0, y) = 0,
(4.61)
(0, y) = M (y),
(4.62)
81

where M (y) is an inverse to M() in the sense that M M (y) = y and M M() = . The
Taylor series analogous to (4.33) is then an expansion of (z) about a point on the z0 = iy0
on the y-axis of the z-plane:
(z) = 0 +(zz0 )M 00
i
1
i
4 0000
(zz0 )2 M 000 (zz0 )3 M 000
0 + (zz0 ) M 0 + ,
2!
3!
4!
(4.63)
where 0 = i0 = iM (y0 ) and the derivatives of M are with respect to y at y0 .

Now although it is straightforward to construct the function M (y) on the sphere, we
shall construct its derivatives from those of M(). We start by differentiating the identities
y = M(M (y)) = M(),
(4.64)
= M (M()) = M (y),
(4.65)
to give
dy
= M 0 (),
d
d
= M 0 (y).
dy
(4.66)
Therefore, since M 0 () 6= 0 (4.10) we have

M 0 (y) =
d
1
= 0
,
dy
M ()
(4.67)
and in general
d( )
1 d( )
= 0
.
dy
M () d
(4.68)
We now calculate all the derivatives in equation (4.63). For compactness we suppress the
argument in M() and all its derivatives, M 0 (), M 00 () etc. Comparing the results with
the p-coefficients in equation (4.46) we find
M 0 (y) =
1
M0

1 d h 0 i
1 d
1
M 00
M
(y)
=
=
M 0 d
M 0 d M 0
(M 0 )3

1 d h 00 i
1 d
M 00
M 000
(M 00 )2
M 000 (y) = 0
M (y) = 0
=
+
3
M d
M d (M 0 )3
(M 0 )4
(M 0 )5
1 d h 000 i
M 0000
M 00 M 000
(M 00 )3
M 0000 (y) = 0
M (y) = 0 5 + 10
15
M d
(M )
(M 0 )6
(M 0 )7
M 00 (y) =
1
,
M0
ip2
,
M 02
p3
,
M 03
ip4
.
M 04
(4.69)
Substituting these derivatives (evaluated at y0 for M and at 0 for M) into equation (4.63)
gives a complex series identical to that of (4.45) and the same results follow. We choose not
to follow this method since the calculation of the derivatives to eighth order for the ellipsoid
becomes very intricate.
82
Figure 4.7
4.5
Scale and convergence in TMS
Units: We set R=1 throughout this section.

Consider an arbitrary conformal transformation described by the analytic function z( ).
The scale factor m is the ratio of the lengths of small elements dz and d :
m=
|dz|
= |z0 ( )|,
|d |
1
|d |
=
= | 0 (z)|.
m
|dz|
(4.70)
dz = |dz| exp i ,
(4.71)
The complex displacements may be written as

d = |d | exp i,
so that the angle of rotation between the elements is = arg z0 ( ). This result apples to
any small element but in particular it applies to an element along the -axis in the -plane.
If that element coincides with a meridian, as it does for NMS, then the corresponding angle
in the projection z-plane defines the angle between the projected meridian and the y-axis.
This is just the convergence as defined in Section 3.6. Therefore
= arg z0 ( ) = arg 0 (z).
(4.72)
The derivative z0 ( ) determines both the scale factor and the convergence.
The freedom to choose the derivatives of an analytic function in any direction allows us
to take them along the real axis. Therefore
z0 ( ) = x + iy ,
0 (z) = x + ix .
Since x and y are functions of and , and vice-versa, we have

q
q
1
2
2
= x2 + x2 ,
m( , ) = x + y ,
m(x, y)
(4.73)
(4.74)
and
tan ( , ) =
y
,
x
tan (x, y) =
x
.
x
(4.75)
Note that
m( , ) = x sec ( , ),
1
= x sec (x, y).
m(x, y)
(4.76)
83
Exact formulae for NMS to TMS scale factor and convergence

The real and imaginary parts of z( ) = gd1 are given in (4.20). Setting R=1 for clarity,
tanh x = sin sech ,
tan y =
(sech2 x) x = cos sech ,
(sec2 y) y =
tan = sinh x sec y
tanh =
sec sinh ,
(4.77)
sin sec2 sinh ,
(4.78)
sech x sin y
(4.79)
(sech )x = sinh x sech x sin y.
(sec )x = cosh x sec y
(4.80)
Simplify using

sech2 x = 1 sin2 sech2 = sech2 cosh2 sin2 ,

sec2 y = 1 + sec2 sinh2 = sec2 cosh2 sin2 ,
2
sec = 1 + sinh x sec y = sec y [cosh x sin y],

2
sech = 1 sech x sin y = sech x [cosh x sin y].
The scale factors and convergence for the transformation z( ) are therefore.
q
1
m( , ) = x2 + y2 = q
cosh2 sin2
q
1
= cosh2 x sin2 y,
m(x, y) = p
x2 + x2
y
= tan tanh ,
x
x
tan (x, y) = = tanh x tan y.
x
tan ( , ) =
(4.81)
(4.82)
(4.83)
(4.84)
(4.85)
(4.86)
(4.87)
(4.88)
Exact formulae for sphere to TMS scale factor and convergence

The scale factor from the sphere to TMS is the product of the scale factor from the sphere
to NMS and that for transformation z( ) from NMS to TMS. Using the NMS scale factors (2.61), (2.62) and equations (2.55), (4.79)b to express cosh in terms of and (x, y)
respectively
sec
1
k( , ) = sec m( , ) = q
=q
(4.89)
2
2
2
2
cosh sin
1 sin cos
p
cosh2 x sin2 y
k(x, y) = cosh (x, y) m(x, y) = p
= cosh x,
(4.90)
1 sech2 x sin2 y
Convergence is additive but from sphere to NMS it is zero. Therefore equations 4.87, 4.88
give the sphere to TMS convergence. Setting tanh = sin in 4.87
( , ) = tan1 [tan sin ],
(4.91)
(x, y) = tan1 [tanh x tan y].
(4.92)
These results are in agreement with Equations 3.723.75 (after restoring R).
84
Direct series for NMS to TMS scale factor and convergence

We work from the series solutions (4.37) and (4.38) in which we neglected terms of O( 5 ).
Therefore we must neglect terms of O( 4 ) in the expressions for the derivatives, (4.41)
and (4.42), and any expressions derived from them. Inserting these derivatives into equation (4.87) gives (R=1, s= sin etc. )
tan =
sc + 16 sc3 [5 t 2 ] 3 +
y
=
x
c + 12 c3 [1 t 2 ] 2

1
2 2 2
= s 1 + [1 + t ]c + .
3
(4.93)
(4.94)
Using the series for arctan (equation E.20),

1
= tan1 (tan ) = tan (tan )3 +
3

1 2 2
= s 1 + c + .
3
(4.95)
(4.96)
To the same order

sec =
q
1
1
1 + tan2 = 1 + tan2 + = 1 + s2 2 + .
2
2
(4.97)
We calculate the NMS to TMS scale factor by using (4.76) rather than (4.74). (The method
is easier for the more involved series for TME.)

1 2 2
m( , ) = x sec = c 1 + c +
(4.98)
2
Direct series for sphere to TMS scale factor and convergence
The sphere to TMS scale factor is given by multiplying this result by the sphere to NMS
scale factor, sec = 1/c.

1
1 2 2
k( , ) = m( , ) = 1 + c +
(4.99)
c
2
in agreement with the leading terms of the expansion in equation 3.74. The series (4.96) for
the convergence is unchanged:

1 2 2
( , ) = s 1 + c + .
(4.100)
3
where s= sin etc. This result in agreement with equation 3.72, neglecting O( 4 ).
85
Inverse series for NMS to TMS scale factor and convergence

We neglected terms of O(x5 ) in the series for the inverse transformation, (4.51) and (4.52).
Therefore we must neglect terms of O(x4 ) in the expressions for the derivatives, (4.53)
and (4.54) and any expressions derived from them. Inserting the derivatives into equation (4.87) gives (R=1, s1 = sin 1 etc. )

t1
t1
x
5+6t12 x3 + .
x
c
6c1
tan = = 1
1
1
x
[1 + 2t12 ]x2 +
c1 2c1

1 2
= t1 x 1 x + .
3
(4.101)
(4.102)
Using the series for arctan (equation E.20),

1
= tan1 (tan ) = tan (tan )3 +
3

1
= t1 x 1 [1 + t12 ]x2 + .
3
(4.103)
(4.104)
To the same order

q
1
1
sec = 1 + tan2 = 1 + tan2 + = 1 + t12 x2 + .
2
2
(4.105)
Therefore the NMS to TMS scale factor expressed in projection coordinates is given by

1
1
1
2 2
(4.106)
=x sec =
1 [1 + t1 ]x + ,
m(x, y)
c1
2

1
1
2 2
= c1 1 + [1 + t1 ]x + .
m(x, y) =
x sec
2
(4.107)
Inverse series for sphere to TMS scale factor and convergence

For the TMS scale factor we must multiply the above result by the sphere to NMS scale
factor, cosh in (2.62). We can no longer simply use (4.79)b to express this factor in terms
of x and y: we have only the series for at (4.52) with R=1:
(x, y) = 1

1 t1 2 1 t1
x +
5+6t12 x4 + ,
2! c1
4! c1
(4.108)
We then substitute (1 ) in a Taylor series expansion of cosh about 1 . Since the

derivatives of cosh are simply sinh, cosh, . . . alternating, we have
cosh = cosh 1 +
1
1
sinh 1 ( 1 ) + cosh 1 ( 1 )2 + .
1!
2!
(4.109)
86
Substitute 1 from 4.108 and neglect terms of order O(x4 ) and, at the same time, set
cosh 1 = sec 1 and sinh 1 = tan 1 from (2.55):

1
1 x 2
cosh =
1 t12
+
(4.110)
c1
2
R
Therefore the sphere to TMS scale factor is

1 2
k(x, y) = cosh m(x, y) = 1 + x + ,
2
(4.111)
in agreement with the two leading terms of equation 3.75 (after restoring R) which are
just the leading terms of the expansion of cosh x. This result is of course trivial, but we it
demonstrates the method we shall follow for the TME series.
The series (4.96) for the convergence is unchanged:

1
(x, y) = t1 x 1 (1 + t12 )x2 + .
3
where t1 = tan 1 and m(1 ) = y. This result is in agreement with equation 3.73.
(4.112)
87
Chapter
The geometry of the ellipsoid

Abstract
Geodetic and geocentric latitude. Parameters of the ellipsoid. Relation of
Cartesian and geographical coordinates. Reduced or parametric latitude. Curvature. Distances on the ellipsoid. Meridian distance and its inverse. Auxiliary
latitudes: conformal, rectifying and authalic.
5.1
Coordinates on the ellipsoid
The Earth is more accurately modelled as an oblate ellipsoid of revolution. If the symmetry
axis is taken as OZ the Cartesian equation with respect to its centre is

X 2 Y 2 Z2
+
+
= 1,
a2 a2 b2
a > b.
(5.1)
The definition of longitude is exactly the same as on the sphere. The geodetic latitude ,
which we will simply call latitude, is the angle at which the normal at P intersects the
equatorial plane (Z = 0). The new feature is that the normal does not pass through the
Figure 5.1
centre of the ellipsoid (except when P is on the equator and at the poles). The line joining
P to the centre defines the geocentric latitude c . We introduce the notation p( ) for the
distance PN of a point P from the central axis and we also set ( ) for the length CP of the
normal at P to its intersection with the symmetry axis. Therefore
p
p( ) = ( ) cos = X 2 +Y 2 .
(5.2)
Chapter 5. The geometry of the ellipsoid
5.2
88
The parameters of the ellipsoid
The parameter a is the equatorial radius and the parameter b is the distance from centre
to pole. The latter is often called the polar radius: this is misleading for there is no circle
involved. These parameters are the major and minor semi-axes of a meridional ellipse
defined by any meridian and its continuation over the poles. Instead of using (a, b) as the
basic parameters of the ellipse we can use the combination (a, e) where e is the eccentricity,
or (a, f ) where f is the (first) flattening. These parameters are defined and related by
ab
,
e2 = 2 f f 2 = f (2 f ).
a
For numerical examples we use the values for the WGS84 ellipsoid:
b2 = a2 (1 e2 ),
a = 6378137.0m,
f=
e = 0.0818191908,
b = 6356752.314m,
e2 = 0.0066943799,
f = 0.003352810,
1
= 299.3249753.
f
(5.3)
(5.4)
The flattening of the Earth is small. For example, in the figures on the previous page the
difference between a sphere of radius a and an ellipsoid with equatorial radius a would be
about the width of one of the lines in the figure. The ellipses shown here, and elsewhere,
are greatly exaggerated.
Other parameters used to describe an ellipse
Several other small parameters arise naturally in the study of the ellipse. We shall need the
second eccentricity, e0 , and the third flattening n (rarely e1 ). They are defined by
e02 =
a2 b2
e2
=
,
2
b
1 e2
n = e1 =
ab
f
=
a+b 2 f
(5.5)
(The second flattening, defined as (a b)/b is rarely used). There are many relations between all these parameters. For example we will need the following results:

1+n
2 1/2
a = b 1e
(5.6)
=b
1n

= b 1 + 2n + 2n2 + 2n3 + ,
(5.7)
2

b
1n 2
4n
e = 1
= 1
=
a
1+n
(1 + n)2
2
= 4n(1 2n + 3n2 4n3 + ).
5.3
(5.8)
(5.9)
Parameterisation by geodetic latitude
The equation of any meridian ellipse follows from (5.1) and (5.2):
p2 Z 2
+
= 1.
a2 b2
(5.10)
89
Differentiating this equation with respect to p gives

dZ
pb2
(5.11)
= 2.
dp
Za
Since the normal and tangent are perpendicular the product of their gradients is 1 and
therefore the gradient of the normal is
1
Za2
dZ
Z
= 2=
tan =
.
(5.12)
dp
pb
p(1 e2 )
Eliminating Z from equations 5.10 and 5.12 gives
p2 [1 + (1 e2 ) tan2 ] = a2 .
(5.13)
Thus the required parameterisation is;

PN = p( ) =
PM = Z( ) =
a cos
[1 e2 sin2 ]1/2
a(1 e2 ) sin
[1 e2 sin2 ]1/2
(5.14)
(5.15)
Since = CP = PN sec = p sec we have

CP = ( ) =
(5.16)
[1 e2 sin2 ]1/2
in terms of which
p( ) = ( ) cos ,

(5.17)
Z( ) = (1 e2 ) ( ) sin .
The triangle OCE
(5.18)
We shall require the sides of the triangle OCE defined by the normal and its intercepts on
the axes.
OE = OM EM = p Z cot
= cos (1 e2 ) cos
= e2 cos .
CE = e2
OC = e2 sin .
=()
(5.19)
Figure 5.2
The sides of this small triangle are all of order

for example at latitude 45 the sides
OE and OC are about 30km and CE is about 42.5km.
ae2 ;
90
The relation between geodetic and geocentric latitudes

From Figure 5.1b and equations (5.17) and (5.18) we immediately obtain the relation between and c :
Z
tan c = = (1 e2 ) tan .
(5.20)
p
Clearly and c are equal only at the equator, = 0, or at the poles, = /2. Since
e2 0.0067 the difference c at any other angle is small (and positive). It is a simple
exercise in calculus to find the position and magnitude of the maximum difference. First
write
e2 tan
tan tan c
=
tan( c ) =
.
(5.21)
1 + tan tan c 1 + (1 e2 ) tan2
Differentiating with respect to gives

2 sec2 1 (1 e2 ) tan2
e
d(
)
c
sec2 ( c )
.
(5.22)
=

2
d
1 + (1 e2 ) tan2
Therefore
c has a turning point, clearly a maximum, when the right hand side vanishes
at tan = 1/ 1 e2 . Using the value of e for the WGS ellipsoid (equation 5.4) shows that
the maximum difference occurs at 45 .095, for which c 44 .904 and the latitude
difference c 11.50 . (Note that e2 0.00667 is the radian measure of 22.90 ).
A comment on other latitudes
In addition to the geodetic latitude and geocentric latitude c , we have already discussed
the isometric latitude (the Mercator parameter in the notation of Sections 2.4 and 6.1)
and we shall meet four further latitude definitions. These are the reduced (or parametric)
latitude U (Section 5.5), and, in Section 5.10, three auxiliary latitudes: the rectifying latitude , the conformal latitude and the authalic latitude . With the exception of the
isometric latitude all of these latitudes coincide with the geodetic and geocentric latitudes
at the poles and on the equator and the maximum deviations from are no more than a few
minutes of arc. The isometric latitude agrees with the others at the equator (where it is zero)
but diverges to infinity at the poles: it is a radically different in character.
5.4
Cartesian and geographic coordinates
Using (5.17) and (5.18) the Cartesian coordinates of a point on the surface are
X( ) = p( ) cos = ( ) cos cos ,
(5.23)
Y ( ) = p( ) sin = ( ) cos sin ,
(5.24)
Z( ) = (1 e2 )( ) sin .
(5.25)
For given X, Y, Z the inverse relations for and are

Y
Z
(a) = arctan
,
(b) = arctan
.
X
(1 e2 ) X 2 +Y 2
(5.26)
The two dimensional coordinate system describing

points on the surface may be extended to a three dimensional coordinate system. Let H be a point at a
height h on the normal to the surface at the point P
with geographical coordinates and . The distance
of this point from the axis is now p + h cos . Also,
from (5.19), we have EP = CP CE = (1 e2 ). The
coordinates of H are

X( ) = ( ) + h cos cos ,
(5.27)

Y ( ) = ( ) + h cos sin ,
(5.28)

2
Z( ) = (1 e ) ( ) + h sin .
(5.29)

91
=()
Figure 5.3
For the inverse relations dividing equation (5.28) by (5.27) gives explicitly, as in equation (5.26a). To find and h we can eliminate from (5.27) and (5.28) and rewrite equation (5.29) for Z to give
p

X 2 +Y 2 = ( ) + h cos ,
(5.30)

(5.31)
Z + e2 ( ) sin = ( ) + h sin .
Dividing these equations gives an implicit equation for :
"
#
Z + e2 ( ) sin
p
= arctan
.
X 2 +Y 2
(5.32)
There is no closed solution to this equation but we can develop a numerical solution by
considering the following fixed point iteration:
"
#
Z + e2 (n ) sin n
p
n+1 = g(n ) = arctan
,
n = 0, 1, 2 . . . . (5.33)
X 2 +Y 2
Now in most applications we will have h a so that a suitable starting approximation is
the value of obtained by using the h = 0 solution, equation (5.26b):

Z
0 = arctan
.
(5.34)
(1 e2 ) X 2 +Y 2
If the iteration scheme converges so that n+1 and n in (5.33) then must be
the required solution of equation (5.32). The condition for convergence of this fixed point
iteration is that |g0 ( )| < 1: this is true here since g0 ( ) = O(e2 ). Once we have found it
is trivial to deduce h from equation (5.30):
p
h = sec X 2 +Y 2 ( ).
(5.35)
The formulae developed in this section are used in the OSGB (1999) publications.

5.5
92
The reduced or parametric latitude
There is another important and obvious parameterisation of the ellipse. Construct the auxiliary circle of
the ellipse: it is concentric and touches the ellipse at
the ends of its major axis so that the radius is equal
to a. Take a point P on the ellipse and project its ordinate until it meets the auxiliary circle at P0 and let
angle P0 OA be U. The angle U is called the reduced
latitude (or parametric latitude) of the point P on the
ellipse. The points P and P0 clearly have the same abscissa, p = a cosU. Substituting this abscissa into the
equation of the ellipse (5.10) we have
q
Z = b 1 p2/a2 = b sinU.
Figure 5.4
(5.36)
The pair of equations

p = a cosU,
Z = b sinU,
(5.37)
constitutes the required parametric representation of the ellipse. At a general point the ordinates OP = Z = b sinU and OP0 = a sinU are in the ratio of b/a: the ellipse is a uniformly
squashed circle.
Relations between the reduced and geodetic latitudes
Comparing the parameterisations of p and Z in equations (5.17, 5.18) and (5.37) gives
p = ( ) cos
= a cosU,
Z = (1 e2 )( ) sin = b sinU.
The basic relation between U and could be taken as
a cosU = ( ) cos ,
(5.38)
but it is more useful to divide the expressions for Z and p to find (using b = a 1 e2 )
p
(5.39)
tanU = 1 e2 tan
It will also be useful to have an expression for in terms of U. Using (5.38) and (5.16)
1 e2 cos2U = 1
=
e2 2
e2 cos2
2
cos
=
1
a2
1 e2 sin2
1 e2
.
1 e2 sin2
1/2
a
a
2
2
=
1
e
cos
U
=

1/2
1 e2
1 e2 sin2
(5.40)
(5.41)
93
We shall need the derivative of U with respect to . Differentiating (5.39) gives

p
p
1
2 dU
2
2
2
2
sec U
= 1 e sec = 1 e 1 +
tan U .
d
1 e2
dU
1 e2 cos2U
.
=
d
1 e2
(5.42)
(5.43)
The difference between reduced and geodetic latitudes

We could use the above derivatives to find the maximum difference between U and but
the result follows by simply comparing equations
(5.20) and (5.39). They differ only in that
2
2
the factor of (1 e ) in (5.20)
is replaced by 1 e . Since the maximum value of c
2
occurred when tan
= 1/ 1 e we deduce that the maximum value of U will occur
when tan = 1/ 4 1 e2 . This corresponds to 45 .048 for which the corresponding
value of U is 44 .952 so that the maximum difference is U 50 .7.
$

#

$

!
"

!
"

&
'

%

#

%

&' %

&'
5.6
The curvature of the ellipsoid
We investigate the properties of the two dimensional curves formed by the intersection of
some, but not all, planes with the surface of the ellipsoid: we use the mathematical results
established in Appendix A. In particular we investigate two special families of planes. The
first family (S) has the normal at P as a common axis and the intersections of its planes with
the surface are called the normal sections at P. One member of the family is the meridian
Figure 5.5
plane (black) containing P and the symmetry axis of the ellipsoid. Another important member of the family is the plane at right angles to the meridian plane: it is called the prime
vertical plane (shaded grey). Other members of the family are labelled by the angle
between a specific plane and the meridian plane.
The second family of planes (T) has as its axis the tangent to the parallel circle at P: we
are interested in just two of its planes. One (black) is the plane of the parallel: its section
on the surface is the parallel circle. The other is that which contains the normal at P: this is
the prime vertical plane (grey), the only plane common to both families.
94
Radius of curvature in the meridian plane

The section by the meridian plane is an ellipse whose curvature may be determined from
either Cartesian equations or parameterised equations by the well known formulae summarised in Appendix A. The easiest method is to use the parameterisation in terms of the
reduced latitude given in (5.36). This has been done as an example in Appendix A: equation (A.12) gives the meridian curvature as
1
1 e2
=
.
(5.44)
a [1 e2 cos2 U]3/2
It will be more useful to work with the meridian radius of curvature defined by = 1/
and expressed as a function of . Using equation (5.41) we have
( ) =
a(1 e2 )
1 e2 sin2
3/2
(5.45)
Using (5.16) we have the following relation between and :

=

3
1 e2 .
2
a
(5.46)
Furthermore, we have
1 e2
=
.
(5.47)
1 e2 sin2
Since (a) the denominator is less than or equal to 1 and (b) the numerator is less than or
equal to the denominator, we have
(1 e2 ) .
(5.48)
Now in Figure 5.2 we have CP = and EP = CP CE = (1 e2 ). Therefore the centre

of curvature of the meridian is at a point D between C and E, as shown in Figure 5.5.
Radius of curvature in the prime vertical plane
To find the radius of curvature in the prime vertical we consider two planes of the family T :
the prime vertical itself (grey) and the parallel plane (black). The radii of curvature in these
two planes are related by Meusniers theorem (Appendix A). This theorem relates the radius
of curvature in a normal section to that made by a plane at an oblique angle :
Rnormal = sec Roblique
(5.49)
We identify the prime vertical plane and parallel plane of the family T with the normal and
oblique planes of the theorem. Now the parallel plane intersects the surface in a parallel
circle so we know that its radius of curvature is simply NP = p( ) in Figure 5.2. But this is
just ( ) cos and therefore
Rprime vertical = sec Rparallel = sec p( ) = ( ).
(5.50)
95
Thus we have the important result that the distance CP = ( ) may be identified as the
radius of curvature of the normal section made by the prime vertical plane. The point C
where the normal meets the axis is the centre of curvature of this section.
Radius of curvature along a general azimuth
Returning to S, the family of planes on the normal, we now know the curvature of two
of the normal sections: 1 on the meridian plane and 1 on the prime vertical. Now
consider the curvature, K(), of the section made by that plane of the family at an angle ,
measured clockwise from the meridian plane. Clearly the symmetry of the ellipsoid about
any meridian plane implies that K() = K() so that K() is a symmetric function of
and it must therefore have a turning point at = 0. Therefore the curvature of the meridian
section must be either a minimum or maximum and it is therefore one of the principal
curvatures at Psee Appendix A.
In the appendix we proved that the planes containing the principal curvatures are orthogonal. Therefore the curvature of the normal section made by the prime vertical plane
must be the other principal curvature. Furthermore, equation (5.47) gives and therefore 1 1 so that the curvature in the meridian section is the maximum normal section curvature at any point. Introducing the radius of curvature on the general section by
R() = 1/K(), we use Eulers formula, equation (A.36), to deduce that
1
1
1
= cos2 + sin2 .
R()
(5.51)
Curvatures and their derivatives.

In addition to the principal curvatures, and it is useful to introduce a special notation
for their quotient, = /:

a
3
( ) =
,
(
)
=
1 e2 ,
(5.52)

2
1/2
a
1 e2 sin2
( ) =
1 e2 sin2
=
.
1 e2
1 =
e2 cos2
.
1 e2
(5.53)
We shall frequently require the derivatives of the curvatures and their quotient. It is straightforward to show that
d
= ( 1) tan ,
d
d
( 1)
=3
tan ,
d
d
= 2( 1) tan .
d
(5.54)
We need both first and second derivative of in the combinations

1 d
( 1) tan
=
,
d
2
1 d 2
( 1)
1
2
=
+
2
5
+
3
tan .
d 2
(5.55)
96
Finally we note that the cross-section coordinates (5.17, 5.18) and their derivatives are
Z( ) = (1 e2 ) ( ) sin ,
p( ) = ( ) cos ,
dp
= sin ,
d
(5.56)
dZ
= cos .
d
(5.57)
Spherical limit
We shall refer to the limit e 0 as the spherical limit. Clearly in this limit
a,
5.7
a,
0 , 0 , 0 0.
1,
(5.58)
Distances on the ellipsoid
Derivation of the metric

Starting from the parameterisation of the Cartesian coordinates (Section 5.4):
X( ) = p( ) cos = ( ) cos cos ,
Y ( ) = p( ) sin = ( ) cos sin ,
Z( ) = (1 e2 )( ) sin .
(5.59)
we have
dX = p cos d p sin d ,
where DOT
dY = p sin d + p cos d ,
dZ = Z d .
d
d
(5.60)
Themetric may be written as

ds2 = dX 2 + dY 2 + dZ 2 ,

= p2 + Z 2 d 2 + p2 d 2 .
Using (5.57) and (5.56) we obtain two useful forms:
ds2 = 2 d 2 + p2 d 2 ,
2
(5.61)
2
ds = d + cos d .
(5.62)
On the meridian we have d = 0 and on the parallel circle we have d = 0 Therefore

dsmeridian = d ,
dsparallel = cos d .
(5.63)
(5.64)
97
Finite distances on parallel and meridian

Equations (5.63) and (5.64) may be integrated to give
sparallel =
Z 2
dsparallel =
Z 2
1
smeridian =
Z 2
dsmeridian =

( ) cos d = ( ) cos 2 1 ,
Z 2
1
( )d = a(1 e )
Z 2
1
1 e2 sin2
(5.65)
3/2 .
(5.66)
The meridian integral is related to a special case of an incomplete elliptic integral of the
third kind. In the notation of the NIST handbook (Olver et al., 2010) at Section 19.2(ii)) it
is equal to (2 , e2 , e) (1 , e2 , e). Since the evaluation of such elliptic integrals requires
series computation we prefer to evaluate the integral from first principles: see Section 5.8.
Geodesics
A geodesic on the ellipsoid is the shortest distance between two points.
The direct problem. Given a geodesic starting at P1 (1 , 1 ) with an azimuth 1 find the
coordinates of the point P2 (2 , 2 ) at a distance s measured along the geodesic; find also
the azimuth 2 of the geodesic at P2 .
The inverse problem. Given the points P1 (1 , 1 ) and P2 (2 , 2 ) find s, the geodesic distance between them, and the azimuths 1 , 2 at the end points.
These problems were first solved by Bessel (1825)) and implementations of his solution were given by Vincenty (1976) but without any background theory. More recently
Karney (2012) has published a full outline of the Bessel theory together with more accurate
algorithms. There is no space to describe those methods here.

The infinitesimal element on the ellipsoid
The infinitesimal element on the sphere was discussed in Section 2.1, Figure 2.5. From
equations (5.63) and (5.64) we see that the infinitesimal element on the ellipsoid is approximated by a planar rectangular quadrilateral with sides of length on the meridians and
cos on a parallel, (Figure 5.6).
+
Figure 5.6
5.8
98
The meridian distance on the ellipsoid
On the sphere the meridian distance was simply m( ) = a . On the ellipsoid we use the
same notation but the definition follows from equation (5.66):
m( ) =
Z
0
dsmeridian =
Z
0
( )d = a(1 e2 )
Z
0
1 e2 sin2
3/2 .
(5.67)
Following Delambre (1799), expand the denominator by the binomial theorem, giving
m( ) = a(1 e2 )
Z
0

1 + b2 e2 s2 + b4 e4 s4 + b6 e6 s6 + b8 e8 s8 + d ,
(5.68)
where we have set s = sin . Using (E.30) we find

3
b2 = ,
2
b4 =
15
,
8
b6 =
35
,
16
b8 =
315
.
128
(5.69)
Using the trigonometric identities (C.32) to (C.38) we can express sin2 , . . . sin8 in terms
of cos 2 , . . . cos 8 . Collecting terms with the same cosine factors and integrating gives a
series starting with a term followed by terms in sin 2 , . . . sin 8 . The result is:
m( ) = A0 + A2 sin 2 + A4 sin 4 + A6 sin 6 + A8 sin 8 + ,
(5.70)
where the coefficients are given by

e2 3e4 5e6
175e8
b2 e2 3b4 e4 5b6 e6 35b8 e8
2
A0 = a(1e ) 1+
+
+
+
= a 1
2
8
16
128
4 64 256 161024

b2 e2 b4 e4 15b6 e6 7b8 e8
3e2 3e4 45e6
420e8
a(1e2 )
=a
A2 =
2
2
2
32
16
8
32 1024 161024

a(1e2 ) b4 e4 3b6 e6 7b8 e8
15e4 45e6
525e8
A4 =
+
+
=a
+
+
,
4
8
16
32
256 1024 161024

a(1e2 )
b6 e6 b8 e8
35e6
175e8
A6 =
=a
,
6
32
16
3072 121024

a(1e2 ) b8 e8
315e8
A8 =
=a
.
(5.71)
8
128
1281024
If we use the numerical values for the WGS84 ellipsoid (5.4), then, in metres,
m( ) = 6367449146 16038509 sin 2 + 16833 sin 4 0022 sin 6 + 000003 sin 8
(5.72)
The first four terms have been rounded to the nearest millimetre whilst the last term shows
that the O(e8 ) terms give rise to sub-millimetre corrections. We can usually drop O(e8 )
terms in expressions for the meridian distance . Note that for the first term must be
expressed in radians.
99
Meridian distance II: expansion in flattening

There are other ways of obtaining a series expansion. For example, the OSGB (1999) transverse Mercator formulae use an expansion in terms of the flattening parameter, n. Following
Bessel (1825) we use the relations between a, b, e, n given in Section 5.2 to write the meridian distance as
m( ) = b(1 n)(1 + n)2
Z
0
d
1 + 2n cos 2 + n2
3/2 .
(5.73)
The integral is then evaluated by a change of variable: set z = exp(2i ) for which we have
dz = 2iz d and z + z1 = 2 cos 2 . The integrand becomes, to O(n3 ),

3/2
1 + 2n cos 2 + n2
3/2
= (1 + nz)3/2 1 + nz1

= 1 + a1 nz + a2 n2 z2 + a3 n3 z3 + 1 + a1 nz1 + a2 n2 z2 + a3 n3 z3

1
2 2
3
3 3 1
2 2 1
= 1+a1 n + a1 n+a1 a2 n
z+ +a2 n z + 2 +a3 n z + 3 + O(n4 )
z
z
z
where the coefficients are given by (E.30):
3
a1 = ,
2
a2 =
15
,
8
a3 =
35
.
16
(5.74)
Apart from the overall constant multiplier the integral becomes, to O(n3 ),

Z z

1
dz
2 2
3
2 2 1
3 3 1
1 + a1 n + a1 n+a1 a2 n
z+
+ a2 n z + 2 + a3 n z + 3
z
z
z
1 2iz

z

1
1
a2 n2 2 1
a3 n3 3 1
2 2
3
=
1 + a1 n ln z+ a1 n+a1 a2 n
z +
z 2 +
z 3
2i
z
2
z
3
z
1

All terms vanish at the lower limit. At the upper limit we have ln z = ln exp(2i ) = 2i
and z z1 = 2i sin 2 etc. Therefore the final result is
m( ) = B0 + B2 sin 2 + B4 sin 4 + B6 sin 6 + ,
where the coefficients are given to order n3 by

9 2
5 2 5 3
2
B0 = b(1 n)(1 + n) 1 + n
= b 1+n+ n + n ,
4
4
4

3
3n 45n
3
3 2 21 3
2
= b
n+ n + n ,
B2 = b(1 n)(1 + n)
2
16
2
2
16

2
15 2 15 3
2 15n
B4 = b(1 n)(1 + n)
= b
n + n ,
16
16
16

3
35n
35 3
B6 = b(1 n)(1 + n)2
= b
n .
48
48
(5.75)
(5.76)
100
Meridian distance from a reference latitude

The results we have just obtained measure the meridian distance from the equator. In practice we often require m, the distance from a reference latitude 0 . Using the second form
of the series we find
m = m( ) m(0 )
= B0 ( 0 ) + B2 (sin 2 sin 20 ) + B4 (sin 4 sin 40 ) + B6 (sin 6 sin 60 )
= B0 ( 0 ) + 2B2 sin( 0 ) cos( + 0 ) + 2B4 sin 2( 0 ) cos 2( +0 )
+ 2B6 sin 3( 0 ) cos 3( +0 ) + .
(5.77)
with the coefficients given by (5.76). This is the expression used by the OSGB (1999).
Meridian distance III: Helmerts formula
Helmert (1880) writes the meridian distance as:
a
m( ) =
(h0 + h2 sin 2 + h4 sin 4 + h6 sin 6 + h8 sin 8 + ) .
(5.78)
1+n
Comparing this with the series 5.75 shows that hn = (1 + n)Bn /a. If the series is extended to
include O(n4 ) terms (exercise for the reader, or use the maxima code in Appendix H.3) the
coefficients may be evaluated directly from (5.76). Use equation 5.6: (1 + n)b/a = (1 n).
n2 n4
+ ,
4 64
3 n 3 n3
h2 = +
,
2
16
15 n2 15 n4
h4 =
,
16
64
35 n3
h6 =
,
48
315 n4
h8 =
.
(5.79)
512
Note that these coefficients for m( ) achieve the same accuracy with far less terms than the
previous expressions, (5.71) and (5.76).
h0 = 1 +
The polar distance

The distance from equator to pole may be obtained from any of the above series. It is
defined by
1
1
1 ah0
m p = m(/2) = A0 = B0 =
= 10, 001, 965730 metres.
(5.80)
2
2
2 1+n
where the numerical value is calculated for WGS84. The corresponding mean radius is
defined to be R = 2m p / = 6367449.146m
5.9
101
Inverse meridian distance
When we derived the inverse series for TMS in Chapter 3 we expressed the coefficients
in terms of the footpoint latitude 1 which was defined by msph (1 ) = a1 = y for a given
point (x, y) on the projection. Trivially, 1 = y/a. For the ellipsoid we must invert one of
the series (5.70), (5.75) or (5.78) . We outline three methods.
Inverse meridian distance I: fixed point iteration
To solve m( ) = y when m( ) is given by one of the above series we consider the iteration
n+1 = g(n ) = n
(m(n ) y)
,
a
n = 0, 1, 2 . . . ,
(5.81)
where the initial value is that for the spherical approximation: namely 0 = y/a. If the
iteration scheme converges, so that n+1 and n , then (5.81) becomes
(m( ) y)
= g( ) =
(5.82)
a
so that m( ) y = 0 and is the required solution for the footpoint . Note that since
1
g0 ( ) 1 B0 /a = O(e2 ) 1 the iteration will converge quickly.

Inverse meridian distance II: Newton Raphson
Solving m( ) = y for a given y is equivalent to finding the zero of the function

q( ) y + m( ).
Taking the series 5.78 as an example we have
a
(h0 + h2 sin 2 + h4 sin 4 + h6 sin 6 + )
q( ) = y +
1+n
a
q0 ( ) =
(h0 + 2h2 cos 2 + 4h4 cos 4 + 6h6 cos 6 + ) .
1+n
(5.83)
(5.84)
(5.85)
The initial value may be taken as that for the spherical approximation, namely 0 = y/a.
The Newton-Raphson method then gives the required value of as the limit of the iteration:
n+1 = n
q(n )
,
q0 (n )
n = 0, 1, 2 . . . .
(5.86)
Inverse meridian distance III: via the rectifying latitude

The rectifying latitude, , is a scaled version of the meridian distance (5.71, 5.76, 5.79):
( ) =
m( ) m( ) m( ) (1 + n)m( )
=
=
=
.
2 mp
A0
B0
ah0
A given m determines and hence follows from the series given in Section 5.12.
(5.87)
5.10
102
Auxiliary latitudes double projections
Projections can be defined from the ellipsoid to any surface of reasonable shape, not just
to the plane. Here we consider only the case of projections from the ellipsoid to a sphere of
radius R. Such a projection can then be followed by a suitable projection from the sphere to
the plane giving a double projection with specified properties.

Figure 5.7
If we denote the latitude and longitude coordinates on the sphere by (, ) then the
projection to the sphere is defined by two (well-behaved) functions, ( , ) and ( , ),
where and are the usual geodetic longitude and latitude on the ellipsoid. For a double projection we would define coordinates (x, y) on the plane by specifying two further
functions x(, ) and y(, ). Note that we have not yet specified the radius of the sphere.
We consider only restricted projections in which = and is a function of only.
This restricted set includes the main practical applications.
Figure 5.8
The basic properties of the projection from the ellipsoid to the sphere can be investigated
by comparing the infinitesimal elements shown in Figure 5.8. In particular the geometry of
the infinitesimal elements gives
(a)
tan =
cos

and
(b)
tan 0 =
R cos
.
R
(5.88)
so that
cos
tan .
0
( ) cos
We shall also require the meridian scale factor:
tan 0 =
h( ) =
R R0 ( )
=
.

(5.89)
(5.90)
103
Conserving angles: the conformal latitude

The function of ( ) which generates a conformal restricted projection to the sphere is
called the conformal latitude, for which we use the notation ( ), (Snyder, 1987). There
are many other nomenclatures in the literature. Beware particularly that Adams (1921) uses
the same notation for the conformal latitude as defined here but he gives it the name
isometric latitude. In modern works isometric latitude refers to the term which we have
called the Mercator parameter in Chapters 2 and 6.
Equation (5.29) shows that the projection is conformal, that is = 0 , if = satisfies
the condition
( ) sec
sec 0 ( ) =
.
(5.91)
( )
We defer the integration of this equation until the Section 5.11. Note that the conformality
condition imposes no constraint on the R, the radius of the sphere. All of the following
choices have been used: (1) the semi-major axis of the ellipsoid; (2) an arithmetic or geometric mean of the semi-axes; (3) the meridian radius of curvature, , at a latitude where
we seek the best fit; (4) the Gaussian radius of curvature, , at a latitude where we seek
the best fit; (5) radius of equal volume sphere; (6) radius of equal polar distance sphere
(Section 5.12); (7) radius of equal area sphere (Section 5.13). See also Section 2.1.
Conserving meridian length: the rectifying latitude
The function of ( ) which preserves meridian length is called the rectifying latitude, for
which we use the notation ( ). In Figure 5.8 PK = PK 0 so that
d = R d.
(5.92)
This integrates immediately (see 5.67) to give

( ) =
1
R
( ) d =
m( ) m( )
=
R
2 mp
(5.93)
where we have imposed (/2) = /2 and set m(/2) = m p = R/2. The projection must
be made to a sphere with this rectifying radius. Further details are in Section 5.12
Conserving area: the authalic latitude
The function of ( ) which preserves area is called the authalic latitude (Greek for same
area), for which we use the notation ( ). In Figure 5.8 gives
Aellipsoid = cos = R cos R = Asphere ,
so that
(5.94)
cos
d
,
(5.95)
=
d
R2
We defer the evaluation of this integral and its properties until Section 5.13 but we note here
that R must be chosen appropriately if the total areas of ellipsoid and sphere are the same.
cos
5.11
104
The conformal latitude
The defining equation, (5.91), integrates to

Z ( )
sec d =
Z
( ) sec
0
( )
d .
(5.96)
The integral on the left is the same as that for the Mercator parameter on the sphere, equation (2.26), so that

( )
LHS = ln tan
+
= tanh1 sin = gd1 .
(5.97)
2
4
For the integral on the right we substitute for the functions and from equations (5.16):
RHS
Z
(1 e2 )
0
1
d .
cos 1 e2 sin2
(5.98)
Splitting the integrand into partial fractions and noting that the first term gives the same
integral as (2.26), we

Z
e2 cos
1
1
1
RHS =
+
d
cos
2
1 + e sin 1 e sin
0

e
1 + e sin
= ln tan
+
ln
2 4
2
1 e sin
Therefore
(5.99)
= tanh1 sin e tanh1 [e sin ]
(5.100)
= gd1 e tanh1 [e sin ]
(5.101)
"

e/2 #
e
sin
( ) = 2 arctan tan
+
2 4
1 + e sin
2

= sin1 tanh tanh1 sin e tanh1 [e sin ]

= gd gd1 e tanh1 [e sin ] .

(5.102)
(5.103)
(5.104)
This rather complicated transformation (along with = ) has been constructed to guarantee a conformal projection from ellipsoid to sphere. Note that equations (5.90), (5.91)
and (5.102) show that the scale cannot be uniform on any meridian of the conformal sphere.
Therefore following this projection with TMS from sphere to plane will produce a conformal projection of the ellipsoid to the plane but with a non-uniform scale on the central
meridian. Such a double projection is not TME where we demand that the scale be constant
on the central meridian.
105
Series for the conformal latitude

Equation (5.102) shows that and are equal at the equator and at the pole and elsewhere
they differ by terms of order O(e2 ). They are related by Fourier series in sin 2k :
( ) = + b2 sin 2 + b4 sin 4 + b6 sin 6 + b8 sin 8 + ,
( ) = + d2 sin 2 + d4 sin 4 + d6 sin 6 + d8 sin 8 + .
(5.105)
(5.106)
Low order analytic derivations may be found on line in Adams (1921). Note that he uses
isometric latitude instead of conformal latitude (although he does use the same notation).
He gives six methods for the first series and seven for the second (pages 1659). A more
modern notation is used by Deakin (2010) (paper 6). Maxima code can also be found in
Section H.4: this can generate as many terms as required. The results are as follows:
Conformal latitude from geodetic latitude
( ) = + b2 sin 2 + b4 sin 4 + b6 sin 6 + b8 sin 8 +

e2 5 e4 3 e6 281 e8
2
24
32
5760
5 e4 7 e6 697 e8
+
+
b4 =
48
80
11520
13 e6 461 e8
b6 =
480
13440
1237 e8
b8 =
161280
b2 =
2 n2 4 n3 82 n4
+
,
3
3
45
5 n2 16 n3 13 n4
=
,
3
15
9
26 n3 34 n4
=
+
,
15
21
1237 n4
=
.
630
(5.107)
= 2 n +
(5.108)
Geodetic latitude from conformal latitude
( ) = + d2 sin 2 + d4 sin 4 + d6 sin 6 + d8 sin 8 +

e2 5 e4 e6 13 e8
+
+ +
2
24
12
360
7 e4 29 e6 811 e8
d4 =
+
+
48
240
11520
7 e6 81 e8
d6 =
+
120 1120
4279 e8
d8 =
161280
d2 =
2 n2
116 n4
2 n3 +
,
3
45
7 n2 8 n3 227 n4
=
,
3
5
45
56 n3 136 n4
=
,
15
35
4279 n4
=
.
630
(5.109)
= 2n
(5.110)
5.12
106
The rectifying latitude
The rectifying latitude was defined in equation 5.87 as a projection from the ellipsoid to a
sphere of specific radius, namely R = 2m p /.
( ) =
m( ) m( ) m( ) (1 + n)m( )
=
=
=
2 mp
A0
B0
ah0
(5.111)
using the series (5.70), (5.75) or (5.78).

(5.112)
where the coefficients bn = An /A0 = Bn /B0 = hn /h0 are given in (5.71), (5.76) or (5.79).
(See also Adams (1921), pages 123-128: he uses for the rectifying latitude.The series
were confirmed by the Maxima code given in Section H.3. The results for the direct and
inverse series are
Rectifying latitude from geodetic latitude
3 e2 3 e4 111 e6 141 e8
8
16
1024
2048
4
6
8
15 e
15 e
405 e
b4 =
+
+
256
256
8192
35 e6 35 e8
b6 =
3072 2048
315 e8
b8 =
131072
b2 =
3 n 9 n3
+
,
2
16
15 n2 15 n4
=
,
16
32
35 n3
=
,
48
315 n4
=
.
512
(5.113)
(5.114)
Geodetic latitude from rectifying latitude

() = + d2 sin 2 + d4 sin 4 + d6 sin 6 + d8 sin 8 +
3 e2 3 e4 213 e6 255 e8
+
+
+
8
16
2048
4096
4
6
8
21 e
21 e
533 e
d4 =
+
+
256
256
8192
6
8
151 e
151 e
d6 =
+
6144
4096
1097 e8
d8 =
131072
d2 =
3 n 27 n3
,
2
32
21 n2 55 n4
=
,
16
32
151 n3
=
,
96
1097 n4
=
.
512
(5.115)
(5.116)
5.13
107
The authalic latitude
The definition of the authalic latitude was given in equation 5.95:

d
= cos ,
(5.117)
d
Substituting for the functions and from equations (5.16), (5.45) and integrating
R2 cos
cos d =
Z
cos
R2
sin =
a2 (1 e2 )
R2
d ,
Z
0
cos d
(1 e2 sin2 )2
(5.118)
(5.119)
a2
q( ).
(5.120)
2R2
p
If we demand that = /2 when = /2 we must fix R = a q p /2 where q p = q(/2):
this defines the authalic radius.
The integral for q( ) may be evaluated by the substitution e sin = tanh :

q( ) = 2(1 e2 )
= 2e1 (1 e2 )
1
cos d
(1 e2 sin2 )2
= e (1 e )
cosh2 d
(cosh 2 + 1)d
= e1 (1 e2 )(sinh cos + )

e sin
1
+
tanh
[e
sin
]
= e1 (1 e2 )
1 e2 sin
The final result for the authalic latitude is therefore

1 q( )
( ) = sin
,
qp
q( ) =
(1 e2 ) sin 1 e2
+
tanh1 (e sin ),
e
1 e2 sin2
q p = q(/2) = 1 +
1 e2
tanh1 e.
e
(5.121)
(5.122)
(5.123)
(5.124)
Area of an oblate ellipse

By construction, the oblate ellipsoid and the authalic sphere have the same area. Therefore

1 e2
Aellipsoid = 4R2 = 2a2 q p = 2a2 1 +
tanh1 e .
(5.125)
e
NB: the result for the prolate ellipsoid is quite different. See mathworld.
108
Series for the authalic latitude

Once again, low order analytic derivations of the series may be found on line in Adams
(1921), pages 6083: he uses for the authalic latitude. Maxima code is given in Section H.5: this can generate as many terms as required. The results are as follows:
Authalic latitude from geodetic latitude
= + b2 sin 2 + b4 sin 4 + b6 sin 6 + b8 sin 8 +
e2 31 e4 59 e6 42811 e8
3
180
560
604800
17 e4 61 e6 76969 e8
b4 =
+
+
360
1260 1814400
383 e6 3347 e8
b6 =
45360 259200
6007 e8
b8 =
3628800
b2 =
(5.126)
4 n 4 n2 88 n3 538 n4
+
+
,
3
45
315
4725
34 n2 8 n3 2482 n4
=
+
,
45
105
14175
1532 n3 898 n4
=
,
2835
14175
6007 n4
=
.
(5.127)
14175
=
Geodetic latitude from authalic latitude

= + d2 sin 2 + d4 sin 4 + d6 sin 6 + d8 sin 8 +
e2 31 e4 517 e6 120389 e8
+
+
+
3
180
5040
1814400
23 e4 251 e6 102287 e8
d4 =
+
+
360
3780
1814400
761 e6 47561 e8
d6 =
+
45360 1814400
6059 e8
d8 =
1209600
d2 =
(5.128)
4 n 4 n2 16 n3 2582 n4
+
,
3
45
35
14175
46 n2 152 n3 11966 n4
=
+
,
45
945
14175
3044 n3 3802 n4
=
+
,
2835
14175
6059 n4
=
.
(5.129)
4725
=
Authalic radius

e2 17 e4 67 e6 23123 e8
Rq = a 1
6
360
3024 1814400

2n 26n2 374n3 722n4
= a 1 +
+
.
3
45
945
2025
(5.130)
(5.131)
5.14
109
Ellipsoid: summary
Equation: ellipsoid and cross-section

X 2 Y 2 Z2
+
+
= 1,
a2 a2 b2
p2 Z 2
+
= 1.
a2 b2
(5.132)
Parameters
b2 = a2 (1 e2 ),
e02 =
a2 b2
e2
=
,
b2
1 e2
f=
ab
,
a
e2 = 2 f f 2 ,
e1 = n =
ab
.
a+b
(5.133)
(5.134)
WGS84 ellipsoid
a = 6378137.0m,
b = 6356752.314m,
e = 0.0818191908,
f = 0.003352810,
e2 = 0.0066943799,
1
= 299.3249753.
f
(5.135)
Cartesian coordinates
X( ) = p( ) cos = ( ) cos cos ,
Y ( ) = p( ) sin = ( ) cos sin ,
Z( ) = (1 e2 ) ( ) sin .
(5.136)
dp
= sin ,
d
(5.137)
Coordinate derivatives
dZ
= cos .
d
Radii of curvature and their ratio

( ) =
,
[1 e2 sin2 ]1/2
( ) =

3
1 e2 ,
2
a
( ) =
1 e2 sin2
=
.
1 e2
(5.138)
Curvature derivatives
d
= ( 1) tan ,
d
d
( 1)
=3
tan ,
d
d
= 2( 1) tan . (5.139)
d
Metric
ds2 = 2 d 2 + 2 cos2 d 2 .
(5.140)
/continued
110
Meridian distance
m( ) = A0 + A2 sin 2 + A4 sin 4 + A6 sin 6 + ,
= B0 + B2 sin 2 + B4 sin 4 + B6 sin 6 +

a
=
(h0 + h2 sin 2 + h4 sin 4 + h6 sin 6 + ) .
1+n
(5.141)
(5.142)
(5.143)
Rectifying latitude
( ) =
m( )
,
2 mp
(5.144)
= + b2 sin 2 + b4 sin 4 + b6 sin 6 + ,
(5.145)
() = + d2 sin 2 + d4 sin 4 + d6 sin 6 + .
(5.146)
where An , Bn , hn , bn and dn are given by (5.71), (5.76), (5.79), (5.114) and (5.116).
Conformal latitude
( ) = + b2 sin 2 + b4 sin 4 + b6 sin 6 + b8 sin 8 + ,
( ) = + d2 sin 2 + d4 sin 4 + d6 sin 6 + d8 sin 8 + ,
(5.147)
(5.148)
where bn and dn are given by (5.108) and (5.110).

Authalic latitude
= + b2 sin 2 + b4 sin 4 + b6 sin 6 + b8 sin 8 +
= + d2 sin 2 + d4 sin 4 + d6 sin 6 + d8 sin 8 +

where bn and dn are given by (5.127) and (5.129).
(5.149)
(5.150)
111
Chapter
Normal Mercator on the ellipsoid (NME)

Abstract
Derivation by analogy with NMS. Alternative forms of the projection. The
inverse projection using (a) numerical methods, (b) Taylor series expansions,
(c) the inverse series for the conformal latitude Scale factor in geographical
coordinates and projection coordinates.
6.1
Introduction
The normal Mercator projection on the ellipsoid (NME) is a straightforward, but non-trivial,
generalisation of the normal projection on the sphere (NMS in Chapter 2) and shares the
same advantages and disadvantages. It is constructed to be conformal, preserving angles
exactly and mapping rhumb lines on the ellipsoid map into lines of constant bearing on the
map. The conformality guarantees that the scale at any point is isotropic (independent of
direction) so that the projection is locally orthomorphic, preserving small shapes approximately. As in NMS, the scale does vary with latitude, being exact on the equator and
reasonably accurate only within a fairly narrow band centred on the equator. The extent of
this region of high accuracy may be increased by using a secant form of the projection. The
projection stretches to infinity and it is greatly distorted at high latitudes. The projection
does not preserve area.
We shall find that the quantitative differences between NMS and NME are of order e2 ,
about 0.007, and thus less than 1%.
The projection equations are written in terms of a modified Mercator parameter (usually called the isometric latitude in the literature):
x( , ) = a ,
y( , ) = a( ).
Warning. We use the same notation for the Mercator parameter on both the sphere
and the ellipsoid although they are of course different functions. From this point
will always denote the ellipsoidal form which is derived overleaf.
(6.1)

Chapter 6. Normal Mercator on the ellipsoid (NME)
112
Figure 6.1
6.2
The direct transformation for NME
The modified Mercator parameter is derived by comparing the infinitesimal element on the
ellipsoid (Figure 5.6 and above) and the projection plane and imposing the conformality
condition. The geometry of the infinitesimal elements gives
(a)
tan =
cos
,

and
(b)
tan =
x
a
=
,
y a 0 ( )
(6.2)
so that
sec
tan .
0 ( )
The projection is conformal if = . Therefore
tan =
(6.3)
d
( ) sec
=
.
d
( )
(6.4)
The functions and are given in equations (5.16) and (5.45) as

( ) =
a
,
2
[1 e sin2 ]1/2
( ) =
a(1 e2 )
1 e2 sin2
3/2
(6.5)
and therefore
( ) =
Z
(1 e2 )
0
1
d .
cos 1 e2 sin2
(6.6)
This integral differs from that for the spherical case by terms of order O(e2 ). It was also
evaluated in the course of deriving the expression for the conformal latitude and it is directly
related to that latitude. From equations 5.985.104 we have
"

#

1 e sin e/2
( )
( ) = ln tan
+
= ln tan
+
(6.7)
2 4
1 + e sin
2
4
= tanh1 sin e tanh1 (e sin )
= tanh1 sin ( )
(6.8)
= gd1 e tanh1 (e sin )
= gd1 ( ).
(6.9)
Equation 6.7 clearly shows that this direct projection for NME may be considered as a
double projection (Section 5.10) from the ellipsoid to the conformal sphere, ( ), and
then applying the spherical Mercator projection, equation 2.28, to the conformal sphere.
6.3
113
The inverse transformation for NME
Inverting the equations x = a and y = a to find and is trivial but finding a value
of from = y/a is anything but trivial. There is no way in which we can invert equations 6.76.9 for ( ) to give () in a closed form. Attempting to find a series for ( )
and inverting by the Lagrange reversion method, as we did for the auxiliary latitudes in
Sections 5.115.13, is doomed to failure because becomes infinite and is close to only
near the equator. We outline three methods of proceeding.
Via the conformal latitude
The simplest method of inverting ( ) is to first calculate the conformal latitude which
corresponds to a given value of by using any of the three equations 6.76.9 and then
calculating () by using the series 5.109.
Fixed point iteration
Any of the equations 6.76.9 may be rewritten in a way which permits a solution by fixed
point iteration. For example, corresponding to equation 6.9, we construct the following
iteration scheme for a given value of = y/a.

n+1 = gd + e tanh1 (e sin n ) ,
n = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
(6.10)
with initial value taken as the spherical approximation 0 = gd(y/a), equation 2.35.
Taylor series expansions
Although there are no series analogous to those derived for the auxiliary latitudes in Sections 5.115.13 we must develop a series which will be used in the next chapter on TME
(transverse Mercator on the ellipsoid). Suppose we a given a specific latitude value 1
(which will be the footpoint latitude) and the corresponding Mercator parameter 1 calculated from any of equations 6.76.9. The values of corresponding to nearby points can
then be deduced from the Taylor series of the function () about 1 . To fourth order the
series is:

d
(1 )2 d 2
(1 )3 d 3
(1 )4 d 4
() = 1 + (1 )
+
+
+
,
d 1
2!
d 2 1
3!
d 3 1
4!
d 4 1
(6.11)
We do not know the function () explicitly but we do know its first derivative as a function
of . Equation (6.4) gives
d
( ) cos
=
= ( ) cos .
d
( )
(6.12)
114
We now construct expressions for all the derivatives in the Taylor series as functions
of . Using 0 = (2 2 )t from equation (5.54) and setting s = sin etc. ,
d
= c,
d

d2
d
d
d
=
[ c] =
[ c]
= 0 c s ( c)
2
d
d
d
d

= [(2 2 )tc s] ( c) = c2t 3 2 + 2 ,
d
d3
d 2
=
c t 3 2 + 2
3
d
d
d

= ( c) 2cst + c2 (1 + t 2 ) 3 2 + 2 + c2t [6 + 2] (2 2 )t

= c3 3 (3 + 15t 2 ) + 2 (2 18t 2 ) + (4t 2 ) ,
d
d 3 3
d4
2
2
2
2
=
c
(3
+
15t
)
+
(2
18t
)
+
(4t
)
d 4 d
d

= c4t 4 (57105t 2 ) + 3 (68+180t 2 ) + 2 (1684t 2 ) + (8t 2 )
(6.13)
These derivatives must be evaluated at 1 and substituted into the Taylor series which we
now write as
1 = (1 ) 1 c1 +
(1 )2
(1 )3
(1 )4
1 c21t1 D2 +
1 c31 D3 +
1 c41t1 D4 ,
2!
3!
4!
(6.14)
where 1 = (1 )/(1 ), c1 = cos 1 , t1 = tan 1 and

D2 = 31 + 2
D3 = 12 (3 + 15t12 ) + 1 (2 18t12 ) + 4t12
D4 = 13 (57105t12 ) + 12 (68+180t12 ) + 1 (1684t12 ) + 8t12 .
(6.15)
We shall also need these coefficients in the spherical limit (e 0, 1):

D2 = 1
D3 = 1 + t12
D4 = 5 t12 .
(6.16)
6.4
115
The scale factor
The scale factor for NME follows immediately from Figure 6.1. Having imposed conformality the angles and are equal and the triangles PQM and P0 Q0 M 0 are similar so that
the scale factor, defined as P0 Q0 /PQ, is equal to the ratio P0 M 0 /PM. Since x = a we
see that the scale factor is
a sec
k( ) =
.
(6.17)
( )
This scale factor is isotropic: it is independent of the angle and depends only on
latitude. It differs from the isotropic scale factor for TMS, sec , by a factor of a/ which
gives rise to differences of order e2 which are less than 1%.
There is no simple expression for the scale factor expressed in terms of the projection coordinate y, or equivalently = y/a. The best we can do is to find the value of
corresponding to given a 1 = y/a by the methods of the previous section and then use
equation 6.17. We can then use a Taylor series to evaluate further values of k corresponding
to values of close to 1 .
Consider the Taylor expansion

dk()
(1 )2 d 2 k()
(1 )3 d 3 k()
k() = k(1 ) + (1 )
+
+
+ .
d 1
2!
d 2 1
3!
d 3 1
(6.18)
In the next Chapter we shall need this series where 1 will be identified as the footpoint
parameter defined as in Figure 4.2 and equation 4.14 generalised to the ellipsoid. See next
chapter. The third order terms will prove adequate.
Once again, we shall construct the derivatives in the coefficients as functions of evaluated at the particular value 1 corresponding to 1 . Using the value of d /d given
equation 6.4 we find (with the usual abbreviations for sin etc. and also setting =/
with derivatives 5.54)

dk() dk( ) d
d a sec
( )
0 c s
t
=
=
= (1) 2 2 c = ,
d
d d
d ( ) sec
c

2
d k()
d t d
c
=
= ( + t 2 ),
2
d
d d
3
2

d k() c t
2
2
=
5
4
+
t
.
(6.19)
d 3

E3 c31t1
E1 c1t1
E2 c21
a
2
3
1+
(1 ) +
(1 ) +
(1 ) + , (6.20)
k() =
1 c1
1!
2!
3!
E1 = 1
E 1 = 1,
E2 = 1 + t12
E 2 = 1 + t12 ,
E3 = 51 412 + t12
E 3 = 1 + t12 .
(6.21)
6.5
116
Rhumb lines
Since the NME projection is a conformal cylindrical projection, rhumb lines making a constant angle with the ellipsoid meridians are transformed into straight lines. The treatment
of rhumb lines on the sphere given in Section 2.5 carries through to the ellipsoid and NME
with very little modifiction. Basically Figure 2.15 is replaced by Figure 6.1 and the meridian distance, R on the sphere, becomes m( ) on the ellipsoid. The distances along rhumb
lines become
r12 = ( ) cos (2 1 ),
parallel,
(6.22)
meridian,
(6.23)

r12 = sec m(2 ) m(1 ,
loxodrome.
(6.24)
r12 = m(2 ) m(1 ),
The equation of the loxodrome through the point (1 , 1 ) at an azimuth is given by taking
the the straight line
y y1 = (x x1 ) cot .
(6.25)
and setting y = a( ) and x = a with defined by any of equations 6.76.9. Therefore

( ) = (1 ) + ( 1 ) cot ,
i
h
( ) = 1 + tan tanh1 sin e tanh1 (e sin ) .
(6.26)
(6.27)
There is no equation corresponding to equation 2.43 because ( ) cannot be inverted in

closed form.
6.6
Modified NME
NME can be modified exactly as NMS (in Section 2.7) to provide a slightly wider domain
near the equator in which the scale is accurate to within a given tolerance. For a tolerance
of 1 in 2500 the range of latitude will differ from that for NMS by terms of order e2 , a cange
of less than 1%. We simply introduce a factor of k0 into the transformations.
x = k0 a ,
x
=
,
k0 a
y = k0 a( ),
(6.28)
= () with = y/k0 a.
(6.29)
where
"

1 e sin
1 + e sin
e/2 #

( )
= ln tan
+
2
4
(6.30)
= tanh1 sin e tanh1 (e sin )
= tanh1 sin ( )
(6.31)
= gd1 e tanh1 (e sin )
= gd1 ( ).
(6.32)

( ) = ln tan
+
2 4
and () is calculated by the methods of Section 6.3.
117
Chapter
Transverse Mercator on the ellipsoid (TME)

The longitude ( ) series
Abstract

TME is derived as a series by a complex transformation from the NME projection. The method parallels that used in Chapter 4 for the derivation of the TMS
series from NMS.
Figure 7.1
7.1
Introduction
In Chapter 6 we derived the NME projection: it can be considered as a conformal transformation from a point P( , ) on the ellipsoid to a point on the complex -plane defined by
= + i where ( ) is the Mercator parameter for the ellipsoid given in (6.76.9).
Let (x, y) be the coordinates of the required TME projection and let z = x + iy be a
general point on the associated complex plane. This chapter presents truncated power series
in for a conformal transformation
z( ) x( , ) + iy( , ),
(7.1)
such that (a) the central meridians, = 0 and x = 0, map into each other, and (b) the scale
is true on the x = 0. The method parallels that of Chapter 4 with the amended definitions
of the Mercator parameter and meridian distance for the ellipsoid. These series, originally
investigated by Gauss (c1822), were published by Kruger (1912); they were rebublished in
English by Lee (1945) and extended by Redfearn (1948) and Thomas (1952)
Chapter 7. Transverse Mercator on the ellipsoid (TME)
118
The meridian distance

The meridian distance on the ellipsoid was obtained as a (various) series in Section 5.8: the
most useful for practical work is the Helmert form of equation (5.78):
a
m( ) =
(h0 + h2 sin 2 + h4 sin 4 + h6 sin 6 + h8 sin 8 + ,
(7.2)
1+n
where the h-coefficients are given in equations (5.79). In considering the transformation
from the complex -plane to the complex z-plane it is useful to express the meridian distance
as a function of and write it as M(), where

M ( ) = m( ).
(7.3)
There is no closed expression for M() analogous to (4.6); this is of no import since we
only need its derivatives. (See next page).
Footpoint latitude and parameter
Given a point P00 with projection coordinates (x, y) then the projection coordinates of the
footpoint are (0, y). The definition of the footpoint latitude 1 and the footpoint parameter 1 are unchanged from those of Sections 3.3 and 4.1: they are the solutions of
m(1 ) = y,
M(1 ) = y.
(7.4)
We shall need to calculate the footpoint latitude (but not the footpoint parameter) for a
given y. One method of finding the solution of m( )=y is to use the fixed point iteration
given in equation (5.81),

(m n ) y
n+1 = g(n ) = n
,
n = 0, 1, 2 . . . ,
(7.5)
a
starting with the spherical approximation 0 = y/a.
Alternatively, use the series (5.115) with = (1 + n)m( )/h0 = (1 + n)y/ah0 , (5.111) ,
y
(7.6)
= + d2 sin 2 + d4 sin 4 + d6 sin 6 + ,
= ,
B0
where the d-coefficients are given in (5.116).
The Mercator parameter: derivative and inverse
The Mercator parameter on the ellipsoid is given in equations (6.7)(6.9) as, for example,
"

#

1 e sin e/2
( ) = ln tan
+
.
(7.7)
2 4
1 + e sin
We do not need this explicit form, only its derivatives. From (6.4)
d
( )
=
,
d
( ) cos
d
( ) cos
=
.
d
( )
(7.8)
119
We shall also need (), the inverse of the Mercator parameter, as a fourth order Taylor
series about the footpoint parameter 1 . This is given in equation (6.14).
1 = (1 ) 1 c1 +
(1 )2
(1 )3
(1 )4
1 c21t1 D2 +
1 c31 D3 +
1 c41t1 D4
2!
3!
4!
(7.9)
where the D-coefficients are given in (6.15) and (6.16). The 1 suffix denotes a term calculated at the footpoint latitude.
The derivatives of the meridian distance
We shall need the derivative of the M() as functions of . From (5.67) we have
dm( )
= ( ),
d
(7.10)
and using (7.8) we obtain

M 0 ()
dM()
dM(( )) d
dm( ) cos
=
=
= ( ) cos .
d
d
d
d
(7.11)
Proceeding in this way we can construct all the derivatives of M() with respect to but
with the results expressed as functions of . Denoting the n-th derivative of M with respect
to by M (n) the exact results for the first six derivatives are given below. We use the usual
compact notation for sin etc. and also make frequent use of the derivatives of ( ) and
( ) given in equation (5.54):
d
= ( 1) tan ,
d
M (1) =
dM
= c.
d
M (2) =
d2M
=
d 2
d
= 2( 1) tan .
d
(7.13)
d (1) d
d
d
c
M
=
(c)
= [( 1)tc s]
d
d
d
d
= sc.
M (3) =
(7.12)

c

d3M
= ( 1)tsc + (c2 s2 )
= c3 t 2
3
d
c3W3 .
(7.14)
(7.15)
/cont.
M (4) =
120
h

i c
d4M
3
2
2
3
2
=
(
1)tc
3c
s
(
t
)
+
c
2(
1)t
2t(1+t
)
d 4

= sc3 4 2 + t 2
(7.16)
sc3W4 .
M (5) =
h

d5M
3
4
2 2
=
(
1)tsc
+
(c
3s
c
)
(4 2 + t 2 )
d 5

i c
+ sc3 (8 + 1)(2 + 2)t 2t(1 + t 2 )

= c5 4 3 (1 6t 2 ) + 2 (1 + 8t 2 ) 2t 2 + t 4
(7.17)
c5W5 .
M (6) =
h
i

d6M
5
4
5 0 c
=
(
1)tc
+
(5sc
)
W
+
c
W
5
5
d 6
h

= sc5 (4 1) 4 3 (1 6t 2 ) + 2 (1 + 8t 2 ) 2t 2 + t 4

+ t 1 12 2 (1 6t 2 ) + 2 (1 + 8t 2 ) 2t 2 (2 + 2)t

i
24 3 8 2 + 2 2t(1 + t 2 ) + 4t 3 (1 + t 2 )

= sc5 8 4 (11 24t 2 ) 28 3 (1 6t 2 ) + 2 (1 32t 2 ) 2t 2 + t 4
sc5W6
(7.18)
We shall find that the derivatives M (7) and M (8) multiply 7 and 8 terms respectively and
we shall later justify the neglect of terms of order e2 7 and e2 8 . (The full terms of this
order are in Thomas (1952), pages 95,96.) Accordingly, we evaluate these derivatives in the
spherical limit in which e 0 and 1, (except that the overall multiplicative factors of
are not set equal to a for the sake of visual conformity with the lower order derivatives,
not to improve accuracy). Noting that 0 = 0 = 0 in this limit we find
h
i c

d7M
6
2 4
5
0
|
M (7) =
=
5s
c
W
+
sc
W
6
6
=1
=1
d 7

7
2
2
4
= c 1 5t
61 58t + t + t 116t + 4t 3 (1 + t 2 )

= c7 61 479t 2 + 179t 4 t 6 .
c7W7 .
M (8) =
(7.19)
d8M
=
d 8
h
i
0 c
7c6 sW7 c7W7

1

7
2
4
6
3
5
2
= sc 7 61479t +179t t 958t+716t 6t (1+t )
t

7
2
4
6
= sc 1385 3111t + 543t t .
sc7W8 .
Note the minus signs introduced in the definitions of W3 , W6 and W7 .
(7.20)
121
Summary of derivatives
M (1) = c
W1 = 1
M (2) = sc
W2 = 1
M (3) = c3 W3
W3 ( ) = t 2
M (4) = sc3W4
W4 ( ) = 4 2 + t 2
M (5) = c5 W5
W5 ( ) = 4 3 (16t 2 ) + 2 (1 + 8t 2 ) 2t 2 + t 4
M (6) = sc5W6
W6 ( ) = 8 4 (1124t 2 )28 3 (16t 2 )+ 2 (132t 2 )2t 2 + t 4
M (7) = c7 W7
W7 ( ) = 61 479t 2 + 179t 4 t 6 + O(e2 )
M (8) = sc7W8
W8 ( ) = 1385 3111t 2 + 543t 4 t 6 + O(e2 ).
(7.21)
The bar on W7 and W8 denotes that the term is evaluated in the spherical limit. This notation
will be standard from here on. Later we will need the expressions for W3 , . . .W6 in the
spherical approximation: setting = 1 gives
W3 ( ) W3 ( ) = 1 t 2 ,
W4 ( ) W4 ( ) = 5 t 2 ,
W5 ( ) W5 ( ) = 5 18t 2 + t 4 ,
W6 ( ) W6 ( ) = 61 58t 2 + t 4 .
(7.22)
These derivatives are more easily calculated by using Maxima (2009)see Appendix H.
7.2
Derivation of the Redfearn series
The direct complex series

Following Section 4.3, the complex Taylor series of z( ) about 0 on the central meridian is
i
1
i
(2)
(3)
(4)
( 0 )2 M0 ( 0 )3 M0 + ( 0 )4 M0
2!
3!
4!
1
i
1
i
(8)
5 (5)
6 (6)
7 (7)
+ ( 0 ) M0 ( 0 ) M0 ( 0 ) M0 + ( 0 )8 M0 + ,
5!
6!
7!
8!
(7.23)
(1)
z = z0 +( 0 )M0
(n)
where M0 = M (n) (0 ), the n-th derivative of M() with respect to evaluated at 0 . The
leading term in the expansion will be recast in various forms when required:
z0 = z(0 ) = iy0 = iM(0 ) = iM0
(7.24)

122
The direct series for x and y
For the direct series we start from a given (arbitrary) point P0 at = + i and choose
0 = i with the same ordinate in the -plane. Therefore in the Taylor series (7.23) we
=+
()
Figure 7.2
set 0 = and evaluate the derivatives at 0 = . Writing M (n) () as M (n) and using
z0 = iM0 iM the generalisation of equation (4.34) is
i 2 (2) 1 3 (3) i 4 (4)
M M + M
2!
3!
4!
1 5 (5) i 6 (6) 1 7 (7) i 8 (8)
+ M M M + M +
5!
6!
7!
8!
z = x + iy = iM+ M (1)
(7.25)
The real and imaginary parts of equation (7.25) give x and y as functions of and :
1 3 (3) 1 5 (5) 1 7 (7)
M + M M +
3!
5!
7!
1
1
1
1
y( , ) = M 2 M (2) + 4 M (4) 6 M (6) + 8 M (8) + .
2!
4!
6!
8!
x( , ) = M (1)
(7.26)
(7.27)
Writing M and its derivatives as functions of from (7.3) and (7.21) gives the Redfearn
formulae for the direct transformation as power series in (radians):
x( , ) = c +
3 c3
5 c5
7 c7
W3 +
W5 +
W7 ,
3!
5!
7!
y( , ) = m( ) +
2 sc 4 sc3
6 sc5
8 sc7
+
W4 +
W6 +
W8 .
2
4!
6!
8!
(7.28)
(7.29)
Since all the coefficients on the right hand sides are now expressed in terms of , we have
replaced x( , ) and y( , ) on the left hand side by x( , ) and y( , ) respectively.
Conformality and the CauchyRiemann equations
The conformality of the above transformations may be confirmed by evaluating the Cauchy
Riemann equations (4.15)
1 2 (3) 1 4 (5) 1 6 (7)
M + M M + ,
2!
4!
6!
1
1
1
x = y = M (2) 3 M (4) + 5 M (6) 7 M (8) + .
3!
5!
7!
x = y = M (1)
(7.30)
(7.31)
123
The inverse complex series

(1)
We start by dividing the direct Taylor series (7.23) by a factor of M0 which, from (7.21),
is equal to 0 c0 . Therefore
z z0
b2
b3
b8
= ( 0 ) + ( 0 )2 + ( 0 )3 + + ( 0 )8 +
0 c0
2!
3!
8!
(7.32)
where we have set z0 = iy0 = iM0 . The b-coefficients are

(2)
iM0
b2 =
0 c0
is0
c20W3 (0 )
(3)
M0
b3 =
0 c0
(4)
b4 =
iM0
0 c0
b5 =
M0
0 c0
b6 =
iM0
0 c0
b7 =
M0
0 c0
= is0 c20W4 (0 )
(5)
c40W5 (0 )
(6)
= is0 c40W6 (0 )
(7)
c60W7 (0 )
(8)
iM0
b8 =
0 c0
= is0 c60W8 (0 )
(7.33)
where the functions on the right hand sides are evaluated at 0 such that 0 = (0 ).
The Lagrange reversion of an eighth order series is developed in Appendix B, Sections B.6B.8. If we identify the series (7.32) with (B.23) by replacing (z z0 )/0 c0 and
( 0 ) by w and z respectively we can use (B.24) to deduce that the inverse of (7.32) is

z z0
p2 z z0 2 p3 z z0 3
p8 z z0 8
0 =
,
(7.34)
0 c0
2! 0 c0
3! 0 c0
8! 0 c0
where the p-coefficients are given by equations (B.25) and (B.30). We shall actually need
these coefficients at the footpoint latitude 1 and we choose to write them as
p2 = ic1t1 ,
p3 =
c21 V3
p4 = ic31t1 V4
p5 =
c41 V5
p6 = ic51t1 V6
p7 =
c61 V7
p8 = ic71t1 V8
V3 = 1 + 2t12 ,
V4 = 412 91 6t12 ,
V5 = 413 (1 6t12 ) 12 (9 68t12 ) 721t12 24t14 ,
V6 = 814 (1124t12 )8413 (38t12 )+22512 (14t12 )+6001t12 +120t14 ,

V7 = 61 + 662t12 + 1320t14 + 720t16 ,
V8 = 1385 7266t12 10920t14 5040t16 .
(7.35)

124
The inverse series for and
=+
Figure 7.3
For the inverse we start from an arbitrary point with projection coordinates P00 (x, y) and
move to the footpoint at K 00 (0, y) so that we set z z0 = (x + iy) iy = x in equation (7.34).
We must then set 0 = i1 where 1 is the footpoint parameter such that M(1 ) = y. Let 1
be the corresponding footpoint latitude such that m(1 ) = y. Therefore (7.34) becomes

x
p2
x 2 p3
x 3
p8
x 8
+ i i1 =
,
(7.36)
1 c1 2! 1 c1
3! 1 c1
8! 1 c1
where the p coefficients at the footpoint latitude 1 have already been given in (7.35). The
the real and imaginary parts are
(x, y) =
x
x3
x5
x7
V7 ,
3
5
1 c1 3! 13 c1
7! 17 c1
5! 15 c1
1 =
where m(1 ) = y,
x 2 t1
x 4 t1
x 6 t1
x8t1
V8 .
4
6
2! 12 c1 4! 14 c1
8! 18 c1
6! 16 c1
(7.37)
(7.38)
We see that the spherical approximation has been used only in the last term of each series.
Therefore it is equivalent to neglecting terms of order e2 (x/a)7 and e2 (x/a)8 . This will be
justified when we look at the typical magnitude of such terms.
Finally, we note for future reference the spherical limits of the terms V3 , . . .V6 : since
1 1 as e 1 we have
V3 V3 = 1 + 2t12 ,
V4 V4 = 5 6t12 ,
V5 V5 = 5 28t12 24t14 ,
V6 V6 = 61 + 180t12 + 120t14 .
(7.39)
The inverse series for

In Chapter 6, equation (6.14) we derived the following fourth order Taylor series for the
inverse of the Mercator parameter on the ellipsoid:
1 = (1 ) 1 c1 +
(1 )2
(1 )3
(1 )4
1 c21t1 D2 +
1 c31 D3 +
1 c41t1 D4 ,
2!
3!
4!
(7.40)
125
where the D-coefficients are given in (6.15). All that remains is to substitute for ( 1 )
using (7.38). It is convenient to use a temporary abbreviation, setting xe = x/1 .

t1 1 2 1
1
1
8
4
6
1 =
xe + V4 xe + V6 xe + V8 xe ,
c1 2!
4!
6!
8!

2
2
1 2 8
t12 1 4
6
8
2
xe +
V4 xe +
V6 xe +
V xe ,
( 1 ) =
2!4!
2!6!
4!4! 4
c21 2!2!

t13
1
3
6
8
3
xe +
V4 xe ,
( 1 ) = 3
2!2!4!
c1 2!2!2!

1
x
t14
8
4
xe
where xe = .
( 1 ) =
4
1
c1 2!2!2!2!
(7.41)
Substituting these expressions into the Taylor series (7.40) gives

1 2
xe 1t1 [ 1 ]
2!

1
xe4 1t1 V4 3t12 D2
4!

1
xe6 1t1 V6 15t12 D2V4 + 15t12 D3
6!
h
i
1
2
xe8 1t1 V8 28t12 D2V6 35t12 D2V4 + 210t12 D3V4 105t14 D4 ,
8!
1 =
(7.42)
where we use the spherical approximation in evaluating the eighth order term. Substituting for the D-coefficients from equations (6.15, 6.16) and the V -coefficients from equations (7.35,7.39) our final result for is
(x, y) = 1
x2 1t1 x4 1t1
x6 1t1
x8 1t1
U 8,
4
6
212
4!14
8!18
6!16
(7.43)
where
U4 = 412 91 (1 t12 ) 12t12 ,
U6 = 814 (11 24t12 ) 1213 (21 71t12 ) + 1512 (15 98t12 + 15t14 )
U 8 = 1385 3633t12 4095t14 1575t16 .
+ 1801 (5t12 3t14 ) + 360t14

(7.44)
Later we shall require U4 and U6 in the spherical approximation:

U4 U 4 = 5 3t12 ,
U6 U 6 = 61 + 90t12 + 45t14 ,
(7.45)
7.3
126
Convergence and scale in TME
This section parallels the calculation of convergence and scale factor series given in Section 4.5, starting from equations 4.75 and 4.76, the latter modified to give true lengths on
the ellipsoid (as against the unit sphere):
tan ( , ) =
y
,
x
1
m( , ) = x sec ( , ),
a
tan (x, y) =
x
,
x
1
= ax sec (x, y).
m(x, y)
(7.46)
(7.47)
The scale factors m are those for the transformation between the ( , ) and (x, y) complex
planes. They must be multiplied by the the scale factor from the ellipsoid to the plane:
k( , ) = kNME ( , ) m( , ( )),
k(x, y) = kNME (x, y) m(x, y),
(7.48)
where we have introduced new notation for the scale factors of NME defined in equations 6.17 and 6.18. In the latter is a function of (x, y) through the inverse series 7.38
and the definition of the footpoint latitude such that m(1 ) = y.
Series for partial derivatives
The above expressions for the convergence and scale factors depend on the partial derivatives x , y , x , x of the series 7.28, 7.29, 7.37, 7.38. Setting e
= c and xe = x/1

x
1 e4
1 e6
1e 2
e
x =
W7 , ,
= c
(7.49)
=
c 1 + W3 + W5 +
2
24
720

y
1e 2
1 e4
1 e6
e
y =
= s 1 + W4 +
W6 +
W8 ,
(7.50)
6
120
5040

1
1 2
1 4
1 6
x
x =
=
1 xe V3 xe V5
xe V7 ,
xe =
(7.51)
x
1 c1
2
24
720
1

t1 xe
1 2
1 4
1 6
x =
=
1 + xe V4 +
xe V6 +
xe V8 .
(7.52)
x
1 c1
6
120
5040
Note that, apart from the overall multiplicative terms, the series for x and x are obtained
from those for x and y by e
xe and Wn Vn (n odd) and Wn Vn (n even).
NB. In constructing the transformation series 7.28, 7.29, 7.37, 7.38 we discarded terms of
order greater than 8 and (x/a)8 so we must discard terms of order greater than 7 and
(x/a)7 in the derivatives and in any expressions obtained by manipulation of the above
series. Moreover the coefficients of e
7 , xe7 , e
8 and xe8 terms of the transformation series
were evaluated in the spherical approximation (e = 0, = 1); therefore, for consistency, we
must use the spherical approximation in coefficients of terms of the order e
6, e
7 , xe6 , and xe7
wherever they arise in the manipulation of the series for the derivatives.
127
The quotient of y and x

Using (E.31) we find the inverse of x in (7.49) as
!

2
c
W3W5 W33
4 W5 W3
6 W7
2 W3
e
e
e
+
.
= 1
x
2
24 4
720
24
8
(7.53)
Note that the W3 and W5 which the inversion casts into the coefficient of 6 have been
replaced by their spherical limits. The product of the above with (7.50) gives
i
h
y
6 .
(7.54)
=te
1 + a2 e
2 + a4 e
4 + a6e
x
The an coefficients (and their spherical limits) are calculated using (7.21, 7.22)
i

W4 W3
1h
1
a2 =
1 + t2
= 2 2 + t 2 ,
a2 =
6
2
3
3
W6 W3W4 W32 W5
,
120
12
4
24
i

1
1h 4
(1124t 2 ) 3 (1136t 2 )+ 2 (24t 2 )4t 2 +2t 4 , a4 =
2+4t 2 +2t 4
=
15
15
a4 =
W8 W3W6 W3 W4 W4W5 W3 W3W5 W7
5040 240
24
144
8
24
720
h
i
1
=
17 + 51t 2 + 51t 4 + 17t 6 .
315
a6 =
(7.55)
The quotient of x and x

From the comment immediately after equation (7.52) we see that if we define

x
= t1 xe 1 + r2 xe2 + r4 xe4 + r6 xe6
x
(7.56)
then the rn coefficients follow by analogy with equations (7.55). Using (7.35, 7.39) we find
that coefficients and their spherical limits are
i
V4 V3
1
1h
r2 =
+
= 212 31 ,
r2 =
6
2
3
3
V6
V3V4 V32 V5
+
+
+ ,
120
12
4
24
h
i
1
=
14 (1124t12 )313 (823t12 )+1512 (14t12 )+151t12 ,
15
r4 =
r6 =
r4 =
2
15
V8
V3V6 V3 V4 V4V5 V3 V3V5 V7
17
+
+
+
+
+
+
=
.
5040 240
24
144
8
24 720
315
Note the absence of terms in t 2 , t 4 or t 6 in the coefficients r2 , r4 or r6 .
(7.57)
7.4
128
Convergence in geographical coordinates
From equations (7.46) and (7.54) we have

h
i
tan ( , ) = e
t 1 + a2e
2 + a4 e
4 + a6e
6
(7.58)
and we calculate as arctan(tan ) by using the series (E.20):

1
1
1
= tan tan3 + tan5 tan7 + .
3
5
7
(7.59)
To order e
7 the higher powers of tan are given by
i

tan2 = e
2t 2 1 + 2a2e
2 + (2a4 + a22 )e
4
i
h
4
2 + 3(a4 + a22 )e
tan3 = e
3t 3 1 + 3a2e
h
i
tan4 = e
4t 4 1 + 4a2e
2
i
h
2
tan5 = e
5t 5 1 + 5a2e
tan6 = e
6t 6
tan7 = e
7t 7
(7.60)
so that
=e
t +
e
e
e

3t
5t
7t
3a2 t 2 +
5a4 5a2t 2 +t 4 +
7a6 7 a4 +a22 t 2 +7a2t 4 t 6 .
3
5
7
(7.61)
Substituting the a-coefficients from (7.55) gives the final result

1 3
1 5
1 e7
( , ) = e
t + e
t H3 + e
t H5 +
t H 7,
3
15
315
e
= c.
(7.62)
H3 = 2 2 ,
H5 = 4 (11 24t 2 ) 3 (11 36t 2 ) + 2 (2 14t 2 ) + t 2 ,
H 7 = 17 26t 2 + 2t 4 .
We also require an expression for sec for equation 7.47:

1/2
sec = 1 + tan2
1
1
1
= 1 + tan2 tan4 + tan6 +
2
8
16

1 6

1 2 2 1e 4
= 1+ e
t + 8a2t 2 t 4 + e
16a4t 2 + 8a22t 2 8a2t 4 + t 6
2
8
16
(7.63)
(7.64)
7.5
129
Convergence in projection coordinates
From (7.46) and (7.56) and

tan (x, y) = t1 xe 1 + r2 xb2 + r4 xb4 + r6 xb6 .
(7.65)
Comparing this equation with (7.58) we see from equation (7.61) that
= xet1 +
xe5t1
xe7t1

xe3t1
3r2 t12 +
5r4 5r2t12 +t14 +
7r6 7 r4 +r22 t12 +7r2t14 t16 .
3
5
7
(7.66)
Substituting the r-coefficients from (7.57) gives

1
1 7
1
xe t1 K7 ,
(x, y) = xet1 + xe3t1 K3 + xe5t1 K5 +
3
15
315
xe =
x
,
1
(7.67)
where
K3 = 212 31 t12 ,
K5 = 14 (11 24t12 ) 313 (8 23t12 ) + 512 (3 14t12 ) + 301t12 + 3t14 ,
K 7 = 17 77t12 105t14 45t16 .
(7.68)
Setting 1 = 1 /1 gives the Redfearn series (apart from minor typos where he writes
rather than 1 etc.
We also need an expression for sec (x, y). Comparison with 7.64 gives
sec (x, y) =
7.6
1

1
1
= 1 + xe2t12 + xe4 8r2t12 t14 + xe6 16r4t12 + 8r22t12 8r2t14 + t16
2
8
16
(7.69)
Scale factor in geographical coordinates
In 7.48a substitute for kNME ( , ) and m( , ( )) from 6.17 and 7.47 respectively:
k( , ) = kNME ( , ) m( , ( )) =
x sec ( , )
,
cos
(7.70)
where x is given in equation (7.49) and sec in (7.64):

x
1 2
1 4
1 e6
= 1+ e
W3 + e
W5 +
W7 ,
c
2
24
720
1 6

1 2 2 1e 4
sec = 1 + e
t + 8a2t 2 t 4 + e
16a4t 2 + 8a22t 2 8a2t 4 + t 6
2
8
16
(7.71)
(7.72)
130
Therefore
1 4

1 2
k( , ) = 1 + e
W3 + t 2 + e
W5 + 6t 2W3 + 24a2t 2 3t 4
2
24
6
e
W7 +15t 2W5 +360a2t 2W3 45t 4W3 +720a4t 2 +360a22t 2 360a2t 4 +45t 6
+
720
(7.73)
Using the W -coefficients from (7.21 7.22) and the a-coefficients from (7.55),
1 2
1 4
1 e6
k( , ) = 1 + e
H2 + e
H4 +
H 6,
2
24
720
e
= c,
(7.74)
H2 =
H4 = 4 3 (1 6t 2 ) + 2 (1 + 24t 2 ) 4t 2
H 6 = 61 148t 2 + 16t 4 .
7.7
(7.75)
Scale factor in projection coordinates
In 7.48b substitute for kNME (x, y) and m(x, y) from 6.20 and 7.47 respectively:
k(x, y) = kNME (x, y) m(x, y) =
k()
.
ax sec
Using 6.20 and (7.38) for 1 gives

E3 c31t1
a
E1 c1t1
E2 c21
2
3
k() =
1+
(1 ) +
(1 ) +
(1 ) +
1 c1
1!
2!
3!

a
x2t1
x2
x4
=
1 E1 c1t1 2
1+
V4 +
V6
1 c1
21 c1
1212
360 14
#

E 3 c31t1 x6t13
E2 c21 x4t12
x2
+
1 + 2 V4
+ ,
2 414 c21
6 816 c31
61

a
1 2
1 4
1 6
x
=
1 + xe q2 + xe q4 +
xe q6 ,
xe = .
1 c1
2
24
720
1
(7.76)
(7.77)
(7.78)
With the E coefficients from 6.21 and the V coefficients from 7.35 and 7.39,
t1
c1
t2
t1
q4 = E1 V4 + 3E2 12
c1
c1
q2 = E1
q6 = E1
= t12 ,
= 121t12 412t12 + 9t14 ,
t3
t1
t2
V6 + 15E 2 12 V4 15E 3 13 = 136t12 360t14 225t16 ,
c1
c1
c1
where the coefficient of x6 is evaluated in the spherical limit (1 =1).
(7.79)
131
Combining the results for x , sec (x, y) and the rn from equations 7.51, 7.69 and 7.57
respectively gives

1
1 2
1 4
1 6
x sec =
1 + xe p2 + xe p4 +
xe p6 ,
(7.80)
1 c1
2
24
720
where
p2 = 1 t12
p4 = 413 (1 6t12 ) + 12 (9 52t12 ) + 421t12 + 9t14
p2 = 1 t12
p4 = 5 + 14t12 + 9t14
p6 = 61 331t12 495t14 225t16 .
(7.81)
Using (E.32) to evaluate the inverse

1 2
1 4
1 6
1
= 1 c1 1 + xe g2 + xe g4 +
xe g6 ,
x sec
2
24
720
(7.82)
where
g2 = p2
= 1 + t12 ,
g4 = p4 + 6p22
= 413 (1 6t12 ) + 12 (3 + 52t12 ) 301t12 3t14 ,
g6 = p6 + 30p2 p4 90p32 = 1 + 31t12 + 75t14 + 45t16 .

Therefore, combining 7.78 and 7.82,

1 4
1 6
k()
1 2
k(x, y) =
= 1 + xe K2 + xe K4 +
xe K 6 ,
ax sec
2
24
720
(7.83)
xb =
x
,
1
(7.84)
with
K2 = q2 + g2
= 1 ,
K4 = q4 + 6q2 g2 + g4
= 413 (1 6t12 ) 312 (1 16t12 ) 241t12 ,
K 6 = q6 + 15q4 g2 + 15q2 g4 + g6 = 1.
(7.85)
Setting 1 = 1 /1 gives the Redfearn series except that in the sixth order term he has a
denominator of 13 13 as against 16 here. Since we assume the spherical limit for this term
both could be replaced by a6 and there is no inconsistency.
Comment: all of the preceeding series may be modified for a secant version of the
projection which has a wider region within a prescribed scale tolerance. The series
may also be applied to an arbitrary central meridian by replacing by 0 . The
following summary includes both of these factors, k0 and 0 .
7.8
132
Redfearns modified (secant) TME series
Direct series
As for NMS, TMS and NME simply multiply (7.28) and (7.29) by a factor of k0 .
"
#
5
7
3
e
e
e
e
x( , ) = k0 e
= ( 0 )c
+ W3 + W5 + W7 ,
3!
5!
7!
"
#
e
e
e
2 t e
8 t
4 t
6 t
y( , ) = k0 m( ) +
+
W4 +
W6 +
W8 .
2
4!
6!
8!
(7.86)
(7.87)
Inverse series:
Set xx/k0 and replace xe = x/1 by xb = x/k0 1 . The footpoint latitude, 1 , must be found
from (7.5) or (7.6) with yy/k0 : it is the solution of m(1 ) = y/k0 . Equations 7.37, 7.38
and 7.43 become
(x, y) = 0 +
xb
xb3
xb5
xb7
V3
V5
V7 ,
c1 3! c1
5! c1
7! c1
xb =
(x, y) = 1
xb2t1 xb4t1
xb6t1
xb8t1
V4
V6
V8 .
2 c1 4! c1
6! c1
8! c1
m(1 ) =
(x, y) = 1
xb6 1t1
xb8 1t1
xb2 1t1 xb4 1t1
U4
U6
U 8,
2
4!
6!
8!
x
k0 1
(7.88)
y
k0
(7.89)
(7.90)
Scale and convergence.

The calculations of the present chapter may be applied to the modified series above. Clearly
the derivatives x , y pickup a factor of k0 and the derivatives x , x pickup a factor of 1/k0 .
The modified forms of 7.74, 7.62, 7.84 and 7.67 become

1e 2
1 e4
1 e6
e
k( , ) = k0 1 + H2 + H4 +
H6 ,
= ( 0 )c, (7.91)
2
24
720
1 5
1 e7
1 3
( , ) = e
t + e
t H3 + e
t H5 +
t H 7,
3
15
315

1 2
1 4
1 6
xb K 6 ,
k(x, y) = k0 1 + xb K2 + xb K4 +
2
24
720
1
1
1 7
(x, y) = xbt1 + xb3t1 K3 + xb5t1 K5 +
xb t1 K 7 ,
3
15
315
(7.92)
m(1 ) =
xb =
y
,
k0
x
.
k0 1
(7.93)
(7.94)
As usual c= cos , t= tan , =( )/( ) from (5.53) and the 1 subscript denotes
a function evaluated at the footpoint latitude such that m(1 ) = y/k0 . For convenience all of
the required coefficients are collected on the following page.
133
All coefficients
x( , )
W3 = t 2
W5 = 4 3 (1 6t 2 ) + 2 (1 + 8t 2 ) 2t 2 + t 4
W7 = 61 479t 2 + 179t 4 t 6 + O(e2 )

y( , )
W4 = 4 2 + t 2
W6 = 8 4 (1124t 2 ) 28 3 (16t 2 ) + 2 (132t 2 ) 2t 2 + t 4
W8 = 1385 3111t 2 + 543t 4 t 6 + O(e2 )

(x, y)
V3 = 1 + 2t12
V5 = 413 (1 6t12 ) 12 (9 68t12 ) 721t12 24t14
V7 = 61 + 662t12 + 1320t14 + 720t16
(x, y)
V4 = 412 91 6t12
V6 = 814 (1124t12 )8413 (38t12 )+22512 (14t12 )+6001t12 +120t14

V8 = 1385 7266t12 10920t14 5040t16
(x, y)
U4 = 412 91 (1 t12 ) 12t12
U6 = 814 (11 24t12 ) 1213 (21 71t12 ) + 1512 (15 98t12 + 15t14 )
+ 1801 (5t12 3t14 ) + 360t14
U 8 = 1385 3633t12 4095t14 1575t16

k( , )
H2 =
H4 = 4 3 (1 6t 2 ) + 2 (1 + 24t 2 ) 4t 2
H 6 = 61 148t 2 + 16t 4
( , )
H3 = 2 2
H5 = 4 (11 24t 2 ) 3 (11 36t 2 ) + 2 (2 14t 2 ) + t 2
H 7 = 17 26t 2 + 2t 4
k(x, y)
K2 = 1
K4 = 413 (1 6t12 ) 312 (1 16t12 ) 241t12
K6 = 1
(x, y)
K3 = 212 31 t12
K5 = 14 (11 24t12 ) 313 (8 23t12 ) + 512 (3 14t12 ) + 301t12 + 3t14
K 7 = 17 77t12 105t14 45t16
(7.95)
134
Comments
1. The series given on the previous page are in full accordance with those printed in
Redfearn (1948). They differ slightly in format since Redfearn writes the series in
terms of ( ) and ( ) rather than ( ) and ( ). In Redfearns paper a few 1
subscripts are omitted in the inverse series.
2. The series are also in full accordance with those printed in Thomas (1952) but he uses
a different notation which will be exhibited in the following chapter. Thomas gives
the full seventh and eighth order terms without the spherical approximation. (See
page 95 et. seq. Beware his use of as a conversion factor to radian measure.)
3. In Chapter 8 we discuss the series in the context of two important applications, UTM
(1989) and OSGB (1999).
4. The TME projection is used with k0 = 0.9996 by both UTM and OSGB.
5. For OSGB the central meridian is at 0 = 2. UTM is a set of 60 different TME
projections with 0 = 177, 171, . . . 3, 3, . . . 171, 177 degrees.
6. For computational purposes the series should be written in a nested form. For example equation (7.86) can be written as
"
(
!)#
W
(
)
W
(
)
W
(
)
3
7
5
e
x( , ) = e
1+e
2
+e
2
+e
2
,
= ( 0 )c.
3!
5!
7!
(7.96)
Implementation
The transformations presented in this chapter are incorporated into several online calculators:
1. Geotrans (2010) is provided by the National geospatial intelligence agency. The code
is based on the slightly different formulae of Thomas (1952, page 2) who uses the
parameter 2 instead of the used here. The relation between them is
2 = 1 =
e2 cos2
1 =
= e02 cos2 .
1 e2
(7.97)
where e0 is the second eccentricity. To complicate matters the actual code of Geotrans
uses eta in place of the 2 of Thomas. (See code at lines 223, 472503). Geotrans
converts between geodetic and UTM coordinates.
135
Chapter
Applications of TME
Abstract
Coordinates, grids and origins. UTM. The British grid (NGGB). Scale variation
and convergence. Accuracy of TME series. Approximations to the series. The
OSGB series.
8.1
Coordinates, grids and origins
The transverse Mercator projection of the ellipsoid (TME) is used officially in the United
Kingdom (OSGB, 1999), the United States, Ireland, Sweden, Norway, Finland, Poland,
Russia, China, . . . . (For a more complete list see Stuifbergen (2009), page 21). TME is also
the basis for world-wide systematic coverage by the 60 Universal Transverse Mercator projections (UTM, 1989). In each case the projections are applied to geographical coordinates
( , ) defined with respect to different datums for each of which the ellipsoid parameters
(a, e) and the longitude of the central meridian must be specified before applying the Redfearn formulae of the previous chapter.
Countries of narrow extent may be covered by a single zone: for example the National
Grid of Great Britain (NGGB) has a width of almost 10 . Most countries require several
zones. Zone widths vary but few exceed a value of 10 at which errors in the transformations
start to become significant. The scale factor on the central meridian also varies: NGGB and
UTM use 0.9996, South Africa uses 1, Canada uses 0.9999 etc.
The Redfearn formulae determine coodinates (x, y) which we shall refer to as projection
coordinates; their origin is always at the intersection of the central meridian and the equator
and their axes are usually designated as x along the equator and y normal to the equator.
Projection coordinates must be distinguished from grid coordinates. Grids are normally
aligned to the underlying Cartesian system of the projection coordinates but the true origin
of the grid may differ from the origin of the projection coordinates. For example the true
origin of a UTM grid coincides with that of the projection coordinates but for the British
grid the true origin is at a latitude of 49 N on the central meridian.
Since the true origin of a grid is always on the central meridian it follows that grid
coordinate for points west or south of the true origin are negative. To avoid such negative
coordinates the grid coordinates are usually referred to a false origin chosen so that all
values are positive. Such grid coordinates, rounded to the nearest metre, are normally called
the easting and northing, denoted by E and N. Examples of true and false origins will be
given in the following sections.
Chapter 8. Applications of TME
8.2
136
The UTM projection
UTM is a set of 60 TME projections based on the WGS (1984) ellipsoid; each is restricted
to 3 in longitude from the central meridians at 0 = 177, 171, 165. . . . Zones 16, 34
and 53, centred on 0 = 87, 21, 135, are shown below alongwith an enlarged view of zone
34. In each case the UTM grid is restricted to the red rectangle but the actual zones are
bounded by meridians at 3 from the central meridian and parallels at 84 N and 80 S.
0 = 87
0 = 21
0 = 135
Figure 8.1
.
8.3
137
UTM coordinate systems
Figure 8.2 shows UTM zone number 30 which includes my home city of Edinburgh at H: the projection is centred on 3 W and it covers the region
between parallels at 84 N and 80 S and between
the meridians at 6 W and Greenwich. The figure is not to scale: the true shape of any zone is
shown on the right of Figure 8.1. The true origin
T of the UTM grid coincides with the origin of the
projection at O where the central meridian meets
the equator at 3 W. We treat the hemispheres differently and introduce two false origins; both are
500000m west of the true origin but one, for the
northern hemisphere, is at F1 on the equator and
the other, for the southern hemisphere, is at a
point F2 10000000m below the equator on the projection.Therefore the eastings and northings for
points in the northern and southern hemispheres
are
E = E0 + x( , ),
N = N0 + y( , )
E0 = 500000
(8.1)
(
0
(N)
N0 =
10000000 (S)
(8.2)
534995
833979
166021
9329005
84N
6200666
488533
equator
0
10000000
E TO x
F1
3W
6W
1116915
80S
F2
0
558132
3W
500000
1000000
Figure 8.2
where x, y are calculated using the series of Section 7.8 with 0 = 3 , k0 =0.9996 and the
parameters (a, e) of the WGS ellipsoid given in 5.2. Points on the equator are defined to be
part of the northern grid so they must have N = 0. Note that (E0, N0) are the coordinates of
the true origin (at T or O) relative to the false origin on each grid. The inverse relations are
calculated from Section 7.8 with the replacement of x by E E0 and coefficients evaluated
at a footpoint latitude such that
m(1 ) =
y
N N0
=
.
k0
k0
(8.3)
The figure shows eastings and northings of several points on the perimeter of the zone.
The coordinates have been derived by using Maxima (Appendix H), but see also Geotrans
(2010) (Implementation) or GeoConvert (from Karney (2010). The most easterly (respectively westerly) points of zone 30 have = 0 and 0 = 3 = 0.05236rad, for
which E=166021 (respectively 833979). Therefore the maximum width of a UTM zone
is 667.958km in terms of the projection coordinates. This is not exactly the same as the
corresponding distance on the WGS ellipsoid, viz. 2a/60=667.917km because the scale
factor on the equator is not unity (and not constant). See Section 8.5.
138
The figure also shows the coordinates at the most northerly and southerly points of the
projection where the bounding meridians at = 0 3 meet the parallels at 84 N and 80 S.
The northings of the two northernmost points are given by N = 9329005 on the northern
grid. Their eastings are given by E = 465005 and E = 534995. The coordinate separation
of these points is 69.990km whereas the rhumb line distance measured along the parallel at
latitude 84 N is cos = 70.049km and the great circle distance is 70.017km.
UTM grid reference system
Eastings and Northings are measured in metres and provide a purely numeric grid reference system within each UTM zone. To specify a point uniquely on the the Earth, at least
between latitudes 84 N and 80 S, requires a zone number, a hemisphere specifier (N or S),
the easting and the northing. My armchair at 55 570 4.400 N, 3 110 1.100 W has coordinates
30N 488533 6200666
In this work we do not discuss the coordinate systems used in the polar regions. These are
discussed in the DMA publications, UTM (1989).
The military grid reference system (MGRS)
MGRS is alpha-numeric with the following components in addition to the zone number.
Each zone is split into twenty latitude sub-zones, nineteen of extent 8 starting from
80 S and one of 12 finishing at 84 N. Each of these twenty latitude bands is designated a zone letter from C to X, with I and O excepted (to avoid ambiguity with
digits 1 and 0). My home (approximately 55 570 4.400 N, 3 110 1.100 W using WGS coordinates) is just within the northern limit of zone/band 30U, centred on 3 W and
running from 48 to 56 N. The extent of this sub-zone in projection coordinates is
approximately 890km north-south whilst the width varies from 447km to 373km as
one goes north. There are minor adjustments of the zone/band scheme in northern
Europe.
Within the sub-zones the 100km squares are labelled with row and column letters.
For a full description of the labelling of the 100km squares see the DMA manual:
(UTM, 1989, Volume 1, Chapter 3). For example Edinburgh is in the 100km square
labelled VH in zone 30 and band U. Thus 30UVH fixes my home to within 100km.
Boundary points are included in a square if they are on the west or south edges.
Within a 100km square the Eastings and Northings range from 0 to 99999m so that 1
metre accuracy is given by two five digit numbers. Thus the full MGRS grid reference
of my armchair is 30UVH 88533 00666. The leading zeroes must be specified.
Such precision is often superfluous and two numbers of 4, 3, 2, 1 digits may be used
for accuracy to within 10m, 100m, 1km, 10km. Thus
30UVH 8853 0066 fixes my home to within 10m

30UVH 885 006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100m
30UVH 88 00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1km
30UVH 8 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10km
8.4
139
The British national grid: NGGB
The British national grid (NGGB) (OSGB, 1999) is a grid overlain on the TME projection
centred on longitude 2 W with coordinates defined on the Airy 1830 ellipsoid, for which the
equatorial radius is 6377563.396m and the inverse flattening is 299.3249753. (The derived
minor axis is 6356256.910m and the derived eccentricity is 0.0816733724.) It is a secant
projection with a value of k0 = 0.9996012717 on the central meridian. The pre-1936 value
was 0.9996 but after the 1936 re-survey the value of k0 was adjusted so that the coordinates
of a selected group of locations were as close as possible to their previous values. For most
practical purposes, and in the remainder of this chapter, we will take k0 = 0.9996.
The figure shows the central and northern part
of the TME projection with 0 = 2 , (2 W). The
origin of the projection coordinates is at the point
P where the central meridian intersects the equator.
The graticule meridians shown are at intervals of
15 measured from the central meridian; the Greenwich meridian is also indicated. The NGGB grid
covers only a small part of the projection, just the
small box shown in the figure. The true origin for
the grid is taken at the point T with latitude 0 = 49
(0.855rad) on the central meridian. The false origin
is then chosen west and north of the true origin with
E0=400000m and N0=100000m. The mapped area
is completely to its east and north and all E and N
values are positive. Recall that E0 and N0 give the
position of the true origin relative to the false origin.
Figure 8.4 shows the NGGB grid in greater detail. It covers longitudes from 2 E to almost 8 W,
an interval of 10 degrees compared to the 6 degrees
of UTM. The longitude range is not symmetric about
the central meridian4 degrees to the east but 6 degrees to the west. This means that NGGB requires
use of the Redfearn transformation formulae at up to
6 degrees from the central meridian when we consider locations on the Outer Hebrides.
60
45
30
15
=17
2 0
P
13
Figure 8.3
The grid extends 700km east of the false origin and 1300km north. The actual grid area
is divided into 100km squares coded with letter pairs which are used in the alpha-numeric
grid reference scheme. That part of the grid which is excluded by virtue of the overlap with
the Irish grid is shown by the dashed line in the figure. There are two Irish grid systems in
use at the moment. The old system is based on a slightly modified Airy ellipsoid with a true
origin on at 53 300 N, 8 W and a false origin such that E0=200000m and N0=250000m.
The scale modification is k0 = 1.000035. The new system is based on the WGS84 ellipsoid
with the same true origin but E0=600000m and N0=750000m.
140
Longitude (central meridian at 2W)

8W
6W
4W
2W
2E
1300
HL
HM
HN
HO
HP
JL
JM
HQ
HR
HS
HT
HU
JQ
JR
HV
HW
HX
HY
HZ
JV
JW
NA
NB
NC
ND
NE
OA
OB
NF
NG
NH
NJ
NK
OF
OG
NL
NM
NN
NO
NP
OL
OM
1200
60N
1100
1000
58N
800
700
56N
NQ
NR
NS
NT
NU
OQ
OR
NV
NW
NX
NY
NZ
OV
OW
SA
SB
SC
SD
SE
TA
TB
SF
SG
SH
SJ
SK
TF
TG
SL
SM
SN
SO
SP
TL
TM
SQ
SR
SS
ST
SU
TQ
TR
SV
SW
SX
SY
SZ
TV
TW
Latitude
Northings in kilometres from false origin
900
600
500
54N
400
300
52N
200
100
False 0
origin 0
100
200
300
400
500
600
50N
700
Eastings in kilometres from false origin

100
k=1.0004
k=1
0.9996
True origin 2W,49N
k=1 1.0004
Figure 8.4 The region covered by the British National Grid (NGGB).
141
The scale factor varies by small amounts over the grid. On the central meridian it is
constant at the value 0.9996012717. The scale increase to k = 1 on two lines which are
approximately straight and approximately 180km from the central meridian. The curvature
of these isoscale lines is hardly detectable in the figure. The scale increases by a further
factor of 0.0004 on two curved lines approximately 255km from the central meridian, a
further distance of 75km compared with the first 180km. Outside of these lines the scale
factor starts to increase rapidly showing that the TME projections must be restricted to
limited longitude ranges. See Section 8.5 for more detail.
With the exception of the central meridian all meridians and parallels are curved with
values of latitude and longitude indicated on the right and top sides of the outer rectangle.
As a consequence true north differs from grid north except on the central meridian, the
difference being given by the convergence. All parallels are concave upwards and true
east agrees with grid lines only at the point where the parallel crosses the central meridian.
The difference between true east and grid east is also determined by the convergence. The
curvature of meridians and parallels is small but noticeable and important in high accuracy
survey work. Numerical values are discussed in Section 8.6
NGGB grid references
The relation between projection coordinates and eastings and northings must take into account the fact that the true origin is not on the equator. Since y(0, 0 ) = k0 m(0 )
E = E0 + x( , )
(8.4)
N = N0 + [y( , ) k0 m(0 )] ,
(8.5)
0 = 49 = 0.8552 radians and the distance of the true origin from the equator (on the Airy
ellipsoid) is m(0 ) = m(0.8552) = 5429228.6m. The true origin is E0=400000m east and
N0=100000m north of the false origin. Therefore
E = x + 400000,
(8.6)
N = y 5527064,
(8.7)
where x and y are calculated from the series of Section 7.8 The inverse transformations are
also calculated from Section 7.8 with x replaced by E E0 and 1 calculated from
m(1 ) =
y
N N0
=
+ m(0 )
k0
k0
(8.8)
My position on the NGGB datum is 55 570 4.600 N, 3 100 55.900 W . Using the above
formulae I calculate that, to the nearest metre, I am sitting at E=326185, N=673765. This is
in the 100km square labelled NT so the alpha-numeric grid reference is NT 26185 73765 to
within 1m. As for UTM (MGRS) we can use shorter grid references such as NT26187376,
NT261737, NT2673, NT27 for accuracy to within 10m, 100m, 1km, 10km.
142
1.0015
scale k
1.0010
1.00098
1.0007
1.0005
1.0000
0.9995
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
x=|E-E0| in kilometres
Figure 8.5
8.5
Scale variation in TME projections
Scale variation in TMS

Since the differences between TMS and TME are small it is instructive to consider the TMS
scale factor (equation 3.75 and Section 3.4):

1 2 1 4
1 6
x

b
b
b
b
k(x, y)
= k0 cosh x = k0 1 + x + x +
x +
xb =
(8.9)
2
24
720
k0 R
TMS
This function is plotted above for k0 = 0.9996 and R = 6372km (the tri-axial mean for the
WGS ellipsoid). The values of k at which the scale factor equals 1 and 1.0004 (isoscale
lines) are given by inverting equation 8.9 to x = k0 R cosh1 (k/k0 ). The values are 180km
and 255km respectively. The other values indicated at x =300km and x =333km correspond
to the maximum values of x attained in a UTM zone and the NGGB grid respectively.
There is no variation of scale on a grid line with constant y. However, as we move
northwards from the equator on a meridian remains constant, x decreases and therefore
the scale factor decreases. The variation of scale on the meridian is given by the segment of
the above graph which lies between the x-values at the ends of the meridian segment. For
example, if = 3 then it has x = 333km on the equator and x = 34.9km at latitude 84 N:
the scale decreases from 1.00098 to 0.999614 on the meridian between these values.
Scale variation in TME
The scale factor in projection coordinates for TME is given by equation (7.93):

1 2
1 4
1 6
x
k(x, y) = k0 1 + xb K2 + xb K4 +
xb K 6
xb =
2
24
720
k0 1
K2 = 1 ,
(8.10)
K4 = 413 (1 6t12 ) 312 (1 16t12 ) 241t12 ,
K 6 = 1,
(8.11)
143
where 1 and t1 are evaluated at the footpoint latitude such that m(1 ) = y/k0 and y is related
to the northing coordinate by equation (8.2) or (8.7) for UTM or NGGB respectively. To
simplify the comparison of the TMS and TME scale factors it is useful, to write K2 and K4
in terms of the parameter which is used in the TME series as given by Thomas (1952)
and OSGB (1999). It is defined as:
e2 cos2
= e02 cos2 .
1 =
1 e2
(8.12)
K4 = 1 + 612 + 14 (9 24t12 ) + 16 (4 24t12 )
(8.13)
2 = 1 =
The non-trivial coefficients become
K2 = 1 + 12
As e2 , 2 0 the TME scale factor reduces to the TMS scale factor. Their difference is
given by terms of order 12 xb2 and 12 xb4 which are never more than 105 and 108 respectively over the projection region. Therefore Figure 8.5 is an adequate representation of the
TME scale variation with x for any value of 1 calculated for the footpoint value corresponding to y. Note that in working with the TME series we must not assume that the t1
terms are small: at a footpoint latitude of 80 we have t1 = tan 1 5.7 and t12 32. On the
other hand at large latitudes the values of x are much less than their maximum values at the
equator. These two factors compensate to some extent.
Isoscale lines of TME
To find the isoscale lines in TME we must invert invert equation 8.10. To do this we write
the equation as
w
2
K2

k
1 K4
1 6 K6
xb
1 = xb2 + xb4 +
k0
12 K2 360 K2
xb =
x
.
k0 1
(8.14)
The inverse is evaluated by using the Lagrange series reversion given in equations (B.10
B.11) with z replaced by xb2 :
!

2
K
K
K
5K
2
k
4
2
6
2
2
3
4
xb = w
w
w
w=
1 ,
(8.15)
12K2
K2 k0
360K22
from which we can find x = k0 1 xb, and hence (E E0), as a function of k at any given value
of N, i.e. E(k, N). Results are given below.
Numerical scale factors for UTM
The UTM zone has greatest width on the equator where x 334km and the scale factor at
the point (E=833979 N=0) is just under 1.001. Comparing this with the scale factor 0.9996
at the origin indicates a scale variation of about 0.15% over the width of the projection. The
144
scale factor at the upper right corner of the projection (E=534995, N=9329005) is 0.999615
and on the equator at (E=534995, N=0) it is 0.9996152: the variation with latitude along a
grid line is almost zero. The variation along the meridian is about 0.15%.
To draw the isoscale lines we have taken four values of N and calculated y and m from
equation 8.3 and inverted this to obtain the footpoint latitude by the methods of Section 5.9.
The coefficients K2 are then calculated from 8.13 so that x and E E0 follow from 8.15 with
k = 1 and then k = 1.0004. The results are shown in the following table.
N
footpoint
k=0.9996
k=1.0
k=1.0004
9000000
81 .05846848
180936
254235
6000000
54 .14694587
180548
254217
3000000
27 .12209299
180004
254206
0 .00000000
179754
254202
UTM: value of |EE0| at which k=0.9996, 1, 1.0004
Table 8.1
From the fourth column we see that the eastings on the k = 1 isoscale increase by just over
1km over in a range of 9000km from the equator to just over 80 N. The deviation of the
k = 1.004 isoscale is still under 2km. Thus the isoscale lines are almost parallel to the
central meridian but curve outwards a little as they move from the equator..
Numerical scale factors for NGGB
For NGGB the greatest value of scale are encountered on the coast of East Anglia coast
and the Outer Hebrides where |x| reaches 300km and k1.0007. However, the bulk of the
NGGB grid is within approximately 255km of the central meridian where |k 1|<0.0004.
North-south variation is negligible over the NGGB. Note that a typical map 1:50000 sheet
corresponds to a small section of the grid. My local sheet is bounded by E=316km and
E=356km and is close to the central meridian on which E=400km, the scale varies from
k=0.999686 on the west to k=0.999624 on the east. The isoscale lines of NGGB are found
in exactly the same way as for UTM. The curvature is negligible, giving a deviation of only
212m over the full northings extent of 1200km.
footpoint
k=0.9996
k=1.0
k=1.0004
1200000
60 .68382350
180369
255275
800000
57 .09116995
180302
255180
400000
53 .49645197
180231
255080
49 .89956809
180157
254976
NGGB: value of |EE0| at which k=0.9996, 1, 1.0004
Table 8.2
8.6
145
Convergence in the TME projection
When we discussed convergence in Section 3.6 we observed that on any particular meridian
(on the TMS projection) the convergence, defined as the angle between grid north and true
north (the tangent to the meridian), must increase from zero at the equator to at the pole.
The same must be true for TME although we require only values up to the northerly limit of
UTM or NGGB. The following table shows the convergence for these two projections for
several latitude valueson a bounding meridian for UTM (at 0 + 3 ) and on the extreme
western meridian for NGGB at 7 W=0 5 (in square NF)..
Convergence along a projected meridian
UTM at 0 + 3
NGGB at 0 5
84 N
2 590 100 W
60 N
4 190 5800 E
80 N
2 570 1600 W
58 N
4 140 3600 E
60 N
2 350 5500 W
56 N
4 80 5500 E
40 N
1 550 4600 W
54 N
4 20 5500 E
20 N
1 10 3700 W
52 N
3 560 3800 E
50 N
3 500 300 E
0 N
For UTM the values of convergence approach the limiting value of 3 which is attained
at the pole. For NGGB the specified meridian is 5 west of the central meridian and the
convergence clearly approaches this value at the northern extremity of the grid.
The convergence varies only slightly over any one of the NGGB 1:50000 map sheets.
For example exact calculations give the convergence at the corners of the Edinburgh sheet
bounded by E=316km, E=356km, N=650km and N=690km as
Convergence the corners of NGGB Edinburgh sheet

E
NW
SW
316
316
690
1 70 14.9400 E
350 13.8200 E
356
690
NE
650
1 60 20.8500 E
340 45.4800 E
356
650
SE
Note that the variation of convergence from top to bottom is much less than the variation
from east to west. Similar figures are given at the corners of every map in the OSGB series:
the values at other points of the sheet may be approximated by linear interpolation.
It is important to observe that convergence values are not vanishingly small and they
must be taken into account in relating an azimuth () to a grid bearing ( ) by the relation
= + discussed in Section 3.5. This correction is important in high accuracy applications.
8.7
146
The accuracy of the TME transformations
One obvious test of the accuracy of the TME transformations is to start from given geographical coordinates ( , ), transform to projection coordinates with the direct Redfearn
series (7.86, 7.87) and then reverse the transformation with the inverse series (7.88, 7.90)
We should then be back where we started. Before doing so we must decide on our standard of accuracy. We shall work to within 1mm in the projection coordinates and to within
0.000100 in geographical coordinates. These accuracies are approximately equivalent, for
we see from Table (2.1) that 0.000100 is equivalent to 3mm along the meridian and less
than 2mm along a parallel for locations within the region of the NGGB (at latitudes from
50 N60 N). To cope with rounding errors we compute to two extra places of decimals.
These tests are purely to assess the mathematical consistency of our transformations for, in
practice, no survey claims accuracies better than 10cm. The following example shows that
this first test is satisfied with flying colours. Note that we use eastings and nothings rather
than x and y, the projection coordinates. For NGGB they are related by (8.6, 8.7) and the
footpoint is to be calculated from (8.8).
Lat
Lon
Redfearndirect
52 390 27.253100
1 430 4.517700
Redfearn-Inverse
E
651409.903
N
313177.270
E
N
651409.903
313177.270
Lat
Lon
0
00
0
52 39 27.2531 1 43 4.517700
Another test is to assess the outcome of small changes in the inputs to the direct and
inverse series. Sticking to the same coordinates as above we perturb the geographical coordinates by 0.000100 in latitude, longitude separately and together: for the inverse we perturb
the projection coordinates by 0.001mm. The results are shown below.
Lat
Lon
52 390 27.253100
1 430 4.517700
E
651409.903
651409.904
651409.903
651409.904
N
313177.270
313177.270
313177.271
313177.271
NGGB-direct
Lat + 0.000100 52 390 27.253200 1 430 4.517700
Lon + 0.000100 52 390 27.253100 1 430 4.517800
Both together 52 390 27.253200 1 430 4.517800
NGGB-Inverse
E + 1mm
N + 1mm
Both together
E
651409.903
651409.903
651409.905
651409.905
N
313177.270
313177.273
313177.270
313177.274
Lat
Lon
52 390 27.253100
1 430 4.517700
52 390 27.253100 1 430 4.517800

52 390 27.253100 1 430 4.517700
52 390 27.253100 1 430 4.517800
Thus we see that 0.000100 changes induce a maximum change on the projection of no more
than 4mm: for the inverse transformation 1mm changes in the projection coordinates change
the geographical coordinates by no more than 0.000100 . This applies to a typical point on
the mainland but the errors in the Hebrides are more appreciable.
147
When Redfearn (1948) published his series he was simply extending the series that
had been published earlier by Lee (1945) who had discarded terms smaller that 4 e2 , 5 e2 ,
(x/a)4 e2 and (x/a)5 e2 in the series for x, y, and respectively. Redfearn observed that
the coefficients in Lees series were increasing rapidly, particularly at larger latitudes where
t and t1 are not small, and consequently it seemed possible that some omitted terms might
actually be larger than the smallest ones retained. This proved to be the case. Redfearns
analysis to higher order makes clear which terms can be safely omitted, as is in OSGB
(1999), Thomas (1952) and Snyder (1987) To investigate the size of the terms we again
introduce the parameter 2 defined in equation (8.12). Using (8.68.8) the equations of
Section 7.8 become
"
#
3
5
7
e
e
e
e
E( , ) = E0 + k0 e
+ W3 + W5 + W7 ,
= ( 0 )c
(8.16)
3!
5!
7!

e
e
e
4 t
6 t
8 t
2 t e
+
W4 +
W6 +
W8 ,
N( , ) = N0 + k0 m( ) m(0 ) +
2
4!
6!
8!
xb
xb3
xb5
xb7
N N0
(E, N) =
V3
V5
V7 ,
m(1 ) =
+ m(0 )
c1 3! c1
5! c1
7! c1
k0
(E, N) = 1
xb2 1t1 xb4 1t1

xb6 1t1
xb8 1t1
U4
U6
U 8,
2
4!
6!
8!
xb =
E E0
k0 1
(8.17)
(8.18)
(8.19)
with coefficients
W3 = 1 t 2 + 2
W4 = 5 t 2 + 9 2 + 4 4
W5 = 5 18t 2 + t 4 + 2 (14 58t 2 ) + 4 (13 64t 2 ) + 6 (4 24t 2 )
W6 = 61 58t 2 + t 4 + 2 (270 330t 2 ) + 4 (445 680t 2 )
+ 6 (324 600t 2 ) + 8 (88 192t 2 )
W7 = 61 479t 2 + 179t 4 t 6
W8 = 1385 3111t 2 + 543t 4 t 6
(8.20)
V3 = 1 + 2t12 + 12
V5 = 5 28t12 24t14 12 (6 + 8t12 ) + 14 (3 4t12 ) + 16 (4 24t12 )
V7 = 61 + 662t12 + 1320t14 + 720t16
(8.21)
U4 = 5 3t12 12 (1 9t12 ) + 414
U6 = 61 + 90t12 + 45t14 + 12 (46 252t12 90t14 ) + 14 (3 66t12 + 225t14 )

+ 16 (100 + 84t12 ) + 18 (88 192t12 )
U 8 = 1385 3633t12 4095t14 1575t16
(8.22)
The significance of the vertical rules in the rewritten coefficients is discussed overleaf.
148
Consider a worst case example: = 58 N and = 7 W, equivalent to projection coordinates E =104647.323m and N =912106.244m. This point has about the greatest value
of 0 that we can get in the NGGB and moreover it is about as far north as we can get
so the value of tan in the coefficients is not small (t=1.6). In the tables shown below all
the sub-terms have been displayed according to their power of 2 , essentially e2 , and their
power of either e
or xb for the direct and inverse series respectively. Observe that all terms
to the right of the rules are smaller than our limits (1mm or 0.000100 ) and may be neglected
in the series.
In: = 58 = 7
0
2
e
1 104482.705
e
3
e
5
164.425
e
7
4.9E-06
0.389
e
6
e
8
0.003
6.0E-06 4.3E-09
xb2
xb4
xb6
xb8
Out: N =912106.244m
8
10935.050
4.753
0.032
2.8E-05
-0.011 -1.5E-04 -6.4E-07 -1.1E-09
-7.1E-13
-1.6E-05
In: E =104647.323, N =912106.244

10
12
14
xb0
Out: E =104647.323m
8
-0.199
In: = 58 = 7
0
2
e
0 901166.420
e
2
e
4
Out: =58 00 0.000000

16
18
58 50 53.772800
50 54.571800
0.804200 0.002500
0.002700
1.0E-0500
-8.9E-0700
-2.1E-0800 -9.4E-1200
2.3E-1400
1.1E-0500
In: E =104647.323, N =912106.244

Out: =7 00 0.000000
10
12
14
16
18
xb1 7 00 39.421300
xb3
39.571100
0.012000
xb5
0.162600
-3.4E-0500
xb7
-1.8E-0800 -2.6E-1000
0.000800
Table 8.3
8.8
149
The truncated TME series
Dropping the small terms to the right of the vertical rules in equations (8.168.19) gives the
truncated series used by OSGB (1999)see next section. A slightly smaller set of terms is
omitted in the series in Snyder (1987) because UTM extends to much higher latitudes than
NGGB (although a UTM zone is narrower than NGGB).
"
#
3
5
e
e
T
T
E( , ) = E0 + k0 e
+ W3 + W5 ,
(8.23)
3!
5!
"
N( , ) = N0 + k0 [m( ) m(0 )] + k0
(E, N) =
#
e
2 t e
4 t T e
6 t T
+
W +
W ,
2
4! 4
6! 6
xb
xb3 T
xb5 T
xb7 T
V3
V5
V ,
c1 3! c1
5! c1
7! c1 7
(E, N) = 1
(8.24)
(8.25)
xb2 1t1 xb4 1t1 T xb6 1t1 T
U4
U6 ,
2
4!
6!
(8.26)
where
e
= ( 0 )c,
xb =
E E0
,
k0 1
m(1 ) =
N N0
+ m(0 ),
k0
(8.27)
and, as usual, c= cos , t= tan , =( )/( ) from (5.53) and the 1 subscript denotes
a function evaluated at the footpoint latitude.
The truncated coefficients follow from equations (8.208.22)
W3T = 1 t 2 + 2
W4T = 5 t 2 + 9 2
W5T = 5 18t 2 + t 4 + 2 (14 58t 2 )

W6T = 61 58t 2 + t 4
(8.28)
V3T = 1 + 2t12 + 12
V5T = 5 28t12 24t14
T
V7 = 61 + 662t12 + 1320t14 + 720t16
(8.29)
U4T = 5 3t12 12 (1 9t12 )

U6T = 61 + 90t12 + 45t14
where
2 = 1 =
e2 cos2
1 =
= e02 cos2 .
1 e2
(8.30)
(8.31)
8.9
150
The OSGB series
The published form of the series used by the OSGB uses a different notation for the truncated series of the previous section. First use equations (5.76, 5.77) to set
M = k0 [m( ) m(0 )]
(8.32)

5
5
21
= k0 b 1+n+ n2 + n3 ( 0 ) 3n+3n2 + n3 sin( 0 ) cos( +0 )
4
4
8

15 2 15 3
35 3
n + n sin 2( 0 ) cos 2( +0 )
n sin 3( 0 ) cos 3( +0 )
+
8
8
24
where n is defined in equation (5.5) as (a b)/(a + b).
Equations (8.24), (8.23), (8.26) and (8.25) may be written as
N = I + II( 0 )2 + III( 0 )4 + IIIA( 0 )6
3
(8.33)
E = E0 + IV( 0 ) + V( 0 ) + VI( 0 ) ,
(8.34)
= 1 VII(E E0)2 + VIII(E E0)4 IX(E E0)6 ,

3
(8.35)
= 0 + X(E E0) XI(E E0) + XII(E E0) XIIA(E E0) ,
(8.36)
where 1 must be calculated from equation

m(1 ) =
N N0
y
=
+ m(0 )
k0
k0
(8.37)
by the methods of Section 5.9.

If we introduce e = k0 and e = k0 the coefficients IXIIA may be written in terms of the
truncated coefficients (8.288.30) as
I = M + N0
IV = ec
VII =
X=
t1
e
21 e1
1
e1 c1
II =
esc
2
III =
esc3W4T
4!
V=
ec3W3T
3!
VI =
ec5W5T
5!
VIII =
t1U4T
4!e1 e13
IX =
t1U6T
6!e1 e15
XI =
V3T
3!e13 c1
XII =
V5T
5!e15 c1
IIIA =
esc5W6T
6!
XIIA =
V7T
7!e17 c1
and, as usual, c= cos , t= tan , =( )/( ) from (5.53) and the 1 subscript denotes
a function evaluated at the footpoint latitude. The OSGB publication exhibits the above
formulae without the tildes on and because the definitions of and in that publication
already absorb a factor of k0 .
8.10
151
Concluding remarks
At the end of the day, after much hard graft, we have thrown away almost all of the higher
order terms except for theseventh order term in x/a in the inverse series for . Clearly
terms of order O e2 (x/a)7 would also be negligible so at last we have justified the use of
the spherical approximation in calculating the higher order terms. Note that we could not
have assessed the size of the higher order terms without working them out!
One can use the Redfearn series as they stand for they are simple to encode on any
computer and they take very little extra computation time. Remember, however, that when
these series were first developed it was imperative to simplify the working as much as
possible for hand(-machine) calculations. Lee would no doubt have had this in mind when
he dropped the sixth order terms in his calculations. To be exact, of the required terms he
dropped the term in 6 in the direct series for y, the term in (x/a)6 in the inverse series for
and the term in (x/a)7 in the inverse series for ; at the same time he included the term
in (x/a)5 e2 in the inverse series for although we now see that it is negligible.
Nowadays no hard graft is required for the series can be readily implemented on a
computer algebra program such as Maxima (Appendix H. Such programs are exhibited in
Section H: they can easily be extended to higher orders.
The series developed here are simply extensions of the work of Kruger (1912) and
Gauss. However, Gauss developed another form of the TM projection which was clarified
and actually used by Schreiber in the survey of Prussia. This Gauss-Screiber projection is
derived by the transformation of the ellipsoid to the conformal sphere (Sections 5.9,5.10
followed by the TMS from conformal sphere to the plane. This double projection does not
have a uniform scale on the central meridian but Kruuger showed that this could be achieved
by a further conformal transformation which is based on series linking the conformal and
rectifying latitudes. This form of the TME is much more accurate than the Readfearn series.
An implementation is described in Karney (2011) and the computer code code is available
at Karney (2010). Such implementations can be used for accurate projections to much wider
domains.
Both the Redfearn method and this second method based on Gauss-Screiber involve
truncated series. They can be extended to any finite order but there are no general series
which permit the attainment of arbitrary precision. This is available by using an exact
version of the TME developed by E. H. Thompson and communicated to Lee (1976). This
solution is exact in the sense that it can be computed to arbitrary precision and it provides
a yard stick by which other methods can be assessed. Such comparisons permit one to say
that the Gauss-Schreiber method is more accurate than the Redfearn series. One remarkable
property of the solution is that it is a finite projection which does not tend to infinity as the
longitude separation from the central meridian increases. This method is implemented by
Dozier (1980), Stuifbergen (2009) and Karney (2011).
152
153
Appendix
Curvature in 2 and 3 dimensions
A.1
Planar curves
A straight line has zero curvature. The curvature, , of a general curve in the plane is
defined as the rate of change of the direction of its tangent with respect to the distance
travelled along the line:
d
=
.
(A.1)
ds
If we are given the equation of the curve as y = f (x) with respect to Cartesian axes then it
is natural to choose the x-axis as the reference for the direction of the tangent.

The geometry of the small inset in the figure shows

that
tan =
dy
= y0 (x),
dx
cos =
dx
ds
(A.2)
Differentiating the first of these statements by s and

using the second gives
sec2
d[y0 (x)]
dx
d
=
= y00 (x)
ds
ds
ds
= y00 (x) cos .
(A.3)
Figure A.1
Now sec = 1 + tan2 = 1 + y02 so we obtain d /ds and

=
y00 (x)
.
[1 + y02 ]3/2
DASH
d
dx
(A.4)
The choice of sign is a matter for convention in every case. We shall illustrate this point
immediately. The unsigned curvature is given by taking the modulus.
Appendix A. Curvature in 2 and 3 dimensions
154
The curvature of a circle

For a general circle of radius a at the origin we have x2 + y2 = a2 so that on the two semicircles y > 0 and y < 0,
p
y(x) = a2 x2 ,
x
,
y0 (x) =
a2 x2
y00 (x) =
a2
.
(a2 x2 )3/2
(A.5)
Substituting these values in equation (A.4) we see that the curvature of the upper semicircle
is = (1/a) whilst for the lower semicircle = (1/a). Now it is conventional to
define the curvature of a circle to be positive so we must choose the negative sign in the
definition for the case of the upper semicircle and the positive sign for the lower; with these
choices of sign we have a constant curvature = 1/a. Therefore the curvature of a circle is
the inverse of the radius and vice-versa.
The osculating circle and the radius of curvature
The particular circle which touches the curve at P (Figure A.1) and also shares the same
curvature at that point is called the osculating circle (osculating=kissing) or the circle of
curvature. The radius of this circle defines R, the radius of curvature of the curve at that
point. Clearly
R=
1
.
(A.6)
Curves in parametric form

The previous results related to a curve in two dimensions described by a single function y(x)
in Cartesian coordinates. We now consider the situation where these Cartesian coordinates
are parameterised by two functions
of u; that is the position of a point on the curve is

written as r(u) = x(u), y(u) . We shall investigate three types of parameterisation: (1) the
parameter is assumed to be perfectly general, not necessarily the distance along the path;
(2) the parameter is taken as the arc length s; (3) the parameter is taken as the angle between
the tangent and the x-axis.
d
Set DOT du
Case 1: Arbitrary parameterisation: x(u), y(u).

y0 (x) =
y00 (x) =
dy y
= ,
dx x
d y du
du x dx
1
xy yx
= = 2
R
[x + y2 ]3/2
xy yx
x3
DOT
d
.
du
(A.7)
155
d
Set DASH ds
Case 2: Special parameterisation: u s. Given x(s), y(s).
Since s is the arc length we have dx2 + dy2 = ds2 and consequently x0 2 + y0 2 = 1.
Therefore (A.7) becomes
1
= = x0 y00 y0 x00
R
DASH
d
ds
(A.8)
d
Set DOT d
dy
Since is the angle between the tangent and the x-axis we have tan = dx = y/
x
xy yx
.
Differentiating with respect to gives sec2 =
x2
x2 + y2
But we also have sec2 = 1 + tan2 =
x2
2
Therefore we must have xy xy = x + y2 so that (A.7) becomes
Case 3: Special parameterisation: u . Given x( ), y( ).
1
1
= = 2
R
[x + y2 ]1/2
DOT
d
d
(A.9)

Note that this result follows directly from equation (A.1) since 1 d = ds = [dx2 + dy2 ]1/2 .
Curvature of the ellipse
The Cartesian equation of an ellipse is
x 2 y2
+ = 1,
a2 b2
(A.10)
where
the semi-axes are related to the eccentricity by b =
a 1 e2 . Now the ellipse may be obtained by scaling the
auxiliary circle by a factor of b/a in the y direction. Since
an arbitrary point P0 on the circle is (a cosU, a sinU) the
corresponding point on the ellipse is P(a cosU, b sinU).
We call U the parametric or reduced latitude in cartography and the eccentric anomaly in astronomy.)
Figure A.2
We calculate the curvature from equation (A.7) setting:

x = a cosU,
x = a sinU,
x = a cosU,
giving
y = b sinU,
y = b cosU,
y = b sinU,
+ab
1
1 e2
= 2
=
.
[a (a2 b2 ) cos2 U]3/2 a [1 e2 cos2 U]3/2
(A.11)
(A.12)
A.2
156
Curves in three dimensions

First consider two neighbouring points, P(s) and Q(s + s), on a curve parameterised by its
arc length s (Figure A.3a). The chord length between these points is given by s2 = r r.
The tangent vector at P is the limit of r/ s and therefore has the properties
t = r0 ,
t t0 = 0,
tt = 1
(A.13)
where the last follows by differentiation of the second.
Figure A.3
Consider the tangents at neighbouring points (Figure A.3b); t(s) and t(s + s) = t + t are
compared in the third figure by bringing them together at some point B. Tangent vectors are
unit vectors so that |t| = |t + t| = 1; therefore in the limit of s 0 we see that t is in
the direction of n, a unit vector normal to t and in the osculating plane defined by the two
vectors t(s) and t(s + s). Furthermore, if the angle between the unit tangent vectors is
then as s 0 we must have | t| = . Consequently
t
d
=
n = n.
ds
s0 s
t0 = lim
(A.14)
The vector n is called the principal normal to the curve and the curvature , is defined as
for planar curves. We can invert this relation and write
n=
1 0 1 00
t = r .

(A.15)
Note that n is defined to be a unit vector; on the other hand t0 is not a unit vector, its length
is equal to the curvature . Since t t0 = 0 we must have n t = 0.
Now introduce the unit binormal vector b, defined so that it
forms a right-handed orthogonal triad with t and n. Therefore
b = t n,
tn = 0
t n = b,
nb = 0
n b = t,
(A.16)
b t = 0,
b t = n.
(A.17)
Figure A.4
157
Torsion and the FrenetSerret formulae

Since b is a unit vector, differentiation gives b b0 = 0. Furthermore if we differentiate the
relation t b = 0 we get
t0 b + t b0 = 0.
(A.18)
b0 = n.
(A.19)
Now since t0 = n the first of these terms must vanish so we must have t b0 = 0. Consequently b0 is perpendicular to both t and b and it is therefore a vector in the direction of n.
The vector b0 is not a unit vector and its magnitude is defined to be , the torsion of the
curve. We choose to set
The torsion of the curve is a measure of the rate of rotation of the vectors b, and hence n,
about the tangent vector as s increases. The negative sign associates a right-handed rule
as part of the definition.
We have expressions for the derivatives of t and b in equations (A.15) and (A.19). We
now evaluate the derivative of n from b t:
n0 = b0 t + b t0 = n t + b (n) = b t.
(A.20)
This equation together with the derivatives of t and b constitute the set of Frenet-Serret
relations:
t0 = n,
n0 = b t,
b0 = n.
(A.21)
These equations show that the form of a curve in three dimensions is essentially determined
by the two functions (s) and (s) and an initial orthonormal triad.
A.3
Curvature of surfaces
At any point on a surface we can define the curvature of a line on the surface passing
through that point. Rather than build up a large part of differential geometry we shall give
elementary proofs of two important results that we need.
First consider those curves which are defined by the intersection of a plane with the
surface. The most important case is a plane which contains the normal N at the point P; such
a plane defines a normal section of the surface. We shall consider all the normal sections at
a given point and investigate the curvature at P of their intersections. The principal result is
that the maximum and minimum curvatures arise on two normal sections at right-angles to
each other; these are the principal curvatures which we will denote by 1 and 2 . Eulers
formula gives the curvature on any other normal section in terms of the principal curvatures.
The other main result that we need is Meusniers theorem. This relates the curvature
on a normal section to the curvature of the sections made by planes oblique to the chosen
normal plane, i.e. sharing the same tangent at P. It is convenient to prove this theorem first.
A.4
158
Meusniers theorem
Without loss of generality we choose axes with the origin O at an arbitrary point on a surface
and such that the xy-plane is tangential at the point. Consider the family of planes which
contain the tangent directed along the x-axis. Each plane intersects the the surface in a plane
curve; let g(x) be the curve on the normal plane and w(x) on an oblique plane inclined at
an angle to the normal plane. If , R denote the curvature and radius of curvature at the
origin of g(x) and w(x) on the normal and oblique planes repectively, then
oblique = sec normal ,
The choice of coordinates implies that z = f (x, y), the

height of the surface above the xy-plane, is such that
f (0, 0) = 0 and has partial derivatives fx (0, 0)=0 and
fy (0, 0)=0. The Taylor series at the origin is then
1
1
z = f (x, y) = Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + ,
2
2
(A.23)
with A = fxx (0, 0), B = fxy (0, 0) and C = fyy (0, 0).
The intersection of the xz-plane (y = 0) and the surface is
the curve g(x) which, near P, is given by
1
g(x) = f (x, 0) = Ax2 + O(x3 ).
2
The curvature of g(x) at P follows from (A.4)

g00 (x)
=A.
normal =
[1 + (g0 )2 ]3/2
(A.24)
(A.25)
x=0
On the oblique plane at P we have z = f (x, y) with

z = w cos and y = w sin . Therefore
w cos = f (x, w sin )=
Ax2
Cw2 2
+Bxw sin +
sin
2
2
It is clear from this equation that for small x and arbitrary

we must have w(x) = O(x2 ). (For suppose on the contrary
that w(x) = O(x), then the LHS of the previous equation
would be O(x) and the RHS would be O(x2 )).
w(x) = sec
1
2

Roblique = cos Rnormal .

Ax2 + O(x3 ) .
(A.26)
Figure A.5
Equations (A.26) and (A.24) give Meusniers theorem

w00

= A sec = sec normal .
oblique =
3/2
0
2
[1 + (w ) ]
x=0
(A.22)
(A.27)
A.5
159

Curvature of normal sections
We now consider the set of planes which have as axis

the normal to the surface at a given point. The intersections of these planes with the surface define the normal
sections at that point. Once again we take the given
point as the origin of our coordinate systems and define
the tangent plane at the origin to be the xy-plane. Therefore the equation of the surface may be taken as in the
last section:
1
1
z = f (x, y) = Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + .
2
2
(A.28)
Now one of the planes in the normal set is the xz-plane.

This plane was also the first we considered in the proof
of Meusniers theorem. It intersects the surface in the
curve g(x) which, in the neighbourhood of the origin, is
given by
1
g(x) = f (x, 0) = Ax2 + O(x3 ),
2
(A.29)
and, from equation (A.25), we know that its curvature

at the origin is equal to A. Similarly the curvature of the
section by the yz-plane is equal to C.
Figure A.6
Principal Axes
We exploit the freedom to choose any pair of orthogonal lines as axes in the xy-plane. If
new x0 y0 -axes are rotated from the original by an angle then we must set
x = cos x0 sin y0 ,
0
y = sin x + cos y .
(A.30)
(A.31)
Abbreviate c = cos and s = sin and set x = cx0 sy0 and y = sx0 + cy0 in the equation of
the surface (A.28). In terms of these new coordinates
1
1
z = h(x0 , y0 ) = A(cx0 sy0 )2 + B(cx0 sy0 )(sx0 +cy0 ) + C(sx0 +cy0 )2 + .
2
2
(A.32)
Now the coefficient of the x0 y0 cross term is equal to [Asc + B(c2 s2 ) +Csc] and this will
vanish if (A C) sin 2 = 2B cos 2 or tan 2 = 2B/(A C). There is always a solution for
and therefore we can always rotate axes so that the equation of the surface may be taken
without a cross term. This defines the principal axes in the tangent plane at the given point.
160
Curvature in an arbitrary normal plane: Eulers formula

We now re-interpret Figure A.6 by assuming that the principal axes have been found and
they have been chosen as the x-axis and y-axis. Therefore the equation of the surface with
respect to the principal axes in the tangent plane is of the form
1
1
z = f (x, y) = 1 x2 + 2 y2 + ,
(A.33)
2
2
where 1 , 2 could be related to A, B, C. On the normal plane which includes the x principal
axis we have y = 0 and z = (1/2)1 x2 so that the curvature of the section is 1 . Similarly
2 is the curvature of the normal section which includes the y principal axis. 1 and 2 are
called the principal curvatures of the surface at P.
We shall now find the curvature of the section made by a normal plane which makes
an arbitrary angle to one of the principal axes, say the x-axis. Once again we rotate
axes, away from the principal axes, so that the new x0 axis lies in the chosen plane and y0 is
orthogonal to it. This is achieved by exactly the same rotation as before, namely x = cx0 sy0
and y = sx0 + cy0 . The equation of the surface now takes the form:
1
1
z = h(x0 , y0 ) = 1 (cx0 sy0 )2 + 2 (sx0 + cy0 )2 + .
(A.34)
2
2
Now the chosen plane at the angle is the plane with y0 = 0 in the new coordinates so its
section with the surface is given by
1
1
p(x0 ) = h(x0 , 0) = 1 (cx0 )2 + 2 (sx0 )2 +
2
2
1 02
= x (1 cos2 + 2 sin2 ) + .
2
We now evaluate its curvature at the origin using equation (A.4), giving:
EULER S FORMULA
() = 1 cos2 + 2 sin2
(A.35)
(A.36)
for the curvature of the normal section made by a plane making an angle with one of the
principal normal planes.
Without loss of generality let us take 1 > 2 , then we have
1 () = (1 2 ) sin2 0,
2
() 2 = (1 2 ) cos 0.
1 () 2 .
(A.37)
(A.38)
(A.39)
Thus we have proved that the curvatures of normal sections at a point are such that the
minimum and maximum values, the principal curvatures, are associated with orthogonal
planes and the curvature on any other plane is given by the Euler formula. Note that we have
not provided any way of calculating the curvature for an arbitrary surface for in general we
do not have equations for the surface in the form of (A.28). The general study requires the
machinery of differential geometry (see Bibliography) but for surfaces of revolution such
as the ellipsoid we shall find that this not required.
161
Two definitions of average curvature

1
H = (1 + 2 ).
2
The Gaussian curvature at a point on a surface is G = 1 2 .

The mean curvature at a point on a surface is
(A.40)
(A.41)
These definitions are useful in various waysfor example, when we seek to approximate
the surface of small part of the ellipsoid by a sphere.
162
163
Appendix
Lagrange expansions
B.1
Introduction
We wish to investigate the inversion of a finite series such as

w = z + a2 z2 + a3 z3 + a4 z4 + a5 z5
(B.1)
where both z and w are assumed to be small, less than 1, whilst the coefficients are of
of order unity. The series we shall meet in the cartographic applications will typically be
Taylor series truncated after a few terms. Now since zn z for z < 1 and n > 1 we must
have z w and we might expect it to be represented by a series of the form
z = b1 w + b2 w2 + b3 w3 + b4 w4 + b5 w5 + .
(B.2)
One way of finding the coefficients is to substitute the series for z into every term on the
right hand side of (B.1) and compare coefficients of wn on both sides. This is demonstrated
explicitly in the next section. Fortunately a more general method exists, namely the Lagrange expansions defined in Section B.3. This is essential for the inversion of the eighth
order series that we shall encounter.
A second category of problem is illustrated by a series of the form
w = z + c2 sin 2z + c4 sin 4z + c6 sin 6z + ,
(B.3)
where we might have z and w as O(1) whilst the coefficients cn are small. The method of
Lagrange expansions will show that there is an inverse given by
z = w + d2 sin 2w + d4 sin 4w + d6 sin 6w + .
(B.4)
Appendix B. Lagrange expansions
B.2
164
Direct inversion of power series
The power series may be solved simply by back substitution, i.e. we substitute z from (B.2)
into the terms on the right hand side of (B.1) and compare coefficients of w. If we retain
only terms up to O(w4 ) we have
w = (b1 w+b2 w2 +b3 w3 +b4 w4 ) + a2 w2 (b1 +b2 w+b3 w2 + )2
+ a3 w3 (b1 +b2 w+ )3 + a4 w4 (b1 + )4 ,
= (b1 w+b2 w2 +b3 w3 +b4 w4 ) + a2 w2 (b21 +2b1 b2 w+b22 w2 +2b1 b3 w2 + )

+ a3 w3 (b31 +3b21 b2 w+ ) + a4 w4 b41 + O(w5 ).
Comparing coefficients gives

w1 :
1 = b1 ,
w2 :
0 = b2 + a2 b21 ,
w3 :
0 = b3 + 2a2 b1 b2 + a3 b31 ,
w4 :
0 = b4 + a2 (b22 + 2b1 b3 ) + 3a3 b21 b2 + a4 b41 .
These equations are solved in turn to give

b1 = 1,
b2 = a2 ,
b3 = a3 + 2a22 ,
b4 = a4 + 5a2 a3 5a32 .
(B.5)
This method is straightforward but becomes progressively harder as we go up to O(z8 )

terms. Moreover the method is inapplicable for the trigonometric series. Fortunately there
is a more general and elegant approach.
B.3
Lagranges theorem
The general form of the series (B.1, B.3) is

w = z + f (z),
(B.6)
with | f (z)| |z| and w z. The theorem of Lagrange states that in a suitable domain the
solution of this equation is
k=1
z = w+
(1)k
k!

d (k1)
[ f (w)]k
dw
The proof of this theorem will be given in the last section of this appendix.
(B.7)
B.4
165
Application to a fourth order polynomial
Consider the finite polynomial

w = z + a2 z2 + a3 z3 + a4 z4 ,
(B.8)
which is a case of equation (B.6) with

f (z) = a2 z2 + a3 z3 + a4 z4 .
We now apply the theorem with
f (w) = a2 w2 + a3 w3 + a4 w4 .
In evaluating the inverse we shall only retain terms up to w4 in the series for z (although the
Lagrange expansion is infinite). Therefore in evaluating the power [ f (w)]k we need retain
only those powers of w which give terms no higher than w4 after differentiating (k1)
times. For example [ f (w)]3 has terms of order w6 , w7 , . . . w12 but only the first of these
terms contributes after differentiating 2 times. No terms of order w4 arise from [ f (w)]4 and
higher powers. Therefore we keep only
f (w) = a2 w2 + a3 w3 + a4 w4 ,
[ f (w)]2 = w4 (a22 ) + w5 (2a2 a3 ) + ,
[ f (w)]3 = w6 (a32 ) + .
Calculate the derivatives
f (w) = a2 w2 + a3 w3 + a4 w4 ,
1
D[ f (w)]2 = 2w3 (a22 ) + 5w4 (a2 a3 ) + ,
2!
1 2
D [ f (w)]3 = 5w4 (a32 ) + .
3!
Substitute in Lagranges expansion:
z = w f (w) +
1
1
D[ f (w)]2 D2 [ f (w)]3 + .
2!
3!
The final result is

z = w w2 [a2 ] w3 a3 2a22 w4 a4 5a2 a3 + 5a32 .
The coefficients are in agreement with equation (B.5).
(B.9)
166
Modified fourth order polynomial

It will be convenient to consider a modified version of equation (B.8) with coefficients are
of the form an = bn /n!. In this case the above equations become
b2 2 b3 3 b4 4
z + z + z ,
2!
3!
4!
p2
p3
p4
z = w w2 w3 w4 +
2!
3!
4!
w = z+
(B.10)
(B.11)
where the p-coefficients are given by

p2 = b2 ,
p3 = b3 3b22 ,
p4 = b4 10b2 b3 + 15b32 .
(B.12)
Alternative notation
For the applications to cartography it is convenient to use the following notation for the
direct and inverse series:
b2 2 b3 3 b4 4
+ + ,
2!
3!
4!
p3
p4
p2
= z z2 z3 z4 +
2!
3!
4!
z=+
B.5
(B.13)
(B.14)
Application to a trigonometric series
Consider equation (B.6), that is

w(z) = z + f (z),
(B.15)
with f (z) defined by the following finite trigonometric series:

f (z) = b2 sin 2z + b4 sin 4z + b6 sin 6z + b8 sin 8z,
(B.16)
where the coefficients bn are small enough for the condition | f (z)| z, w to be valid; note
that we are assuming that w and z are of order unity. For the applications we have in mind we
shall have |bn | = O(en ) where e is the eccentricity of the ellipsoid. In deriving the inversion
we shall truncate the infinite Lagrange expansion at terms of order e8 ; thus we retain terms
proportional to b2 , b4 , b22 , b6 , b2 b4 , b32 , b8 , b2 b6 , b22 b4 , b24 , b42 and drop higher powers.
167
In the following steps we make use of several trigonometric identities from Appendix C.
f (w) = b2 sin 2w + b4 sin 4w + b6 sin 6w + b8 sin 8w,
[ f (w)]2 = b22 sin2 2w+2b2 b4 sin 2w sin 4w+b24 sin2 4w+2b2 b6 sin 2w sin 6w +
1
= b22 (1 cos 4w) + b2 b4 (cos 2w cos 6w)
2
1
+ b24 (1 cos 8w) + b2 b6 (cos 4w cos 8w) +
2
[ f (w)]3 = b32 sin3 2w + 3b22 b4 sin2 2w sin 4w +
3
1
= b32 (3 sin 2w sin 6w) + b22 b4 (2 sin 4w sin 8w) +
4
4
1
[ f (w)]4 = b42 sin4 2w + = b42 (3 4 cos 4w + cos 8w) + .
8
Calculate the derivatives
f (w) = b2 sin 2w + b4 sin 4w + b6 sin 6w + b8 sin 8w,
1
D[ f (w)]2 = b22 sin 4w + b2 b4 ( sin 2w + 3 sin 6w)
2!
+ 2b24 sin 8w + 2b2 b6 ( sin 4w + 2 sin 8w) +
1 2
D [ f (w)]3 =
3!
1 3
D [ f (w)]4 =
4!
1 3
b ( sin 2w + 3 sin 6w) + 4b22 b4 ( sin 4w + 2 sin 8w) +
2 2
4 4
b ( sin 4w + 2 sin 8w) + .
3 2
Finally, substituting into

1
1
1
D[ f (w)]2 D2 [ f (w)]3 + D3 [ f (w)]4 +
2!
3!
4!
and grouping terms according to the trigonometric functions gives
z = w f (w) +
z = w + d2 sin 2w + d4 sin 4w + d6 sin 6w + d8 sin 8w + ,
(B.17)
where
1
d2 = b2 b2 b4 + b32 ,
2
4
d4 = b4 + b22 2b2 b6 + 4b22 b4 b42 ,
3
3 3
d6 = b6 + 3b2 b4 b2 ,
2
8
d8 = b8 + 2b24 + 4b2 b6 8b22 b4 + b42 .
3
(B.18)
B.6
168
Application to an eighth order polynomial
We now invert a series of the form

w = z + a2 z2 + a3 z3 + a4 z4 + a5 z5 + a6 z6 + a7 z7 + a8 z8 .
(B.19)
retaining only the terms up to w8 in the series for z. This problem is a trivial generalisation
of the derivation for the fourth order series developed in Section B.4, only the algebra is a
little more involved. We set f (w) = a2 w2 + a3 w3 in the Lagrange expansion and evaluate
the powers of [ f (w)]k ; recall that we need retain only those powers of w which give terms
no higher than w8 after differentiating k 1 times.
f (w) = a2 w2 + a3 w3 + a4 w4 + a5 w5 + a6 w6 + a7 w7 + a8 w8 ,
[ f (w)]2 = w4 (a22 )
+ w5 (2a2 a3 )
+ w6 (2a2 a4 + a23 )
+ w7 (2a2 a5 + 2a3 a4 )
+ w8 (2a2 a6 + 2a3 a5 + a24 )
+ w9 (2a2 a7 + 2a3 a6 + 2a4 a5 ) + O(w10 ),
[ f (w)]3 = w6 (a32 )
+ w7 (3a22 a3 )
+ w8 (3a22 a4 + 3a2 a23 )
+ w9 (3a22 a5 + 6a2 a3 a4 + a33 )
+ w10 (3a22 a6 + 6a2 a3 a5 + 3a2 a24 + 3a23 a4 ) + O(w11 ),
[ f (w)]4 = w8 (a42 )
+ w9 (4a32 a3 )
+ w10 (4a32 a4 + 6a22 a23 )
+ w11 (4a32 a5 + 12a22 a3 a4 + 4a2 a33 ) + O(w12 ),
[ f (w)]5 = w10 (a52 )
+ w11 (5a42 a3 )
+ w12 (5a42 a4 + 10a32 a23 ) + O(w13 ),
[ f (w)]6 = w12 (a62 )
+ w13 (6a52 a3 ) + O(w14 ),
[ f (w)]7 = w14 (a72 ) + O(w15 ),
[ f (w)]8 = O(w16 ).
169
Evaluate the derivatives, (writing D for d/dw):

f (w) = a2 w2 + a3 w3 + a4 w4 + a5 w5 + a6 w6 + a7 w7 + a8 w8 ,
1
D[ f (w)]2 = + 2w3 (a22 )
2!
5
+ w4 (2a2 a3 )
2
+ 3w5 (2a2 a4 + a23 )
7
+ w6 (2a2 a5 + 2a3 a4 )
2
+ 4w7 (2a2 a6 + 2a3 a5 + a24 )
9
+ w8 (2a2 a7 + 2a3 a6 + 2a4 a5 ) + O(w9 ),
2
1 2
3
D [ f (w)] = + 5w4 (a32 )
3!
+ 7w5 (3a22 a3 )
28
+ w6 (3a22 a4 + 3a2 a23 )
3
+ 12w7 (3a22 a5 + 6a2 a3 a4 + a33 )
+ 15w8 (3a22 a6 + 6a2 a3 a5 + 3a2 a24 + 3a23 a4 ) + O(w9 ),
1 3
D [ f (w)]4 = + 14w5 (a42 )
4!
+ 21w6 (4a32 a3 )
+ 30w7 (4a32 a4 + 6a22 a23 )
165 8 3
+
w (4a2 a5 + 12a22 a3 a4 + 4a2 a33 ) + O(w9 ),
4
1 4
D [ f (w)]5 = + 42w6 (a52 )
5!
+ 66w7 (5a42 a3 )
+ 99w8 (5a42 a4 + 10a32 a23 ) + O(w9 ),
1 5
D [ f (w)]6 = + 132w7 (a62 )
6!
429 8 5
+
w (6a2 a3 ) + O(w9 ),
2
1 6
D [ f (w)]7 = + 429w8 (a72 ) + O(w9 ),
7!
1 7
D [ f (w)]8 = O(w9 ).
8!
Substitute the above in the Lagrange expansion:
z = w f (w) +
1
1
1
1
D[ f (w)]2 D2 [ f (w)]3 + D3 [ f (w)]4 D4 [ f (w)]5
2!
3!
4!
5!
1
1
1
+ D5 [ f (w)]6 D6 [ f (w)]7 + D7 [ f (w)]8 .
(B.20)
6!
7!
8!
170
Final result for basic eighth order series

The inverse of the series
w = z + a2 z2 + a3 z3 + a4 z4 + a5 z5 + a6 z6 + a7 z7 + a8 z8 ,
is
(B.21)
z = ww2 [a2 ]

w3 a3 2a22

w4 a4 5a2 a3 +5a32

w5 a5 3(2a2 a4 +a23 )+21a22 a3 14a42

w6 a6 7(a2 a5 +a3 a4 )+28(a22 a4 +a2 a23 )84a32 a3 +42a52

w7 a7 4(2a2 a6 +2a3 a5 +a24 )+12(3a22 a5 +6a2 a3 a4 +a33 )

30(4a32 a4 +6a22 a23 )+330a42 a3 132a62

w8 a8 9(a2 a7 +a3 a6 +a4 a5 )+15(3a22 a6 +6a2 a3 a5 +3a2 a24 +3a23 a4 )
165(a32 a5 +3a22 a3 a4 +a2 a33 )+99(5a42 a4 +10a32 a23 )

1287a52 a3 +429a72
B.7
(B.22)
Application to a modified eighth order series
Replacing an by bn /n! gives the following pair of inverse series:

b2 2 b3 3 b4 4 b5 5 b6 6 b7 7 b8 8
z + z + z + z + z + z + z .
2!
3!
4!
5!
6!
7!
8!
p2 2 p3 3 p4 4 p5 5 p6 6 p7 7 p8 8
z = w w w w w w w w .
2!
3!
4!
5!
6!
7!
8!
w = z+
(B.23)
(B.24)
where
p2 = [b2 ]

p3 = b3 3b22

p4 = b4 10b2 b3 +15b32

p5 = b5 (15b2 b4 +10b23 )+105b22 b3 105b42

p6 = b6 (21b2 b5 +35b3 b4 )+(210b22 b4 +280b2 b23 )1260b32 b3 +945b52

p7 = b7 (28b2 b6 +56b3 b5 +35b24 )+(378b22 b5 +1260b2 b3 b4 +280b33 )

(3150b32 b4 +6300b22 b23 )+17325b42 b3 10395b62
p8 = [b8 (36b2 b7 +84b3 b6 +126b4 b5 )
+(630b22 b6 +2520b2 b3 b5 +1575b2 b24 +2100b23 b4 )
(6930b32 b5 +34650b22 b3 b4 +15400b2 b33 )
+(51975b42 b4 +138600b32 b23 )270270b52 b3 +135135b72
(B.25)
Comment: these results are extended to 12th order series in papers by (a) W E Bleieck and
(b) W G Bickley and J C P Miller. See bibliography.
B.8
171
Application to series for TME
In evaluating the inverse of the complex series that arises in the derivation of the transverse
Mercator projection on the ellipsoid (TME) we have the following coefficients
b3 = c2W3
b2 = i s
b4 = isc2W4
b5 = c4W5
b6 = i sc4W6
b7 = c6W7
b8 = i sc6W8
(B.26)
where i = 1, s = sin , c = cos , t = tan and the W functions are of the form
W3 = t 2
W4 = 4 2 + t 2
W5 = 4 3 (1 6t 2 ) + 2 (1 + 8t 2 ) 2t 2 + t 4
W6 = 8 4 (11 24t 2 ) 28 3 (1 6t 2 ) + 2 (1 32t 2 ) 2t 2 + t 4
W7 = 61 479t 2 + 179t 4 t 6
W8 = 1385 3111t 2 + 543t 4 t 6 ,
(B.27)
where is defined in equation (5.53). Substituting for the b-coefficients in (B.25) gives
p2 = ict [ 1 ]

p3 = c2 W3 +3t 2

p4 = ic3t W4 10W3 15t 2

p5 = c4 W5 +(15t 2W4 10W32 )105t 2W3 105t 4

p6 = ic5t W6 (21W5 +35W3W4 )(210t 2W4 280W32 ) +1260t 2W3 +945t 4
h
p7 = c6 W7 +(28t 2W6 56W3W5 +35t 2W42 ) (378t 2W5 +1260t 2W3W4 280W33 )

(3150t 4W4 6300t 2W32 )+17325t 4W3 +10395t 6
h
p8 = ic7t W8 (36W7 +84W3W6 +126W4W5 )
(630t 2W6 2520W3W5 +1575t 2W42 2100W32W4 )
+(6930t 2W5 +34650t 2W3W4 15400W33 )
+(51975t 4W4 138600t 2W32 ) 270270t 4W3 135135t 6
(B.28)
Now substitute for the W . For p2 , . . . p6 we use the expressions given in (B.27). For p7 , p8
we use the spherical approximation (5.58) for all the terms on the right hand sides. That is
we set = 1 in W3 , . . .W6 on the right hand sides using the approximations
W3 W3 = 1 t 2 ,
W4 W4 = 5 t 2 ,
W5 W5 = 5 18t 2 + t 4 ,
W6 W6 = 61 58t 2 + t 4 .
(B.29)
172
The p-coefficients now become

p2 = ict [ 1 ]

p3 = c2 t 2 + 3t 2

p4 = ic3t 4 2 + t 2 10( t 2 ) 15t 2

p5 = c4 4 3 (1 6t 2 ) + 2 (1 + 8t 2 ) 2t 2 + t 4
+ 15t 2 (4 2 + t 2 )
10( t 2 )2 105t 2 ( t 2 ) 105t 4

p6 = ic5t 8 4 (11 24t 2 ) 28 3 (1 6t 2 ) + 2 (1 32t 2 ) 2t 2 + t 4

21 4 3 (1 6t 2 ) + 2 (1 + 8t 2 ) 2t 2 + t 4
35( t 2 )(4 2 + t 2 ) 210t 2 (4 2 + t 2 )

+ 280( t 2 )2 + 1260t 2 ( t 2 ) +945t 4

p7 = c6 61 479t 2 + 179t 4 t 6 + 28t 2 (61 58t 2 + t 4 ) 56(1 t 2 )(5 18t 2 + t 4 )
+ 35t 2 (5 t 2 )2 378t 2 (5 18t 2 + t 4 ) 1260t 2 (1 t 2 )(5 t 2 )
+ 280(1 t 2 )3 3150t 4 (5 t 2 ) + 6300t 2 (1 t 2 )2 + 17325t 4 (1 t 2 )

+10395t 6

p8 = ic7t 1385 3111t 2 + 543t 4 t 6 36(61 479t 2 + 179t 4 t 6 )
84(1 t 2 )(61 58t 2 + t 4 ) 126(5 t 2 )(5 18t 2 + t 4 )
630t 2 (61 58t 2 + t 4 ) + 2520(1 t 2 )(5 18t 2 + t 4 )
1575t 2 (5 t 2 )2 + 2100(1 t 2 )2 (5 t 2 ) + 6930t 2 (5 18t 2 + t 4 )

+ 34650t 2 (1 t 2 )(5 t 2 ) 15400(1 t 2 )3 + 51975t 4 (5 t 2 )

138600t 2 (1 t 2 )2 270270t 4 (1 t 2 ) 135135t 6
Note that we have changed p7 , p8 to p7 , p8 to show that these coefficients have been evaluated in the spherical approximation. Finally, simplifying these expressions gives
p2 = ict [ 1 ]

p3 = c2 + 2t 2

p4 = ic3t 4 2 9 6t 2

p5 = c4 4 3 (1 6t 2 ) 2 (9 68t 2 ) 72t 2 24t 4

p6 = ic5t 8 4 (11 24t 2 ) 84 3 (3 8t 2 ) + 225 2 (1 4t 2 ) + 600t 2 + 120t 4

p7 = c6 61 + 662t 2 + 1320t 4 + 720t 6

(B.30)
p8 = ic7t 1385 7266t 2 10920t 4 5040t 6
B.9
173
Proof of the Lagrange expansion
This derivation of the Lagrange expansion is included since it is to be found only in older
textbookssee bibliography. This account is based on a simplified version of that in Whittakers Modern Analysis (1902!!) where there is a more general statement of the theorem.
The derivation requires an excursion into complex analysis. In particular we require three
results which follow from Cauchys theorem. Since these results can be found in most texts
on complex analysis we quote them without proof.
Definition: a function f (z) is analytic in some domain D if it is single valued and
differentiable within D, except possibly at a finite number of points, the singularities of
f (z). If no point of D is a singularity then we say that f (z) is regular.
Cauchys integral formula: let f (z) be an analytic function, regular within a closed
contour C and continuous within and on C, and let a be a point within C. If in addition
f (z) has derivatives of all orders, then the n-th derivative at a is
f (n) (a) =
f (z)
dz.
n+1
C (z a)
(B.31)
The following result is usually found as a corollary to the proof of the principle of
the argument. If f (z) and g(z) are regular within and on a closed contour C and f (z)
has a simple zero at z = a then
g(a) =
n!
2i
1
2i
g(z) f 0 (z)
dz.
f (z)
C
(B.32)
Rouches theorem: if f (z) and g(z) are two functions regular within and on a closed
contour C, on which f (z) does not vanish and also |g(z)| < | f (z)|, then f (z) and
f (z) + g(z) have the same number of zeroes within C.
Let p(z) be regular within and on a closed contour C and let there be a single simple
zero at the point z = w inside C. Consider the equation
p(z) = t,
(B.33)
|p(z)| > |t| at all points of C.
(B.34)
where t is a constant such that
By Rouches theorem (with f p and g t) we see that p(z) and p(z) t have the same
number of zeroes inside C, namely one. The zero of p(z) is of course z = w: let the zero of
p(z) t be z = a. Therefore setting f (z) = p(z) t and g(z) = z in equation (B.32), noting
that t is a constant, we find the solution z = a of (B.33) is
z=a=
1
2i
I
C
zp0 (z)
dz.
p(z) t
(B.35)
174
Expanding the integrand

1
a=
2i
"
n #

zp0 (z)
t
1+
dz.
p(z)
C p(z)
1
(B.36)
Since |t| < |p(z)| on C the series is convergent and we can integrate term by term to find
a = Ant n ,
(B.37)
where
A0 =
1
2i
zp0 (z)
dz,
C p(z)
1
2i
An =
zp0 (z)
dz
n+1
C [p(z)]
(n 1).
(B.38)
Now since p(z) has a simple zero at z = w the first integral may be integrated by setting
g(z) = z in equation (B.32).
A0 = w.
(B.39)
For the second integral we integrate by parts. The integral of the total derivative is zero
because the change in a single valued function around a closed curve is zero. Therefore
An =
1 1
2i n
1
dz,
n
[p(z)]
C
(n 1).
(B.40)
Now set
p(z) = (z w)q(z) =
zw
.
r(z)
(B.41)
so that
An =
1 1
2i n
[r(z)]n
dz.
n
C (z w)
(B.42)
p(z) has one zero inside C, at z = w, so q(z) will have no zeroes within C and r(z) will have
no poles within C. Using the Cauchy integral formula (B.31) An becomes

1 (n1)

An = Dz
[r(z)]n
n!
z=w
=
1 (n1)
Dw [r(w)]n
n!
(n 1).
(B.43)
Therefore the solution of

zw
=t
r(z)
(B.44)
is given by
z = a = w+
1
t n (n1)
Dw [r(w)]n .
n!
(B.45)
175
Finally we set
f (z) = t r(z),
(B.46)
w = z + f (z),
(B.47)
so that equation (B.44) becomes
with the solution
z = w+
1
(1)n (n1)
Dw [ f (w)]n .
n!
(B.48)
This is the form of the expansion given in Section B.3. The domain of validity is discussed
in the textbooks. In the current applications we start from convergent series for w(z) and
find that the above series for z(w) is also convergent.
Web resources:
Mathworld series reversion
Mathworld Lagrange inversion
Wikipedia Lagrange inversiontheorem
176
177
Appendix
Plane Trigonometry
C.1
Trigonometric functions
basic definition
exp ix = cos x + i sin x

exp i(x + y) = (cos x + i sin x)(cos y + i sin y)
real part of (C.2)
(C.1)
(C.2)
cos(x + y) = cos x cos y sin x sin y
(C.3)
y y
cos(x y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
(C.4)
sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
(C.5)
y y
sin(x y) = sin x cos y cos x sin y

tan x + tan y
tan(x + y) =
1 tan x tan y
tan x tan y
tan(x y) =
1 + tan x tan y
(C.6)
imag. part of (C.2)
(C.5) / (C.3)
(C.6) / (C.4)
(C.5) + (C.6)
xy
(C.3) + (C.4)
(C.4) (C.3)
x y x, y in (C.9)
x y x, y in (C.10)
x y x, y in (C.11)
x y x, y in (C.12)
1
[sin(x + y) + sin(x y)]
2
1
cos x sin y = [sin(x + y) sin(x y)]
2
1
cos x cos y = [cos(x + y) + cos(x y)]
2
1
sin x sin y = [cos(x y) cos(x + y)]
2
sin x cos y =
x+y
xy
cos
2
2
x+y
xy
sin x sin y = 2 cos
sin
2
2
x+y
xy
cos x + cos y = 2 cos
cos
2
2
x+y
xy
cos x cos y = 2 sin
sin
2
2
sin x + sin y = 2 sin
(C.7)
(C.8)
(C.9)
(C.10)
(C.11)
(C.12)
(C.13)
(C.14)
(C.15)
(C.16)
Appendix C. Plane Trigonometry
178
1 = cos2 x + sin2 x
y = x in (C.4)
(C.18)
(C.19)
sec x = 1 + tan x
2
csc x = cosec x = 1 + cot x

y = x in (C.3)
use (C.17)
use (C.17)
y = x in (C.5)
from (C.21)
from (C.22)
use (C.21)
use (C.9)
from (C.26)
use (C.9)
from (C.24)
use (C.25)
(C.17)
cos 2x = cos2 x sin2 x

2
= 1 2 sin x
2
= 2 cos x 1
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x

1
[1 cos 2x]
2
1
cos2 x = [1 + cos 2x]
2
sin2 x =
1
sin x [1 cos 2x]
2
1
1
= sin x [sin 3x sin x]
2
4
3
1
= sin x sin 3x
4
4
(C.20)
(C.21)
(C.22)
(C.23)
(C.24)
(C.25)
sin3 x =
3
1
sin x cos x sin 3x cos x
4
4
3
1
= sin 2x [sin 4x + sin 2x]
8
8
1
= [2 sin 2x sin 4x]
8
(C.26)
sin3 x cos x =
sin4 x =
=
=
use (C.25)
cos3 x =
use (C.11)
=
=
1
[1 cos 2x]2
4

1
1 1
1 2 cos 2x + + cos 4x
4
2 2
1
[3 4 cos 2x + cos 4x]
8
1
cos x [1 + cos 2x]
2
1
1
cos x + [cos 3x + cos x]
2
4
3
1
cos x + cos 3x
4
4
(C.27)
(C.28)
(C.29)
179
Sk sin kx
NOTATION
(C.30)
Ck cos kx
sin2 x =
Hence
sin3 x =
sin4 x =
sin5 x =
sin6 x =
sin7 x =
sin8 x =
(C.31)
1
[1 C2 ]
2
1
[3S S3 ]
4
1
[3 4C2 +C4 ]
8
1
[10S 5S3 + S5 ]
16
1
[10 15C2 + 6C4 C6 ]
32
1
[35S 21S3 + 7S5 S7 ]
64
1
[35 56C2 + 28C4 8C6 +C8 ]
128
1
[S2 ]
2
1
sin3 x cos x = [2S2 S4 ]
8
1
[5S2 4S4 + S6 ]
sin5 x cos x =
32
1
sin7 x cos x =
[14S2 14S4 + 6S6 S8 ]
128
sinx cos x =
C.2
(C.32)
(C.33)
(C.34)
(C.35)
(C.36)
(C.37)
(C.38)
(C.39)
(C.40)
(C.41)
(C.42)
Hyperbolic functions
The basic definitions are

cosh x =
ex + ex
,
2
ex ex
.
2
(C.43)
eix eix
,
2i
(C.44)
sinh x=
From equation (C.1) the corresponding equations are

cos x =
eix + eix
,
2
sin x=
so we can immediately deduce that

cos ix = cosh x,
cosh ix = cos x,
sin ix= i sinh x,

sinh ix= i sin x,
tan ix = i tanh x,
tanh ix = i tan x.
(C.45)
(C.46)
These identities can be used to derive all the hyperbolic formulae from the trigonometric
identities simply by replacing x and y by ix and iy. This effectively changes all cosine terms
180
to cosh. Each sine term becomes i sinh and where there is a single sinh in each term of
the identity an overall factor of i will cancel. Terms which have a product of two sines will
become a product of two i sinh terms giving an overall sign change. Likewise for the tangent
terms. We list only the identities corresponding to (C.3C.8) and (C.17C.23).
cosh(x y) = cosh x cosh y sinh x sinh y
(C.47)
sinh(x y) = sinh x cosh y cosh x sinh y

tanh x tanh y
tanh(x y) =
1 tanh x tanh y
(C.48)
1 = cosh2 x sinh2 x
(C.50)
(C.49)
sech x = 1 tanh x
(C.51)
cosech2 x = coth2 x 1
(C.52)
cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x

= 1 + 2 sinh2 x
= 2 cosh2 x 1
(C.53)
sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x
(C.54)
Since the hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of the exponential function it is not
surprising their inverses can be related to the logarithm function. We consider the three
main cases in parallel.
y = sinh1 x
ey ey
2
0 = e2y 2xey 1
p
ey = x x2 + 1
x=
y = cosh1 x
ey + ey
2
0 = e2y 2xey + 1
p
ey = x x2 1
x=
y = tanh1 x
ey ey
ey + ey
2y
x(e + 1) = e2y 1
1+x
e2y =
.
1x
Taking into account of the ranges of these functions we have

p
sinh1 x = ln x + x2 + 1
<x <

p
cosh1 x = ln x + x2 1
x1

1
1+x
tanh1 x = ln
1 <x < 1
2
1x
continued
x=
(C.55)
(C.56)
(C.57)
C.3
181
Gudermannian functions
Gudermannians link trigonometric and hyperbolic functions. They may be used to describe
the Mercator projections. For real x we can take the basic definition as
gd x = tan1 sinh x.
(C.58)
This definition implies that tan(gd x) = sinh x. The following equivalent definitions follow
easily from the properties of the trigonometric and hyperbolic functions. For example, for
the second of the following use sec2 (gd x) = 1 + tan2 (gd x) = 1 + sinh2 x = cosh2 x.
gd x
tan1 sinh x
sec1 cosh x
sin1 tanh x
cos1 sech x
cot1 csch x
csc1 coth x.
(C.59)
Each of these provides an inverse: simply replace x by gd1 x and set gd(gd1 x) = x.
gd1 x
sinh1 tan x
cosh1 sec x
tanh1 sin x
sech1 cos x
csch1 cot x
coth1 csc x.
(C.60)
The inverse gudermannians can be expressed in terms of logarithms by using C.57 and
elementary operations:

h x i
1
1+ sin x
1
gd x = ln
= ln(sec x + tan x) = ln tan +
.
(C.61)
2
1 sin x
2 4
In the last of these replace x gd x and invert to give
gd x = 2 tan1 ex
= 2 tan1 ex ,
2
2
(C.62)
where the second follows by replacing tan(x/2 + /4) by cot(/4 x/2).
Equations C.45, C.46 may be used for gudemannians with imaginary arguments.
tan[gd(ix)] = sinh(ix) = i sin x,
tanh[i gd(ix)] = sin x,
i gd(ix) = tanh1 [sin x],

gd(ix) = i gd1 x .
(C.63)
Similarly
tanh[gd1 (ix)] = sin(ix) = i sinh x,
tan[i gd1 (ix)] = sinh x,
i gd1 (ix) = tan1 [sinh x],

gd1 (ix) = i gd x .
(C.64)
182
Integral representations:
gd x =
gd1 x =
Z x
Z0 x
sech d ,
sec d ,
< x < .
/2 < x < /2 .
(C.65)
(C.66)
For the second integral set

cos = sin ( + /2)
= 2 sin ( /2+/4) cos ( /2+/4)
= 2 tan ( /2+/4) cos2 ( /2+/4) .
The integral becomes
gd1 x =
Z x
sec2 ( /2 + /4)
0
h x i
dx = ln tan
+
.
tan ( /2 + /4)
2 4
(C.67)
There is no need for modulus signs inside the logarithm. For /2 /2 the argument
of the tangent is in the interval [0, /2], therefore the argument of the logarithm is in the
range [0, ) and the logarithm itself varies from to .
The integral for gd x may be verified by replacing x by ix in equation C.66.
For further properties of the gudermannians see see Appendix G, Equation G.24 onwards.
Web resources
NIST: Sections 4.144.45
Mathworld gudermannian
Mathworld: inverse gudermannian
Wikipedia gudermannian
183
Appendix
Spherical trigonometry
D.1
Introduction

A great circle on a sphere is defined by the intersection of any plane through the centre of
the sphere with the surface of the sphere. Any two points on the sphere must lie on some
great circle and the shorter part of that great circle is also the shortest distance between
the points. In general three great circles define a spherical triangle (Figure D.1) and this
appendix develops the trigonometry of such triangles. There are many good (but old) text
books. See Todhunter (1859): it is available on the web.
Consider the three great circles defining the triangle ABC: they meet again in the points A1 , B1 and
C1 defining the triangle A1 B1C1 . In fact they define
eight triangles since each pair of geodesics bounds
four triangles but ABC and A1 B1C1 are counted three
times. (Think of slicing an apple into eight pieces
with three diametral cuts). Note that we do not consider the improper triangles such as that formed by
the interior arcs BA , BC together with the exterior
arc AC1 A1C. Such improper triangles have one angle
greater than . Their solution presents no difficulty
but we refer to Todhunters book for details.
Figure D.1
We now restrict attention to triangles in which the angles are less than or equal to ,
with the proviso that not all equal to : in the latter case the triangle degenerates into three
points on one great circle with the sum of the angles equal to 3 and the sum of the sides
equal to 2 (on the unit sphere). The rigorous proof of this last statement is to be found in
Euclid (300BC), Book 11, Proposition 21. We shall see that it has as a corollary that the
sum of the angles of a spherical triangle is greater than . This lower bound is approached
by small triangles (sides much less than the radius) that are almost planar.
Appendix D. Spherical trigonometry
Figure D.2 shows the spherical triangle in more detail: A, B, C label the vertices and also give the measure (in radians) of the angles of the spherical triangle and the angles between planes OAC, OAB and
OBC. The sides of the spherical triangle are a, b, c;
these give the distances along the great circle arcs
joining the vertices. The angles subtended by the
sides at the centre are , and so that a = R etc.
The aim of this appendix is to prove the principal relations between the six elements of a spherical triangle.The fundamental relation is the spherical cosine
rule. ALL OTHER RULES, and there are many, can
be derived from the cosine rule.
D.2

184
Figure D.2
Spherical cosine rule
Geometric proof
In Figure D.2 AD and AE are the tangents to the sides of the spherical triangle at A. As long
as the angles and are strictly less than /2 the tangent to the side AB meets the radius
OB extended to D and the tangent to the side AC meets the radius OC extended to E. Since
any tangent to the sphere is normal to the radius at the point of contact we have that the
triangles OAD and OAE are right angled.
We apply the planar cosine rule to the triangles ODE and ADE:
DE 2 = OD2 + OE 2 2OD.OE cos ,
DE 2 = AD2 + AE 2 2AD.AE cos A.
Subtracting these equations and using Pythagoras theorem to set OD2 AD2 = OA2 and
OE 2 AE 2 = OA2 we obtain
0 = 2OA2 + 2AD.AE cos A 2OD.OE cos
Dividing each term by the product OD.OE and using OA/OD = cos etc. gives
cos = cos cos + sin sin cos A.
It is conventional to express these identities in terms of the actual sides so that we should
set = a/R etc. If we assume that the lengths have been scaled to a unit sphere then the
above, alongwith the two relations obtained by cyclic permutations, becomes
cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos A,
cos b = cos c cos a + sin c sin a cos B,
cos c = cos a cos b + sin a sin b cosC.
(D.1)
185

For a small triangle with a, b, c 1 on the unit sphere, the spherical cosine rules reduce
to the planar cosine rule if we neglect cubic terms. For example the first becomes

b2
a2
c2
1 = 1
1
+ bc cos A,
2
2
2
which simplifies to
a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos A.
The above proof assumes that the angles and are less than ninety degrees for the constructions as drawn. This restriction may be removed; it is discussed in detail in Todhunters
book (pages 16 to 19). The following alternative proof does not rely on these assumptions.
For any given spherical triangle we can introduce
Cartesian axes with the z-axis along OA and the xzplane defined by the plane OAB. Take the radius
of the sphere as unity and define vectors B and C
along the radii OB and OC respectively. The angle between the planes AOM and AON is given by
MON = A, so the components of these unit vectors are
B = (sin c, 0 , cos c),
C = (sin b cos A, sin b sin A, cos b)
(D.2)
Figure D.3
Now the angle between the unit vectors is simply a, the angle subtended at the centre
by the arc BC. Therefore
BC = cos a = sin b sin c cos A + 0 + cos b cos c,
(D.3)
in agreement with our previous result for the cosine rule. This is the simplest proof of the
cosine rule: it needs no restrictions on the angles.
D.3
Spherical sine rule
Derivation from the cosine rule

From equation (D.1) we have
cos a cos b cos c
sin b sin c

cos a cos b cos c 2
2
sin A = 1
sin b sin c
2
(1 cos b)(1 cos2 c) (cos a cos b cos c)2
=
.
sin2 b sin2 c
cos A =
186
Therefore
sin A
= (a, b, c),
sin a
where
(a, b, c) =
(D.4)
[1 cos2 a cos2 b cos2 c + 2 cos a cos b cos c]1/2

.
sin a sin b sin c
(D.5)
Since is invariant under a cyclic permutation of a, b, c we deduce the spherical sine rule
sin A sin B sinC
=
=
= (a, b, c)
sin a
sin b
sin c
(D.6)
The three separate rules are

sin b sin A = sin a sin B,

sin c sin A = sin a sinC,

sin b sinC = sin c sin B.
Spherical sine rule: geometric proof
Consider the following construction. Take any point P
on the line OA and drop a perpendicular to the point N
in the plane OBC. Draw the perpendicular from N to
the line OB at the point M. Therefore the three triangles PMN, PON and ONM are all right angled triangles and we can therefore use Pythagoras theorem to
deduce that
PM 2 = MN 2 + PN 2 ,
OP2 = ON 2 + PN 2 ,
ON 2 = OM 2 + MN 2 .
(D.7)
Figure D.4
Therefore we must have

PM 2 = (ON 2 OM 2 ) + (OP2 ON 2 ) = OP2 OM 2 ,
so that the triangle OPM must have a right angle at M. From this we first deduce that
PM = OP sin . Secondly we note that since PM and NM are both normal to OB then the
angle PMN is the angle between the planes OAB and OBC; this is the angle B so that we
must have
PN = PM sin B = OP sin sin B.
We now repeat the argument with the construction of NS perpendicular to OC and prove
that triangle OPS is right angled and the angle PSN is equal to C. (M, N and S are not
collinear). Therefore we find
PN = PS sinC = OP sin sinC.
187
Comparing the two expressions for PN we deduce that

sin sin B = sin sinC.
This whole process can be repeated with P an arbitrary point on OB or OC and dropping
perpendiculars onto the face OAC and OAB respectively. Clearly this will give
sin sin A = sin sinC,
sin sin A = sin sin B.
On the unit sphere the angles , , will be replaced by a, b, c giving equations (D.6).
Note that the construction and proof will need slight modifications if either of the angles B
or C exceeds /2. This is discussed in Todhunter.
D.4
Solution of spherical triangles I
In general, if we know three elements of a triangle then we might expect to find the other
three elements by direct application of the spherical sine and cosine rules. This is NOT
possible: to complete the solution in many cases we shall need further rules developed in
the ensuing sections.
The six distinct ways in which three elements may be given are shown in Figure D.5
along with a seventh case involving four given elements. In each figure the given elements
are shown below and the given angles are marked with a small arc and the given sides
are marked with a cross bar; each figure has variations given by cyclic permutations. The
solution of such spherical triangles is harder than in the planar case because we do not know
the sum of the angles: given two angles we do not know the third.

Figure D.5
Case 1: this can be solved by using the cosine rule.
Case 2: cosine rule gives a and then we are back to Case 1.
Case 3: sine rule gives C and then we are in Case 7.
Case 4: no progress possible with only sine and cosine rules.
Case 5: sine rule gives b and then we are in Case 7.
Case 6: no progress possible. This case doesnt arise in plane geometry.
Case 7: no progress possible with only sine and cosine rules.
188
This is an appropriate point to mention that any determination of an angle or side from
its sine will generally lead to ambiguities since sin x = sin( x). However the angles
and sides on the unit sphere are in the interval (0, ) so their determination from cosines,
secants, tangents or cotangents will be unambiguous. Likewise the sine, cosine or tangent
of any half-angle (or side) is positive and its inverse is also unambiguous. Many of the
formulae that we will derive were established to avoid the sine ambiguity.
D.5
Polar triangles and the supplemental cosine rules
Figure D.6a below shows the three great circles which intersect to form the spherical triangle
ABC. In addition we show the normals to the plane of each great circle; each intersects the
sphere in two points each of which is a pole when a specific great circle is identified as
an equator. As shown some of the poles (small solid circles) are visible and some(open
circles) are on the hidden face. Three of these six poles may be used to define the polar
triangle. The convention is that A and its pole A0 lie on the same side of the diametral plane
containing BC; likewise for the others. We shall now prove the following statements.

The sides of the polar triangle A0 B0C0 are the supplements of the angles of the original
triangle ABC. (We assume a unit sphere on which the lengths of the sides are equal
to the radian measure of the angles they subtend at the centre).
The angles of the polar triangle A0 B0C0 are the supplements of the sides of the original
triangle ABC.
Figure D.6
Figure D.6b shows the triangle ABC, the pole A0 of A and the corresponding equator
formed by extending the side BC. Note three properties:
1. Any great circle through the pole A0 to its equator BC is a quadrant arc of length /2
(on the unit sphere), i.e. A0 K = A0 L = /2.
2. Any great circle through A0 intersects its equator BC at a right angle, as at K and L.
3. The angle (in radians) between two such quadrant arcs is equal to the length of the
segment cut on the equator by the arcs, i.e. = KA0 L = KL.

189
Figure D.7, which is neither an elevation nor a perspective view, shows the schematic relation between
the triangle ABC and its polar triangle A0 B0C0 . The
sides of ABC are extended along their great circles to
meet the sides of A0 B0C0 at the points shown. From
the the three properties discussed in the previous
paragraph we can deduce the following results.
Figure D.7
The great circles A0 B0 and A0C0 through the pole A0 intersect the equator corresponding
to A0 , that is BC extended, at points D and E. The intersections are right angles and
the distance DE is equal to the angle A0 expressed in radians. Therefore A0 = DE.
B0 G is a great circle through the pole B0 meeting its corresponding equator CA at G.

The intersection at G is at right angles and the length B0 G = /2. Similarly C0 F is
a great circle through the pole C0 meeting its corresponding equator AB at F: the
intersection at F is at right angles and the length C0 F = /2.
Now consider the intersections of the great circle B0C0 with the great circles defined
by AB and AC. Since the angles at F and G are right angles we deduce that A must be
the pole to the equator B0C0 . Similarly B, C must be the poles of the equators C0 A0 and
A0 B0 repectively. We conclude that the polar triangle of the polar triangle A0 B0C0 must
be the original triangle ABC. Consequently (1) since C is the pole of A0 B0 we must
have CD = /2; (2) since B is the pole of C0 A0 we must have BE = /2; (3) since A
is the pole of B0C0 we must have FG = A.
We now have all the information we need to deduce

A0 = DE = DC + BE BC = + a = a,
2 2

0
0 0
0
0
a = B C = B G + FC FG = + A = A.
2 2
Similar results follow for the other angles and sides of the polar triangle so that:
A0 = a
a0 = A
B0 = b
b0 = B
C0 = c,
c0 = C.
(D.8)
An important corollary follows from the existence of the polar triangle. We have already
stated that Euclid proves that the sum of the sides of a spherical triangle on the unit sphere
satisfies = a+b+c < 2. Applying this to the polar triangle gives 3ABC < 2 so
that , the sum of the angles, is greater than . Since we conventionally take the angles to
be less than then we must have < < 3. (The restriction to angles and sides less than
may be lifted; the improper triangles so formed are discussed in Todhunter. We have no
need to consider them here.)
190
Supplemental cosine rules

As an example of using the polar triangle let us apply the cosine rules of (D.1) to A0 B0C0 :
cos a0 = cos b0 cos c0 + sin b0 sin c0 cos A0 ,
cos b0 = cos c0 cos a0 + sin c0 sin a0 cos B0 ,
cos c0 = cos a0 cos b0 + sin a0 sin b0 cosC0 .
(D.9)
Now substitute for angles and sides usung equation (D.8) noting that cos( ) = cos
and sin( ) = sin :
cos A + cos B cosC = sin B sinC cos a,
cos B + cosC cos A = sinC sin A cos b,
cosC + cos A cos B = sin A sin B cos c.
(D.10)
Now these equations, obtained by applying a known rule to the polar triangle, are obviously
new relations between the elements of the original triangle; they are called the supplemental
cosine rules. This is an example of a powerful method of generating a new formula from
any that we have already found.
The supplemental cosine rules clearly provide a way of solving a spherical triangle when
all three angles are given. This is Case 6 in Figure D.5.
Note that a new rule does not always arise. For example, applying the sine rule to A0 B0C0
gives
sin A0 sin B0 sinC0
=
=
.
sin a0
sin b0
sin c0
On substituting (D.8) we have the usual rules simply inverted:
sin b
sin c
sin a
=
=
.
sin A sin B sinC
Alternative derivation of the supplemental cosine rules
It is possible to derive the supplemental cosine rules directly without appealing to the polar
triangle. For example, in the first formula of (D.10) substitute for the terms on the left-hand
side using the normal cosine rules:
(cos a cos b cos c) sin2 a + (cos b cos c cos a)(cos c cos a cos b)
sin2 a sin b sin c
2
2
cos a[1 cos a cos b cos2 c + 2 cos a cos b cos c]
=
sin2 a sin b sin c
2
= cos a sin b sin c
cos A+ cos B cosC=
= cos a sin B sinC,

where we have used the definition of in (D.5) and also the sine rule (D.6). Thus we
could have proceeded in this way and then deduced the existence of the polar triangle as a
corollary without the geometrical proof that we presented earlier.
D.6
191
The cotangent four-part formulae
The six elements of a triangle may be written in an anti-clockwise order as (aCbAcB). The
cotangent, or four-part, formulae relate two sides and two angles forming four consecutive
elements around the triangle, for example (aCbA) or BaCb. The six distinct formulae that
we shall prove are
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
cos b cosC = cot a sin b cot A sinC,

cos b cos A = cot c sin b cotC sin A,
cos c cos A = cot b sin c cot B sin A,
cos c cos B = cot a sin c cot A sin B,
cos a cos B = cot c sin a cotC sin B,
cos a cosC = cot b sin a cot B sinC,
(aCbA)
(CbAc)
(bAcB)
(AcBa)
(cBaC)
(BaCb),
(D.11)
where the subset of elements involved is shown to the right of every equation. In the first
equation, for the set aCbA, we term a and A the outer elements and C and b the inner
elements. With this notation the general form of the equations is
cos(inner side). cos(inner angle) =
cot(outer side). sin(inner side)

cot(outer angle). sin(inner angle)
(D.12)
Note that the inner elements of each set formula occur twice and cannot be deduced from
the other elements; only the outer elements of each set may be derived in terms of the
other three. For example in the first equation involving the set aCbA we can only determine
the outer side a in terms of CbA or the outer angle A in terms of aCb. Note also that the
outer angle or side is determined from its cotangent so that there is no ambiguity.
To prove the first formula start from the cosine rule (D.1a) and on the right-hand side
substitute for cos c from (D.1c) and for sin c from (D.6):
cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos A
= cos b (cos a cos b + sin a sin b cosC) + sin b sinC sin a cot A
2
cos a sin b = cos b sin a sin b cosC + sin b sinC sin a cot A.
The result follows on dividing by sin a sin b. Similar techniques with the other two cosine
rules give D.11c,e. Equations D.11b,d,f follow by applying D.11e,a,c to the polar triangle.
Solution of spherical triangles II
The four-part formulae may be used to give solutions to two of the cases discussed
in Section D.4. In Case 2 in Figure D.5, where we are given (bAc), we can use equations D.11b,c to find the angles C, B from their cotangents: we can then find a from D.11a
without any sine ambiguity. We can now solve Case 4, where we are given (BaC), by using
equations D.11e,f to give the sides c, b and we can then find A from D.11a. We are still left
with the problem solving Case 7 (since Cases 3, 5 can also be reduced to Case 7).
D.7
192
Half-angle and half-side formulae
If 2s = (a + b + c) is the sum of the sides and 2S = (A + B + C) is the sum of the angles,

then we can easily prove the following formulae:

1/2
A
sin(sb) sin(sc)
sin =
sin b sin c
2

1/2
A
sin s sin(sa)
cos =
sin b sin c
2

1/2
A
sin(sb) sin(sc)
tan =
sin s sin(sa)
2

1/2
a
cos S cos(SA)
sin =
sin B sinC
2

1/2
a
cos(SB) cos(SC)
cos =
sin B sinC
2

1/2
a
cos S cos(SA)
tan =
cos(SB) cos(SC)
2
(D.13)
To prove the first formula use cos A = 1 2 sin2 (A/2) and the cosine rule (D.1).
sin2
A 1 cos A
=
2
2
1 cos a cos b cos c cos(bc) cos a
=
2
2 sin b sin c
2 sin b sin c

1
a+bc
ab+c
=
sin
sin
.
sin b sin c
2
2
=
Since 2(sb) = (a + b + c) 2b = a b + c etc. we obtain the first result. The second

follows from 1+ cos A = 2 cos2 (A/2) and the third from their quotient. The results in the
right hand column follow by applying the first column formulae to the polar triangle. They
also follow from (D.10) and by starting with cos a = 1 2 sin2 (a/2) etc. .
It is worth commenting on the negative signs under some radicals. Take the expression
for sin a/2 as an example. Since < A + B + C < 3 we have /2 < S < 3/2 so that
cos S < 0. Now in any spherical triangle the side BC is the shortest distance between B
and C so we must have BC < BA + AC, or a < b + c; i.e. any side is less than the sum of
the others. Applying this to the polar triangle we have A < (B) + (C); therefore
2(SA) = B +C A < or (SA) < /2. Furthermore, since A < we have B +C A >
and consequently 2(SA) > . Therefore /2 < (SA) < /2 and cos(SA) > 0.
These results guarantee that the expressions under the radical are positive.
Solution of spherical triangles III
The above formulae are clearly applicable to the cases where we know either three sides
or three angles, cases which we have solved by either the normal or supplemental cosine
rules. The expressions given here involving tangents of half angles are to be preferred
whenever the angle or side to be found is very small or nearly .
193
Delambre (or Gauss) analogies.

sin 21 (A+B)
cos 12 C
cos 12 (ab)
sin 12 (AB)
cos 12 c
cos 12 C
cos 12 (a+b)
cos 12 (AB)
cos 12 c
sin 12 C
sin 12 (ab)
sin 12 c
(D.14)
cos 12 (A+B)
sin 12 C
sin 12 (a+b)
sin 12 c
These are proved by expanding the numerator on the left hand side and using the half angle
formulae. For example, using equations C.5, C.13 and C.23
1
A
B
A
B
sin (A+B) = sin cos + cos sin
2
2
2
2
2
1/2
1/2

2
sin s sin (sb) sin(sc)
sin s sin2 (sa) sin(sc)
=
+
sin a sin b sin2 c
sin a sin b sin2 c

1/2
sin(sb) + sin(sa) sin s sin(sc)
=
sin c
sin a sin b
=
sin 12 c cos 12 (ab)

sin
1
2c
cos
1
2c
1
cos C,
2
and hence the required result.
Napiers analogies
Published by Napier in 1614. His methods were purely geometric but we obtain them by
dividing the Delambre formulae.
tan 21 (A+B) =
tan 12 (AB) =
cos 12 (ab)
cos
1
2 (a+b)
sin 12 (ab)
sin
1
2 (a+b)
cot 12 C
cot 12 C
tan 12 (a+b) =
tan 12 (ab) =
cos 12 (AB)
cos
1
2 (A+B)
sin 12 (AB)
sin
1
2 (A+B)
tan 21 c
(D.15)
tan 12 c
Solution of spherical triangles IV

We now have all we need to solve all the possible configurations shown in Figure D.5.
Napiers analogies clearly provide the means of solving Case 7, and hence Cases 3, 5. They
also provide a means of progressing without the trouble of ambiguities arising from the use
of the sine rule. For example in Case 4 given a, B, C, we can use the Napier analogies to
find b c and then again to find A.
D.8
194
Right-angled triangles
There are many problems in which one of the angles, say C, is equal to /2. In this case
there are only 5 elements and in general two will suffice to solve the triangle. We shall
show that the solution of such a triangle can be presented as a set of 10 equations involving
3 elements so that every element can be expressed in terms of any pair of the other elements.
The required 10 equations involving C are found from the third cosine rule (D.1), two
sine rules (D.7), four cotangent formulae (D.11) and all three of the supplemental cosine
rules (D.10). Setting C = /2 we obtain (from the equations indicated)
(D.1c)
cos c = cos a cos b,
(D.11b)
tan b = cos A tan c,
(D.7b)
sin a = sin A sin c,
(D.11e)
tan a = cos B tan c,
(D.7c)
sin b = sin B sin c,
(D.10a)
cos A = sin B cos a,
(D.11a)
tan a = tan A sin b,
(D.10b)
cos B = sin A cos b,
(D.11f)
tan b = tan B sin a,
(D.10c)
cos c = cot A cot B.
(D.16)
As an example suppose we are given a and c (and C = /2). Then we can find c, A, B from
the first, fourth and fifth equations.
Napiers rules for right-angled triangles

Napier showed that the ten equations which give all
possible relations in a right-angled triangle can be
summarised by two simple rules along with a simple
picture. We define the circular parts of the triangle
to be a, b, 12 A, 12 c, and 12 B. These are
arranged around the circle in the natural order of the
triangle, C omitted between a and b. Choose any of
the five sectors and call it the middle part. The sectors next to it are called the adjacent parts and the
remaining two parts are the opposite parts. Napiers
rules are:

Figure D.8
sine of middle part = product of tangents of adjacent parts,

sine of middle part = product of cosines of opposite parts.
(D.17)
For example if we take 21 c as the middle part the first rule gives sin(/2 c) =
tan(/2 A) tan(/2 B) which gives the last of the equations in (D.16); if we apply the
second rule we get sin(/2 c) = cos a cos b which is the first of the equations in (D.16).
D.9
195
Quadrantal triangles

The triangle ABC is quadrantal if at least one side subtends an angle of /2 at the centre of
the sphere. Without loss of generality take c = /2. Therefore the angle C0 = c of the
polar triangle is equal to /2. Now apply Napiers rules to the polar triangle with C0 = /2:
a0 = A,
b0 = B,
A0 = a,
B0 = b.
The circular parts of the polar triangle

a0 ,
b0 ,
A0 ,
2
c0 ,
2
B0 ,
2
must be replaced by
A,
B,
a ,
2
C ,
2
b ,
2
Noting that sin(x/2) = cos x, cos(x/2) =

sin x and tan(x/2) = cot x we have:
D.10
Figure D.9
cosC = cos A cos B,

sin A =
sin a sinC,
tan B = cos a tanC,
sin B =
sin b sinC,
cos a =
sin b cos A,
tan A =
tan a sin B,
cos b =
sin a cos B,
tan B =
tan b sin A,
cosC = cot a cot b.

tan A = cos b tanC,
Solution of spherical triangles V
The rules for right angled triangles provide another method

for the solution of spherical triangles in general. Consider the
triangle ABC shown in the figure; b, c, B are assumed given.
Draw the great circle through A which meets BC at right angles
at the point D. We first solve the triangle ABD using c and B
to find AD, BD and BAD. Then in triangle ACD we use AD
and b to find CD and the angles CAD and C. The difficulty
with this method, apart from the increased number of steps, is
to find the most appropriate construction.
Figure D.10
(D.18)
D.11
196
Geodetic problems
The figure shows a great circle geodesic crossing the

equator at its node Q0 with an azimuth 0 , the angle
made with the meridian crossing the equator at the node.
There are two principal geodetic problems.
The direct problem: given the latitude, 1 , and longitude, 1 , of a point P1 find the latitude and longitude of a
second point P2 at a specified distance 12 along the great
circle which has an azimuth 1 at P1 .
The inverse problem: given the latitude and longitude
at points P1 and P2 find the distance 12 between them on
a great circle and also the azimuths 1 at P1 and 2 at P2 .
Figure D.11
Solution of the direct problem

Given 1 , 1 , 1 , 12 find 2 , 2 , 2 . First extrapolate the great circle back to the node Q0
and solve the quadrantal triangle NQ0 P1 by setting
a = 01 ,
A = 01 ,
1 ,
2
B = 0 ,
b=
,
2
C = 1 .
c=
(D.19)
The solution of NQ0 P1 uses the values of 1 , 1 to find 0 , 01 and then 01 . We can then
deduce values for 02 = 01 + 12 and 0 = 1 01 . Finally use the values of 0 , 02 to
solve the triangle NQ0 P2 to find 2 , 2 and 2 0 .
Napiers quadrantal rules 3, 10, 4 (D.18) for NQ0 P1 give
sin 0 = sin 1 cos 1 ,
(D.20)
tan 01 = tan 1 sec 1 ,
(D.21)
tan 01 = sin 0 tan 01
(D.22)
Rules 9, 4, 6 applied to triangle NQ0 P2 give

sin 2 = cos 0 sin 02 ,
(D.23)
tan(2 0 ) = sin 0 tan 02 ,
(D.24)
tan 2 = tan 0 sec 02 .
(D.25)
Figure D.12
197
Solution of the inverse problem

Given 1 , 1 , 2 , 2 , find 1 , 2 , 12 . Identifying the
triangle ABC with NP1 P2 by setting
a = 12 ,
b=
2 , c = 1 ,
2
2
A = 12 = 2 1 , B = 1 ,
C = 2 .
(D.26)
The azimuths and distance are given by the third and

second cotangent formulae of D.11 and the first cosine
rule of D.1:
sin 12
,
cos 1 tan 2 sin 1 cos 12
sin 12
tan 2 =
,
cos 2 tan 1 + sin 2 cos 12
cos 12 = sin 1 sin 2 + cos 1 cos 2 cos 12 .
tan 1 =
D.12
(D.27)
(D.28)
Figure D.13
(D.29)
Area and spherical excess
Let denote the sum of the interior angles of a spherical polygon on the unit sphere. Then
the areas of a general polygon and a triangle are derived by Todhunter (1859, Art.99)
Area of polygon (on the unit sphere) En = (n 2),
Area of triangle (on the unit sphere) E = E3 = A + B +C ,
(D.30)
(D.31)
where E, the amount by which the sum of the angles of the triangle exceeds radians, is
the spherical excess. On a sphere of radius R both of the above results are multiplied by
R2 . This theorem (for the triangle) is due to Girard (1626). The above result may be written
also be written for a general sphere as
E = A + B +C =
4 Area of triangle
.
Area of the sphere
(D.32)
Since the area of a triangle cannot be negative the spherical excess is always positive.
It is not necessarily small since the sum of the angles may attain 3. For example, an
octant of a sphere is a spherical triangle with three right angles, so that the excess is /2.
In practical applications the excess is often small: for example the triangles of a geodetic
survey typically have an excess much less than 1 of arc. See Rapp (1991, Vol 1, pdfpage 99)
and Clarke (1880, Chapters 2 and 9). On the Earth the excess of an equilateral triangle with
sides 21.3km (and area 393km2 ) is approximately 1 arc second.
198
There are many formulae for the spherical excess. For example Todhunter (1859,
Art.101103)) gives ten examples of which three are included here. They all use the notation s = (a + b + c)/2.
LHuilier:
tan 14 E =
q
tan 12 s tan 12 (sa) tan 12 (sb) tan 12 (sc)
Cagnoli: (derived in the next section)

p
sin s sin(sa) sin(sb) sin(sc)
1
sin 2 E =
.
2 cos 12 a cos 12 b cos 12 c
(D.33)
(D.34)
Unattributed: (beware the typo in Todhunter Art.103)

cos 21 E = cos 12 a cos 21 b + sin 21 a sin 12 b cos 12 C sec 21 c.
(D.35)
Because some triangles are badly characterized by their edges (e.g., if a = b 21 c so

that A, B are very small), it is often better to use the following version (which follows from
Todhunter (1859, Art.103))):
tan 12 E =
tan 12 a tan 12 b sinC

1 + tan 12 a tan 12 b cosC
(D.36)
For the spherical quadrangle P1 Q1 Q2 P2 bounded by a

segment of a great circle, two meridians, and the equator
the excess is given by
E4 = ( 1 ) +
1
2 1
E4 =
.
2
2

+ + 2 2,
2 2
(D.37)
Identifying triangles ABC and NP1 P2 (with values as

in D.26) and applying a cyclic permutation of the first
of Napiers analogies D.15 gives
tan 21 E4 =
sin 12 (2 + 1 )
cos
1
2 (2 1 )
tan
2 1
.
2
(D.38)
In the limit where 1 , 2 , 2 1 are all small, this reduces to the planar trapezoidal area,
1
E4 (2 + 1 )(2 1 ).
2
(D.39)
Figure D.14
D.13
199
Legendres theorem
Figure D.15
Let ABC be a spherical triangle on the unit sphere with small sides a, b, c of order
1. Let A0 B0C0 be a planar triangle with sides of the same length. Legendres theorem
states that the angles of the spherical triangle exceed the corresponding angles of the planar
triangle by about one third of the spherical excess.
1
1
A A0 B B0 C C0 E = ,
3
3
(D.40)
where E is the excess of the spherical triangle and is its area, of magnitude O( 2 ). The
theorem is an approximation to more exact statements which include terms of O( 4 ). These
are derived immediately by the method of Clarke (1880, Chapter 2). Let
2s = a + b + c,
(D.41)
2s1 = a + b + c,
2s2 = a b + c,
2s3 = a + b c.
The spherical excess is given by
= A + B +C ,

A B +C
sin = cos
+
2
2
2
B +C
A
B +C
A
cos cos
.
= sin sin
2
2
2
2
Using first a cyclic permutation of the Delambre identies D.14
(
)
cos 12 (bc) cos 12 (b+c)
sin =
sin 12 A cos 12 A
1
1
2
cos 2 a
cos 2 a
=2
sin 12 b sin 21 c sin 12 A cos 12 A

cos 12 a
and substituting for sin A/2 and cos A/2 with the half-angle identities D.13
sin s sin s1 sin s2 sin s3

sin =
.
2
2 cos 21 a cos 12 b cos 12 c
(D.42)
(D.43)
(D.44)
(D.45)
200
At lowest order we replace the sines by their arguments and set the cosines equal to 1:
s s1 s2 s3 = 0
(D.46)
where 0 is the area of the planar triangle A0 B0C0 . Therefore = O( 2 ) so that 3 may be
neglected if we retain only fourth order terms:
2 2 2 2
1
s + s1 + s2 + s3
s s1 s2 s3 1 12
=
,
(D.47)
1
2
1 8 {a + b2 + c2 }
which simplifies to

a2 + b2 + c2
= 1+
.
24
0
(D.48)
To complete the derivation consider

A
A0
A
A0
1
sin (A A0 ) = sin cos cos sin ,
2
2
2
2
2
(D.49)
and use the half-angle theorems D.13 for the spherical triangle and the corresponding results
for the planar triangle given by replacing sin s by s etc. Therefore
r
r
A0
A
sin s2 sin s3 s s1
(D.50)
sin cos =
2
2
sin b sin c
bc
r
r
A
A0
sin s sin s1 s2 s3
cos sin =
.
(D.51)
2
2
sin b sin c
bc
Both of these terms, and hence also AA0 , are O( 2 ) therefore the left hand side of D.49 is
just (AA0 )/2 if we neglect O( 6 ). For the terms on the right we expand each square root
of a sine using a Taylor series:
r

1 3
x2
1 5
x4
sin x = x x +
x + x 1 +
.
(D.52)
6
120
12 1440
Using the identities
s2 + s21 s22 s23 = 2bc,
s
+ s41 s42 s43
(D.53)
2
= bc(3a + b + c ),
1
s22 s23 s2 s21 = bc(a2 b2 c2 ),
2
(D.54)
(D.55)
the expression for AA0 simplifies to

1 0
a2 + 7b2 + 7c2
AA = 1+
.
3
120
0
(D.56)
201
Using D.48 to replace 0 in terms of gives the final result (with two others which can be
written down by symmetry)
2a2 + b2 + c2 ,
+
3 180
B = B0 + +
a2 2b2 + c2 ,
3 180
0
C =C + +
a2 + b2 2c2 .
3 180
A = A0 +
Legendres theorem is the second order approximation to these results.
(D.57)
(D.58)
(D.59)
202
Appendix
Power series expansions

E.1
General form of the Taylor and Maclaurin series
Taylors theorem may be written in the form:

f (z) = f (b) +
(z b)2 00
(z b)3 000
(z b) 0
f (b) +
f (b) +
f (b) + .
1!
2!
3!
(E.1)
or, alternatively,
z 0
z2
z3
f (b) + f 00 (b) + f 000 (b) + .
1!
2!
3!
When b = 0 we obtain Maclaurins series.
f (b + z) = f (b) +
f (z) = f (0) +
E.2
z 0
z2
z3
f (0) + f 00 (0) + f 000 (0) + .
1!
2!
3!
(E.2)
(E.3)
Miscellaneous Taylor series

sin(b+z) = sin b + z cos b
z2
z3
z4
sin b cos b + sin b +
2!
3!
4!
(E.4)
cos(b+z) = cos b z sin b
z2
z3
z4
cos b + sin b + cos b +
2!
3!
4!
(E.5)
tan(b+z) = tan b + z sec2 b+z2 tan b sec2 b+

tan
z3
(1+3 tan2 b) sec2 b+
3

8
+z = 1 + 2z + 2z2 + z3 +
4
3
1
z2
b
+
+
(1 b2 )1/2 2 (1 b2 )3/2

1
z2 2b
z3
2
8b2
arctan(b+z) = arctan b + z
+
+
1+b2 2! (1+b2 )2 3! (1+b2 )2 (1+b2 )3

z4 24b
48b3
+
+
4! (1+b2 )3 (1+b2 )4
arcsin(b+z) = arcsin b + z
(E.6)
(E.7)
(E.8)
(E.9)
/over
Appendix E. Power series expansions
E.3
203
Miscellaneous Maclaurin series

Logarithms
1
1
1
ln(1 + z) = z z2 + z3 z4 +
1 < z 1
2
3
4
1
1
1
ln(1 z) = z z2 z3 z4 +
1 z < 1
2
3
4

1+z
2
2
2
ln
= 2z + z3 + z5 + z7 +
|z| < 1
1z
3
5
7
Trigonometric
1
1
1
|z| <
sin z = z z3 + z5 z7 +
3!
5!
7!
1
1
1
cos z = 1 z2 + z4 z6 +
|z| <
2!
4!
6!
1
2
17 7
tan z = z + z3 + z5 +
z +
|z| <
3
15
315
2
1 2 5 4 61 6
z +
|z| <
sec z = 1 + z + z +
2
24
720
2
1 1
7 3
31 5
csc z = + z +
z +
z + 0 < |z| <
z 6
360
15120
1 1
1
2 5
cot z = z z3
z
0 < |z| <
z 3
45
945
Inverse trig
1
3
5 7
arcsin z = z + z3 + z5 +
z +
|z| < 1
6
40
112
1
1
1
1
|z| < 1
arctan z = z z3 + z5 z7 + z9
3
5
7
9
Hyperbolic
1
1
1
sinh z = z + z3 + z5 + z7 +
|z| <
3!
5!
7!
1
1
1
cosh z = 1 + z2 + z4 + z6 +
|z| <
2!
4!
6!
2
17 7
1
tanh z = z z3 + z5
z +
|z| <
3
15
315
2
1 2 5 4 61 6
sech z = 1 z + z
z
|z| <
2
24
720
2
(E.10)
(E.11)
(E.12)
(E.13)
(E.14)
(E.15)
(E.16)
(E.17)
(E.18)
(E.19)
(E.20)
(E.21)
(E.22)
(E.23)
(E.24)
/over
E.4
204
Miscellaneous Binomial series
Setting f (z) = (1 + z)n , n an integer, in the Maclaurin series gives the standard binomial
series:
(1 + z)n = 1 + nz +
n(n1) 2
n!
z ++
zr + ,
2!
(nr)! r!
(E.25)
(1 + z)1 = 1 z + z2 z3 + z4 ,
(E.26)
(1 + z)2 = 1 2z + 3z2 4z3 + 5z4 .
(E.27)
When n is a half-integer we obtain

1
1
1
5 4
(1 + z)1/2 = 1 + z z2 + z3
z + ,
2
8
16
128
(E.28)
5
35 4
3
1
z ,
(1 + z)1/2 = 1 z + z2 z3 +
2
8
16
128
(E.29)
3
35
315 4
15
(1 + z)3/2 = 1 z + z2 z3 +
z ,
2
8
16
128
(E.30)
We will also need the the inverse of (1 + a2 z2 + a4 z4 + a6 z6 ). Therefore replacing z by

(a2 z2 + a4 z4 + a6 z6 ) in (E.26) gives
(1+a2 z2 +a4 z4 +a6 z6 )1 = 1 (a2 z2 + a4 z4 + a6 z6 )
+ (a22 z4 + 2a2 a4 z6 + )2 (a32 z6 + )3 + O(z8 )
= 1 (a2 )z2 (a4 a22 )z4 (a6 2a2 a4 +a32 )z6 +O(z8 ).
(E.31)
Furthermore

1

a2 z2 a4 z4 a6 z6
z2
z4
z6
1+
+
+
= 1 (a2 )
a4 6a22
a6 30a2 a4 +90a32 .
2
24 720
2
24
720
(E.32)
205
206
Appendix
Calculus of variations
The simplest problem in the calculus of variations is as follows. Let F(x, y, y0 ) be a function
of x and some unspecified function y(x) and also its derivative. For every y(x) we construct
the following integral between fixed points A and B at which x = a and x = b:
J[y] =
Z b
F(x, y, y0 )dx.
(F.1)

The problem is to find the particular function y(x) which, for a given function F(x, y, y0 ),
minimises or maximises J[y]. In general we will not be able to say that we have a maximum
or a minimum solution but the context of any particular problem will usually decide the
matter. The following method only guarantees that J[y] will be extremal. The solution here
is valid for twice continuously differentiable functions.
Figure F.1
We first tighten our notation a little. We assume that an extremal function can be found
and that it is denoted by y(x), the heavy path C in the figure; J[y] then refers to the value of
the integral on the extremal path. We consider the set of all paths AB defined by functions y
where
y(x) = y(x) + (x),
(F.2)
where (x) is an arbitrary function such that (a) = (b) = 0, thus guaranteeing that the
end points of all paths are the same. One of these paths is denoted C1 in the figure. The set of
integrals for one given (x) and varying may be considered as generating a function ()
such that
() = J[y] = J[y + ] =
Z b
a
F(x, y + , y0 + 0 )dx.
(F.3)
Appendix F. Calculus of variations
207
In this notation the value of the integral on the extremal path is (0) and the condition that
it is an extremum is

d
= 0.
(F.4)
d =0
The Taylor series for the integrand is
F(x, y + , y0 + 0 ) = F + Fy + Fy0 0 + O( 2 )
(F.5)
where Fy and Fy0 denote partial derivatives of F with respect to y and y0 respectively. Substituting this series into the integral and differentiating with respect to gives

Z b

d
=
Fy + Fy0 0 dx = 0.
(F.6)

d =0
a
The second term may be integrated by parts to give
Z b
a

b Z b d
Fy0 0 dx = Fy0
Fy0 dx.
dx
a
a
(F.7)
Since the first term vanishes we have proved that for an extremal
Z b
(x) H(x) dx = 0,
(F.8)
d
Fy0 Fy .
dx
(F.9)
where
H(x) =
We now show that equation (F.8) implies that H(x) = 0. This result rejoices under the
grand name of the fundamental lemma of the calculus of variations. The proof is by
contradiction: first suppose that H(x) 6= 0, say positive, at some point x0 in (a, b). Then
there must be an interval (x1 , x2 ) surrounding x0 in which H(x) > 0. Since (x) can be any
suitably differentiable function we take =
(x x)4 (x x1 )4 in [x1 , x2 ] and zero elsewhere.
Rb 2
Clearly, for such a function we must have a H dx > 0, in contradiction to (F.8). Therefore
our hypothesis that H 6= 0 is not valid. Therefore we must have H = 0, giving the Euler
Lagrange equations:
E ULER L AGRANGE

d F
F
= 0.
0
dx y
y
(F.10)
In this equation the partial derivatives indicate merely the formal operations of differentiating F(x, y, y0 ) with respect to y and y0 as if they were independent variables. On the other
hand the operator d/dx is a regular derivative and the above equation expands to
2F 0 2F 00 F
2F
+
y + 02 y
= 0.
x y0 y y0
y
y
(F.11)
This is a second order ordinary differential equation for y(x): it has a solution with two
arbitrary constants which must be fitted at the end points.
208
An alternative form of the EulerLagrange equations

Using the Euler equation (F.10) we have

d 0
d
y Fy0 F(x, y, y0 ) = y00 Fy0 + y0
Fy0 Fx Fy y0 Fy0 y00 = Fx ,
dx
dx
(F.12)
giving an alternative equation

d 0
y Fy0 F + Fx = 0
dx
(F.13)
Functions of the form F(y, y)

Equation (F.13) shows that if F is independent of x then the equations integrate immediately
since Fx = 0:
y0 Fy0 F = constant.
(F.14)
Functions of the form F(x, y)

If F is independent of y then equation (F.10) can be integrated directly since Fy = 0:
Fy0 = constant.
(F.15)
Extensions
There are many variants of the above results:

1. F has two (or more) dependent functions: F x, u(x), u0 (x), v(x), v0 (x)

2. F has two (or more) independent variables: F x, y, u(x, y), u0 (x, y)

3. Both of above: F x, y, u(x, y), u0 (x, y), v(x, y), v0 (x, y)
4. F involves higher derivatives: F(x, y, y0 , y00 , . . .).
5. The end points are not held fixed.
Only the first of the above concerns us here. The proof is along the same lines as above but
we need to make two independent variations and set
u(x)
= u(x) + (u) (x),
v(x)
= v(x) + (v) (x).
Equation (F.8) now becomes of the form
Z bh
i
(u) (x) H (u) (x) + (v) (x) H (v) (x) dx = 0.
a
(F.16)
209
Since (u) and (v) are arbitrary independent functions we obtain H (u) = H (v) = 0, i.e.

d F
F
= 0,
(F.17)
0
dx u
u

d F
F
= 0.
0
dx v
v
(F.18)
Sufficiency
The EulerLagrange equations have been shown to be a necessary conditions for the existence of an extremal integral. The proof of sufficiency is non-trivial and is discussed in
advanced texts.
210
Appendix
Complex variable theory

G.1
Complex numbers and functions
Complex numbers

A complex number z is a pair of real numbers, x, y combined with the basic imaginary
number i in the expression z = x + iy. Such complex numbers may be manipulated just as
real numbers with the proviso that i2 = 1. We say that x is the real part of the complex
number, x = Re (z), and y is the imaginary part, y = Im (z). From z = x + iy we form its
complex conjugate z = x iy. Note that zz = (x + iy)(x iy) = x2 + y2 . The complex
number z = x + iy may be be represented as a point (x, y) in a plane which is called the
complex z-plane. It is also useful to introduce polar coordinates in the plane and write
z = x + iy = r(cos + i sin ).
(G.1)
In this context we say that r is the modulus of z and is the

argument of z and write
y

1/2
r = |z| = x2 + y2
,
= arg(z) = arctan
. (G.2)
x
Note that we can also write r = |z| = zz .
Figure G.1
Complex functions: examples
The simplest complex function we can consider is a finite polynomial such as:
w(z) = 3 + z + z2 .
If we substitute z = x + iy in this expression, using i2 = 1, we obtain
(
u(x, y) = 3 + x + x2 y2 ,
w(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)
where
v(x, y) = y + 2xy.
(G.3)
(G.4)
Here we have written w(z) in terms of two real functions of two variables. All complex functions can be split up in this way.
Appendix G. Complex variable theory
211
Complex functions may be defined by convergent infinite series of the form

w(z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z2 + a3 z3 + a4 z4 + a5 z5 + ,
(G.5)
where the coefficients will, in general, be complex numbers. The real and imaginary
parts of w(z) will be infinite series.
The complex exponential function is defined by the series

exp z = 1 +
1
1
1
1
1
z + z2 + z3 + z4 + z5 + .
1!
2!
3!
4!
5!
(G.6)
It can be proved that this series is convergent for all values of z. Note that when z is
purely real, z = x, the series reduces to the usual real definition of exp(x). When z is
purely imaginary, z = i say, we get a very interesting result:
exp i = 1 +
1
i
1
i
i
2 3 + 4 5 + .
1!
2!
3!
4!
5!
(G.7)
Now the real terms in this expansion are simply those in the expansion of cos , whilst
the imaginary terms are those that arise in the expansion of sin . Therefore we can
write the polar coordinate expression of z in (G.1) as
z = r(cos + i sin ) = r exp(i ) = rei .
(G.8)
If we raise this result to the n-th power we obtain De Moivres theorem:

zn = rn exp(in ) = rn (cos n + i sin n ).
(G.9)
Trigonometric and hyperbolic functions are defined by

sin z =
cos z =
tan z =
sinh z =
cosh z =
tanh z =
eiz eiz
2i
eiz + eiz
2i
eiz eiz
eiz + eiz
ez ez
2
ez + ez
2
ez ez
ez + ez
1 3 1 5
z + z ,
3!
5!
1 2 1 4
= 1 z + z ,
2!
4!
1 3 2 5
= z+ z + z ,
3
15
1 3 1 5
= z+ z + z +
3!
5!
1 2 1 4
= 1+ z + z + ,
2!
4!
1 3 2 5
= z z + z .
3
15
= z
(G.10)
(G.11)
(G.12)
(G.13)
(G.14)
(G.15)
Relations between trigonometric and hyperbolic functions:

cos iz = cosh z,
cosh iz = cos z,
sin iz= i sinh z,

sinh iz= i sin z,
tan iz = i tanh z,
tanh iz = i tan z.
(G.16)
(G.17)
212
Using the compound angle formulae (C.5,C.3) gives

sin(x + iy) = sin x cos iy + cos x sin iy
= sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y,
(G.18)
cos(x + iy) = cos x cos iy sin x sin iy

= cos x cosh y i sin x sinh y, (G.19)
sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y
sin x cos x + i sinh y cosh y
tan(x + iy) =
,
=
cos x cosh y i sin x sinh y
cos2 x cosh2 y + sin2 x sinh2 y
sin 2x + i sinh 2y
=
.
(G.20)
cos 2x + cosh 2y
sinh(x + iy) = sinh x cosh iy + cosh x sinh iy = sinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y, (G.21)
cosh(x + iy) = cosh x cosh iy + sinh x sinh iy = cosh x cos y + i sinh x sin y, (G.22)
sinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y
sinh x cosh x + i sin y cos y
tanh(x + iy) =
,
=
cosh x cos y + i sinh x sin y
cosh2 x cos2 y + sinh2 x sin2 y
sinh 2x + i sin 2y
=
.
(G.23)
cosh 2x + cos 2y
Let the real and imaginary parts of the gudermannian function, Equation C.59, be
and . Let = + i.
= gd z = sin1 tanh(x + iy),
sin( + i) = tanh(x + iy) .
(G.24)
(G.25)
From Equations G.18 and G.23 the real and imaginary parts give
sinh 2x
,
cosh 2x + cos 2y
sin 2y
cos sinh =
cosh 2x + cos 2y
sin cosh =
(G.26)
(G.27)
It is simpler to solve these equations for x and y in terms of and . Setting

p = sin cosh ,
(G.28)
q = cos sinh ,
(G.29)
Equations G.26, G.27 and their quotient may be written as

sinh 2x = p(cosh 2x + cos 2y) ,
(G.30)
sin 2y = q(cosh 2x + cos 2y) ,

p
sinh 2x = sin 2y .
q
(G.31)
(G.32)
Eliminate y from the first and third equations, using sin2 2y + cos2 2y = 1; eliminate x
from the second and third equations, using cosh2 2x sinh2 2x = 1.
2p
2 sin sech
,
=
1 + p2 + q2 1 + sin2 sech2
2q
2 sec sinh
tan 2y =
=
.
2
2
1 p q
1 sec2 sinh2
tanh 2x =
(G.33)
(G.34)
213
Comparing these equations with formulae, C.49 and C.7 , for tanh 2x and tan 2y,
gives
tanh x = sin sech ,
(G.35)
tan y = sec sinh .
(G.36)
These equations may be inverted but note that from Equations G.24 and C.60
z = gd1 = sinh1 tan( + i),
sinh(x + iy) = tan( + i) ,
sinh i(y ix) = tan i( i ) ,
i sin(y ix) = i tanh( i ) .
(G.37)
This is the same equation as G.25 replacing of {x, y, , } by {, , y, x} respectively. With the above substitutions (note sech = sech()) Equations G.36
and G.35 become:
tan = sec y sinh x ,
(G.38)
tanh = sin y sech x.
(G.39)
Equations G.38 and G.39 define the real and imaginary parts of the gudermanian
gd z: Equations G.35 and G.36 define the real and imaginary parts of the inverse
gudermanian gd1 .
For the application to TMS we use Equation 2.55 to set sech = cos , sinh =
tan and tanh = sin to give
G.2
x = tanh1 [sin cos ] ,
= tan1 [sinh x sec y] ,
y = tan1 [sec tan ] ,
= sin1 [sech x sin y] .
(G.40)
Differentiation of complex functions
Before presenting the definition of differentiation of a complex function we examine two

aspects of real differentiation.
Real differentiation in one dimension

The usual definition of the derivative of a real function f (x) is
f 0 (x) = lim
x0
f (x + x) f (x)
.
x
(G.41)
The small print of the definition is that the limit when x tends to zero from above ( x
0+) should be equal to the limit when x tends to zero from below ( x 0). In principle
these limits could be different and we would then have to define two different derivatives,
say f+0 (x) and f0 (x). A simple example where the limits differ is the function f (x) = |x|,
for which f+0 = +1 and f0 = 1 at the origin. The only point we wish to make is that even
in one dimension we must be careful about directions when defining derivatives.
214
Real differentiation in two dimensions

In two dimensions we can define two partial derivatives: that with respect to x being the
derivative of f (x, y) when y is held constant, and that with respect to y being the derivative
of f (x, y) when x is held constant. The notation and definitions of the partial derivatives is

f
f
f (x + x, y) f (x, y)
f (x, y + y) f (x, y)
,
.
= lim
= lim
x y x0
x
y x y0
y
(G.42)
The brackets and subscripts are usually dropped if there is no ambiguity introduced thereby.
There is no reason why the two derivatives should be equal, or even related in any particlar
way.
The above derivatives are along the directions of the coordinate axes but it is perfectly
reasonable to seek a derivative of f (x, y) along any specified direction. To do this we use
Taylors theorem (in two dimensions), keeping only the first order terms, so that for a general displacement with components x and y,
f =
f
f
x+
y.
x
y
(G.43)
If the direction of the displacement is taken in the direction of the unit vector n and the
magnitude of the displacement is s, then we can set x = nx s and y = ny s. We can
then define a directional derivative in two dimensions as

df
f
f
= nx
+ ny .
(G.44)
ds n
x
y
The point we wish to stress is that the derivatives of functions of two variables are essentially
dependent on direction.
Differentiation of complex functions

We have seen that a complex function can always be split into two functions of two variables
as in (G.4) and therefore the differentiation of a complex function w(z) = u + iv may be
expected to parallel the partial differentiation of f (x, y) given above. This would mean that
complex functions were no more that a combination of two real functions. Instead, we
define the derivative of w(z) in a way that parallels the the definition of the derivative of a
real function in one dimension, namely
w0 (z) = lim
z0
w(z + z) w(z)
.
z
(G.45)
The crucial step is that we demand that this limit should exist independent of the direction
in which z tends to zero. If such a limit exists in all points of some region of the complex
plane then we say that w(z) is an analytic (or regular) function of z (in that region). This
restriction on differentiation is very strong and as a result analytic functions are very special,
with many interesting properties.
215
The CauchyRiemann conditions

The CauchyRiemann conditions are a pair of equations which are necessarily satisfied if
w(z) is differentiable. To derive them first write out the definition of the derivative in terms
of the functions u(x, y) and v(x, y) and set z = x + i y.

u(x + x, y + y) + iv(x + x, y + y) u(x, y) iv(x, y)
0
w (z) = lim
. (G.46)
x + i y
(x+iy)0
Consider two special cases. In the first we let z tend to zero along the real x-axis. Therefore
we set y = 0, so that the limits reduce to partial derivatives with respect to x:
w0 (z) = ux + ivx .
(G.47)
Repeating with limit taken along the y-axis, so that x = 0, we have

w0 (z) =
1
(uy + ivy ) = vy iuy .
i
(G.48)
If we now demand that these two derivatives w0 (z) are the same we have the Cauchy
Riemann equations:
ux = vy ,
uy = vx
(G.49)
It can also be shown that if the partial derivatives ux etc. are continuous, then the Cauchy
Riemann conditions are sufficient for the derivative w0 (z) to exist.
Simple examples of differentiation
As an example of differentiation and the CauchyRiemann conditions consider the

function w(z) = z3 . Since
w = u + iv = (x + iy)3
= x3 + 3x2 (iy) + 3x(iy)2 + (iy)3
(G.50)
the real and imaginary parts and their partial derivatives are
u = x3 3xy2 ,
ux = 3x2 3y2 ,
uy = 6xy,
v = 3x2 y y3 .
vx = 6xy,
vy = 3x2 3y2 .
These equations show that the CauchyRiemann equations (G.49) are indeed satisfied
and we can use either (G.47) or (G.48) to identify the derivative as
w0 (z) = ux + ivx = vy iuy
= 3x2 3y2 + i6xy = 3(x + iy)2

= 3z2 .
(G.51)
216
Similarly we can prove that w(z) = zn is analytic with a derivative given by w0 (z) =
nzn1 . (The proof is easier if the CauchyRiemann conditions are written in terms of
polar coordinates and zn is written as rn ein .
Consider the function w(z) = sin z. The real and imaginary parts of the sine function
were determined in equation (G.18) so that w(z) = u + iv where
u = sin x cosh y,
ux = cos x cosh y,
uy = sin x sinh y,
v=
cos x sinh y.
vx = sin x sinh y,
vy =
cos x cosh y.
Once again the CauchyRiemann equations are indeed satisfied and we can identify
the derivative from equation (G.19):
w0 (z) = ux + ivx = vy iuy
= cos x cosh y i sin x sinh y

= cos z.
(G.52)
In similar ways we can show that all the derivatives of standard functions parallel
those that arise for functions of one real variable.
Taylors theorem
We state without proof or qualification that under reasonable conditions an analytic function may be represented by a convergent Taylors series. In the following development we
shall use the theorem in the following form.
w(z) = w(z0 ) +
1
1
1
(z z0 )w0 (z0 ) + (z z0 )2 w00 (z0 ) + (z z0 )3 w000 (z0 ) + . (G.53)
1!
2!
3!
It is also true that any convergent power series defines an analytic function. Proofs of these
statements are to be found in the standard texts on complex functions.
/continued overleaf
G.3
217
Functions and maps

Mathematicians and geographers both use the term map in essentially the same way. A
complex function w(z) may be viewed as simply a pair of real functions which define a map
in the sense that it takes a point (x, y) in the complex z-plane into a point (u, v) in the complex
w-plane by virtue of the two functions u(x, y) and v(x, y). Points go to points, regions go
to regions, curves through a point go to curves through the image point, (Figure G.2). The
important result is that if w(z) is an analytic function then , the angle of intersection of
two curves C1 and C2 at P, is equal to 0 the angle of intersection of the image curves at the
image point. Such maps are said to be be conformal. We proceed immediately to the proof
of this statement.
Figure G.2
Proof of the conformality property
Let z0 be a fixed point on the curve C in the z-plane. Let z be a nearby point on C and write
z z0 = rei . Note that is the angle between real axis and the chord; in the limit z z0 ,
this angle will approach the angle between the real axis and the tangent to C at z0 . Let w0
Figure G.3
and w be the corresponding image points and set w w0 = r0 ei . Taylors theorem tells us
that
1
1
(G.54)
w(z) = w(z0 ) + (z z0 )w0 (z0 ) + (z z0 )2 w00 (z0 ) + ,
1!
2!
so that we can write
w w0
1
= w0 (z0 ) + (z z0 )w00 (z0 ) + .
z z0
2!
(G.55)
218
The derivative of the function w(z) at z0 is a unique complex number which depends only
on the position z0 and we can write it as A(z0 ) exp(i(z0 )) where A(z0 ) and are both real.
Therefore in the limit as z z0 equation (G.55) becomes
0

0

r
lim
exp i( ) = w0 (z0 ) = A(z0 ) exp(i(z0 )),
zz0
r
(G.56)
since the remaining terms on the RHS vanish in the limit. We deduce that
0
r
lim
= A(z0 ),
zz0
r
exp i(00 0 ) = exp[i(z0 )],
(G.57)
(G.58)
where 0 and 00 are the angles between the tangents and the real axes. Note that the second of these equations can be derived only when A 6= 0. The value of 0 becomes
indeterminate if A = 0 so we must therefore demand that w0 (z0 ) 6= 0.
The second of the above limits, when it exists, shows that 00 = 0 + (z0 ), that is the
tangent at P is rotated by an angle when it is mapped to the w-plane. This will be true
of all curves through P and consequently the angle of intersection of any two curves will be
preserved under the mapping. This is the definition of a conformal mapping.
For a given measurement accuracy we can always find an infinitesimal region around P
in which the variation of A and is imperceptible. Equations (G.57,G.58) then imply that
the small region is scaled and rigidly rotated, so preserving its shape. This is the property
of orthomorphism.
219
220
Appendix
Maxima code
H.1
Common code
The files in this chapter are available at www.mercator.myzen.co.uk. The code may also be
copied from this pdf file and pasted into any version of Maxima but there are slight problems
which vary with the choice of pdf viewer. The upquote character (') pastes as a newlinecharacter when copied from Adobe Reader (as of 2013): minimal editing will resolve this
problem. The caret character (^) is turned into a circumflex (over the next letter) when
pasted from the Sumatra viewer: this problem has been averted by replacing ^ by **.
The files may be located anywhere you choose but the save and load statements
should be changed appropriately.
The following file contains trivial initialisations and code for a maxima function reverta, a slightly modified of the maxima function revert, which carries out a Lagrange
reversion for angle series.
/*===== this file is init.mac ======== */
/* INITIALISE*/
maxpow:4$ /* Max power of e*e */
taylordepth:3$
triginverses:'all$
powerdisp:true$
algebraic:true$
debug:false$
/* LAGRANGE REVERSION
var2 = expr(var1) = series in eps
to
var1 = revertexpr(var2) = series in eps
Require that expr(var1) = var1 to order eps^0. This throws in a
trigreduce to convert to multiple angle trig functions.
*/
reverta(expr,var1,var2,eps,pow):=block([tauacc:1,sigacc:0,dsig],
dsig:ratdisrep(taylor(expr-var1,eps,0,pow)),
dsig:subst([var1=var2],dsig),
for n:1 thru pow do (tauacc:trigreduce(ratdisrep(taylor(
-dsig*tauacc/n,eps,0,pow))),
sigacc:sigacc+expand(diff(tauacc,var2,n-1))),
var2+sigacc)$
Appendix H. Maxima code
H.2
Lagrange reversion examples
/*================ this file is lagrange.wxm =================*/

load ("d:/dropbox/maxima/init.mac")$
load("revert")$
/*== generate coefficients for Appendix B, equations B.22,25,18 ==*/
print("======= POLYNOMIAL REVERSION =======")$
maxpow:8$
/* print out direct, reverted series */
dir:z$ for i: 2 thru maxpow do block(dir: a[i]*zî+dir)$
print(w=dir)$
kill(w)$
rev:w$ for i: 2 thru maxpow do block(rev: b[i]*(-1)*wî+rev)$
print(z=rev)$
/* do the reversion */
p:revert(dir,z)$
/* write out coeffts of reversion */
for i: 2 thru maxpow do print(b[i]=expand((-1)*coeff(p,zî,1)))$
print("")$print("== POLYNOMIAL REVERSION WITH FACTORIALS===")$
/* exhibit factorial factors in coefficients */
dir:z$ for i: 2 thru maxpow do block(dir: a[i]*zî/i!+dir)$
print(w=dir)$
kill(w)$
rev:w$ for i: 2 thru maxpow do block(rev: b[i]*(-1)*wî/i!+rev)$
print(z=rev)$
p:revert(dir,z)$
for i: 2 thru maxpow do print(b[i]=expand((-1)*i!*coeff(p,zî,1)))$
/*=======================================================*/
print("")$ print("======= SINE SERIES REVERSION =======")$
maxpow:4$
/* display series */
s:phi$ for i: 1 thru maxpow do block(s: b[2*i]*sin(2*i*phi)+s)$
print(eta=s)$
v:eta$ for i: 1 thru maxpow do block(v: d[2*i]*e2î*sin(2*i*eta)+v)$
print(phi=v)$
/* In applications coeffts b_n are order e^(2n). Here assume
coeffts are O(1) and introduce small eps to define order
of coefft before reversion. Then set eps=1 */
/* define series with eps */
s:phi$
for i: 1 thru maxpow do block(s: b[2*i]*epsî*sin(2*i*phi)+s)$
eta_phi(phi,eps):=s$
p:subst(eps=1,reverta(eta_phi(phi,eps),phi,eta,eps,maxpow))$
/* write coeffts */
for i: 1 thru maxpow do
print(d[2*i]=coeff(p,sin(2*i*eta),1))$
221
H.3
Meridian distance and rectifying latitude
/*================ this file is meridian.wxm =================*/

/* This file provides merid, qquadrant, mu_phi, phi_mu
for the Redfearn_examples file */
/*============================================================*/
maxpow:4$
rho_fn(\phi):=a*(1-e2)*(1-e2*(sin(phi))^2)^(-3/2)$ /* e2=e*e*/
e2_n(n):=taylor(4*n/(1+n)^2,n,0,maxpow)$
/* Meridian integral expanded in e2=e*e then e */
m_integral(phi,e2):=''(block([mm],
mm:trigreduce(taylor(rho_fn(phi),e2,0,maxpow)),
mm:expand(ratsimp(integrate(mm,phi)))))$
merid(phi):=''(expand(subst(e2=e*e,m_integral(phi,e2))))$
/* Meridian quadrant distance to pole */
qquadrant(e2):=''(m_integral(%pi/2,e2))$
/* Rectifying latitude mu in terms e2 of then e*/
mu_phi_e2(phi,e2):=''([phi,e2], expand((%pi/2)
*taylor((m_integral(phi,e2)/qquadrant(e2)),e2,0,maxpow)))$
mu_phi(phi):=''(subst(e2=e^2,mu_phi_e2(phi,e2)))$
/* Inverse of rectifying latitude in terms of e2 then e */
phi_mu_e2(%mu,e2):=''([%mu,e2],
(reverta(mu_phi_e2(phi,e2),phi,%mu,e2,maxpow)))$
phi_mu(%mu):=''(subst(e2=e*e,phi_mu_e2(%mu,e2)))$
/* Helmert's series in n */
merid_H(phi):=''(a/(1+n)*expand(taylor(subst(e2=e2_n(n),
m_integral(phi,e2)*(1+n)/a),n,0,maxpow)))$
/* display(merid(phi),merid_H(phi),mu_phi(phi),phi_mu(%mu))$ */
print("=== Series with coefficients in e ===")$
a[0]:a*coeff(expand(merid(phi)/a),phi,1)$
disp_m:'a[0]*%phi$
disp_mu:%phi$
disp_phi:%mu$
for i:2 thru 2*maxpow step 2 do block(
a[i]:a*coeff(expand(merid(phi)/a),sin(i*phi),1),
disp_m:'a[i]*sin(i*%phi)+disp_m,
b[i]:coeff(expand(mu_phi(phi)),sin(i*phi),1),
disp_mu:'b[i]*sin(i*%phi)+disp_mu,
d[i]:coeff(expand(phi_mu(%mu)),sin(i*%mu),1),
disp_phi:'d[i]*sin(i*%mu)+disp_phi )$
/* print them out */
print("m = ",disp_m)$
222
for i:0 thru 2*maxpow step 2 do display(a[i])$

print("quadrant = ", (%pi/2)*'a[0])$
print(%mu," = ",disp_mu)$
for i:2 thru 2*maxpow step 2 do display(b[i])$
print(%phi," = ",disp_phi)$
for i:2 thru 2*maxpow step 2 do display(d[i])$
print("=== Series with coefficients in n ===")$
h[0]:coeff(expand((1+n)*merid_H(phi)/a),phi,1)$
disp_mH_brkt:'h[0]*%phi$ disp_mu_n:%phi$ disp_phi_n:%mu$
for i:2 thru 2*maxpow step 2 do block(
pp:subst(e=sqrt(4*n/(1+n)^2),(1+n)*a[i]/a),
h[i]:ratdisrep(taylor(pp,n,0,maxpow)),
disp_mH_brkt:'h[i]*sin(i*%phi)+disp_mH_brkt,
pp:subst(e=sqrt(4*n/(1+n)^2),b[i]),
c[i]:ratdisrep(taylor(pp,n,0,maxpow)),
disp_mu_n:'c[i]*sin(i*%phi)+disp_mu_n,
pp:subst(e=sqrt(4*n/(1+n)^2),d[i]),
e[i]:ratdisrep(taylor(pp,n,0,maxpow)),
disp_phi_n:'e[i]*sin(i*%mu)+disp_phi_n
)$
/* print them out */
disp_mH:(disp_mH_brkt/(1+n))*a$
print("m_Helmert = ",disp_mH)$
display(h[0])$
for i:2 thru 2*maxpow step 2 do display(h[i])$
print("quadrant = ", (%pi*a/2)*'h[0]/(1+n))$
print(%mu," = ",disp_mu_n)$
for i:2 thru 2*maxpow step 2 do display(c[i])$
print(%phi," = ",disp_phi_n)$
for i:2 thru 2*maxpow step 2 do display(e[i])$
save("d:/meridian.dat",all);
print("END")$
223
H.4
224
Conformal latitude
/*================ this file is conformal.wxm =================*/

/*============================================================*/
/* CONFORMAL latitude, chi. Calls LAGRANGE and ARCTAN
chi = gd( gd^{-1}phi -e*atanh^{-1}(e*sinh(phi)))
= asin(tanh( atanh(sin(phi)) - e*atanh(e*sin(phi)) ))
Notation: tanh(qq) = sin(phi)
OR sinh(qq) = tan(phi)
*/
/*-------------------------------------------------------------*/
print("====================================")$
print("CONFORMAL (chi) and GEODETIC (phi) ")$
print("====================================")$
/* define modified atan function */
atanexp(x,eps):=ratdisrep(taylor(atan(x+eps),eps,0,maxpow))$
/* evaluate chi in terms of phi */
psi:qq-e*atanh(e*tanh(qq))$
ratdisrep(taylor(psi,e,0,2*maxpow))$
psi:subst(e=sqrt(e2),psi)$
psi:subst(qq=asinh(tan(phi)),psi)$
tanchi:ratdisrep(taylor(sinh(psi),e2,0,maxpow))$
diff:tanchi-tan(phi)$
t:subst(x=tan(phi),atanexp(x,eps))$
t:t-subst(eps=0,t)+phi$
t:subst(eps=diff,t)$
t:ratdisrep(taylor(t,e2,0,maxpow))$
t:ratsimp(subst(tan(phi)=sin(phi)/cos(phi),t-phi))+phi$
t:trigreduce(t)$
chi_phi(phi,e2):=t$
print("====== chi(phi) ======")$
s:%phi$ for i: 1 thru maxpow do block(s: b[2*i]*sin(2*i*phi)+s)$
print(chi=s)$
print("====== chi(phi,e) ======")$
chi_e:subst(e2=e*e,t)$
for i: 1 thru maxpow do print(b[2*i]=coeff(chi_e,sin(2*i*phi),1))$
print("====== chi(phi,n) ======")$
chi_n: subst(e2=4*n/(1+n)^2,t)$
chi_n:expand(ratdisrep(taylor(chi_n,n,0,maxpow)))$
for i: 1 thru maxpow do print(b[2*i]=coeff(chi_n,sin(2*i*phi),1))$
/* phi in terms of chi */
print("")$
print("====== phi(chi)) ======")$
s:%chi$
for i: 1 thru maxpow do block(s: d[2*i]*sin(2*i*chi)+s)$

print(phi=s)$
print("====== phi(chi,e) ======")$
/*phi_chi(chi,e2):=''()$*/
phi_chi_e: subst(e2=e*e,reverta(chi_phi(phi,e2),phi,chi,e2,maxpow))$
for i: 1 thru maxpow do print(d[2*i]=coeff(phi_chi_e,sin(2*i*chi),1))$
print("====== phi(chi,n) ======")$
/* e2_n(n):=4*n/(1+n)^2$*/
phi_chi_n: subst(e2=4*n/(1+n)^2,
reverta(chi_phi(phi,e2),phi,chi,e2,maxpow))$
/*phi_chi_n: phi_chi(chi,e2), e2=e2_n(n)$*/
phi_chi_n:expand(ratdisrep(taylor(phi_chi_n,n,0,maxpow)))$
for i: 1 thru maxpow do print(d[2*i]=coeff(phi_chi_n,sin(2*i*chi),1))$
H.5
Authalic latitude
S/*================ this file is authalic.wxm =================*/

/*============================================================*/
/* AUTHALIC latitude, xi.
xi = asin(q(phi)/q_p)
q(phi) = (1-e2)sin(phi) / 1-e2sin^2(phi)
+(1-e2)/e *atanh(e*sin(phi))
q_p = q(pi/2)
R_q = a sqrt(q_p/2)
--------------------------------------------------------------*/
print("====================================")$
print("AUTHALIC (XI) and GEODETIC (phi)
")$
print("====================================")$
print("===define series for xi(phi) ======")$
s:%phi$
for i: 1 thru maxpow do block(s: b[2*i]*sin(2*i*phi)+s)$
%xi=s;
/* evaluate xi in terms of phi */
xia:qq+((1-e*e)/e)*atanh(e*sin(phi))$
xia:ratdisrep(taylor(xia,e,0,2*maxpow))$
xia:subst(e=sqrt(e2),xia)$
xia:subst(qq=(1-e2)*sin(phi)/(1-e2*(sin(phi))^2),xia)$
xia:taylor(xia,e2,0,maxpow)$ if debug then display(xia)$
q_p:subst(phi=%pi/2,xia)$
if debug then display(q_p)$
sin_xi:ratdisrep(taylor(xia/q_p,e2,0,maxpow))$
diff: sin_xi-sin(phi)$
/* define modified asin function */
asinexp(x,eps):=ratdisrep(taylor(asin(x+eps),eps,0,maxpow))$
t:subst(x=sin(phi),asinexp(x,eps))$
t:t-subst(eps=0,t)+phi$
225
226
t:subst(eps=diff,t)$
t:ratsimp(t-phi)$
/* need minus %i in next line to get right answer. Better method?*/
t:ratsimp(subst(sqrt(-1+(sin(phi))^2)=-%i*cos(phi),t))$
t:trigreduce(ratdisrep(taylor(t,e2,0,maxpow)))$
xi_phi(phi,e2):=t+phi$ if debug then display(xi_phi(phi,e2))$
print("====== xi(phi,e) ======")$
xi_e: subst(e2=e*e,xi_phi(phi,e2))$ if debug then display(xi_e)$
xi_e:expand(ratdisrep(taylor(xi_e,e,0,2*maxpow)))$
for i: 1 thru maxpow do print(b[2*i]=coeff(xi_e,sin(2*i*phi),1))$
print("====== xi(phi,n) ======")$
xi_n: subst(e2=4*n/(1+n)^2,xi_phi(phi,e2))$
xi_n:expand(ratdisrep(taylor(xi_n,n,0,maxpow)))$ xi_n$
for i: 1 thru maxpow do print(b[2*i]=coeff(xi_n,sin(2*i*phi),1))$
print("")$
print("==== series for phi(xi) ======")$
kill(xi)$ s:%xi$
for i: 1 thru maxpow do block(s: d[2*i]*sin(2*i*%xi)+s)$
print(phi=s)$
kill(xi)$
/* revert series */
print("====== phi(xi,e) ======")$
phi_xi_e: subst(e2=e*e,reverta(xi_phi(phi,e2),phi,xi,e2,maxpow))$
for i: 1 thru maxpow do print(d[2*i]=coeff(phi_xi_e,sin(2*i*xi),1))$
print("====== phi(xi,n) ======")$
phi_xi_n: subst(e2=4*n/(1+n)^2,reverta(xi_phi(phi,e2),phi,xi,e2,maxpow))$
phi_xi_n:expand(ratdisrep(taylor(phi_xi_n,n,0,maxpow)))$
for i: 1 thru maxpow do print(d[2*i]=coeff(phi_xi_n,sin(2*i*xi),1))$
print("====== authalic radius ======")$
R[q]:a*ratdisrep(subst(e2=e*e,taylor(sqrt(q_p/2),e2,0,maxpow)))$
display(R[q]);
R[q]:ratdisrep(subst(e2=4*n/(1+n)^2,taylor(sqrt(q_p/2),e2,0,maxpow)))$
R[q]:a*expand(ratdisrep(taylor(R[q],n,0,maxpow)))$
display(R[q]);
H.6
Redfearn series
/*================ this file is redfearn.wxm =================*/

/*
provides x,y,conv,scale inv_lam,inv_phi,inv_conv,inv_scale
for use by Redfearn_examples.wxm */
/* initialise */
kill(all)$
powerdisp:true$
algebraic:true$
maxpow:8$
/* Max power of lambda */
sphpow:maxpow-2$ /* spherical approx used when power>sphpow */
display(maxpow,sphpow)$
halfmax:floor(maxpow/2)$ /* for series 6.14 and invscale */
load("revert")$
fn_nu(phi):=a*(1-e**2*(sin(phi))**2)**(-1/2)$
fn_rho(phi):=(fn_nu(phi))**3*(1-e**2)/a**2$
fn_beta(phi):=(1-e**2*(sin(phi))**2)/(1-e**2)$ /* beta=nu/rho */
/* derivatives of M eq7.11 onwards */
M[1]:fn_nu(phi)*cos(phi)$
for i:2 thru maxpow do block(
pp:diff(M[i-1],phi,1)*fn_nu(phi)*cos(phi)/fn_rho(phi),
pp:pp*(1-e**2)**(i-1)/(fn_nu(phi)/a)**(i-1),
pp:trigsimp(expand(ratsimp(pp))),
M[i]:ratsimp(pp*(fn_nu(phi)/a)**(i-1)/(1-e**2)**(i-1)) )$
/* write M[i] in terms of s,c,t,beta,nu and simplify again */
for i:1 thru maxpow do block(
if evenp(i) then ss:(sin(phi)/cos(phi))/(s/c) else ss:1,
p:M[i]*c**i*%nu/(ss*(cos(phi))**i*fn_nu(phi)),
p:trigsimp(p),
ratvars(e),
p:subst(e=sqrt((1-%beta)/((sin(phi))**2-%beta)),p),
p:trigreduce(expand(trigsimp(p))),
p:ratsimp(subst(sec(phi)=sqrt(1+(tan(phi))**2),p)),
M[i]:ratsimp(subst(tan(phi)=t,p)) )$
/*=================================================*/
/* *** complex series eq7.25 and W in eq7.28/29 *** */
z:%i*m$
for j:1 thru maxpow do z:z+(1/j!)*(%lambda**j)*M[j]*(-%i)**(j+3)$
for j: 1 thru maxpow do block(
if evenp(j) then ss:%i*s/c*%nu*c**j else ss:%nu*c**j,
W[j]:ratsimp(j!*coeff(z,%lambda,j)/ss),
if j>sphpow then W[j]:ratsimp(subst(%beta=1,W[j])),
ratvars(%beta),
W[j]:rat(collectterms(ratexpand(W[j]),%beta)) )$
227
/*=================================================*/
print("*** display direct series for x, y in eq7.28, 7.29 ***")$
x:0$
for j:1 thru maxpow step 2 do x:x+ %nu*(%lambda*c)**j*'W[j]/j!$
display(x)$ for j: 1 thru maxpow step 2 do display(W[j])$
y:m$
for j:2 thru maxpow step 2 do y: %nu*(%lambda*c)**j*(s/c)*'W[j]/(j!)+y$
display(y)$ for j: 2 thru maxpow step 2 do display(W[j])$
/*=================================================*/
/* complex series eq7.32 with w for LHS zetaMzeta0=zeta-zeta0*/
w:subst([%lambda=zetaMzeta0],(z-%i*m)/(%nu*c))$
/* reversion of complex series to eq7.34 */
zetaMzeta0:expand(subst([zetaMzeta0=invx],revert(w,zetaMzeta0)))$
/* extract V coeffts for inverse series eq7.35--7.39 */
V[1]:-1$
for j:2 thru maxpow do block(
if evenp(j) then ss:%i*t else ss:1,
V[j]:(-j!)/(c**(j-1)*ss)*coeff(zetaMzeta0,invx,j),
V[j]:ev(V[j],nouns),
/* expand the W arising from x, y */
V[j]:subst([%beta=%beta[1],t=t[1],s=c*t[1]],V[j]),
if j>sphpow then V[j]:ratsimp(subst(%beta[1]=1,V[j])),
ratvars(%beta[1]),
V[j]:rat(collectterms(ratexpand(V[j]),%beta[1])) )$
/*=================================================*/
print("*** display inverse series for lambda, psi in eq7.37/38 *** ")$
print("*** (in)dependent vars of inverse seies prefixed by 'inv' *** ")$
invlam:0$
for j: 1 thru maxpow step 2 do
invlam: -'V[j]*(invx/%nu[1])**j/(c[1]*j!)+invlam $
display(invlam)$ for j: 1 thru maxpow step 2 do display(V[j])$
invpsi:psi[1]$
for j: 2 thru maxpow step 2 do
invpsi: -t[1]*'V[j]*(invx/%nu[1])**j/(c[1]*j!)+invpsi$
display(invpsi)$ for j: 2 thru maxpow step 2 do display(V[j])$
/*=================================================*/
/* derivs of phi wrt psi and D coeffts of eq6.14 */
dphi_by_psi[1]:fn_beta(phi)*cos(phi)$
for i:2 thru halfmax do
dphi_by_psi[i]:diff(dphi_by_psi[i-1],phi,1)*fn_beta(phi)*cos(phi)$
/* remove factors from dphi_by_psi, simplify, find the D in eq6.14. */
for i:1 thru halfmax do block(
p:dphi_by_psi[i]*(cos(phi))**(-i)/(fn_beta(phi)),
if evenp(i) then p:p*cos(phi)/sin(phi),
p:subst(e=sqrt((1-%beta[1])/((sin(phi))**2-%beta[1])),p),
p:trigreduce((expand(trigsimp(p)))),
p:ratsimp(subst(sec(phi)=sqrt(1+(tan(phi))**2),p)),
p:subst([tan(phi)=t[1]],p),
D[i]:rat(collectterms(ratexpand(p),%beta[1])) )$
228
229
/*=================================================*/
print("*** display inverse phi and U coeffts eq7.40--7.43 *** ")$
/* construct series for ph=phi-phi1 of eq7.40 */
ph:0$
for i:1 thru halfmax do block([ss],
if evenp(i) then ss:t[1] else ss:1,
ph:ph+(invpsi-psi[1])**i*%beta[1]*(c[1])**i*ss*'D[i]/i! )$
ph:expand(ratsimp(ph))$
for i:2 thru maxpow step 2 do block(
p:-i!*(%nu[1])**i*coeff(ph,invx,i)/(%beta[1]*t[1]),
p:ev(p,nouns),
ratvars(%beta[1]),
U[i]:rat(collectterms(ratexpand(p),%beta[1])),
if i>sphpow then U[i]:ratsimp(subst(%beta[1]=1,U[i])) )$
invphi:phi[1]$
for i:2 thru maxpow step 2 do
invphi:invphi-invx**i*%beta[1]*t[1]*'U[i]/(i!*(%nu[1])**i)$
display(invphi)$
for i:2 thru maxpow step 2 do display(U[i])$
/*=================================================*/
/* direct convergence,scale from derivative of z */
dz_by_dzeta:diff(x+%i*y,%lambda,1)$
assume(subst(%lambda=0,realpart(dz_by_dzeta))>0)$
conv:taylor(carg(dz_by_dzeta),%lambda,0,maxpow-1)$
conv:expand(subst(s=c*t,ev(conv,nouns)))$
scaleNME:1/(%nu*c)$
scale:scaleNME*taylor(cabs(dz_by_dzeta),%lambda,0,maxpow-1)$
scale:expand(subst(s=c*t,ev(scale,nouns)))$
/*=================================================*/
print("*** display convergence direct and odd H coeffts of eq7.62 *** ")$
for i:1 thru (maxpow-1) step 2 do block(
H[i]:ratsimp(coeff(conv,%lambda,i)/(t*c**i)),
if i>(sphpow-1) then H[i]:rat(subst(%beta=1,H[i])),
denH[i]:denom(H[i]),
H[i]:denH[i]*H[i],
ratvars(%beta),
H[i]:rat(collectterms(ratexpand(H[i]),%beta)) )$
conv:0$
/* reconstruct series for display */
for i:1 thru (maxpow-1) step 2 do
conv:conv+ratsimp((%lambda*c)**i*t*'H[i]/denH[i])$
display(conv)$
for i:1 thru (maxpow-1) step 2 do display(H[i])$
/*=================================================*/
print("*** display scale direct and even H coeffts of eq7.74 *** ")$
H[i]:ratsimp(coeff(scale,%lambda,i)/(c**i)),
H[i]:ev(H[i],nouns),
230
if i>=(sphpow-1) then H[i]:rat(subst(%beta=1,H[i])),

denH[i]:denom(H[i]),
H[i]:denH[i]*H[i],
ratvars(%beta),
H[i]:rat(collectterms(ratexpand(H[i]),%beta)) )$
scale:1$
scale:scale+ratsimp((%lambda*c)**i*'H[i]/denH[i]) )$
display(scale)$
for i:2 thru (maxpow-1) step 2 do display(H[i])$
/*=================================================*/
/* Preliminary: find kNME eq6.20, 7.38, to give 7.78 */
M[0]:a/(fn_nu(phi)*cos(phi))$
for i:1 thru (halfmax-1) do block([p],
M[i]:diff(M[i-1],phi,1)*fn_nu(phi)*cos(phi)/fn_rho(phi),
p:subst(e=sqrt((1-%beta[1])/((sin(phi))**2-%beta[1])),trigsimp(M[i]/M[0])),
p:p/(cos(phi)**i),
if oddp(i) then p:p/tan(phi),
E[i]:subst(cos(phi)=1/sqrt(1+t[1]**2),trigsimp(expand(trigsimp(p)))) )$
/* construct kNME of 7.78 */
kNME:1$
for i:1 thru (halfmax-1) do block([ss],
if oddp(i) then ss:t[1] else ss:1,
kNME:kNME+(1/i!)*E[i]*(c[1])**i*ss*(invpsi-psi[1])**i)$
kNME:expand(ratsimp((1/(%nu[1]*c[1]))*kNME))$
kNME:taylor(kNME,invx,0,maxpow-2)$
/*=================================================*/
/* inverse convergence,scale from derivative of zeta */
dzeta_by_dz:ev(diff(invlam+%i*invpsi,invx,1),nouns)$
assume(c[1]>0,%nu[1]>0)$
invconv:(-1)*taylor(carg(dzeta_by_dz),invx,0,maxpow-1)$
invconv:expand(subst(s=c*t,ev(invconv,nouns)))$
invscale:kNME/taylor(cabs(dzeta_by_dz),invx,0,maxpow-1)$
invscale:expand(subst(s=c*t,ev(invscale,nouns)))$
/*=================================================*/
print("*** display convergence for inverse and odd K coeffts of eq7.68 *** ")$
K[i]:ratsimp(coeff(invconv,invx,i)*(%nu[1])**i/(t[1])),
if i>(sphpow-1) then K[i]:rat(subst(%beta[1]=1,K[i])),
denK[i]:denom(K[i]),
K[i]:denK[i]*K[i],
ratvars(%beta[1]),
K[i]:rat(collectterms(ratexpand(K[i]),%beta[1])) )$
invconv:0$
for i:1 thru (maxpow-1) step 2 do
invconv:invconv+ratsimp((invx/%nu[1])**i*t[1]*'K[i]/denK[i])$
display(invconv)$
231
for i:1 thru (maxpow-1) step 2 do display(K[i])$

/*=================================================*/
print("*** display scale for inverse and even K coeffts of eq7.85 *** ")$
K[i]:ratsimp(coeff(invscale,invx,i)*(%nu[1])**i),
if i>=(sphpow-1) then K[i]:rat(subst(%beta[1]=1,K[i])),
denK[i]:denom(K[i]),
K[i]:K[i]*denK[i],
ratvars(%beta[1]),
K[i]:rat(collectterms(ratexpand(K[i]),%beta[1])) )$
invscale:1$
/* series for display */
invscale:invscale+ratsimp((invx/%nu[1])**i*'K[i]/denK[i]))$
display(invscale)$
for i:2 thru (maxpow-1) step 2 do display(K[i])$
/*=================================================*/
print("*** calculate isoscale lines using eq8.15 *** ")$
kk:k0*invscale$
ww:expand(2*(kk/k0-1)/K[2])$
ww:subst(invx=sqrt(invx2),ww)$
xhat2:expand((1/%nu[1]**2)*revert(ww,invx2))$
kill(w)$
xhat2:subst(invx2=w,xhat2)$
display(xhat2)$
xhat2:expand(ev(xhat2,nouns))$
print("K_2=",%beta[1])$
print("w = (2/K2)*(k/k0-1)")$
save("d:/redfearn.dat",all)$
print("END")$
H.7
Redfearn examples for NGGB and UTM
/*================ this file is redfearn_example.wxm =================*/

/* provides numeric data for Chapter 8 (NGGB and UTM)
*/
ratprint:false$
load ("d:/redfearn.dat")$
load ("d:/meridian.dat")$
/*=========================================*/
params(lat,lon):=''block(
%lambda:(lon-lon0)*%pi/180,
phi:lat*%pi/180,
%beta:fn_beta(phi),
%nu:fn_nu(phi),
m:merid(phi),
s:sin(phi),
c:cos(phi),
t:tan(phi),
m0:ev(merid(lat0*%pi/180),numer))$
232
easting(lat,lon)
:=''block(params(lat,lon),
ev(E0+k0*x,nouns,numer,eval,eval))$
northing(lat,lon) :=''block(params(lat,lon),
ev(N0+k0*(y-m0),nouns,numer,eval,eval))$
conv_dir(lat,lon) :=''block(params(lat,lon),
ev(180/%pi*conv,nouns,numer,eval,eval))$
scale_dir(lat,lon):=''block(params(lat,lon),
ev(k0*scale,nouns,numer,eval,eval))$
/*=========================================*/
inv_params(E,N):=''block(
invx:(E-E0)/k0,
footpoint(N):=''block(
m0:ev(merid(lat0*%pi/180),numer,eval,eval),
m_phi1: (N-N0)/k0 +m0,
quadrant:ev(qquadrant(e^2),numer),
%mu:ev((%pi/2)*m_phi1/quadrant,nouns,numer,eval,eval),
ev(phi_mu(%mu),nouns,numer,eval,eval)
),
phi[1]:footpoint(N),
c[1]:cos(phi[1]),
t[1]:tan(phi[1]),
%beta[1]:fn_beta(phi[1]),
%nu[1]:fn_nu(phi[1])
)$
latitude(E,N) :=''block(inv_params(E,N),
ev(180/%pi*invphi,nouns,numer,eval,eval))$
longitude(E,N):=''block(inv_params(E,N),
lon0+ev(invlam*180/%pi,nouns,numer,eval,eval))$
conv_inv(E,N) :=''block(inv_params(E,N),
ev(180/%pi*invconv,nouns,numer,eval,eval))$
scale_inv(E,N):=''block(inv_params(E,N),
ev(k0*invscale,nouns,numer,eval,eval))$
/*=========================================*/
display_all():=''block(
fmt1:"~a ~9,5f ~a ~9,5f ~% ~a ~9,3f ~a ~9,3f ~% ~a ~9,5f ~a ~7,5f ~% ~%",
printf(true,fmt1," lat:
",lat,"
lon: ",lon,"
E: ",E,"
N: ",N,
"conv:
",conv_prt," scale:
",scale_prt))$
/*=========================================*/
direct(lat,lon):=''block(E:easting(lat,lon),
N:northing(lat,lon),
scale_prt:scale_dir(lat,lon), conv_prt:conv_dir(lat,lon),
display_all() )$
inverse(E,N):=''block(
lat:latitude(E,N),
lon:longitude(E,N),
scale_prt:scale_inv(E,N),
conv_prt:conv_inv(E,N),
display_all() )$
/*=========================================*/
errors(lat,lon):=''block(
E:easting(lat,lon),
N:northing(lat,lon),
inv_lat:latitude(E,N),
inv_lon:longitude(E,N),
err_lat:lat-inv_lat,
err_lon:lon-inv_lon,
inv_E:easting(inv_lat,inv_lon), inv_N:northing(inv_lat,inv_lon),
err_E:E-inv_E,
err_N:N-inv_N,
fmt1:"~a ~12,8f ~a ~12,8f ~a ~8,2e~%",

printf(true,fmt1,"lat:",lat," inv_lat:",inv_lat," err_lat:",err_lat),
printf(true,fmt1,"lon:",lon," inv_lon:",inv_lon," err_lon:",err_lon),
fmt2:"~a ~12,3f ~a ~12,3f ~a ~8,2e~%",
printf(true,fmt2," E:",E,"
inv_E:",inv_E,"
err_E:",err_E),
printf(true,fmt2," N:",N,"
inv_N:",inv_N,"
err_N:",err_N),
print(""))$
/*=========================================*/
isoscale(N,k):=''block(inv_params(0,N),
w:2*(k/k0 -1)/%beta[1],
mm:ev(xhat2,numer),
mm:k0*%nu[1]*sqrt(mm),
fmt1:"~a ~6,4f ~a ~11,3f ~a ~9,3f~%",
printf(true,fmt1,"k:",k," N:",N," E:",mm))$
/*=========================================*/
convergence(lat,lon):=''block([d,m,s,sig],
dd:conv_dir(lat,lon),
sig:signum(dd),
dd:abs(dd),
d:floor(dd),
m:floor((dd-d)*60), s:round((dd-d-m/60)*3600), d:sig*d,
printf(true,"~a~4d~a~4d~a~4d~a~4d~a~4d~a~%",
"lon=",lon," lat=",lat,"
conv=",d,"d",m,"m",s,"s") )$
conv2dms(dd):=''block([r,d,m,s],
if (dd<0) then sigg:"E" else sigg:"W",
dd:abs(dd),
d:floor(dd), m:floor((dd-d)*60), s:(dd-d-m/60)*3600,
printf(true,"~3d~a~3d~a~6,2f~a~a~%",d,"deg",m,"'",s,"''",sigg))$
/*=========================================*/
print("===== NGGB examples =====")$
block(a:6377563.396, e:0.0816733724, k0:0.9996012717,
lat0:49, lon0:-2, E0:400000, N0:-100000, datum:"NGGB")$
display(a,e)$
direct(56.09545049,-3.350356146)$
print("home")$
direct(55.95127778,-3.182194444)$
print("Edinburgh sheet corners")$
inverse(316000,690000)$ inverse(356000,690000)$
inverse(316000,650000)$ inverse(356000,650000)$
print("true origin")$
direct(49,-2)$
print("false origin")$
inverse(0,0)$
print("errors after direct and inverse transformation")$
errors(52.65757,1.71792)$
print("isoscale coordinates on projection")$
for i:0 thru 3 do isoscale(i*400000,1.0000)$
print("convergence along meridian")$
for i:60 thru 50 step -2 do block(convergence(i,-7))$
print("Edinburgh sheet: convergence at corners")$
233
print("
print("
print("
print("
E=316000,
E=316000,
E=356000,
E=356000,
N=690000")$
N=650000")$
N=690000")$
N=650000")$
234
conv2dms(conv_inv(316000,690000))$
print("===== WGS84 CM=Greenwich (N hemishere only) =====")$

block(a:6378137, e:0.0818191908, k0:0.9996, lat0:0, lon0:0,
E0:500000,
N0:0)$
display(a,e)$
direct(84,0)$ direct(84,-3)$ direct(84,3)$
direct(0,0)$
direct(0,-3)$
direct(0,3)$
print("errors after direct and inverse transformation")$
errors(84,3)$
print("isoscale coordinates on projection")$
print("convergence along meridian")$
convergence(84,3)$
for i:80 thru 0 step -20 do convergence(i,3)$
print("")$
"END";
235
236
Appendix
Literature and links

This bibliography lists books, journal articles, Wikipedia articles and web sites under a few
broad subject headings: map projections, geodesy, geodesics, mathematics and people. Full
details of some items have links to the next appendix (References and Bibliography).
The National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency provides access to numerous document.
Wikipedia
The Wikipedia pages are variable in quality but they often include useful references to
further material.
Earth radius
Zenos paradox
Gall-Peters projection
Geoid
Ellipsoid of revolution
Spheroid
Figure of the Earth
meridian arc
French Geodesic Mission to Peru
French Geodesic Mission to Finland
Datum.
North American datum
OSGB36
Ordnance Survey
Latitude
World Geodetic System
Point scale
Theorema Egregium
Retriangulation of Great Britain
Appendix L. Literature and links
237
Global Positioning System

Triangulation
Global Positioning System
Great-circle distance
George Biddell Airy
Alexander Ross Clarke
George Everest
Carl Friedrich Gauss
Thomas Harriot
William Lambton
Pedro Nunes
Web links
Map production software
Geocart (2008): a commercial map construction program. (Used in the preparation of the
TM images in Chapters 3 and 8.)
Online coordinate converters

GeoConvert: an online converter from WGS to UTM. Uses highly accurate transformation
equations of Karney (2010).
Geotrans (2010): a free converter which may be downloaded from the National GeospatialIntelligence Agency. WGS to UTM and many other possibilities. Based directly on the
Redfearn transformations of Chapter 7.
Geoscience Australia provides online coordinate conversion and several spreadsheet calculators available through the links on page 2 of the manual. The spreadsheets were designed
for use in Australia only but can be converted to global use by minor modifications.
Online calculators for geodesics, distance, rhumbs, etc

GeodSolve: an online calculator for WGS84 only. Solves direct and inverse problems. Uses
highly accurate transformation equations of Karney (2010).
Ed Williams Aviation page. Choice of several ellipsoids as well as mean sphere. Also
calculators for way points, rhumb lines etc.
FAI: Choice of WGS ellipsoid or mean sphere.
csgnet Sphere only. Radius such that one arc minute is equal to nautical mile. Way points.
238
Meridional parts
Map projections
Maling (1992) Coordinate Systems and Map Projections

Intermediate level text book covering the general features of all projections and details
of some. no derivation of the Redfearn formulae. Lots of interesting material.
Snyder (1987) Map Projections: a Working Manual

Comprehensive summary of most projections in practical use but with no derivations.
Free. (See link)
Snyder (1993) Flattening the Earth: Two Thousand Years of Map Projections.
Comprehensive survey of the history of projections. Inexpensive paperback.
Bugayevskiy and Snyder (1995) Map Projections: A Reference Manual,

Advanced text book.
OSGB (1999) A guide to coordinate systems in Great Britain here.

Excellent short survey of geodesy and projections.
Richardus and Adler (1972) Map Projections,

A highly condensed advanced text.
Irish National Grid
Geodesy
Torge (1980) Geodesy

Clear but fairly advanced survey based on modern satellite methods. Available in an
inexpensive edition.
The American Practical Navigator

Good very elementary discussion. (Chapter 2)
OSGB (1999) A guide to coordinate systems in Great Britain here.

Excellent short survey of geodesy and projections.
Clarke (1880) Geodesy

Very clear classic now available as inexpensive reprint (see link). The techniques are
outmoded but there are excellent discussions of early determinations of the figure of
the Earth and the definition of the metre.
Laub (1983) Geodesy and Map Projections
WGS (1984) Earth gravitational model.
239
WGS (1984) Geodesy for the Layman
WGS (1984) World Geodetic System 1984 - Its Definition and Relationships with
Local Geodetic Systems
Survey Review (SR)

The Survey Review was the principal British source of papers on surveying and cartography at the time (mid twentieth century) when the first modern British maps based on the
transverse Mercator projection were being prepared by the OSGB. Note that until 1962 the
journal was entitled the Empire Survey Review.
Two important papers are included below. The first, by Lee, is the first article in the
journal to present a correct derivation of the Transverse Mercator projection formulae using
Krugers lambda expansion. The second paper, by Redfearn, presents a derivation of the
series to high enough order to be applicable to all practical problems. These are the papers
which are the basis of this article. A number of other papers from the journal are related to
the Transverse Mercator projection.
It should be said at once that these papers are fairly terse when it comes to the derivations
of the projection formulae. The present article errs in the other direction and it is fair to say
that no extra technical details will be found in the original papers. Note also that this article
uses a different convention for the names of axes; basically x and y are exchanged.
Lee (1945) The transverse Mercator projection of the spheroid
Lee (1946a) The nomenclature of map projections,
Lee (1946b) The convergence of the meridians
Lee (1954) A transverse Mercator projection of the spheroid alternative to the GaussKruger form
Lee (1976) Conformal projections based on Jacobian elliptic functions
Redfearn (1948) Transverse Mercator formulae
Hotine (1946) The orthomorphic projection of the spheroid, parts IV
Geodesics
Vincenty (1976) Direct and inverse solutions of geodesics on the ellipsoid with applications of nested tables
The formulae encoded into many calculations of ellipsoid geodesics. Now improved
by the following:
Karney (2012) Accurate algorithms which are applicable to near-antipodal points

(where Vincenty fails).
240
Mathematics
The appendices include all the mathematics we require and a little more besides. They are
derived from first principles and should hopefully not require further background reading.
In their preparation I found that modern texts were not helpful on the whole because they
were too distant from application. The older books were much more useful. A few texts are
listed here.
Spherical Trigonometry
Smart (1962) Textbook on spherical astronomy

First chapter is a compact survey of Spherical Trigonometry.
Todhunter (1859) Spherical Trigonometry,

A splendid traditional account of the subject. Many editions. Final edition (1901)
revised by J G Leathem is best.
Euclid (300BC) The elements.

Book 11 contains results required by Todhunter.
Differential Geometry
W EATHERBURN C E, (1939), Differential Geometry, Cambridge.

An old, but good, straightforward account in approachable notation. Modern texts
tend to set up much more elaborate machinery before encountering reality.
Lagrange Reversion
The derivation of the Lagrange expansions has essentially disappeared from modern texts.
The proof in Appendix B is a combination of
W HITTAKER C E, (1902), Modern Analysis, Cambridge.
C OPSON E T, (1935), Theory of Functions of a Complex Variable, Oxford
241
More references
Surveying
R AINSFORD H F, (1957), Survey adjustments and least squares, Constable, EUMAIN

.52633 R AI
Projections
JACKSON J E, (1987), Sphere, Spheroid and Projections for Surveyors, BSP Professional Books, ISBN : 0632-01867-4. [ROB TA 549 .Jac]
B OMFORD , A G (1962), Survey Review, Vol 16, Part 125 pp 318327.

Transverse Mercator arc-to-chord and finite distance scale factor formulae.
C OLE , J H (1946), Survey Review, Vol 8, Part 59 pp 191194.

Computation of distances of long arcs for radio purposes.
H IRVONEN, R A (1953), Bulletin Geodesique, Part 30, pp 369392.

Two papers: (a) Nutshell tables of mathematical functions for interpolation with calculating machines; (b) Tables for the computation of long lines.
H IRVONEN, R A (1957), Bulletin Geodesique, Part 43, pp 315.

Computations of triangulations on the ellipsoid by the aid of closed formulas.
H OTINE, M (1946b), Survey Review, Vol 8, Part 61 pp 276277.

Nomenclature of map projections.
L AMBERT, W D (1944), Survey Review, Vol 7, Part 50 pp 172176.

The distance between two widely spaced points on the surface of the Earth. (This is
actually a review of a paper by Lambert).
L AUF, G B (1948), Survey Review, Vol 9, Part 68 pp 259260.

The length of the meridian arc.
L EE, L P (1946b), Survey Review, Vol 8, Part 60 pp 217219.

Nomenclature of map projections.
L EE , L P (1946c), Survey Review, Vol 8, Part 61 pp 267271.

The convergence of the Meridians.
L EE, L P (1954), Survey Review, Vol 12, Part 87 pp 1217.

A transverse Mercator projection of the spheroid alternative to the Gauss-Kruger
form.
SR
YES
242
R AINSFORD, H F (1946), Survey Review, Vol 8, Part 56 pp 5368 and Part 57

pp 102114.
The Clarke formulae for latitude, longitude and reverse azimuth, with corrective terms
on very long lines. Part I: Large spheroidal triangles. Part II: The Clarke formulae in
detail.
R AINSFORD, H F (1949), Survey Review, Vol 10, Parts 71,72 pp 1929 and 7481.
Long lines on the earth: various formulae.
R AINSFORD, H F (1953), Bulletin Geodesique, Part 37, pages 1222.

Long Geodesics on the ellipsoid.
ROBBINS, A R (1962), Survey Review, Vol 16, Part 125 pp 301309.

Long lines on the spheroid.
Differential Geometry
G RAUSTEIN W C, (1966), Differential Geometry, Dover reprint of original Macmillan edition. [JCMB QA 641 Gra]
S TRUIK D J, (1950, 1961), Differential Geometry, AddisonWesley (Lib. Cong, 61

12774) [JCMB QA 641 Str]
Geodesy
C LARKE, A R (1880), Geodesy, Clarendon Press, Oxford.

A classic which is old enough to be very clear! He concludes with interesting chapters
showing how (many) survey results are used to define a measured ellipsoid. His
ellipsoid is still the basis of many map projections: it was used by the United States
until very recently.
B OMFORD G, (1971), Geodesy, Clarendon Press, Oxford.

A more modern classic: it is heavy going but it is all there.
L EICK A, (1995), GPS satellite surveying, Wiley, ISBN : ??? . [EULIB .526982 Lei.]
S MITH J R, (1997), Introduction to geodesy : the history and concepts of modern

geodesy, Wiley, ISBN : ??? . [NATLIB SP2.97.2241]
VANICEK P, K RAKIWSKY E, (1982), Geodesy: the concepts, North-Holland, ISBN :

0444877754, PBK 0444877770 . [EUROB QB281 Tor]
K EAY, J (2000), The Great Arc, Harper-Collins, ISBN : 0 00 257062 9 .
243
244
Appendix
References and Bibliography
A DAMS, Oscar S, 1921, Latitude Developments Connected With Geodesy and

Cartography, (with tables, including a table for Lambert equal area meridional
projection). Special Publication No. 67 of the US Coast and Geodetic Survey. A
facsimile of this publication is available from the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (http://www.noaa.gov) at
http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/cgs specpubs/QB275U35no671921.pdf
NB: Adams uses the the term isometric latitude for the conformal latitude of this article.
[Cited page 36, 103, 105, 106, 108]
B ESSEL, F, W, 1825. Uber

die Berechnung der geographischen Langen und Breiten aus
geodatischen Vermessungen. Astronomische Nachrichten, volume 4, Issue 16,
p.241254. Translated into English by Karney C, F, F and Deakin R, E as The
calculation of longitude and latitude from geodesic measurements. Astronomische
Nachrichten, volume 331, Issue 8, p.852861 (2010). A copy of the preprint may be
accessed from GeographicLib or directly at Archiv.org. [Cited page 97, 99]
B UGAYEVSKIY, L. M. and S NYDER J, P., 1995, Map Projections: A Reference Manual,
CRC Press, ISBN : ISBN 0748403043. [Cited page 238]
C LARKE, Alexander Ross, 1880, Geodesy. Clarendon Press. Currently (2012) available
from Forgotton Books at
http://www.forgottenbooks.org/info/Geodesy 1000151390.php. It is also available
online at http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o IOPzB--OAC&lpg=PA1&dq=
alexander%20ross%20clarke&pg=PAI#v=onepage&q&f=false ISBN:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781440088650 [Cited page 10, 10,
197, 199, 238]
C LENSHAW, C. W., 1955, A note on the summation of Chebyshev series, Math. Tables
Aids Comput., 9(51), 118120, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2002068. [Cited page ]
D EAKIN, R, E, 2010. A useful selection of articles is available at
http://user.gs.rmit.edu.au/rod/publications.htm: (1) Geometric Geodesy A, (2) Bessels
method for Geodesics, (3) The loxodrome on an Ellipsoid, (4) The Geoid, (5) A guide to
map projections, (6) The Gauss-Krueger transverse Mercator projection. [Cited page
105]
Appendix R. References and Bibliography
245
D ELAMBRE, Jean Baptiste Joseph, 1799 Methodes Analytiques pour la Dtermination dun
Arc du Meridien; precedees dun memoire sur le meme sujet par A. M. Legendre
Google books [Cited page 98]
D OZIER, J. 1980, Improved algorithm for calculation of UTM and geodetic coordinates,
Technical Report NESS 81, NOAA,
http://fiesta.bren.ucsb.edu/dozier/Pubs/DozierUTM1980.pdf. [Cited page 151]
E NGSAGER, K. E. and P ODER, K., 2007, A highly accurate world wide algorithm for the
transverse Mercator mapping (almost), in Proc. XXIII Intl. Cartographic Conf.
(ICC2007), Moscow [Cited page ]
E UCLID, 300BC,The elements. For references see Wikipedia and David Joyce at Clark
university. [Cited page 183, 240]
G AUSS, Karl Friedrich, 1827, General Investigations of Curved Surfaces. Published in
Latin in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Gottingen. A translation made in 1902,
published by the University of Princeton, is available at the Gutenberg Project:
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/36856/36856-pdf.pdf See also
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauss [Cited page 12]
G EOCART, 2008, Geocart, version 3.0, http://www.mapthematics.com. [Cited page 237]
G EOTRANS, 2010, Geographic translator, version 3.0 is available from National Geodesy
and Geophysics publications. [Cited page 134, 137, 237]
G IRARD, Albert, 1626, Trigonometrie. For an account of his life see the MacTutor History
of Mathematics archive at the University of St Andrews. An earlier (about 1619?) proof
by Thomas Harriot was not published. [Cited page 197]
H ALLEY, Edmond, 1696, An easie demonstration of the analogy of the logarithmick
tangents to the meridian line or sum of the tangents, with various methods for
computing the same, to the utmost exactness , Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. London 19, 1696,
pp199214. Full text [Cited page 17]
H ELMERT F, R, 1880, Die Mathematischen und Physikalischen Theori- een der Hoheren
Geodasie, volume1. Teubner, Leipzig. Google books. Translated into English by
Aeronautical chart and information center (St Louis, 1964) as Mathematical and
physical theories of higher geodesy, Part 1. A copy of this translation is available at
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H OLLANDER, Raymond d., 2005, Loxodromie et projection de Mercator. Published in
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251
252
Index
Index
Africa, size, 30
Airy(1830) ellipsoid, 11
analytic functions, 209
area of oblate ellipsoid, 107
aspect ratio, 30
authalic latitude, 90, 103, 107
auxiliary latitudes, 102
azimuth, 14, 27, 61, 62, 112
Bond, Henry, 17
calculus of variations, 201
Cartesian coordinates of ellipsoid, 90
cartography, 12, 225
CauchyRiemann conditions, 64, 75, 77, 122,
210
Clarke(1866) ellipsoid, 10, 11
complex variables, 7475, 205
conformal latitude, 90, 103, 104, 112, 113
conformal projection, 13, 35, 103
conformality
analytic functions, 212
conditions, see CauchyRiemann
scale isotropy, 64
convergence, see grid convergence
curvature, 153161
curvature in prime vertical, 94
curvature of the ellipsoid, 93
curvature of the meridian, 94
curvature quotient , 95
datum, 10
GRS80, 10
ID1830, 11
NAD27, 11
NAD83, 11
OSGB36, 11
degreeradian conversion, 22
distance on the sphere, 23
double projection, 102, 104, 112
eastings and northings, 138

eccentricity, 88
ellipsoid
Airy1830, 10
Clarke1866, 10
curvature, 93, 155
infinitesimal element, 97
meridian distance, 96, 98, 100
metric, 96
normal section, 93
parameters a, b, e, f , n, e0 , 88
prime vertical, 93
principal curvature, 95
WGS84, 88
ellipsoid of revolution, 9, 87
ellipsoid, area, 107
elliptic integral, 97
equal area projection, 13, 31
equidistant projection, 30
Eulers formula, 95, 160
EulerLagrange equations, 202
figure of the Earth, 9
fixed point iteration, 91, 101, 113
flattening, 10, 88
footpoint, 60
footpoint latitude, 60, 118
footpoint parameter, 73, 118
Gall projection, 46
Gauss, 17
GaussKruger projection, 17
geocentric latitude, 87
geodesic, 97
geodesy, 9, 223
geodetic latitude, 87
Geotrans (Geographic translator), 134
graticule, 14, 50
great circle, 21
Greenland, size, 30
Index
grid bearing, 15, 27, 61, 62

grid convergence, 15, 61, 62, 128, 145
grid north, 62
grid origins, true and false, 135
grid reference system
MGRS, 138
NGGB, 139
UTM, 138
GRS(1980) ellipsoid, 10
Halley, Edmond, 17
Harriot, Thomas, 17
Helmerts meridian distance, 100
Indian datum, 11
infinitesimal element
ellipsoid, 97
sphere , 24
inverse meridian distance, 101
isometric latitude, 36, 90, 111
isotropic scale, see scale
Lagrange expansion, 78, 163175
Lagrange reversion, 227
Lambert, Johann, 17, 31, 49
latitude
authalic, 90, 103, 107
auxiliary, 102
conformal, 90, 103, 104, 112, 113
geocentric, 87, 90
geodetic, 87
isometric, 36, 90, 111
parametric, 90, 92
rectifying, 90, 101, 103, 106
reduced, 90, 92
Lee, L P, 226
local scale, see scale
loxodrome, 37
Maling, D H, 225
Maxima, 215
Mercator parameter, 36, 80, 103, 111
Mercator projection
NMS, 12, 15, 3247
NMSTMS, 7175
TMS, 12, 15, 4969
NME, 12, 15, 111, 111
TME, 12, 15, 117134
British grid, see NGGB
oblique, 12
universal, see UTM
253
Mercator projections
TME, 226
Mercator, Gerardus, 15
meridian, 21, 87
meridian arc surveys, 10
meridian curvature, 94
meridian distance, 60, 98, 118
inverse, 101
Bessels form, 99
equator to pole, 100
Helmerts form, 100
metric, 96
Meusniers theorem, 94, 158
mil, 22
Molyneux, Emery, 16
Napier, 17
National Grid of Great Britain, see NGGB
nautical mile, 24
Newton-Raphson method, 101
NGGB, 19, 62, 139
North American datum, 11
Ordnance Survey of Great Britain, see OSGB
orthomorphic projection, 13
OSGB, 11, 13, 14, 91, 150, 223
OSGB36 datum, 11
parametric latitude, 92
Peters projection, 46
plane chart, 30
Plate Carree projection, 30
point scale, see scale
polar distance, 100
portolans, 30
prime vertical plane, 93
principal curvature, 95
projection
conformal, 13, 35, 103
double projection, 102, 104
equal area, 13
equidistant, 29
equidistant projection, 30
equirectangular, 29
faithfulness criteria, 12
Gall, 46
GaussKruger, 17
Lambert equal area, 31
Mercator, see Mercator projections
normal cylindrical, 26
orthomorphic, 13
Index
Peters, 46
plane chart, 30
Plate Carree, 29, 30
Ptolemy, 30
singular points, 12
Universal Mercator, see UTM
Ptolemy, 30
radiandegree conversion, 22
rectifying latitude, 90, 101, 103, 106
Redfearn, J C B, 121, 132, 226
reduced latitude, 90, 92
reference ellipsoid, 10
reference grid, 14
RF, 27
rhumb line, 37, 111
scale, 12, 14
NGGB and UTM, 142
area, 28
azimuth, 28
254
isotropic, 13
Mercator, 28, 45
Mercator, transverse, 61, 129
meridian (h), 28
secant projections, 45
small circle, 21
South America, size, 30
spherical limit, 95, 96, 120
spherical trigonometry, 50, 183196, 227
spheroid, 9
Survey Review, 226
topographic surveying, 10
true north, 62
Universal Transverse Mercator, see UTM
UTM, 19, 49, 62, 223
WGS84, 10, 88, 98, 100
Wikipedia articles, 223
Wright, Edward, 16

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THE

THE NORMAL AND TRANSVERSE

THE SPHERE AND THE ELLIPSOID

This article describes the mathematics of the normal and transverse

Geodesy and the Figure of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The criteria for a faithful map projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The representative fraction (RF) and the scale factor . . . . . . . . . . .

Graticules, grids, azimuths and bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Normal Mercator on the sphere: NMS

Coordinates and distance on the sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Normal (equatorial) cylindrical projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Four examples of normal cylindrical projections . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The normal Mercator projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Rhumb lines and loxodromes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Distances on rhumbs and great circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The secant normal Mercator projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Transverse Mercator on the sphere: TMS

The derivation of the TMS formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Features of the TMS projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Meridian distance, footpoint and footpoint latitude . . . . . . . . . . .

The scale factor for the TMS projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Azimuths and grid bearings in TMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The grid convergence of the TMS projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Conformality of general projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Series expansions for the unmodified TMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

NMS to TMS by complex variables

Closed formulae for the TMS transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Transformation to the TMS series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The inverse complex series: an alternative method . . . . . . . . . . . .

Scale and convergence in TMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The geometry of the ellipsoid

Coordinates on the ellipsoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The parameters of the ellipsoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Parameterisation by geodetic latitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Cartesian and geographic coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The reduced or parametric latitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The curvature of the ellipsoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Distances on the ellipsoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The meridian distance on the ellipsoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Inverse meridian distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.10 Auxiliary latitudes double projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.11 The conformal latitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.12 The rectifying latitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.13 The authalic latitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.14 Ellipsoid: summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Normal Mercator on the ellipsoid (NME)

The direct transformation for NME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The inverse transformation for NME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The scale factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Transverse Mercator on the ellipsoid (TME)

Derivation of the Redfearn series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Convergence and scale in TME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Convergence in geographical coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Convergence in projection coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Scale factor in geographical coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Scale factor in projection coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Redfearns modified (secant) TME series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Coordinates, grids and origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The UTM projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

UTM coordinate systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .