CAMISurvivalManual Training

OK-06-033
BASIC SURVIVAL SKILLS

FOR AVIATION
OFFICE OF AEROSPACE MEDICINE
CIVIL AEROSPACE MEDICAL INSTITUTE
AEROMEDICAL EDUCATION DIVISION
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the Civil Aerospace Medical Institute (CAMI). CAMI
is part of the FAAs Office of Aerospace Medicine (OAM). As an integral
part of the OAM mission, CAMI has several responsibilities. One responsibility tasked to CAMIs Aerospace Medical Education Division is to assure
safety and promote aviation excellence through aeromedical education. To
help ensure that this mission becomes reality, the Aerospace Medical Education Division, through the Airman Education Programs, established a one
day post-crash survival course.
This course is designed as an introduction to survival, providing
the basic knowledge and skills for coping with various survival situations
and environments. If your desire is to participate in a more extensive course
than ours you will find many highly qualified alternatives, quite possibly in
your local area.
Because no two survival episodes are identical, there is no "PAT"
answer to any one-survival question. Your instructors have extensive background and training, and have conducted basic survival training for the military. If you have any questions on survival, please ask. If we don't have the
answer, we will find one for you.
Upon completion, you will have an opportunity to critique the
course. Please take the opportunity to provide us with your thoughts concerning the course, instructors, training aids. This will be your best opportunity to express your opinion on how we might improve this course.
Enjoy the course.
NOTES
CIVIL AEROSPACE MEDICAL INSTITUTE
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Director: Melchor J. Antuano, M.D.
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AEROSPACE MEDICAL EDUCATION DIVISION

Manager: Brian S. Pinkston, M.D., M.P.H.
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AIRMAN EDUCATION PROGRAMS

Team Leader: Rogers V. Shaw II
Larry Bo Boshers
JR Brown
Donald DeMuth
Eric Bart Simson
Roger Storey
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Contact Information
FAA, Civil Aerospace Medical Institute
Airman Education Programs, AAM-400
P.O. Box 25082
Oklahoma City, OK 73125
Office: 405-954-4837
Fax: 405-954-2305
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Website
http://www.faa.gov/pilots/training/airman_education
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
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Psychology of survival
Page 4
Search and rescue
Page 11
Signaling...
Page 17
Hotland survival...
Page 34
Coldland survival.
Page 44
Tropical survival..
Page 52
Water survival..
Page 60
Kits, rafts, and accessories..
Page 88
FAA kits, rafts, and accessories.
Page 103
Pick-up devices.
Page 114
Fire building.
Page 120
First Aid/Self Aid.
Page 125
Quiz...
Page 138
Advisory Circular 120-47.
Page AC-1
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PSYCHOLOGY OF SURVIVAL
Post-crash survival should be a subject of interest to all who fly.
However, ask yourself the following question; how serious do I take the subject? The answers will vary from person to person, and from personality to
personality. The chances of actually being thrust into a multi-day post-crash
survival scenario are remote. Still, statistics prove that it can happen. If it happens to you, are you prepared to deal with the stressors associated with a postcrash environment? Before you can start dealing with first aid, or signaling,
you must be able to deal with yourself mentally. This chapter will address the
many mental stressors that can be involved in a post crash survival situation,
and how you can deal with them successfully.
When preparing for a potential survival situation you must first admit
to yourself that it can happen. Once you have taken this first step, you can
then start preparing for an event that will hopefully never occur.
Preparing for an event that may never occur is not always easy.
However, if you take the time to prepare yourself both mentally and physically, your chances of survival will increase dramatically. Having the right
frame of mind and being able to think productively are critical. Having
knowledge of the intended use of gear, or the ability to improvise using gear,
increases confidence and ultimately your chances of survival.
Throughout your survival experience, it will be imperative to maintain a positive mental attitude. Having a positive outlook may be the difference between success and failure. A positive mental attitude will be tested by
many factors. These factors will test your ability to cope with the situation,
and will test your will to survive.
Several factors that could influence your positive outlook:
Post Crash Shock - Being suddenly introduced to a new and threatening environment can be a very traumatic experience. Your ability to handle
this change will depend heavily on your mental state. A person who thinks
randomly and/or irrationally will act in the same manner. After evacuating
the aircraft and treating for injuries, you should sit down and take an objective
look at your situation. If you have water, drink it, it will help you to think
rationally and minimize the risk of shock. (Refer to S.TO.P. on pg. 1-5 for
more on this topic.)
Injury and Illness - Whatever affects the mind will in turn, affect
the body. This is the principal behind the whole body concept. A continuous,
nagging injury can take away from a positive mental attitude. Try to remember that pain is the body's way of telling you something is wrong. Treat the
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(18) A survival kit, appropriately equipped. Some of the items

which could be included in the survival kit are:
(i) Triangular cloths.
(ii) Bandages.
(iii) Eye ointments.
(iv) Water disinfection tablets.
(v) Sun protection balsam.
(vi) Heat retention foils.
(vii) Burning glass.
(viii) Seasickness tablets.
(ix) Ammonia inhalants.
(x) Packets with plaster.
/s/
William T. Brennan
Acting Director of Flight Standards
injury that causes the pain. If the pain persists, keep your mind busy by doing
the work necessary to be rescued.
Thirst and Hunger - For the body and mind to function normally, it
must have food and water. Water is essential to survival. Life expectancy
without water, in extreme conditions, is three days. Even when you are mildly
dehydrated, mental skills decrease. When you feel thirsty, you are already
dehydrated. If you get into the aircraft thirsty, then you are also going into
your survival experience dehydrated. By entering the aircraft already hydrated,
you can prevent this.
When dealing with hunger, it is important to remember that the average person can survive 30 days without food. Human beings are creatures of
habit. We have established our eating schedule over many years (breakfast: 6 8 a.m., lunch: 11 a.m. - 1 p.m., dinner: 5 - 8 p.m.). During a survival episode,
when these established times are upon you, the body is expecting to be fed.
The expectation can be overwhelming. Try to keep your mind off food by doing the things necessary to be rescued.
Cold and Heat Most survival skills begin with common sense. If
you step outside and it is cold, you simply seek a warm shelter. The shelter
may come in the form of a jacket or simply re-entering the aircraft. Either way,
you have solved the problem.
Fatigue and Sleep Deprivation - Fatigue exist in two forms: physical
fatigue and mental fatigue. Each form of fatigue will hasten the onset of the
other (whole body concept). Physical fatigue stems from overexertion. The
best remedy is prevention. Pace yourself and take frequent rest breaks. Mental
fatigue is caused by the stress placed upon the mind. One remedy for this is to
routinely take your mind off your situation. The best remedy for fatigue is rest
and sleep. If you are fatigued, the best thing to do is sleep. When sleeping, the
muscles relax and the body unwinds. Also it is believed that during sleep the
mind releases useless information and resets your biological clock. Sleep may
be difficult in this new environment, however, if sleep is put off even for a day,
you will become fatigued.
Depression Psychologically, this is potentially the biggest obstacle
that you as a survivor will have to overcome. You, or anyone in your group,
who are suffering from depression will experience long periods of sadness or
negative feelings. If you let depression progress it can create feelings of fear,
guilt, and helplessness. This may lead to a loss of interest in the basic needs for
life. Depression usually occurs after a person has fulfilled their basic needs,
and when there is plenty of down time. Keep your mind busy with productive thoughts, such as signaling or improving your shelter.
There are many reactions to stress, and they will vary from person to
AC-3
person. Fear, anxiety, panic, boredom and helplessness are all common emotions experienced in a survival situation. If you dont keep your emotions under control they can dramatically reduce your chances for survival.
Fear and Anxiety- Fear and anxiety are naturally occurring emotions.
Anxiety is simply fear at the subconscious level and is described as a feeling of
uneasiness. In this state a person is worried about what might happen instead
of what is happening. If anxiety is not dealt with, it can cause panic. Panic is
an irrational state of mind and is counter-productive to a survival situation.
Fear is at the conscious level. You know what frightens you. Fear, left undealt
with, may turn into panic. You must be in control of your fear. To control
fear, you must learn to recognize it. Fear produces symptoms, both physiological and psychological. It is important to remember that the symptoms stem
from the body going into the "fight or flight" mode. The chart below list symptoms commonly associated with fear.
PHYSICAL
MENTAL
Quickening of the pulse
Hostile, irritable
Dilation of the pupils
Talkative, speechless
Perspiration of hands,
soles of feet
Frequent urination
Feelings of unreality
Laughing - Crying
Confusion
Dry mouth and throat
Feeling of Flight
Fight or Flight
Butterflies in stomach
Nauseavomiting
(4) Inflation devices, including hand pumps and cylinders (that

is, carbon dioxide bottles), for emergency inflation.
(5) Safety/inflation relief valves.
(6) Canopy and appropriate equipment to erect the canopy.
(7) Position lights.
(8) Hook type knife, sheathed and secured by a retaining line.
(9) Placards that give the location of raft equipment and are consistent with placard requirements.
(10) Propelling devices such as oars, or in smaller rafts, glove
paddles.
(11) Water catchment devices, including bailing buckets, reincatchment equipment, cups, and sponges.
(12) Signaling devices including:
(i) At least one approved pyrotechnic signaling device.
(ii) one signaling mirror.
(iii) One spotlight or flashlight (including a spare bulb) having at least two "D" cell batteries or equivalent.
(iv) One police whistle.
(v) One dye marker.
1-1 PHYSICAL AND MENTAL SYMPTOMS OF FATIGUE
(vi) Radio beacon with water activated battery.
Panic When faced with danger, individuals tend to panic or freeze.

Uncontrollable irrational behavior tends to follow. This will vary, in degree,
from individual to individual. Panic is brought on by sudden fear. If not dealt
with it can rapidly spread through an entire group.
(vii) Radar reflector.
Once recognized positive action should be taken to control the fear.

These positive steps, along with knowledge and training, will enhance your
will to survive. Training can help you recognize your reaction to fear.
Through training, you should learn to think, plan, and act logically, when confronted with fear.
Boredom and Hopelessness Boredom may be accompanied by
feelings of anxiety, strain, or depression. You should remain mentally focused
6
(13) One magnetic compass.

(14) A 2-day supply of emergency food rations supplying at
least 1,000 calories a day for each person.
(15) One saltwater desalting kit for each two persons the raft is
rated to carry or two pints of water for each person the raft is
rated to carry.
(16) One fishing kit.
(17) One book on survival, appropriate for any area.
AC-2
AC 120-47 - SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT FOR USE IN

OVERWATER OPERATIONS
Department of Transportation
Federal Aviation Administration
with positive task. If there are multiple survivors, you may split up the equipment, and tasks, into responsibility areas. These responsibilities could include
signaling, first aid, water procurement, etc. The key is to continually be working the mind towards positive and productive thoughts.
WILL TO SURVIVE
6/12/87
Initiated by: AFS-220
In any survival situation, there are priorities. These priorities are established based on how long a human can survive without each item. The list
below is based on the "Rule of Three's":
1. PURPOSE.
The purpose of this advisory circular is to provide information regarding the survival items that should be carried during aircraft extended
overwater operations. This provides one means, but not the only
means, for compliance with the pertinent regulations.
2. RELATED FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS (FAR) SECTIONS.
121.339, 121.340, 125.209, and 135.167.
3. BACKGROUND.
While the occurrences of water landings in which aircraft occupants depend on overwater equipment for survival are rare, the possibility does
exist. Therefore, information about the items which should be included in
overwater equipment is important and is provided here. Additional background information and standards are provided in Technical Standards
Orders (TSO) C13e, C69a, C70a, C85, and C91a.
4. DISCUSSION.
The recommended equipment should meet applicable TSO. This equipment includes, but is not limited to, the following:
a. Life preserver for each occupant of the aircraft.
b. Rafts or slide/rafts with appropriate buoyancy and sufficient capacity for everyone on board the aircraft and which have a boarding station.
c. Rafts (and slide/rafts where appropriate) should be equipped with
the following:
(1) Lines, including an inflation/mooring line with a snaphook,
rescue or life line, and a heaving or trailing line.
(2) Sea anchors.
(3) Raft repair equipment such as repair clamps, rubber

plugs, and leak stoppers.
AC-1
Air (3 minutes)
Shelter (3 hours)
Rest (30 hours)
Water (3 days)
Food (30 days)
Where does the "will to survive" fit in? What is the "will to survive?"
It has been described as hope, determination, goals and/or a positive mental
attitude. The opinions will be as varied as the people making them will. One
thing is certain: without a will to survive, your chances of surviving are
greatly diminished.
The will to survive is commonly referred to as a desire to live despite seemingly insurmountable mental and (or) physical obstacles. In many
cases you or your employer provide the necessary equipment for survival.
Training for a survival situation will come from courses, experience, and research. However, equipment and training are not always enough to ensure
your survival. You must also have a will to survive.
An example of the power of ones will to survive can be seen in the following excerpts taken from USAF Regulation 64-5, Volume I, July, 1985.
Stranded without food or water on a vast stretch of the Arizona desert for
eight days, a man traveled 150 miles during the day in temperatures as
high as 120 degrees. Lack of water caused him to lose 25% of his body
weight through dehydration (10% is usually considered fatal). He had
crawled the last eight miles completely naked. The lacerations he had
suffered did not bleed until he had replaced the water in his system. He
had done nothing right because he had no survival training. Yet, one
thing this man did have was a strong will to survive, and he did survive
through sheer will power.
As a contrast to this mans obvious will to survive, the following is an example.
A pilot ran into engine trouble and chose to dead-stick his plane,
rather than eject. The aircraft came to rest on a frozen lake with little
or no damage. After examining the aircraft for damage and assessing
the area he noticed a wooded shoreline that would provide decent
shelter. Approximately halfway to the shoreline he decided to return
to the aircraft. After re-entering the cockpit, he lit a cigar, and smoked
a portion. He then pulled out a pistol, and delivered a fatal shot to the
head. Amazingly, less than 24 hours later a rescue team located him.
We may never know what influenced this pilots decision to end his
survival episode early, especially since it looked so promising. On the flip
side, we cant really explain why some people will practice extreme measures
to insure their survival. An example of these measures was exhibited by the
Donner party when they decided to eat human flesh to survive. One thing is for
certain, it all relates to the will to survive.
When there seems to be no escape from your situation, and the odds
seem against you, the will to survive can provide you with the spark you
need to press on. This positive and productive thinking can help take you from
a crisis period into one of coping.
The crisis period is the period in which a person realizes the gravity
of the situation and begins to understand that it is not going away. At this
point you will act, either positively or negatively. Post-crash shock will be a
factor on your mental state. At this point you must decide whether to deal with
the situation, or succumb to it.
The coping period begins after the survivor realizes the gravity of the
situation and resolves to endure it rather than succumb to it. This is easier said
than done. Remember, there be many factors working against you, such as
pain, hunger, fear, and fatigue. You must think constructively at this point so
as to prevent fear or panic. One way to deal with this in the immediate aftermath of the accident is to S.T.O.P.
13. Escape hatches should not be removed until the aircraft has come to a
complete stop.
(Circle the best answer)
a.
b.
c.
True
False
It depends manufacturers suggested procedures.
14. What is the most important item to secure so that it does not become a
projectile?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Anything that you think will cause bodily harm

All items with jagged edges
You!
Don't worry, the seat will protect you from projectiles
15. The most prevalent medical problems experienced in a tropical environment include:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Infections and hangnails

Diarrhea and infection
Dehydration and disease from insects
Infected wounds and disease from insects
STOP is an acronym for Sit, Think, Observe, and Plan. In the immediate aftermath of the accident, you should take a few moments to sit and collect your thoughts. This is a good time to drink some water, as water will help
to treat any post crash shock. You can then think about the situation and transition your situation from a crisis to the coping stage. Take this time to observe
the area, inventory your survival equipment, and attend to any injuries. Now
you are ready to make a plan for your survival.
It is not likely that you will ever schedule a survival situation. The
surprise, coupled with the enormity of the situation, can be overwhelming.
Through knowledge, and training, you can help yourself prepare for the mental
obstacles that are present in all survival situations.
13. C 14. C 15. D
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8. The three types of deserts are:

a.
b.
c.
d.
Northern, southern, and equatorial

Hot, arid, and temperate
Sand, rock, and salt
Mountainous, flats, and mesas
WILL TO SURVIVE
Self-Appraisal
1. What one word best describes the Will to Survive?____________________
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9. Fill in the blanks. Ration your ___________, not your ___________
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10. Hypothermia is defined as:

a.
b.
c.
d.
A lowering of the inner-core body temperature

Being exposed to cold temperatures
Decreased breathing due to extreme cold temperatures
Increased breathing due to extreme hot temperatures
11. The act of attracting attention is a good description of:

a.
b.
c.
d.
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3. In survival, what is the biggest threat to the Will to Survive?____________

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Surviving
Will to survive
Signaling
Communication
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12. A signal that uses fire, smoke, or ballistics is a:

Pyrotechnic
Improvised
Both a & b
B only
4. How strong is your Will to Survive? _______________________________
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8. C 9. sweat, water 10. A 11. C 12. A
a.
b.
c.
d.
2. Are we born with the Will to Survive, or is it acquired?_________________
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PSYCHOLOGY OF SURVIVAL
Chapter Quiz
1. For each item below, rate it's value in a survival situation?

Hint: The shorter the time of survival without each item, the higher
the value.
a._____Water
b._____Rest
c._____Shelter
d._____Food
e._____Oxygen
Digestive system
Mental
Circulatory system
Skeletal system
Designed for four survivors

Designed to provide enough equipment to survive for 72 hours
Weighs approximately 30 pounds
All the above
a.
b.
c.
d.
Have two cells to protect against sinking

Have two colors
The top is identical to the bottom
None of the above
6. Three basic elements necessary for fire building are:

3. When should you begin to hydrate yourself out of concern for a survival situation?
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4.
a.
b.
c.
d.
5. A dual redundancy raft is one that:

2. On which body function does survival place the greatest stress?

a.
b.
c.
d.
4. The MOD-1 survival kit:

a.
b.
c.
d.
Tinder, kindling and fuels

Oxygen heats and fuel
Pressure, density and temperature
All of the above
Without this, your chances of survival are greatly reduced.
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5. Which of the following can enhance your "Will to Survive?"
Training
Knowledge of your equipment and environment
Knowing yourself and how you react in different situations
Having a positive mental attitude
All of the above
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Protection
Light
Warmth
Companionship
All of the Above
4. D 5. A 6. B 7. E
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
7. A fire can provide a survivor with a source of:

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139
QUIZ
1. For each item below, rate it's value in a survival situation.
HINT: The shorter the time of survival without each item, the
higher the value.
a. ______ Water
b. ______ Rest
c. ______ Shelter
d. ______ Food
e. ______ Oxygen (respiration & circulation)
2. On which body function does survival place the greatest stress?

a.
b.
c.
d.
Digestive system
Mental
Circulatory system
Skeletal system
3. Which organization has the responsibility of all SAR in the 48 contiguous states?
Civil Air Patrol
U.S.A.F. Reserves
Air Force Rescue Coordination Center
Local law enforcement
To begin this chapter, we need to distinguish between two key words:

search and rescue. If the rescue party doesn't know where you are, its a
search. If they know where you are, its a rescue. Responsibility can be broken down into two different areas. If the rescuer doesn't know where you are,
then it is your responsibility to tell them (flight plan, radio call, Emergency
Locator Transmitter (ELT), ground to air signals). If they know where you
are, then it's yours and the rescuer's responsibility to get you home (National
Search and Rescue Plan).
The average time from Last Known Position (LKP) to rescue is approximately 27.3 hours. Since this is an average, a survivor could be in a survival scenario for a few hours or a few days. But, no matter how long you are
out there, you should be doing everything in your power to accomplish the
survival goal: RESCUE. In all actuality, this begins before you step inside the
aircraft. By filing a flight plan you are getting some of the best insurance
around, and it's free! The type of flight plan that you file (IFR vs. VFR) may
greatly affect the time you spend in a survival situation.
FLIGHT PLAN
LAST KNOWN POSITION

TO NOTIFICATION
LAST KNOW POSITION

TO RESCUE
IFR
1.1
11.5 hours
VFR
18 Hours
No Flight Plan
18.5
62.5 Hours
2-1 AVERAGE SEARCH TIME. Information provided by AFRCC(2008) Statistics will be affected
by the change from 121.5 MHz to 406 MHz, but are not indicated in these numbers.
Any time an aircraft is overdue, missing, or sends a radio distress call,

the National Search and Rescue Plan is activated. Although there are many
organizations and volunteers associated with Search and Rescue (SAR), the
Federal government assumes overall responsibility. According to this plan,
the United States Coast Guard (USCG) is responsible for all maritime rescues
and the U.S. Air Force is responsible for inland rescues. All SAR in the 48
states is coordinated through the Air Force Rescue Coordination Center
(AFRCC), located at Langley AFB, Virginia. The AFRCC is on call 24 hours
a day.
Although Coast Guard assumes responsibility for all maritime rescues, they have set up a network of merchant ships worldwide. The Auto-
1.( E 1, C 2, B -3, A 4, D 5) 2. B 3. C
a.
b.
c.
d.
SEARCH & RESCUE
138
11
mated Mutual-assistance Vessel Rescue System (AMVERS) works under a

cooperative agreement between the USCG and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. AMVERS is a computer system used to track participating merchant vessels at sea. The vessels send information about their locations, intended tracks, communication links, medical facilities and helicopter
capabilities via satellite to the AMVERS Database Server at the USCG Operations Systems Center. This allows the Rescue Coordination Centers worldwide to locate vessels near a ship in distress, in order to divert them to render
aid. The system is attributed with saving hundreds of lives a year. It also
saves taxpayers money since Coast Guard ships and aircraft are often not required. Currently there is an average of nearly 3000 ships a day that participate
in the AMVERS system.
The Air Force assumes responsibility for all inland search and rescue;
although it is not likely that they will fly the actual missions. According to the
AFRCC, over 85% of federal inland search and rescue missions are conducted
by the Civil Air Patrol. According to the Civil Air Patrol they save more than
100 lives a year.
4. When is the use of a tourniquet recommended in a survival situation?

a.
b.
c.
d.
Never
Whenever direct pressure does not work
Only as a last resort
Whenever you can
5. How often is it recommended that you open and drain blister on your
feet during your survival episode?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Daily
Only when they start to be irritated
Never
Only after long walks
THE PROCESS
Even though an aircraft is missing the search may not initiate immediately. The aircraft must first be verified as overdue. This step of the process
is dictated by the type of flight plan the pilot in command filed. A Information
Request (INREQ).is filed by the Flight Service Station servicing the destination airport when:
An aircraft flying IFR is overdue with no communications 30 minutes
after ETA to a reporting point. This may be to an enroute point or destination.
An aircraft flying VFR is overdue by 30 minutes after ETA to final
destination. NOT to an enroute fuel stop, detour, etc.
An aircraft filing no flight plan is overdue by one hour, as reported to
the FAA by a reliable source. Aircraft with no flight plan filed compromise 80% of aircraft involved in search and rescue operations.
Once the aircraft has been verified to be overdue the first of three phases is
initiated.
(1) The Uncertainty Phase. During this phase the FAA and the
AFRCC conduct a preliminary Communications (PRECOMM) search. Because of the high rate of false alarms, this phase is designed to see if the situation is really a missing aircraft or a pilot who didn't close a flight plan. If the
PRECOMM comes up negative, then the next phase is activated:
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137
SURVIVAL FIRST AID/SELF AID

Chapter Quiz
1. It is wise to attend a First Aid/CPR certification course how often?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Every other year

Every four years
Only once
Annually
All of the above
2. Fill in the blanks next to the FIRST AID acronym with the appropriate
word:
F
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
(2) The Alert Phase or Alert Notice (ALNOT). Normally the ALNOT is issued at the end of INREQ, at the estimated time that the aircraft fuel
would be exhausted, or when there is serious doubt as to the safety of the aircraft and occupants. During the ALNOT, the destination airport checks all
ramps and hangars to locate the aircraft. Local law enforcement in the search
area is notified, and all information is sent to AFRCC. If the aircraft is not
found during the ALNOT then the third and final phase is activated.
(3) The Distress Phase. At this point, the actual search mission is
launched. Usually air search efforts will not begin until daylight unless the
aircraft is equipped with a functioning ELT (Electronic Locator Transmitter)
directing a ground rescue party to the general vicinity of the crash site, and if,
the weather permits, an ELT also points air rescue to the distress location.
Even with a functioning ELT, terrain and weather may hamper response time.
The chances are good that you will be spending at least one night as a survivor.
With a functioning ELT, the time you spend awaiting rescue can be
drastically cut. Since 1974, all aircraft are required to carry an ELT. Many
ELTs have been troubled with unreliability after crashes and a high rate of false
alarms. But the bottom line is that ELTs save lives. AFRCC statistics show
that the survival rate for crash survivors in remote areas without an ELT is
reduced by 43%.
The ELT's effectiveness is due in large part to the Search and Rescue
Satellite (SARSAT) system. The SARSAT system consists of low-orbiting satellites and ground relays, or Local User Terminals (LUTS). The map below
shows the locations of LUTs throughout the world.
3. If you determine a person has an obstructed airway, what is the recommended method for opening that persons airway?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Open the airway by tilting the head back

Stick you fingers in the persons mouth and pull on their tongue.
Goose them
All of the above
136
2-2 Location of Local User Terminals
When an ELT is activated, it broadcasts a signal on 121.5 MHz and

243* MHz(UHF emergency frequency used by military aircraft). The SAR13
SAT is in constant orbit about the earth, scanning continuously for these signals. It generally takes two passes over the location for the satellite to pinpoint
the position. Once the satellite has this information, it relays it to a LUT,
which then relays the information to rescue organizations. The SARSAT system can pinpoint a position to within 11 nautical miles. Newer 406 MHz
ELTs provide a single-pass capability that can pinpoint a crash site to within
one nautical mile.
The 406 MHz Emergency Positioning Indicating Radio Beacon
(EPIRB) commenced with the startup of COSPAS-SARSAT. COSPAS is a
Russian acronym for Cosmicheskaya Sistyema Poiska Avariynich Sudov,
which translated to English means Space System for the Search of Vessels in
Distress. The units were designed for satellite detection and Doppler location.
The devices are designed to provide:
Improved location accuracy
Ability to process a larger number of beacons
transmitting simultaneously within view of a satellite
Global coverage
Ability to identify a specific beacon
COSPAS-SARSAT transponders are payloads located on weather
satellites. USA, Russia, France and Canada maintain these satellites cooperatively. In some cases, with the use of these satellites, the 406 MHz system reduces the location accuracy to as little as 1 nautical miles. The alert is sent
instantaneously.
A non-functional ELT can't help you. The U.S. Coast Guard estimates that less than 1/3 of ELTs actually activated in a crash. The SARSAT
Mission Control Center suggests that the figure is closer to 12%. When you
preflight the aircraft, you should also preflight the ELT. Tune the aircraft's
radio to 121.5 MHz, switch the ELT, on, and listen for the swept tone. This
can be accomplished only within the first five minutes of any hour and you are
limited to three sweeps. After any emergency landing, you should eventually
go back into the aircraft to ensure the ELT is functioning.
Another problem with ELTs is that they cause false alarms. According to the AFRCC, nearly 98% of all signals detected are false alarms caused
by accidental activations of the ELT. The result is that there is always a delay
to start the search process until the signal can be validated. Even so, many
unnecessary search missions are launched every year, at an estimated annual
waste of over $3.5 million. Of even greater importance to you is the lag time it
takes before a call can be considered genuine. This could be the difference
between becoming a survivor or a statistic.
The ELT can be activated during a hard landing. For this reason, it is
14
Note: Tourniquets and cut-and-suck kits are no longer recommended.

Other bites and stings
Lizards
-
Only two venomous lizards are found in North

American deserts, the Gila monster and the Mexican beaded lizard. Both are relatively sluggish and
non-aggressive. There is little chance of being
bitten if you watch where you put your hands and feet.
Treatment is the same as for snakebite. Dont panic and drink lots of
fluids.
Scorpions and spiders

-
Avoid these critters by keeping your hands out of cracks, crevices,

and the underside of rocks, boards, etc. All scorpions and spiders are
poisonous to some degree, although human deaths are relatively uncommon. The bites of two spiders, the black widow and brown recluse, are dangerous to humans.
Stinging insects
-
In the U.S., bees, wasps, velvet ants, hornets, yellow jackets, etc.,
cause more deaths than snakes, usually to people who are allergic to
them.
If you are allergic to stings, your physician may recommend that you
carry a bee sting kit. Follow the doctors directions on its use.
If you are not allergic to stinging insects, treat their stings by:
1. Scrape the stinger away if it has been left behind. If you try to pull
it out you will squeeze the poison sac and increase the dose.
2. Treat for pain with a cold pack if you can.
Keeping yourself and your camp clean and neat can prevent many
survival injuries and illnesses. That sounds trite, but it is true. The chance of
getting hurt is greatly lessened when you keep everything in its place and use
all your survival tools properly. By merely washing yourself and your clothes
frequently, even when that seems like a very low priority item, you can reduce
the odds that you will aggravate your survival situation by getting sick.
In conclusion, remember that if you get hurt or ill, in spite of your
best efforts, your ultimate goal is to get home. That must govern all of your
efforts and decisions. With that in mind, it is up to you. Do the best you can to
remain calm and provide self-aid/first aid to achieve your goal. Youre the
doctor.
135
4. Cover the burn with the cleanest dressing you can contrive. Boiled clothing or commercial dressings from a
first aid kit are ideal.
5. Pain will be a problem you will have to deal with. If
youre not allergic to it, aspirin may help the pain and
will help prevent swelling.
6. Be alert for signs of shock. Even if no shock symptoms
occur, avoid salt and start drinking more water than you
think you could possibly need. Water will help fight
shock and will ward off the dehydration that normally
follows a burn.
a good idea to tune your aircraft's radio to 121.5 MHz and monitor it before
running your aircraft shutdown checklist. You should also keep in mind that it
is acceptable to test your ELT the first five minutes of any hour.
SEARCH AND RESCUE
Chapter Quiz
1. Which organization has the SAR responsibility in the 48 contiguous
states?
Diarrhea
a. Civil Air Patrol
Common diarrhea is quite prevalent under survival conditions. It may

be caused by nervous tension, by eating unfamiliar foods, or by intestinal infection from contaminated water. In any case, it is uncomfortable at best and debilitating when it is severe. It causes dehydration,
which can only be combated by drinking what may seem like an excess of fluids.
Most incidents of diarrhea are relatively easy to controleven without access to a pharmacy. Just eat fresh (but cool) natural charcoal
from your campfire. The taste is not unpleasant since all the pitch and
cellulose is burned away. A couple tablespoonfuls will help get you
back in control.
b. U.S.A.F Reserves
c. U.S. Air Force Rescue Coordination Center
d. Local law enforcement
2.
If an aircraft is overdue with no communications, and has filed an

IFR flight plan, how long will it take the Flight Service Station to issue
an INREQ?
______________________________________________________
Fever
Like pain, fever is a symptom of some other problem, but it can be
a survival problem in itself.
1. If you have aspirin, take it according to directions for some relief
2. Drink plenty of fluids, as fever can be a symptom of dehydration.
Snakebite
4.
a. At some point during your flight

b. Once a month
If you get bitten by a venomous snake and cannot

get professional medical attention, your best bet is to:
1.
2.
3.
3. When should you check, or test, your ELT?

Make every attempt to remain calm

Drink plenty of water and
Seek professional treatment as quickly as
possible
Do not rush aroundthat will increase the circulation of
venom in your bloodstream.
134
c. Before each flight

d. Before every other flight
15
4. What is the correct time to test an ELT.

a. Any time
b. Last 10 minutes of any hour
c. First five minutes of any hour
d. First 10 minutes of any hour
Secure the object in place and bandage both eyes (the

eyes move together so if only one eye is bandaged, the
object will cause more damage).
Blisters
A blister is essentially a protective reaction over an injury. It
should be left intact. Do not open or drain the fluid from
blisters. Protect them with a clean dressing or padding.
Burns
5.
How do you manually test your ELT? ___________________________
Probably no survival injury is as serious or as difficult to

deal with as a severe burn. With anything more than a simple first-degree burn (i.e. sunburn), dehydration, and infection are likely to occur in that order. Pain and trauma to the
circulatory system near the burn causes shock. Dehydration
caused by loss of body fluids in the burned
Area will require a much higher than normal intake of water. The loss of skin and the favorable conditions for bacterial growth pose a threat of infection that cannot be controlled in a survival situation; however, infection will not
likely be a factor for a day or so.
You are limited as to what can be done for a burn without

sterile conditions and some medical gear. As a result, it
makes little difference what the medical diagnosis of the
severity of your burn might be, you will have to treat them
all pretty much the same:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
1. First, cool the burned area. Do not waste time! Plunge

the burned part into cold water or anything you have that
will chill the injury without further damage (no ice).
Cooling prevents further harm from residual heat in the
tissues. Unless you quickly get the temperature back
down to normal, tissue damage may continue even after
the heat source is removed.
2. Clean the burned area with soap and water (1st & 2nd
degree burns), but be gentle. You do not want to compound the injury by disrupting damaged tissue.
3. Do everything you can to keep the burned area clean and
protected. Do not remove charred clothing from the
burn site (it is preventing contaminants from getting to
the damaged tissues).
16
133
splint above and below the fracture site and the joints above and below the
fracture as well). Treat any wound in the area prior to applying the splint.
When you have to get around with an injured leg or foot, a cane or
crutch is a big help. A padded, forked pole will serve as an emergency crutch.
Dress Wounds
Dressing wounds means going back over the body and cleaning up
non-life threatening injuries (i.e. abrasions) and applying dressings to promote
healing and prevent infection. This is also a good time to go back to areas
where severe bleeding was stopped, add additional material, and retie bandages
if needed.
Treatment of Other Wounds Not Previously Mentioned
Types of wounds and treatment are as follows:
Head wounds
Keep wound area clean and covered.
Direct pressure is the only way to stop scalp hemorrhage
Eye wounds
Chemical or irritant in eye
Flush eye with clean water ensuring the injured eye is

lower than the healthy eye.
Keep eye clean and covered
NOTE: NEVER use water, salves or ointments for perforating eye

injuries.
Eye Out of Socket
DO NOT try to reinsert the eye as this may cause further damage
Cover the with soft, moist dressing (be sure to keep
moistened)
Bandage loosely in place but provide support.
Object Impaled in Eye
DO NOT remove the object from the eye (it is plugging

the hole)
132
SIGNALING
As a potential survivor you will have many options of equipment for
use to gain the attention of Search and Rescue professionals. In fact, depending
on the device being used, first contact may not even be with Search and Rescue
(SAR) personnel. For instance, you may contact a relative by cell phone who
then notifies local emergency personnel of your situation. One of the best aids,
in terms of helping SAR personnel reduce the time it takes to locate you will be
to let someone know your plans. In aviation, filing a flight plan can greatly
reduce your survival time until rescue. This chapter will outline various categories of signaling equipment as well as describe some of the features of the more
popular devices.
Signaling is simply the act of communicating, conveying knowledge
or information from one source to another. For successful communication to
occur there must be three basic elements:
The communicator (Survivor)

The message (SOS)
The receiver (SAR Personnel)
To ensure successful communication there can be no breakdown in

any one of the elements. This is especially true regarding signaling in a survival situation. However, the survivor must first gain the attention of those in
which the communication is intended. In this case the receiver will be the
Search and Rescue (SAR) personnel.
When choosing any signaling device you should consider the objective. In most cases you will want to initiate contact with someone, or something. This may be from a remote area where a line of sight device will initially be of no use. You will need a communication device that can signal a
great distance such as a satellite phone, survival radio, electronic locator transmitter (ELT), emergency position indicating radio beacon (EPIRB), etc. Once
contact is made you will need the capability of directing the SAR personnel to
your exact location. These devices can include flares, smoke, reflectors and
ground signals.
Signal devices can be divided into various categories. This chapter
will divide the signaling equipment into three categories:
Pyrotechnics (fire or ballistics)

Electronics (radios, ELT, etc.)
Improvised (all others)
17
PYROTECHNICS
The following information concerning pyrotechnics was taken from the U.S.
DOT/FAA Advisory Circular No 91-58A.
Subject: USE OF PYROTECHNIC
VISUAL DISTRESS SIGNALING
DEVICES IN AVIATION
Date: 2/10/00
AC No. 91-58A
1.
Purpose. This advisory circular (AC) suggests standards and procedure
for the acquisition, use, and storage of pyrotechnic visual distress signaling
devices that are intended for use in aircraft emergencies.
2.
CANCELATION. AC 91-58, Use of Pyrotechnic Visual Distress Signaling Devices in Aviation, dated 5/27/82, is canceled.
3.
BACKGROUND. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) recognizes that many pilots and operators of aircraft are utilizing some distress signaling devices that are inherently dangerous, as well as ineffective, when used
in actual emergencies. Typical of the problem is the use of railroad or highway flares, which produce an excessive amount of high temperature slag, usually burn the user when hand held, and are easily extinguished when used in
open bodies of water. Further, the incendiary nature of these and other pyrotechnics presents problems for their sage and proper storage in the aircraft environment. This advisory circular is written to guide the pilot/operator in the
proper use of and identification of pyrotechnic signaling devices.
a. The Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) convention, which was ratified
in 1936 by the United States, provides safety standards for maritime
emergency survival equipment, fireproofing, fire prevention, and such.
The SOLAS convention revises the safety standards every 4 years. The
convention ensures that a variety of safe and effective pyrotechnic signaling devices are available to the aviation community.
b. Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) parts 91, 121,
125, and 135 require the carriage of at least one pyrotechnic signaling
device for each life raft for extended overwater flights.
4.
DEFININTION. For the purpose of this advisory circular, reference
to U.S. Coast Guard approved, in accordance with Title 46 of the Code of
Federal Regulations (46 CFR) part 160, implies the minimum standards suggested by the FAA for pyrotechnic visual distress signaling devices. Reliance
on U.S. Coast Guard expertise in the area of pyrotechnic signal device performance criteria is predicated on their historical involvement with the entire
spectrum of search and rescue techniques, which they have originated and successfully implemented.
18
need to move to another location, some ways to transport an injured person that
cannot walk would include creating a stretcher, dragging, or carrying. Stretchers can be made from the aircraft wreckage (an aircraft seat could be used to
carry one person) or by using what nature has provided (tree limbs with a
blanket). Dragging them, laying them on a piece of wreckage (i.e. wing) or
putting them on a blanket or in a sleeping bag, may prove an effective means to
get them where they need to go safely. Carrying someone should be your last
choice as this will tend to fatigue you more quickly and is more likely to aggravate a neck or back injury. The firemans carry (placing the person on your
shoulder) or pack-strap carry (having the person stand and drape their arms
over your shoulders so that you can grab them, lean forward, and carry them
like a pack on your back) are useful in moving someone that is injured.
Immobilize Fractures
Realize that fractures, sprains, strains, and dislocations have little in
common medically, other than involving the skeleton and its connective structures. However, they have similar effects on you as a survivor. All can cause
severe pain, swelling and lack of desire or the ability to use the affected part.
Regardless of the ultimate diagnosis, these injuries can deprive you of part of
your survival equipment. Even a sprained finger can be quite a loss when you
are trying to light a fire under life-and-death circumstances.
Fortunately, the survival treatment for all four structural injuries is the
same; there is no need to attempt an exact diagnosis. Leave that to the doctor
when you get home. Do not try to set a fracture or reduce a dislocation.
Thats the job for a professional. Just immobilize the injury, leaving it the way
you found it and in a position of function, and you will reduce the pain and
prevent aggravating the problem.
Hand, arm, and shoulder injuries can often be immobilized sufficiently with a simple sling. You can make one from your belt, lengths of rope,
or a piece of clothinganything that will form a loop around your neck to support the damaged arm. With a little patience you can even make a sling with
one hand. One survivor even improvised slings for two broken arms. He used
his teeth to tie the knots. Another improvised immobilization method for an
arm or shoulder injury would be to place the hand of the injured arm or shoulder inside the front of a button-up shirt or zip-up jacket at chest level and bind
the arm to the body.
Splints are effective for protecting structural injuries. You can fashion splints from small poles, tree limbs, cardboard or any rigid or semi-rigid
object you can find. An injured leg may be temporarily splinted against an
uninjured leg. Always pad the splint to prevent painful pressure or abrasions.
Use cloth strips or tape; never use cord or twine as it may constrict circulation.
Tie the splint in place with plenty of snug knots (the rule of thumb is to always
131
Shock may be the result of heavy bleeding, severe pain, burns, allergies, infection, or psychological factors such as the sight of an injury or illness
to yourself or passengers. Any of these causes may be present in a survival
situation. The result is the same regardless of the cause. If blood circulation to
the brain is disrupted, rather predictable symptoms appear.
If you have ever experienced shock, look for those unforgettable
light-headed, weak, half-sick, and unreal feelings to be present. If you have
never felt shock or if you are watching for it in someone else, here are the signs
you can expect to see:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The skin will feel cold and clammy.

Breathing rate will increase and may be quick and shallow or
irregular and gasping.
Pulse will be weak and rapid.
Nausea or vomiting is likely.
There will be some mental confusion.
Regardless of the cause, you can use one standard treatment:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Drink plenty of fluids (but do not try to give them to someone

who is unconscious)
Lie down, preferably elevate the feet about 12 inches, and rest
until the symptoms pass (for a head wound, do not elevate the
feet or head as increasing pressure to the head may be dangerous)
Stay warm (comfortable), put on extra clothes or get into a sleeping bag if it is cold (do not do this in a hot environment as sweating will only lead you deeper into shock)
Keep busy, but dont overexert yourself (This will enhance your
Will to Survive and gives increased self-confidence as it reduces the desire to give up due to productivity that is viewed as
capability)
If the person in shock is not you, provide reassurance and let
them assist in the treatment of their wounds as much as possible
(if able).
Avoid Further Injury

Dont move an injured person any more than is necessary as this may
only serve to aggravate the injured area. If you must move the person, as in
removing them from the aircraft, take care to keep the head, neck and back
aligned as much as possible, especially if a spinal injury is suspected.
As was discussed in a previous section, it is usually a good idea to
remain in the vicinity of the crash site and not travel. However, should you
130
5.
TYPES OF VISUAL DISTRESS SIGNALS. There is a wide variety
of signaling devices, and no single device is ideal under all conditions and for
all purposes. The most popular signaling device for aviation use is the handheld combination flare and smoke device. Pyrotechnics make excellent distress
signals and are universally recognized as such. However, one of the drawbacks
of these devices is that they can be used only once. Considerations may be
given to carrying several types. For example, an aerial flare can be seen over a
long distance on a clear night, but for closer work, a hand-held flare may be
more useful.
a.
U.S. Coast Guard approved visual distress signaling devices are
divided into two general categories:
(1) Daylight signaling devices.
(2) Night signaling devices.
b. The following table lists the current U.S. Coast Guard approved devices. The device must have the 46 CFR part 160 series number referenced to
be considered U.S. Coast Guard approved. Devices that conform to SOLAS
have a much higher performance level. In addition SOLAS devices carry an
additional U.S. Coast Guard approval number in the 160.121 series for hand
flares, and the 160.136 series for parachute flares.
Number
On Device
Device Description
Accepted
For Use
160.021
Hand-held red flare distress signals
160.022
Floating orange smoke distress signals. (5 min)
Day Only
160.024
160.028
Pistol-projected parachute red flare distress signals. (These signals require use in combination
with a suitable approved launching device.)
Day & Night
160.036
Self-contained rocket-propelled parachute red

flare distress signals.
Day & Night
160.037
Hand-held orange smoke distress signals.
Day Only
160.057
Floating orange smoke distress signals. (15 min)
Day Only
19
Day & Night
Number
On Device
160.066
Device Description
Red aerial pyrotechnic flare distress signals.
(These devises may be either meteor or parachute type and may need an approved, suitable
launching device.
Accepted
For Use
Day & Night
bright red, pulsing or spurting blood flow from a wound. In contrast,

venous bleeding appears dark red and has a steady flow rate.
Whichever type of bleeding you encounter, stopping the
flow, even if it is severe, can usually be accomplished by following
these steps, in order, until the goal is achieved:
1.
Table 3-1. U.S. Coast Guard approval number in the 160.121 series for hand flares, and the
160.136 series for parachute flares.
6. WHEN AND HOW TO USE. Visual distress devices are part of your aircrafts safety equipment. Check to see they are on board before departure so
they may serve their intended purpose to summon help should the need arise.
Visual distress signals can only be effective when someone is in a position to
see them. When employing pyrotechnic devices, do so only when your see or
hear a boat or aircraft, or you are reasonably sure that someone is in the proximity to see your signal and take action. Good judgment is an essential part of
the successful use of visual distress signals.
a. Red Hand-held flares are most effective at night or in restricted visibility, such as fog or haze, but may be used any time. Hand-held pyrotechnic
devices, such as flares and smoke signals, may expel ash and slag as they burn.
Even though these particles cool quickly, they can cause painful burns or ignite
materials that burn easily. The flare itself is very hot and can start a fire if it is
dropped. Therefore, when using these devices, they should be held in such a
way that hot slag cannot drip on a hand or arm, or flammable materials.
b. Hand-held and floating orange smoke signaling devices are good
day signals, especially on clear days. Both signals are most effective with light
or moderate wind. Higher wind tends to keep the smoke close to the water,
which disperses it, making it hard to see.
c. Red parachute flares, either pistol launched or hand-held rocket
propelled, are good distress signals for both day and night. These devices provide altitude, slow descent, and brilliant intensity. Their slow descent, however, makes them drift with the wind, which can lead a would-be rescuer away
from the rescue site.
d. Pistol-launched or self-contained rocket-propelled red meteors
can be used by day, but are most effective at night. Because of their rapid descent, they are less affected by wind than the slower descending signals. The
burn time is also shorter and not as readily observed as the slower descending
signals. Whenever a pistol or hand-held rocket-propelled distress signal is
used, the wind must always be taken into account.
20
2.
3.
Figure 12-23
Figure 12-24
Apply direct pressure to the wound using a clean dressing
(figure 23), if available (Do Not remove this once in place) and
tie it in place using a square knot and placing the knot directly
over the wound site (this will continue to provide direct presFigure 12-25
sure) (figure 24)
Elevate the wound area above the level of the heart
(Blood doesnt flow uphill well) (figure 25)
Use pressure points to control flow to the area (These
are areas where an artery runs near a bone and
Figure 12-26 and 12-27
pressing the artery against the bone acts like a
valve). (figures 26 & 27)
Rarely, if ever, will a tourniquet be needed to control bleeding under

normal circumstances. But then a survival scenario is not a normality and
your Will to Survive depends on you doing what must be done to survive the
ordeal. As a last ditch effort to control bleeding a tourniquet may need to be
applied. It is important to remember that the area below the tourniquet, unless
blood flow is restored in a reasonable amount of time, will most likely be lost
(as in amputated). Some rules of thumb on their application include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Use a length of material at least 1 wide and sufficiently long

enough to encircle the limb
Place the tourniquet as close to the wound site as possible (Give
up as little of the extremity as possible)
Encircle the limb with the tourniquet and tie an overhand knot
Place a sturdy object (i.e. screwdriver) on top of the knot that you
just tied
Tie an overhand knot over the sturdy object you selected in the
last step
Tighten (twist) the object you have tied in place until the bleeding is controlled
Secure the object in place
DO NOT remove the tourniquet for any reason
Note (write down) the time that the tourniquet was applied (This
may help medical personnel, upon rescue, to decide if the limb is
salvageable).
Treat For Shock
129
Note: These steps will work for adults only (steps for children and infants are
significantly different!)
1.
2.
3.
Placing them on their back

Open the airway by tilting the head back (as discussed earlier)
Assess if the person is breathing (look, listen & feel for about 5
seconds)
4. Give 2 breaths (if this does not work, see Free the Airway section)
5. Feel for a pulse (about 5-10 seconds)
Place 2 fingers at the Adams Apple (center of the throat) and
slide toward you into the crease in the side of the
neck
6. If pulse is not present
a. Position yourself, kneeling, between the individuals hip and shoulder
Figure 12-19
b. Using the middle finger of your hand closest to
their feet trace the curve of their lowest rib to where it meets
the breastbone. (figure 19)
c. Lay the index finger of that hand along side the middle finger
d. Place the heal of the other hand above the index finger and
directly on the breastbone
e. Place the heal of the hand closest to their feet
directly on top of the hand already on their chest
and interlace the fingers of the two hands to
take them off the victims chest
Figure 12-20
f. Position your shoulders directly over your hands
and lock your elbows (figure 20)
g. Compress the chest 2 inches (Do this 15 times)
h. Move to the head, open the airway and give 2
Figure 12-21
breaths (figure 21)
Note: Steps a) through h) should take about 15 seconds to

perform
j.
k.
Repeat steps a) through h)

Figure 12-22
Recheck pulse and breathing at the end of one
minute (4 cycles) and every few minutes afterwards.
(figure 22)
Stop Bleeding
We depend on an adequate and uninterrupted supply of blood. Should
this supply be cut-off, death will occur. There are two types of bleeding that
you may encounter; arterial and venous. Arterial bleeding is characterized by
128
The idea of any signal is to attract attention to the survivor. Wind can
carry an aerial flare a considerable distance and should be taken into consideration when aiming. With no wind the flare can be fired straight up. If
the wind is light to moderate the flare should be launched slightly into the
wind while increasing the angle as the wind speed increases.
7. HANDLING AND STORAGE.

a. If young children are carried on board your aircraft, careful
stowage of visual distress signals becomes especially important. Projected devices, such as pistol-launched and hand-held parachute flares and meteors,
have many of the characteristics of a firearm and should be handled with the
same caution.
b. Pyrotechnic devices should be stored in a cool, dry location and
be readily accessible in case of an emergency. Care should be taken to prevent
puncturing or damaging of the devices covering. It is recommended that pyrotechnic devices be stored in a watertight container and prominently marked
DISTRESS SIGNALS.
c. U.S. Coast Guard approved pyrotechnic devices carry a service
life expiration date. Currently, this date may not exceed 42 months from the
date of manufacture. The U.S. Coast Guard indicates that it is acceptable to
keep recently expired signals as extra equipment, although they gradually lose
their effectiveness with age.
INFORMATION. For additional information regarding pyrotechnic devices,
consult the U.S. Coast Guard web page at www.uscg.mil/hq/g-m/mse4/
vds.htm.
End of AC-91-58A
ELECTRONICS
An electronic signaling device may be the difference between being
a survivor for a few hours or a few days. Knowledge of the devices, and the
proper use, could be a large factor in determining the length of time for your
rescue. Common electronic devices can include:
Radios
Strobes
ELTs
Lasers
PLBs
Flashlight
Global Positioning
System (GPS)
Cell or Satellite phone
21
The aircraft radio is your first source of electronic signaling. According to the Airman Information Manual (AIM), the initial communication,
and any subsequent transmissions by an aircraft in distress should begin with
the signal MAYDAY, preferably repeated three times. The signal PAN-PAN
should be used in the same manner for an urgency condition.
Typically, the station addressed will be the air traffic facility or other
agency providing air traffic services. If unable to immediately establish communications with an air traffic facility you should squawk MODE A/3, Code
7700/Emergency and MODE C.
You should transmit a distress message consisting of as many as necessary of the following elements, preferably in the order listed:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
If distress, MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY; if urgency, PANPAN, PAN-PAN, PAN-PAN.

Name of station addressed
Aircraft identification and type.
Nature of distress or urgency.
Weather.
Pilots intentions and request.
Present position, and heading, or if lost, last known position,
time, and heading since that position.
Altitude or flight level.
Fuel remaining in hours and minutes.
Number of people on board.
Any other useful information.
If time and circumstances permit you should also provide:

a.
b.
c.
d.
ELT status (Electronic Locator Transmitter)

Visible landmarks
Aircraft color
Emergency equipment on board.
The aircraft radio may still function even after the crash. If you are
able to get to it, try to see if it can be used. But, make sure that you give
enough time for the aircraft to cool and eliminate the chance of fire.
A survival radio is another option you have. A survival radio should
function as both an ELT and a two-way radio. Refer to the Operating Manual
to turn the device ON. There are a few considerations before using these
devices:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Straddle their thighs

Place the palm of one hand on the individuals Figure 12-10 & 11
abdomen, at about the navel, with the secondhand on and interlaced with the first (figure 10)
Give up to 5 inward and upward abdominal
thrusts (figure 11)
Look into their mouth, lift the jaw and tongue, Figure 12-12
and remove, with a sweeping motion, any foreign object you see (figure 12)
Attempt to give 2 breaths (figure 13)
Continue this process until the breaths go in.
Figure 12-13
Initiate Breathing
If an individual is not breathing, you must start this process by:
Note: These steps will work for adults or children (steps for infants are
1. Placing them on their back
2. Open the airway by tilting the head back
(as discussed earlier) (figure 14)
3. Assess if the person is breathing (look,
listen & feel for about 5 seconds)
4. Attempting to give 2 breaths (if this does not work, see " Free the
Airway section) (figure 15)
5. Feel for a pulse (about 5-10 seconds) (figure 16)
Place 2 fingers at the Adams Apple (center of throat) and slide
toward you into the crease in the side of
the neck.
6. If pulse is present, give one breath about
every 5 seconds (12 times/minute) until
they breath on their own. For children:
Give one breath every 3 seconds (20 times/minute)
(figure 17)
7. Check for pulse and breathing about every minute.
Figure 12-18
(figure 18)
Restore Circulation
If you should find that a person is not breathing and has no pulse, perform the following steps:
ELTs (Aircraft or Raft ELT overrides the voice mode)

Line of Sight (Signal can be blocked by obstacles)
22
127
Stop Bleeding
Treat for Shock
Avoid Further Injury
Immobilize Fractures
Dress Wounds
Free the Airway

For any number of reasons a persons airway may become compromised. If
they are conscious and choking, perform abdominal thrusts by:
Note: These steps will work for adults or children (steps for infants are
1. Standing behind the individual
2. Reaching around them (under their arms)
3. Making a fist and placing it at about the navel (belly button) (figure 1)
4. Grasping the fist and pulling inwards and upwards until
the object is dislodged or they become unconscious
(Dont panic if this happens!) (figure 2)
Figure 12-1
Cone of Silence (A weak signal from top of antenna)
When using the survival radio it is suggested to leave the 406

MHz signal engaged at all times. Use the Voice mode to transmit
a Mayday every 15 minutes, unless an aircraft can be heard or
seen, then continuously.
Remember, when using this type of device, turn off the aircraft and
raft ELT. If an aircraft is approaching, and you are attempting to communicate
with it, dont point the antenna directly at the aircraft, as this will put the aircraft in the cone of silence. Radios offer up to three frequencies: 121.5 MHz
(the international distress frequency) and 243.0 MHz (the military emergency
frequency) and the newer 406 MHz. Although satellite coverage of 121.5/243
MHz will cease in 2009, aircraft within a 12 mile radius may still be able to
hear your signal if they are monitoring these radio frequencies. At the very
least, SAR crews are likely to be monitoring these frequencies in a known
search area.
Emergency Locator Transmitter - ELT
Figure 12-2
If they are unconscious, or become that way:

1. Establish unresponsiveness (tap & shout)
(figure 3)
2. Assess if the person is breathing (look, listen & feel for about 5 seconds) (figure 4)
3. Place the person on their back (figure 5)
4. Open the airway by tilting the head back
(Head-tilt, Chin-lift method) (figure 6)
One hand on forehead
Two fingers of other hand under the chin
5. Assess if the person is breathing (look,
listen & feel for about 5 seconds) (figure
7)
6. If breathing is absent attempt to give 2
slow breaths (figure 8)
If breaths dont go in the first time, try repositioning the
head, then give 2 more slow breaths
(figure 9)
If they still do not go in, you have an obstructed AIRWAY AND NEED TO:
Figure 12-9
126
There are three types of beacons used to transmit distress signals,

Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon or EPIRBs (maritime use),
Emergency Locator Transmitter or ELTs (aviation use), and Personal Locator
Beacons or PLBs. The first of these to be developed was the ELT.
ELTs were originally designed to broadcast a signal on the 121.5 and
243 MHz frequency. Originally designed to alert aircraft flying overhead, this
greatly reduced the communication range and the ability to notify SAR authorities. The Cospas-Sarsat (satellite) system was developed to provide a better receiving source for these signals. Location data was also able to be obtained with the new satellite system.
Nearly all aircraft operators are required to carry an ELT. Presently
the operator can choose between the older model ELT that transmits on 121.5
or the newer 406 MHz.
As of February 2009 the Cospas-Sarsat system will terminate satellite
processing of distress signals from an 121.5 and 243 MHz, older model ELT.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) states that the
decision to stop satellite processing of 121.5 and 243 MHz signals is due to
problems in this frequency band which inundate search and rescue authorities
with poor accuracy and numerous false alerts (99% according to NOAA), adversely impacting the effectiveness of lifesaving services. NOAA, along with
the U.S. Coast Guard, U.S. Air Force, and NASA (the four Federal Agencies
who manage, operate, and use the SARSAT system) are strongly advising users of 121.5/243 MHz to make the switch to 406 MHz.
23
According to studies, 134 extra lives and millions of dollars in SAR

resources could be saved per year by replacing the old 121.5 MHz units with
the newer 406 MHz. The only problem is that 406 MHz ELTs currently cost
about $1,500 or less and 121.5 MHz ELTs cost around $500. It's easy to see
one reason for the cost differential when you look at the numbers. However, no
one can argue the importance of 406 MHz ELTs and the significant advantages
they hold.
The following are a few comparisons of the 406 MHz and 121.5 MHz
distress beacon provided by the United States Coast Guard.
406 MHz Beacons
121.5 MHz Beacons
Coverage:
Global
Reliability;
False
Alerts/
False
Alarms:
All alerts come from beacons. Satellite beacon transmissions are digital, coded
signals. Satellites process only
coded data, other signals are
rejected.
Ground station dependent;

ground stations have an effective radius of about 1800
nm. Current coverage is about
one-third of the world.
Only about 1 in 5 alerts come
from beacons. Satellites cannot
discern beacon signals from
many non-beacon
sources. Beacons transmit
anonymously.
About 1 in 10 alerts are actual

distress.
Beacon-unique coding/
registration allow rapid incident corroboration. Registration mandatory 9/13/94. 90%
beacons are registered. About
80% of false alarms are resolved by a phone or radio call
to registration POCs prior to
launching SAR assets.
Alerting:
Fewer than 3 in 1000 alerts and

3 in 100 composite alerts are
actual distress.
Since 121.5 MHz beacons transmit anonymously, the only way
to ascertain the situation is to
dispatch resources to investigate -- a costly disadvantage.
First alert confidence sufficient

to warrant launch of SAR assets. Earlier launches put assets on scene earlier -- Average 2.5 hrs saved in maritime,
6 hrs in inland.
High false alarm rate makes

first-alert launch unfeasible. Absent independent distress corroboration, RCCs must
wait for additional alert information.
Average initial detection/

alerting by orbiting satellites is
about 45 minutes -- worst case
60 minutes.
Same as 406 MHz.
Average subsequent satellite

passes every 60 minutes.
24
Same as 406 MHz.

Alerts are anonymous. 121.5
MHz technology not capable of
transmitting data.
SURVIVAL FIRST AID/SELF AID

Nothing reduces your chances of survival as much as an injury. The
very nature of aviation can produce situations requiring that you be able to
take care of yourself and your passengers in a medical emergency. First aid is
geared to relatively short-term treatment intended to stabilize an injured person until professional help can be obtained.
Under survival conditions, you dont know how long it will be until
professional help will arrive and you may have to use or even misuse an injured body part for higher priority problems---like shelter building or signaling. Remember, in a survival situation treating injuries and illness must be
one of your highest priorities as these can reduce your Will to Survive and
ability to overcome physical and mental obstacles. However, you cannot
make treating the injury or illness your sole function. You must do everything
possible to minimize its impact on your survival. In this section, we will cover
some of the most common survival injuries and the current treatment methods.
The pain associated with many injuries and illness may be serious
enough under survival conditions to warrant attention as a separate problem.
First, understand that pain is a signal and not dangerous in itself. It reminds
you to rest that part of the body. Under normal conditions, this is good; but
when your life depends upon your ability to deal with survival problems, you
may have to ignore the warning. Successful survival cases are full of instances where people did just that. Individual sensitivity and reaction to pain
varies tremendously, but keeping busy and concentrating on the business of
being rescued can reduce the impact of pain. Try to look at your pain as a
temporary discomfort that can be tolerated. Naturally, you want to avoid aggravating the pain or injury that is causing it, but remember to keep your mind
on the goal. You want to get home, so work on that!
It is wise to attend annual first aid and CPR training, of which this
portion of the manual is in no way a substitution, to maintain proficiency in
those areas. CPR and First Aid procedures and illustrations listed in this section, in part, come from the American Red Cross Community First Aid &
Safety training manual, Mosby Lifeline, Mosby-Year Book, Inc., 1993. It will
be important that you treat the injuries or illness that you encounter during a
survival situation in a logical manner, caring for life-threatening situations
first. To this end, we will use the words First Aid as an acronym to give a
basic guideline of steps to follow:
Free the Airway

Initiate Breathing
Restore Circulation
125
BUILDING A FIRE
Chapter Quiz
Alerting:
Tinder, kindling and fuels

Oxygen, heat and fuel
Pressure, density and temperature
All of the above
2. A fire can provide a survivor with a source of:

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Protection
Light
Warmth
Companionship
All of the above
No capability.
Allows false alarm follow-up to

continuously improve system
integrity/reliability.
1. Three basic elements of a fire are:

a.
b.
c.
d.
Vessel/aircraft ID, point of contact information provided with

alerts allows rapid corroboration or stand-down.
Near instantaneous detection

by geostationary satellites. System provides worldwide coverage.
Position
Information:
Locating
the Target:
1-3 nm (2-5 km) accuracy on

average. Position calculated by
Doppler shift analysis.
12-16 nm (15-20 km) accuracy

on average. Position calculated
by Doppler shift analysis.
100 yard accuracy with GPSequipped beacon. GPS position processed with initial
alert. System infrastructure
now available.
No capability
Superior alert (non-GPS) position accuracy limits initial

search area to about 12.5 sq
nm (20 sq km).
Initial position uncertainty results in 450 sq nm (700 sq km)

search area on average.
No GPS capability.
GPS-equipped beacons reduce

search area to a negligible
area.
3. When starting a fire you must gather three piles of material consisting
of _________________, _________________, _________________.
4. You should avoid building a fire in:
a.
b.
c.
d.
In a dry resinous (pine) forest

Under snow covered trees
Directly on snow
All of the above
Power
Output:
5.0 Watts
121.5 MHz homing signal facilitates target location by radio

direction finder equipped search
units. (12 mile range)
0.1 Watt
3-2 U.S. Coast Guard comparison located at: http://www.uscg.mil/hq/g-o/g-opr/

emergencybeacons/epirbcomp.htm
ELTs are designed to either activate automatically, upon impact, or

manually and are generally located in at least on of the following three areas:
- Aircraft
- Raft
- Kits
The following information was excerpted from an original article
entitled Cospas-Sarsat: Saving Lives for 20 Years. It was authored by
NOAA and reprinted with permission of FAA Aviation News
124
25
How it Works
The Cospas-Sarsat system consists of emergency radio beacons carried on aircraft and ships, equipment on satellites, ground receiving stations
(also called Local User Terminals), Mission Control Centers, and Rescue Coordination Centers. When an aircraft, ship, or person is in distress, an emergency beacon is activated. These beacons transmit distress signals to the satellites either on the 121.5, 243, or 406 MHz frequencies. In the case of aircraft,
the beacons are well known by pilots as Emergency Locator Transmitters, or
ELT. Ground stations track satellites in the Cospas-Sarsat constellation and
process the distress signals. The processed information is then forwarded to a
Mission Control Center where it's combined with other information and passed
to search and rescue authorities.
RESCUE
CREW
COSPAS/
SARSAT
GROUND
RECEIVING
STATION
ELT
MISSION
COORDINATION
CENTER
3-3 FLOW OF INFORMATION FROM ELT
The ground station receives the emergency signal and calculates the
location of the signal by one of two methods. In the case of 121.5 and 406
MHz signals detected by polar orbiting satellites, the position of the distress
beacon is computed using Doppler technology (the relative motion between the
satellite and the emergency beacon). In the case of 406 MHz signals detected
by geostationary satellites, only those beacons equipped with GPS capabilities
can be accurately located. This position can then be transmitted as part of the
distress signal to a mission control center. In the United States, NOAA operates 14 Local User Terminals (LUT) in seven locations. There are two LUT in
each of the following locations: Suitland, MD; Houston, TX; Vandenberg
AFB, CA; Fairbanks, AK; Wahiawa, HI; San Juan, Puerto Rico; and Andersen
AFB, Guam. There are currently 39 LUT in operation worldwide with several
more being built each year.
11-3 FIRE LAYS USAF Regulation 64-4.
The U.S. Mission Control Center (USMCC) in Suitland, MD, obtains

the location information from the ground receiving stations. The USMCC combines this information with other satellite receptions (from other ground stations and MCC), further refines the location and generates an alert message.
26
123
Start tinder burning and provide a steady draft (lightly blow on it)
until burning.
Remember to build a fire big enough to suit your needs. A fire too
big will be hard to maintain. There are two types of fires:
"Wise man's Fire" - Just big enough to keep you warm.
"Fool's Fire" - Too big. You keep warm by running to get more
wood.
There are several ways to arrange wood so that it burns more efficiently. Choose one that best suits your needs. Always keep more tinder, kindling, and fuels than you expect to use. Never let your wood fuel run too low.
The time to get more is not when you run out.
This alert is then transmitted to the appropriate Rescue Coordination

Center based on the beacon's geographic location and/or identification. If the
location of the beacon is in another country's service area, the alert is transmitted to that country's MCC. This is possible because all Cospas-Sarsat MCC are
interconnected through nodal MCC that handle data distribution in a particular
region of the world. Currently, there are 24 MCC worldwide (five of which are
nodal MCC operated by the United States, France, Russia, Japan, and Australia). Although the operation is always manned, the vast majority of alert data
distribution is handled automatically.
Once the Rescue Coordination Center is alerted, it begins the actual
search and rescue operation. In the United States, these rescue centers are operated by the U.S. Coast Guard for incidents at sea and by the U.S. Air Force for
incidents on land. In the case of NOAA-registered 406 MHz beacons, the RCC
telephones the beacon's owner and/or emergency contact, and if it cannot determine that the signal is a false alarm, it dispatches search and rescue (SAR)
teams to locate the aircraft or vessel in distress.
Helpful Hints:
To reflect the heat, erect a solar blanket near the fire (Place reflective
side towards the fire), but not so near that it ignites.
Several small fires heat more efficiently than one large fire (Place
them around you).
If you have no choice but to build your fire on the snow, find a platform (Anything that is fireproof or slow burning) to build it on. A
crisscross of green logs will help keep the fire from sinking.
In the case of 121.5 MHz beacons, which cannot be registered with

NOAA, each distress call, whether real or a false alarm, must be tracked to the
source using direction-finding equipment. The manpower and cost of responding to false alarms are extremely high. To avoid false alerts, NOAA recommends that pilots be sure to use care when testing and maintaining their ELT
and follow the manufacturer's recommendations carefully.
Search and rescue forces are sent out either by the U.S. Air Force, the
U.S. Coast Guard or local SAR personnel depending on the origin of the emergency signal. SAR forces include fixed wing aircraft, helicopters, ships, boats,
search parties, and sometimes commercial ships. The SAR forces find the people in distress and bring them to safety. To focus the SAR team's initial search,
all 121.5 MHz and most 406 MHz beacons transmit a second "homing" frequency of 121.5 MHz. Armed with radio detection devices, the Coast Guard
and other rescue authorities can track the homing frequency and quickly locate
the emergency beacon.
A Cospas-Sarsat polar satellite will typically overfly a beacon within
an hour and calculate a Doppler-determined location. This process can locate
beacons within an accuracy of 5-12 miles for 121.5 MHz beacons and 1-3
miles for 406 MHz beacons. The 406 MHz beacons detected by geostationary
satellites provide immediate alerts. However, they are not able to be located
using the Doppler shift because these satellites have no relative motion between them and the emergency beacons. They can, however, be registered in
NOAA's beacon database. Thus, if the 406 MHz beacon has been registered,
the SAR team can begin its initial verification of the alert using the information
contained in NOAA's beacon registration database.
122
27
Often this detective work yields a general location of the vessel or

aircraft in distress and SAR assets can be readied or dispatched to that general
area. Then, when a polar orbiting satellite flies over the beacon, its exact location can be calculated using the Doppler shift and the location forwarded to the
SAR personnel who may already be en route.
Satellites
NOAA operates both polar-orbiting and geostationary environmental
satellites that are used primarily for environmental applications. Each satellite
also carries Search and Rescue Satellite-Aided Tracking (Sarsat) payloads that
can detect and locate emergency beacons activated by people in distress
Kindling
Fuels
Finely split wood
Dead wood
Fuzz stick
Dry peat
Dry dead branches
Coal
Twigs
Dried dung
Animal fat
Bundles of grass
11-1 FIRE STARTING MATERIALS
NOAA's Polar Orbiting Environmental Satellites circle the earth every

102 minutes at an altitude of about 850 km (526 miles). The Russian Cospas
polar satellites circle the Earth every 105 minutes at an altitude of about 1,000
km (620 miles). Antennas aboard the satellites detect both 406 and 121.5 MHz
emergency beacon signals and relay them to ground stations. Since the satellites overfly the poles on every orbit, coverage is best there and least at the
equator. In the mid-latitudes, the average waiting time for a satellite pass is 3045 minutes, with quicker passes near the poles.
Arrange tinder, kindling, and small fuel into a teepee stack. If the
fuel, wood, is too large, it may smother the fire. Start out small, and then progress up. Do not pack the material so dense that there is little to no air available to fuel the fire once it is lit. More than likely you will have to improvise
some sort of wind break for your fire. This can be anything from your raft to
pieces of the fuselage.
NOAA's Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites orbit at

about 36,000 km (22,320 miles) above the Earth's equator. From this vantage
point, GOES can see large portions of the Earth continuously. GOES satellites
can detect only 406 MHz emergency beacons. The more advanced 406 MHz
beacons often have GPS capacity, which can provide their position. GOES
satellites relay 406 MHz signals to ground stations immediately after a beacon
is activated.
There are many devices designed to be an ignition source for your

fire. Just because you are in a survival situation doesnt mean you have to giveup all of your modern day conveniences. This is especially true when starting
your fire. When choosing the ignition source to carry, think ease. You should
have a plentiful source of waterproof matches available as well as butane lighters. If you cant find waterproof matches available you can dip the end of your
matches in hot wax. Ensure that your lighters are fueled periodically so that
when the time comes to use it, it actually works.
As of July 2008 it has become mandatory on international GA flights

to carry the newer 406 MHz beacon. Additionally, the COSPAS-SARSAT
satellite system will discontinue satellite based monitoring of the 121.5/243
MHz frequencies as of February 1, 2009. The 121.5/243 MHz ELTs will not
be illegal from the FAAs perspective, it highly encourages all aircraft owners
and operators to upgrade to newer 406 MHz equipment. The 121.5 MHz
The 406 MHz offers the user many more benefits than does the 121.5
MHz. After satellites stop monitoring the 121.5/243 MHz signal in 2009, transmissions from these devices will only be detected by ground-based receivers
such as local airport facilities and air traffic control facilities, or by overflying
aircraft. Therefore, use of the 121.5/243 MHz ELTs will result in limited assistance, especially in remote locations.
Personal Locator Beacon
28
Another source of ignition is referred to as a metal

match. There are actually many variations of the metal match
to choose from, but the most effective combine flint and magnesium. All metal matches consist of flint which when
scraped by a sharp object, such as a knife, will create a spark.
11-2 METAL MATCH
Some metal matches combine magnesium, which you shave
into small piles to assist the flint in igniting your fuel source. The magnesium
burns very hot and very quick. Make sure that you pile the shavings on your
fuel source prior to ignition.
Matches
Candle
Battery and steel wool
Lighter
Fire Paste
Magnifying glass
Flint or
Magnesium Match
Night end of MK-13

or similar flares
Campfire starter
121
FIRE BUILDING
A fire can be a survivor's best friend. A fire will provide light,
warmth, a signal, purify your water, provide protection, and act as a companion. Also, when you build a fire it will give you a sense of accomplishment
and confidence in your survival skills. Skill in fire craft is achieved through
practice, not through reading a book.
In order for a fire to exist, three basic elements are required. This is
known as the fire triangle and it is composed of:
Oxygen (Air)
Fuel (Anything that will burn)
Heat (Ignition source)
If one of these basic elements is missing, the fire will not burn. The
most common mistake in fire building is the improper placement of the wood.
It needs to be placed so that plenty of oxygen can feed the fire.
Personal Locator Beacons or PLBs operate similar to the ELTs already discussed. They are designed to be carried on an individual rather than
attached to the aircraft. A PLB can only be manually activated and transmit on
406 MHZ. PLBs also have a low powered homing beacon that transmits 121.5
MHz. The homing beacon allows rescue crews to home on a device after the
406 MHz transmission has gotten them into the general area. Devices with the
GPS option can further reduce the search area to as little as 100 meters. PLBs
and ELTs can be registered online through the NOAA website at: http://
www.beaconregistration.noaa.gov.
A newer product gaining in popularity as a signal device are Lasers
Flares. Laser Flares look similar in body to laser pointers but are designed to
be used as signaling devices. Some hand-held devices can be visible for up to
20 miles away under optimal conditions. Make sure they are US Food and
Drug Administration approved Class IIIA Laser products. These are safe to
look at and would pose no danger if aimed at an overhead aircraft.
If you can operate a flashlight you should have no problem using a
laser flare. The flare will emit a flat line and the further away from the target,
the longer or higher the line. When using the device as a signal flare remember
to aim the laser line vertically at your target and scan slowly form left to right.
Before building a fire you need to find a suitable location. Never

build a fire:
In a dry resinous (pine) forest

Under snow covered trees
Directly on snow
On or near wet rocks (chance of explosion)
WRONG
Horizontal
A good plan would be to dig down to mineral soil (Absent of roots

and debris) and build your fire there.
You will find a list of items you should gather on the following page.
Ideally, you would want to gather three large piles of each.
Tinder
Dry grass
Cotton or scraped cloth
Powder wood
Candle
Lint off clothing
Steel wool
Reddish pine needles
Shaved stick
Hair
Paper
Inner bark of a cedar
Dry moss
Oil soaked cloth
CORRECT
Vertical Line
A hand-held Global Positioning System (GPS) used in conjunction

with a 2-way radio is a very effective signaling device. Some units are the size
of a small, flat calculator. Most GPS systems contain a 12 parallel channel receiver. The system can provide the user with his/her longitude and latitude
with an accuracy of +/- 3 meters. Some units have map software which can
provide additional information about the area in which you may have found
yourself. Information concerning the location of food, lodging, service stations, and more, can be found on some software, usually at an additional cost.
Additionally, some 406 MHz devices offer embedded GPS chips, which, when
activated will send the survivors coordinates directly to the rescuers using the
satellite.
A strobe light is an electronic device that emits a continuous flashing
light. If used in a continuous mode, it should continually flash for up to nine
hours. It will be a judgment call to either let it flash continuously or in cycles.
Fine dried wood shavings

120
29
hours. It will be a judgment call to either let it flash continuously or in cycles.

A consideration would be that an aircraft might be able to see the light before
you hear the aircraft approaching. But, again, this is going to be a judgment
call. Carrying an extra battery will be of great benefit.
A cellular phone is another option as an electronic signaling device.
As long as your phone can pick up a signal you will be able to dial 9-1-1. Unfortunately this rules out many remote areas where your phone would be of
great benefit. Satellite phones are an option for use in remote areas. You
should always ensure that the phone battery is fully charged before all flights.
This will help provide you with the optimum time possible for signaling.
Satellite phones, or Sat phones, are becoming more common place as
price become more reasonable and availability increases. For those who fly
internationally, a Sat phone is highly recommended.
When flying over water you should pack all of your electronic devices
in a waterproof pouch or container.
OTHER SIGNALING DEVICES

Police whistle (Audio signal) great for alerting ground searchers as
well as survivors that may have strayed from camp.
Flashlight (A good night signal)
Chemlight ( A good night signal) Usually last 12 hours. Works well on
a string while twirling.
Solar blanket (Reflector on one side and orange on the other side)
Water activated lights (Found on rafts and LPUs)
Streamers (Land and Water signal) works well in replacing the old
sea dye markers.
The signal mirror is considered by many to be a most effective visual
signaling device. Flashes from signal mirrors have been spotted from over 25
miles. A signal mirror works best on clear, sunny days, but is still effective
even on cloudy/overcast days. Even if you don't hear an aircraft approaching,
you may still want to make sweeping motions towards the horizon. It can even
be tried on a string and suspended (i.e. from a tree branch) for hands free operation.
PICK-UP DEVICES
Chapter Quiz
1. Where is the one place you should never stand when dealing with a
pick-up device?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Directly in front of
Directly underneath
Directly behind
It doesn't matter
2. At what point should you grab the pick-up device?

a.
b.
c.
d.
At any time the device is within reach

Only after the device has come into contact with the water or
ground
Only when given the go ahead from the PIC
It doesn't matter when you touch the device as long as you are
able to swim to it.
3. Which pick-up device is designed to extract a survivor from thick foliage, such as jungle or forest overgrowth?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Horse Collar
Rescue Basket
Forest Penetrator
There is no such device
IMPROVISED SIGNALS
When improvising, you are taking an item used for one purpose, and
adapting it to your needs. An improvised signal can be made or taken right out
of the kit. Since resources may be limited, the kits are probably the best
source.
30
119
PREPARE FOR ASCENT - When the above is accomplished and

you are ready, give a thumbs-up. At this time, the helicopter will lift you up.
It is very important not to cross or lock your legs under the device. As the devise ascends, allow your legs to hang loose until off the ground. In the highly
unlikely event of cable breakage, you will need your legs below you, not
locked underneath.
Directions for using the Forrest Penetrator pick-up device.
When using smoke and fire as a signal, you must consider the type of
environment you are in. When dealing with fire as a signal, it is apparent that
it must be out in the open. Three fires in the shape of a triangle are recognized
internationally as a sign of distress. However, any fire out in the open will be
effective.
When using smoke, your primary consideration is to contrast smoke
with the environment. In light or snow covered environments, you should use
black smoke. In a dark or dense foliage areas, use white smoke. To produce a
black-type smoke you should burn:
Any petroleum product (JP-4, hydraulic fluid, oil)

Any rubber or plastic based items (tires)
Coniferous trees (evergreens)
NOTE: When burning any rubber or petroleum products, keep out of the
smoke. It may contain toxic compounds.
To produce a white smoke, try burning the following:
10-5 FOREST PENETRATOR. Illustration taken from AF Regulation 64-4.
RESCUE BASKET or STOKES LITTER - In the event of rescue

involving untrained civilians at sea, a Rescue Basket or
will be used. The procedure for safe use is simple. The
survivor climbs-in, sits down, and is then hoisted out of
the sea. The Rescue Basket is standard equipment
aboard U.S. Coast Guard rescue helicopters.
10-6 RESCUE BASKET.

www.lifesavingsystems.com
118
Green wood
Green or dry leaves
Moss
Peat
Ferns
The effectiveness of your smoke will generally depend on how high

the smoke can rise; the hotter the fire, the higher the smoke will rise. To further enhance white smoke, you can activate the orange smoke flare and allow it
to mix with the white smoke.
Another potential signal could be designed with the of the aircraft
battery, using salvageable aircraft lights. However, this is not highly recommended due to the fire and chemical hazards of the battery.
It is possible to communicate a specific message to an aircraft-flying
overhead without having a 2-way radio. This could involve any fabric, an
emergency blanket, rocks, branches or anything else that could be manipulated
into various shapes. The shapes that you mold should be designed to a 6:1
ratio, preferably 18 feet high by 3 feet wide. Various signals that are recognized can be seen below.
31
A doctor is needed
II
Medicine is needed
Can NOT continue
Water and/or food is needed
Which direction do I go
Am proceeding in direction of arrow
LL
Everything is O.K.
NO
YES
10-3 Horse Collar. Illustration taken from AF Regulation 64-4.
Message not understood

Map and/or compass is needed
3-4 Standard ground-to-air signals. (Information taken from DESERT SURVIVAL.
Dick and Sharon Nelson, 1977.)
When designing a signaling device the main purpose is to create a

device that will gain attention. A good rule-of-thumb is to follow the
CCLAS checklist. CCLAS is an acronym, which stands for condition, contrast,
location, angularity, and size. Refer to chart 3-4 for more information
3-5
ONDITION
Check on the condition of your signal throughout

your survival situation to make sure it is in good
repair.
ONTRAST
The signal should stand out from its background.
OCATION
Pick a spot that is high in altitude and high in visibility.
NGULARITY
There should be an abundance of straight lines that

set your signal apart from the rest of mother natures curves.
IZE
The proper ratio for signal is 6 to 1. The preferred

size, if capable, is 18 by 3 feet wide.
CHECKLIST for improving the visibility of improvised signals
32
FOREST PENETRATO/RESCUE SEAT - These pickup devices are designed to extract a survivor from thick foliage,
such as jungle or forested overgrowth. However, these devices can
also be used for maritime and land rescue operations The device
will hoist as many as two survivors at one time and has a seat and
safety strap for each. This device is very simple and safe to use if
the survivor follows these simple guidelines:
SET UP DEVICE - When the device has made contact with the
ground or water, look for the seat and pull it down until it locks in
place.
SECURE SAFETY STRAP - Once the seat has been locked in place,
the safety strap should be pulled out and placed around the torso and
then connected. Keep the strap under the armpits and the connector in
front. Many times when this device is lowered, the safety strap will
be out and fastened. If this is the case, then you must place the strap
over the head and under the armpits, with the connector in front.
MOUNT DEVICE - Once the safety strap is on, the next action
would be to mount the device. Put the seat of the device between the
legs and raise the device, using the arms until the seat is snug against
the crotch. This is a very important because if there is any space between the seat and the crotch, when the winch brings up the device,
the seat could come abruptly in contact with the crotch area... OUCH!
Next, hug the device and keep it close to your torso and keep your
face to one side and down.
117
LET THE RESCUE PERSONNEL REMOVE DEVICE - Listen for

instructions. Extraction from the water is as safe as it is on land. The
guidelines will remain similar, with just a few more considerations:
The particular pick-up devices used to extract survivors is dependent
on the type of helicopter used (USAF, Navy, Army, USCG).
QUICK STROP/RESCUE SLING - Sometimes mistaken for the
"Horse Collar, the Quick Strop, a rescue sling, is essentially a padded loop.
The sling is designed to fit under the arms and around the torso. An adjustable
crotch strop prevents the survivor from slipping out of
the device. The sling can be lowered as a closed-loop
or opened. If it is lowered in the open configuration,
then the survivor must:
One thing is certain, just having signaling equipment available is not

enough. Knowledge is the key to effective signaling. Knowledge in not only
the signaling devices provided in your kits, but also in how to construct improvised signals. Practice is the best way to accomplish this, and can be accomplished through various means. You can attend survival courses, read, or practice locally. Most signaling devices have instructions posted on them. Read
the instructions and familiarize yourself with them well before a survival situation occurs.
SIGNALING
Chapter Quiz
1. The acronym CCLAS stands for C______________, C______________,
DON SLING - Take the free end of the sling

and roll it around the torso. Make sure that
Figure 10-2 Quick Strop
the sling fits underneath the arm pit area.
www.lifesavingsystems.com
Next, take the free end (the end not connected
to the cable) and bring it to the front end, feed it through the restriction adapter, and connect it to the hook.
SECURE SAFETY STRAP Remove the safety strap from its
pocket on the back of the strop. Feed it between your legs and attach
the clip to the notch on the friction adapter. Then tighten snugly &
move the friction adapter towards your body. These straps will keep
unconscious persons from slipping out (though it is doubtful that they
would slip out without the strap).
PREPARE FOR ASCENT - Make sure that the cable and hook are in
front
of your face. Hug the rescue device and turn your head to
one side to protect against facial injury.
L______________, A______________, S______________.

2. A signal that uses fire, smoke, or ballistics is a:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Pyrotechnic
Flare
Both a & b
None of the above
3. What should be the first signaling device used?

a.
b.
c.
d.
ELT
Survival radio
Aircraft radio
Signal mirror
If the sling is lowered in the closed configuration, you should:

4. Satellites will stop monitoring the 121.5 MHz frequency in what year?
DON SLING - Slip on the sling as if you were putting on a sweater.
Push arms through the sling until the sling is below the arms and
shoulders. Place the sling under your armpits.
________________
5. In which three areas are ELT's commonly located: 1)_______________,
SECURE SAFETY STRAP

2)_______________, 3)_______________
GIVE A THUMBS-UP SIGNAL
PREPARE FOR ASCENT
Directions for using the Horse Collar pick-up device.
116
33
HOTLAND (DESERT) SURVIVAL

When you mention the word "hotland, what is the first thing that
comes to mind? More than likely, your response centered on a desert.
Though it is true that a desert is a "hotland," any region that you fly over has
the potential for becoming a "hotland." Temperatures can rise quickly and
without warning. For this chapter, we are going to concentrate on the desert,
but the survival techniques to be described can be used in any "hotland."
Deserts cover nearly 20% of the world's landmass. They are found
on most continents, and usually have inhabitants that live and thrive in this
hostile environment. These inhabitants have learned to live with the desert,
and not to fight it.
Deserts are found in three forms:
Rock Desert
Sand Desert
Salt Desert
Each of these desert types is very different from the other. Sometimes a desert can start out as a sand desert, then turn into a mountainous rock
desert. Although no two deserts are alike, they do share one common bond:
They are hot! In 1972 - 1974 the National Park Service conducted surface
temperature readings in Death Valley, California. These tests were conducted
in July and August during the hottest part of the day. The average surface
temperature was 182 degrees (F), but at times (1972) it hit as high as 201 degrees (F). It goes without saying temperatures as high as these would cause
life threatening medical problems.
As the temperature outside increases, the inner core temperature of an
unprotected person will also increase. To combat this heat build-up, the body
produces sweat. Sweat is simply water, taken from the body's internal supply,
and sent to the surface of the skin to promote evaporation. As the water
evaporates, the skin and blood will cool. This system works very efficiently,
as long as there is a sufficient water supply in the body. The average person
looses 2 - 4 quarts of water through everyday activity. Any activity above the
normal amount will cause a person to loose water faster and in greater quantity. This water must be replaced or the body will be in a state of dehydration.
When dehydrated, the sweating process will slow and eventually stop, and this
will cause body heat to rise. As the heat in body rises, it will cause physiological stresses to the body. Immediate treatment should consist of cooling the
body and consuming enough water to promote the sweating process.
34
LET THE HELICOPTER COME TO YOU - Once the helicopter has

reached the optimum position, it will begin to lower the pick-up device.
FOR LAND EXTRACTION Once the device has made contact
with the ground, go to it.
NOTE: Some of these devices are very heavy; DO NOT STAND
DIRECTLY UNDERNEATH THE PICK-UP DEVICE.
FOR SEA EXTRACTON: LET THE HELICOPTER COME TO
YOU - As the helicopter approaches, it will typically drop the pick-up
device in the water and drag it to your position. While this is occurring, you should partially deflate and sink the raft. This action will
prevent the raft from becoming airborne and doing damage to the
helicopter. Once the helicopter gets in the optimum position it will
hover; you can then approach the device. Due to the down wash from
the rotors, it will be very difficult to see. Always try to keep the device in sight.
ALLOW THE DEVICE TO TOUCH THE GROUND OR WATERWhile the pick-up device is being lowered, there will be a build up of
static electricity. If it is touched before it is allowed to discharge the
electricity, it will deliver a respectable shock.
DON OR ENTER THE DEVICE - When using these devices, always look for the obvious. They have been designed for quick and
easy use. Most devices will have simple one-word instructions, e.g.,
PULL.
WHEN SECURED TO THE DEVICE, LET RESCUE PERSONNEL KNOW When you are ready to be extracted, give a thumbs-up
to the operator. In a sea extraction you can give a splashing thumbsup as the operator may have difficulty seeing you through the rotor
wash.
REMAIN STILL ON THE WAY UP - Do not grasp the cable or rescue hook. Hug the rescue device to you (i.e. strop or penetrator) or
keep extremities inside the device 9 (i.e. rescue basket.) Usually, you
will start to spin (most times, lightly) on the way up. Do not panic.
DO NOT ASSIST ENTERING THE HELICOPTER - Listen for
instructions. Do not reach out. Maintain your lifting body position
until told otherwise.
115
PICK-UP DEVICES
Survival has but one goal: RESCUE! That rescue can come in many
forms. Anything from a hiker who just happened to be in the area, to a rescue
helicopter hovering above can be a potential rescuer. The survivor's chief responsibility is to get the attention of the rescuer so that the survivor may be
extracted from the survival environment. Extraction from a survival environment can be accomplished through many means. Many times, survivors must
be removed from an environment that is potentially dangerous to their well being as well as that
of the rescuers. Heavy seas or rough terrain can
play havoc with conventional rescue parties. In
cases such as these it is likely that a helicopter
will be used. Helicopters can get to areas that are
impractical for other types of rescue vehicles. If
a helicopter can land safely, it could literally land
within feet of a survivor. If a safe landing cannot
be accomplished, then extraction, using a pick-up device, will be utilized.
Rescue equipment used by military helicopter involves an electric winch, a
cable with a hook attachment, and the pick-up device.
- Sunburn: Sunburn is a result of unprotected skin absorbing too

much of the ultra-violet rays from the sun. Sunburn is not a life threatening
injury. It is considered to be a first-degree burn, and should be treated as such.
The real problem with sunburn stems from two complications. First, in an attempt to cool the injury, mild sunburn will cause the body to produce more
sweat than normal. Secondly, more severe sunburn will cause an impairment
of sweat glands on the affected area. This will cause your body to build up
heat faster than normal, which can bring on a more serious heat injury.
- Sun blindness: This is brought on by the over-exposure of the eyes
to sunlight. Though common in desert areas, it can be prevented. When you
are out and about on bright sunny days, wear the sunglasses located in the survival kit. Even prescription glasses will give some protection. Wearing a hat
will also help. Some of the common symptoms are an itch, a reddish appearance, a burning sensation and possible swelling. If this happens to you or a
crewmember, its going to take time for it to heal. Cover both eyes for at least
18 hours and take aspirin (take aspirin only if you have drinking water) to combat the pain. Failing to treat for this condition can lead to a worsening of the
problem, or even permanent damage.
- Heat cramps: When a body sweats profusely, not only is it losing
water, it is also losing salt. When this happens, it can upset the electrolyte balance of your cells. The body will send signals that this is happening in the
form of cramps. Heat cramps can affect any of the muscles, but will usually
only affect the legs and the abdominal region. If suffering from heat cramps,
you must get into the shade, slow the sweating, and drink water. Massage the
legs to alleviate the cramps.
10-1 APPROACHING A RESCUE HELICOPTER. Illustration taken from AF Regulation 64-4.
- Heat exhaustion: When the body is under the stress of heat, the
blood near the surface of the skin has a tendency to pool. This pooling will
deprive the vital organs and muscle of a good blood supply, and heat exhaustion can result. Symptoms often include heat cramps, a general weakness,
moist skin (as opposed to dry skin with heat stroke), and a paleness of the skin
(as opposed to a redness as with heat stroke). The skin doesn't feel hot to the
touch; body temperature is near normal. Heat exhaustion can be serious. Get
the victim to a cool shaded location and give him/her water. Fan the victim if
necessary to keep him/her cool until help arrives.
Extraction can be accomplished on land or sea. The procedures for

each are almost identical. If possible, rescue personnel will be lowered to assist. If rescue personnel can not be lowered, then there are a few basic guidelines to follow to assure a safe and quick pick-up:
- Heat stroke: While all heat related problems are serious, heat stroke
has a high death rate and is considered the most serious. With heat stroke, all
sweating ceases and the body rapidly builds up heat. The skin is red, hot, and
dry to the touch. Sometimes the victim will be unconscious. Get the victim
out of direct sunlight, and provide him/her with water. Administer salt-water
solution (unless unconscious) and cool the victim rapidly. If a stream or pool
114
35
is near by, get victim in it. It is imperative that a physician or medical technician be sought as soon as rescue arrives.
As stated before, finding water in the desert will be a challenge. The
water you have in the body system before a survival episode may be the only
source. Don't waste it. A good rule of thumb to adhere to is to ration your
sweat, not your water. Here are a few techniques that may help you to conserve your internal water (hydration):
Stay out of direct sunlight (The shade can be 40 degrees cooler)

Stay off the desert floor (12" above or 12" below may be 40 degrees cooler)
No activity during the daylight (All work done at night)
Proper clothing (Light colors reflect sunlight, keep clothing
baggy and layered)
No smoking (Smoking hastens dehydration)
No alcohol (Alcohol promotes dehydration)
When the thirst mechanism sends a signal to the brain, its saying the
body is low on water. Keep your system filled with water before you become a
survivor.
If the time comes when water needs to be found, all work should be
done in the cool of the night. Finding water in the desert may be difficult, but
it is not impossible. An important question to ask is "Should I go out and look
for water or stay put and conserve what is in my system?" An alternative may
be to dig a solar still. A solar still brings moisture from the ground and air and
puts it in a container for your consumption. To construct a solar still, first dig a
hole, find a container, and have a clear piece of plastic available. (See diagram). Crushed green vegetation placed along the sides of the hole will speed
up the moisturizing process. Additionally, if you dig your hole in a natural
moisture collector (see diagram) it will help. One solar still may produce as
much as 2 pints of water a day, but the quantity is usually far less. So, should
you dig a solar still (which will cause you to loose water through sweating) or
stay in the shade and conserve? It will be a judgment call.
FAA KITS, RAFTS, AND ACCESSORIES

Chapter Quiz
1. The Mod-1 survival kit:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Has just the bare necessities for survival over 48 hours

Weighs about 12 pounds
Is designed to support six crewmembers for 72 hours
All of the above
2. When should you inventory your survival kits?

a.
b.
c.
d.
After aircraft evacuation and first aid has been rendered

Immediately after the aircraft has come to a stop
After you have set up your shelter
When you require the use of a specific item in the kit
3. The purpose of a Personal Survival Kit is to _______________ existing

kits.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Replace
Augment
Take the place of
All of the above
4. A dual redundancy raft is one that:

a.
b.
c.
d.
Has two cells to protect against sinking

Has two colors
The top is identical to the bottom
Has two inflation (CO2) cylinders
5. Which survival kit will be used in conjunction with the 4-man and 6man rafts?
The following 4 pages illustrate a persons average daily water requirement
and various water procuring techniques and ideas. (Information and illustrations were taken from USAF Regulation 64-4 unless otherwise noted).
36
a.
b.
c.
d.
FA-1
SRU/P Minimal survival kit
MOD-1
All of the above
113
TI 4158.1-25.1 CHG 137

8
4/26/90
Page 3
b.
Liferaft - 6-Man - per TSO-C-70. Each raft is to be equipped with
a locator light and survival kit that shall contain as a minimum the
following:
Quantity
1
1
2
If Required
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
Description
Desalting kit or survivor 06 reverse osmosis hand pump
Dye marker
Emergency water container
Raft pressure relief valve plugs
Raft repair kit
Hand pump
Raft Knife
Bailing bucket
Sponge
Heaving trailing line
Sea Anchor
Fishing Kit
Flashlight with batteries
Flare signal kit
EBC-102 emergency locator transmitter with flotation
collar.
NOTE: A module-1 survival kit will be used in conjunction with the

above liferaft survival kit and secured to the liferaft with a nylon retaining line.
9-12 LIFERAFT EQUIPMENT LIST(6-PERSON) Information taken from the FAA
survival kit manual, T.I. 4158.1-25-1
112
WATER REQUIREMENTS
WITH NO WALKING AT ALL
AVAILABLE WATER PER MAN,
U.S. QUARTS
MAXIMUM DAILY
TEMPERATURE (F)
IN SHADE
1 Qt
2 Qt
4 Qt
10 Qt 20 Qt
DAYS OF EXPECTED SURVIVAL
120
2.5
4.5
110
3.5
100
5.5
9.5
13.5
90
10.5
15
23
80
10
11
13
19
29
70
10
11
12
14
20.5
32
60
10
11
12
14
21
32
50
10
11
12
14.5
21
32
WALKING AT NIGHT UNTIL EXHAUSTED

AND RESTING THEREAFTER
AVAILABLE WATER PER MAN,
U.S. QUARTS
MAXIMUM DAILY
TEMPERATURE (F)
IN SHADE
1 Qt
2 Qt
4 Qt
10 Qt 20 Qt
DAYS OF EXPECTED SURVIVAL
120
2.5
110
2.5
3.5
100
3.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
90
5.5
5.5
6.5
80
7.5
9.5
11.5
70
7.5
10.5
13.5
60
8.5
11
14
50
8.5
11
14
37
TI 4158.1-25.1 CHG 137

4/26/90
b.
8
Page 3
Liferaft - 6-Man - per TSO-C-70. Each raft is to be equipped with a

locator light and survival kit that shall contain as a minimum the
following:
Quantity
1
1
2
If Required
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
Description
Dye marker
Raft pressure relief valve plugs
Raft repair kit
Hand pump
Raft Knife
Bailing bucket
Sponge
Sea Anchor
Fishing Kit
Flare signal kit
EBC-102 emergency locator transmitter with flotation
collar.
9-11 LIFERAFT EQUIPMENT LIST(4-PERSON) Information taken from the FAA survival kit manual, T.I. 4158.1-25-1
TI 4158.1-25.1 CHG 137

4/26/90
38
8
Page 3
111
TI 4158.1-25-1 CHG 137

4/26/90
8
Page 1
LIFERAFTS/SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT LIST

1. GENERAL
This chapter is issued to provide the minimum survival equipment list for
all liferafts used on the FAA aircraft. This list will include the quantity and
description of each item.
a.
Liferaft - 4-Man - per TSO-C-70. Each raft is to be equipped with a

locator light and survival kit that shall contain as a minimum the following:
Quantity
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
Description
Dye marker
Raft repair kit
Hand pump
Raft Knife
Bailing bucket
Sponge
Sea Anchor
Fishing Kit
Flare signal kit
NOTE: A module-1 survival kit will be used in conjunction with the above
liferaft survival kit and secured to the liferaft with a nylon retaining line.
9-10 LIFERAFT EQUIPMENT LIST(4-PERSON) Information taken from the FAA survival kit
manual, T.I. 4158.1-25-1
110
39
Ultra-LightTM FA-AV(UL) Type One

FAA TSO-C70a, CAA BCAR-B4-8 & DGAC QACI-144 Approved
Hard Pack Configuration
STANDARD EQUIPMENT Includes:
CO2/N2 Inflation Systemw/Twin Oversized Buoyancy Tubes

Three (3) Position (Closed, Sail &Convertible) Light Weight Canopy w/Cinch Strap
Sure-SealTM Closures w/#10YKKHeavy Duty Zippering
Dual Main Zipper w/Ventilation Tie Backs
Tripod Arch, Auto Inflatable, Canopy Support Systemw/Stay Erect Arch Support
Valve System
Oversized Front Boarding Entry w/4 Rung Boarding Ladder
Interior Assist Ladder w/Quick-Release Fittings
Rear Boarding Door w/3 Rung Boarding Ladder
Five (5) Bowed Boarding Assist Handles
Front Boarding Assist Stirrups (8 Person &Larger)
Combination Foul Weather Observation Port Hole &Water Collection System
w/Sure-saltamClosures
12DFTM Inflatable Insulated Double Floor
Water Activated Interior/Exterior Survivor Locator Lights
Quick-GrabTM PelicanMagnumFlashlight on Arch
Auto-Deploying Hemispherical Drogu (Sea-Anchor) w/25 Line &Anti-Foul Swivels
75 Floating Heaving Trailing Line w/Buoyant Throwing Handle
35 Painter Line w/Quick-Release Fittings
Heavy Duty EZGripTM Righting Line w/Contrasting Bowed Hand Grips
Water Activated Righting Line w/Retrievable/Reusable Battery
Unidirectional Retro/Radar Reflective Segments on Canopy
Unidirectional Retro Reflective Segments Under Life Raft &Across Arch
Pentagonal Ballast SystemTM

1 Exterior Lifelines &Interior Grasp Lines
Five (5) StoreSafeTM Light Weight Dry Survival Gear Storage Pockets
Pressure Relief Valves
Topping-Up Valves
Hard Pack Canister
9-9 WINSLOW Ultra-Light standard equipment. Information provided by the Winslow Liferaft
CO.
40
109
Amount of water
Amount of solution
to add
Clear
Cloudy
water
Water
1 quart ( gallon)
2 drops
4 drops
1 gallon
8 drops
16 drops
5 gallons
teaspoon
1 teaspoon
Add chlorine solution to water and stir. Let stand for 30 minutes. After this
length of time, the water should have a distinct taste or smell of chlorine. If
not, add several more drops of chlorine, and let stand an additional 15 minutes. The taste or smell of chlorine in the water is a sign of safety.
All the basic needs that a person has at home (shelter, food, water,
and first aid) must still be satisfied while surviving in the desert. People of
the desert have successfully used techniques of desert living for thousands of
years. Building a fire while surviving in the desert may sound a little silly
until you consider how cold it gets at night. The temperature can be 100
degrees or more during the day and then drop to below freezing at night.
There have been cases of people freezing to death due to cold nights in the
desert. An advantage of being in the desert is that everything is dry and anything will burn. Also, because of the vast open terrain of the desert, a fire
makes an excellent signal.
A shelter in the desert will be needed to protect you from the sun
during the day and the cold during the night. A shelter (tarp), suspended 18
inches, above the desert will provide shade that can be as much as 40 degrees cooler. By digging down 12 inches it can drop even further. A good
idea is to layer the shelter. Layering creates a dead air space, which will
help to insulate.
The need for food in the desert isn't as great as the need for water.
Do not consume any dry food unless you have plenty of water.
Because of the dry desert climate, most external injuries will heal
very quickly. But basic first aid will still be required. Keep wounds covered to protect from dirt and insects.
9-8 WINSLOW Ultra-Light standard equipment features. Information provided by the Winslow
Liferaft CO.
108
Hazardous wildlife, such as bees, snakes and scorpions, are negligible in the dessert. During the springtime when the desert is in bloom, bees
are abundant. More people die each year from bee stings than from snake41
bites. If you, or a crewmember, are allergic to bee stings, be sure to carry a

"Bee Sting" kit.
Snakes in the desert will usually shun from people if not provoked.
There are two varieties of snakes found in the desert environment that are poisonous to man.
The newest raft to the flight inspection fleet is the Winslow UltraLight. It is designed as a 6-person raft with an overload of 9 persons. It will
weigh almost 50 lb.s and its dimensions will be approximately 8 x 17 x 28.
It is a good idea to tie down everything in the raft if possible. Keep
the inside of the raft dry and it will be a much more pleasant environment.
- Copperhead: Named for its copper colored head, the snake is typically about 5 feet in length.
- Rattlesnake: Named for rattlers located on its tail (though some
rattlesnakes don't have them). They vary in length, depending on the breed,
and are found throughout all North American deserts.
A majority of snakebites occur from the knee down when people are
not watching where they are stepping. Often, a pair of boots or even jeans will
help protect you. If bitten by a snake, and you are not positive as to what type
of snake bit you, treat the bite as poisonous. The most important factor when
treating snakebites is to keep the person calm. A person who panics and performs A lot of unnecessary activity is rushing the poison to its target. Keep in
mind that only about 75% of the people who are bitten by a poisonous snake
actually have venom in them from the bite. The recommendations for treatment are:
Keep victim at rest and warm

Give plenty of assurance that he/she will be all right.
Remove all rings, bracelets, and watches (if bitten on hand)
Remove shoes if bitten on the leg.
If more than 5 minutes has elapsed after the bite, apply a constricting bandage.
9-7 WINSLOW 6-PERSON RAFT Located on selected FAA Flight Inspection Aircraft
The bandage should be at least 2" wide

Apply 2" above and 2" below the bite
Feel for pulse
Swelling, weakness, and pain are some common symptoms of snakebites.

Other symptoms that might appear are:
Numbness or tingling of mouth, scalp, and feet.

Changes in pulse rate
Faintness and dizziness
Vomiting and nausea
Respiratory rate changes
The best prevention for snakebites is to watch your step and don't
42
107
COMMON SENSE. Remember that survival situations rely heavily on common sense. Trust your instincts.
The rafts found on board FAA aircraft are designed to keep survivors
afloat and sheltered from the water and elements until rescue arrives. Currently, the two rafts being used by the FAA Flight Inspections crews, are the
SWITLIK 4 and 6 person rafts and the Winslow Ultralight 6 person. Both of
these rafts have canopies, dual redundancy flotation cells (automatically inflated when activated), boarding ladders, internal lighting, ELT, and a safety
knife.
provoke or try to capture any snake.

Scorpions are also native to most deserts. Always look before
you sit or lie down. Always check shoes and clothing before donning.
All scorpions are poisonous, but not deadly. If you or a crewmember is
stung, keep calm and watch for complications, though it is doubtful that
any will occur.
HOTLAND SURVIVAL
Chapter Quiz
The Switlik 6-person raft comes packed in a container that measures 3

feet in height and about 18 inches thick. It weighs about 64 pounds. When the
inflation lanyard is pulled, the raft will automatically inflate. A carbon dioxide
cylinder will fill the top and bottom cell. The top cell will also inflate the canopy. Once inside the raft, you should inflate the floor for protection from the
cold water and to help stabilize the raft. Also, you should deploy the sea anchor and adjust it to the proper length.
1. The three types of deserts are:

The Switlik 4-person raft, like the 6-person, will automatically inflate
when activated. Although there isn't a top and bottom cell on the 4-person raft,
a bladder within the cell will automatically inflate when a leak occurs. On the
4-person raft, the canopy must be manually erected. Once in this raft, you
should go ahead and deploy and adjust the sea anchor. Every raft will have its
own accessory kit. Inventory these items and have them ready for quick use.
Illustrations' 9- and 9-6 show the 4-person raft and an example of the buoyancy
tube redundancy.
2. Ration your _______________ not your _______________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Northern, southern, and equatorial

Hot, arid, and temperate
Sand, rock, and salt
Mountainous, flats, and mesas
3. The average person loses how many quarts of water a day through everyday activity?
a.
b.
c.
d.
1-3
2-4
3-5
5-6
4. The most serious heat related illness is ______________________.

a.
b.
c.
d.
Sunburn
Heat exhaustion
Heat Stroke
Heat cramps
5. Which of the following is not a concern in a hotland environment?

a.
b.
c.
d.
Heatstroke
Hypothermia
Hyperthermia
All are a concern
9-5 SWITLICK COASTAL LIFE RAFT. 9-6 RAFT BUOYANCY TUBE REDUNDANCY
106
43
COLDLAND SURVIVAL
A "Cold Land" exists when there is cold sufficient enough to cause
harm to the body. Cold usually brings to mind the classic Arctic environment,
although a "Cold Land" can exist over any region you fly. Hypothermia, the
greatest threat in a cold land, is common in temperatures that are just less than
50 degrees F. A little sweat and wind, coupled with inadequate clothing, can
add up to trouble. A big problem in flying over a cold land is that most crews
dress for the cockpit environment, and not for the cold land. If the aircraft
goes down, the result is an unprepared crew in a hostile environment. Knowledge and preparation are your two best allies against this potential threat.
The human body is best suited for tropical or semi-tropical areas of
the globe. An unprotected human cannot withstand extreme temperature
changes. As the ambient temperature drops, the bodys core temperature also
drops. This is known as hypothermia (also known as exposure). Through the
process of metabolism, the body core maintains a temperature of 99 degrees F.
Heat produced by metabolism is circulated throughout the body. As long as
heat loss does not exceed heat build-up, the body will function normally. But,
if heat is lost from the body too quickly, this will lower the core temperature.
As the body core temperature drops, so does mental and physical efficiency.
Heat is lost from the body through several different vehicles:
LSK - 2
1.
1 Leatherman Multi-tool
2.
Magnifying glass
3.
1 U-Dig-It shovel
4.
1 pack of Gyro Jet signal flares
5.
Wet fire tinder (2 packs)
6.
Firefly signal strobe light
7.
2 krill lights
8.
1 tube of OFF insect repellent/sunscreen
9.
1 knife sharpener
10.
1 bottle of no-rinse body wash
9-3 LIFE SAVING KIT (LSK-2) CONTENTS (Located in the interior of the Mod-1 kit.)
LSK - 3
1.
3 packs of Datrex Survival Food (7200 calories)
CONDUCTION
RADIATION
The primary cause of heat loss.

A transfer of heat occurs when the body comes in
contact with something colder than itself.
The body will continually radiate heat from exposed
areas.
50% of body heat is lost from the head.
CONVECTION
Air current blows heat away from the body faster

than it is produced.
EVAPORATION
Sweat (or other moisture) can moisten clothing and

accelerate conduction.
RESPIRATION
In a cold environment, cold air enters the body and

leaves as warm air. The body loses heat by warming the colder air.
Once body core temperature starts to drop, the body will begin to defend itself against the cold. Capillaries and smaller vessels near the surface of
the skin will constrict to keep the blood from coming in contact with the cooler
surface. This gives the skin a bluish or ashy color. Shivering will usually be
44
Every item in each kit has an intended purpose. Also, every item has
an improvised use. Keep an open mind when doing an inventory of the kit
contents. One of the first things that should be done, after aircraft evacuation
and first aid has been rendered to the injured, is to inventory all the survival
equipment. After inventory, separate and group all equipment and have it
ready for quick use.
Even though these kits are well stocked, there is always room for improvement. This is when a personal survival kit would come in handy. A personal survival kit is designed to supplement existing kits. As a general rule, do
not duplicate items already present in FAA kits. Variety has been called the
spice of life. Variety can also spice up your kit. So take a good look at the
environment you fly over and consider your personal needs to give you some
idea of how to stock a personal survival kit. What would you consider the
most important item to put in a personal survival kit?
105
Item
Qty
the next major symptom. This is the body's attempt to produce heat through
muscular contraction. It will usually start out mild, then progress to a more
violent form. As muscles begin to cool and stiffen, muscular coordination is
lost. Speech will also be slurred as mental faculties and judgment begins to
slow. The pulse becomes weak and irregular as the blood cools and thickens.
Unconsciousness may be only minutes away due to hypoxia. Another important fact concerning hypothermia is, fatigue that will hasten its onset.
The first line of defense against hypothermia is shelter. Clothing is

considered shelter, in the sense that it is your first immediate measure to retain
body heat. The primary method of retaining heat is to insulate. The insulative
quality of any material is dependent on the amount of trapped air in the material. An important fact to keep in mind is that when clothing becomes wet, it
will loose its insulative quality. Wet clothing in wind will draw off body heat
200 times faster than wind alone. Wool is one of the best insulating materials.
Wool will insulate even when it becomes wet. A general rule on dressing for a
cold land is to wear a layer of cotton next to the skin (to absorb and retain
moisture), followed by a layer of wool, then a water resistant material on top.
1 - Blast match
1 - Signal mirror
1 Jetscream emergency whistle
2 - Cubes of Wetfire tender
15.
Ultimate Signal Kit

2 - Aerial signal flares
1 - orange smoke flare
1 - Sea dye marker
2 Emergency whistles
1 - Signal mirror
1 Submersible flashlight
1 - Distress flag/emergency shelter
1 Thermal blanket
3 Campfire starters
2 - Candles (4 hr.)
1 Canister of emergency matches (10)
1 - Signal and survival guide brochure
1 - Belt pouch
9-1 MOD-1 KIT CONTENTS
LSK 1
1.
Adventure medical kit
2.
6-12 Insect repellent
3.
Eyeglass repair kit
4.
USAF Pamphlet 64-5, survival manual
5.
Military issued insect repellent
6.
2 canisters of wind/water proof matches (25 per)
7.
1 pair cotton gloves
8.
1 MK-13 Day/Nite signal flare
Shelter from the elements needs to be constructed as soon as time and

conditions permit. Materials to construct a shelter may be scarce. The most
readily available shelter at your disposal is the aircraft fuselage. During inclement weather it will give protection from the elements. It is important to
keep in mind that, if the temperature is below 10 degrees, other shelter should
be sought. The metal in the fuselage will act as a cold sink and draw heat from
the body. Another readily available shelter is the raft. Once it is inflated, it
will give adequate protection from the elements. No matter what type of shelter used, there are a few basic guidelines:
Location - Stay near the aircraft. Air rescue parties will be looking
for it. Stay near it and have signal ready for quick use. Look for any
possible hazards when selecting a site for shelter. Dead trees could
lose their tops, or limbs, and could fall on the shelter. Look for the
possibility of an avalanche or rockslide area. Because of the risk of
flash floods, stay out of dry streambeds. If possible, place the shelter
under the tree line to give added overhead protection from the elements.
Material - Many aircraft parts can be used for a shelter. The aircraft's
interior has many more resources than the exterior. Fabric on the
seats, floors, and walls can be readily used. Natural foliage, such as
leaves, grass, and tree boughs are there for the taking. Snow and ice
can also be used as material to build a shelter. Although they are very
cold, they make excellent insulation for existing shelters.
104
45
FAA KITS, RAFTS, and ACCESSORIES

There have been several accounts of people who have perished even
though they had the necessary equipment to survive. A big percentage of
these deaths have been attributed to lack of knowledge...lack of knowledge of
the equipment they had and how to use it. The FAA has placed survival kits
and rafts aboard the aircraft in the event you are faced with a survival situation. Knowing what's in the kits and how to properly use the items, will
greatly enhance your chances of walking away from a survival situation.
The kits found aboard FAA aircraft have been designed for long term
survival situations.
The Module-1 (MOD-1) kit is designed to help 4 people survive for
72 hours. As with the FA-1 kit, it will be inspected by Personnel Equipment
every 12 months. But again, check the lead seal for evidence of tampering.
The MOD-1 kit weighs about 30 pounds and measures 22 inches long, 12
inches wide and 5 inches high. This kit contains the following items:
Item
1.
Two-man tube tent
2.
Large trash bags
3.
Solar-still kits
4.
Praddles (oars)
5.
Military style survival knife
6.
Parachute cord
7.
Techtest 500-27 406 MHz PLB
8.
Water packets (2 quarts)
16
9.
Sunglasses
10.
Emergency bags
11.
Sam splint
12.
Roll of duct tape
13.
Greatland Rescue Laser Flare
14.
Ultimate Survival Kit
100
1 - Sabrecut saw
46
Qty
103
SURVIVAL KITS AND ACCESSORIES

Chapter Quiz
1.
Which is the least important priority?

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
2.
If you decide to purchase a raft you should buy one that provides
enough space for:
a.
b.
c.
d.
3.
First-aid
Shelter
Rest
Water
Food
The pilot
The pilot and one passenger
The pilot and two passengers
The pilot and the maximum load of passengers you plan to carry
on any one given flight.
You should choose a raft that fits your needs, regardless of size and
weight?
TRUE
FALSE
4.
A PSK that is thoughtfully put together is all you will ever really need
in a survival situation.
(Circle the correct answer)
TRUE
FALSE
Illustrations 5-1 through 5-4 demonstrate cold land survival shelters. (Information and
illustrations were taken from USAF Regulation 64-4 unless otherwise noted).
102
47
Fuel Source - Stay near the resources needed to maintain a fire. If

there is too much distance between the site and the resources, precious energy
will be expended to maintain the fire.
Water Source - Being close to the water source is one primary consideration. Although it is wise to stay close to a water source, do not construct
the shelter too close to these areas, as they are typically cooler and damper.
Signaling - If possible, select a site that will allow a signal to be seen
from all directions. As a general rule, if you can't see them, they can't see you.
Remember that the most promising signal is the aircraft wreckage. Keep it
visible and stay near it.
The effectiveness of any shelter lies in its insulation. As mentioned
above, the best insulation that is readily available is snow. But, if you have
covered the shelter with snow, it is no longer an effective signal. Once inside
the shelter, body heat will begin to warm the inside. Scraping down to bare
earth will increase the inside temperature to about 12 degrees, even if it is subzero outside. By lighting a candle, it is possible to raise the temperature by
another 4 degrees. Keep the shelter just big enough to accommodate you and
your co-survivors. This will make the shelter easier to warm. The life raft on
board the aircraft makes this easy and there is no construction involved.
PART
USE
Clearance Light Covers -
Utensils and tools.
Wheel Flaring -
Water storage or collection; if broken will produce black

smoke in fire.
Fire starting, signaling with black smoke.
Tires -
Cut hole for canteen, cut into strips for elastic bandage, burn
for black smoke.
Sling material for slingshot.
Bungee Cord on Older
Aircraft Water collection, solar still, or burn for black smoke.
Windows Inner Tubes -
Ailerons -
Snow cutting tool, shelter braces, splints.
Wiring -
Binding, cordage and rope.
Air Filter -
Fire starting, improvised water filter.
Oil Filter -
Burn for black smoke.
Hoses -
Siphoning, burn for black smoke.
Landing Light Lens -
Fire starting.
Compass -
Medical problems associated with cold land survival are preventable

if a few precautionary measures are taken:
Rotating Beacon Lens -
Establishing direction for signaling and also oil for fire

starting (Kerosene).
Cup
Seatbelts -
Binding material slings bandages.
Hypothermia - The average body temperature for the human body is

98.6F. Any deviation from this normal temperature, even as little as one to
two degrees, will reduce efficiency. Hypothermia, or "exposure", is defined as
body core temperature less than 95F.
Battery Box -
Stove or a container to cook in.
Signs & Symptoms
9996
3735.6
Intense shivering and impaired ability

to perform complex tasks.
9591
3532.8
Violent shivering, difficulty in speaking, sluggish thinking, amnesia
48
Brake Fluid and Kerosene from Turn and

Bank Indicator
Magnesium Wheels and
Disc Brake Plates -
Fire starter
Signaling
101
PART
USE
Fuselage -
Moderate weather shelter.
Signs & Symptoms
Wings -
Wind breaks, shelter support, overhead shade, platform for

fire on snow, water collection for dew and rain, signal if laid
out in clearing.
Shelter support, platform, water filter when inverted.
90 - 86
32.230
Shivering is replaced by muscular rigidity. Exposed skin is blue or puffy.

Movements are jerky. Dulled sensorium, but patient still is able to maintain
posture and the appearance of contact
with surroundings.
8581
29.427.2
Coma, lack of reflexes, arterial fibrillation.
Below 78
Below 25.6
Failure of cardiac and respiratory centers, pulmonary edema, ventricular

fibrillation. Death
Vertical Stabilizer -
Fabric Skin -
Reflector for warmth around fire, signal, reflector oven,

shade, fire platform, splint material, snow saw blade.
Fire starting material, water collection.
Engine Oil and Gas -
Fire starter and fuel for stove, signal with black smoke.
Engine Mags -
Spark producer for fire starting.
Engine Cowls -
Shelter, water collection, windbreak, fire platform
Nose Spinner Cone Propeller -
Bucket, stove, scooping tool in snow, container for solar

still, pot for heating water and cooking, funnels.
Shovel, snow cutting tool, bracing for shelter.
Wing Struts -
Pry bar, splint, shelter brace, flagpole, crutch.
Aluminum Skin -
Landing Lights, Strobes

and Clearance Lights Fuel Cells Spring Steel Landing
Gear Wooden Wing Struts,
Braces and Props on
Older Aircraft Doors Seats -
Head Liner and Other

Fabrics
Rugs -
Signal when used with battery.

Melt snow on black surface, black smoke in fire, lay on
snow for signal, inside lining of shelter.
Pry bar, splint brace.
5-5 Information taken from The National Ski Patrol's "OUTDOOR EMERGENCY CARE"
Second Edition, 1993
There have been cases in which survivors have endured prolonged

exposure to extreme cold and dampness through exercise, shelter, and food.
Wearing the proper clothing for the environment and having the proper climatic survival equipment when flying over cold climate areas will greatly enhance your chances of survival.
Fire starter and fuels.

Shelter, solar still using windows, shade, windbreak.
Sleeping cushion, back brace for spinal injury, sponge rubber for fire starting and signaling, padding for splints,
sponge rubber for neck support.
Water strainer or filter, clothing, and bandage.
Ground padding, insulation, clothing, overhead shade.
Air Charts/Maps -
Stuff inside clothing for added insulation.
Battery -
Signaling with lights, fire starting.
Control Cables -
Rope, snares, binding for shelter, repair cord.
Control Pulleys and Cable Wing Tips -
Block and tackle.

Drip collectors and water carriers.
100
Snow blindness - It is a condition where the eyes have absorbed too

much sunlight. In snow-laden areas, the sun's rays are reflected from the snow
to the eyes. Redness and burning are the primary symptoms. Headache, poor
vision, pains, and swelling might also accompany the primary symptoms.
Prevention is the best medicine. When out on sunny days, wear some type of
protective eyewear. The survival kits have sunglasses. Use them! Even prescription glasses will afford some protection. Treatment for snow blindness
includes covering both eyes for 18 hours and applying a cold compress to relieve pain and swelling.
Frostnip - This is the freezing of the superficial layers of skin. It is
caused as a result of skin exposed to cold and windy conditions. Symptoms
include a whitening (or ashing) of the affected area, with a waxy texture. Finger tips, earlobes, nose, cheeks, and chin are the areas most vulnerable. To
prevent frostnip from happening, keep a close watch for symptoms to appear.
Adequate clothing is a must. When outside of the shelter, keep all body areas
covered. Treatment is very simple! Warm the affected area with body heat
and protect the affected area from further freezing.
49
Frostbite - This is the freezing of tissues, which includes the skin,

muscles, tendons, and bone. When the cells in tissue freeze, all cellular activity ceases. Ice crystals form and draw water from the cell. This leaves the cell
very vulnerable to damage. Also, the cells can no longer take up oxygen and
eliminate waste products. Symptoms of frostbite include a waxy skin color
and texture that is resilient to the touch. There is also a deep numbness to the
affected area. The hands and feet are the areas mostly affected. A very important fact to remember is that once a limb becomes frost bitten, it is more
susceptible to succumbing to this problem once again. To prevent this problem, always try to keep the feet warm and dry. When handling cold items or
snow, wear gloves. If you do fall victim to frostbite, treatment in the field will
be extremely limited. The best advice is to cover and protect the frozen area
from further freezing until medical help can be sought. DO NOT MASSAGE
THE FROZEN AREA. This could damage the tissues beyond repair. DO NOT
RUB WITH SNOW. This will promote a deeper frostbite. DO NOT SOAK
IN KEROSENE. This is just old wives' tale. DO NOT TRY TO THAW THE
AREA IN HOT WATER. This is a very painful process and could cause further complications.
Dehydration - Dehydration, in a cold environment, may sound a little
strange. But if care is not taken, a person could slip into dehydration very
quickly. The thirst mechanism will be weakened and could reach the point
where it is totally ignored. Remember, just because you have entered a cool
environment does not mean your water requirements have changed. For a
more in-depth discussion on this problem, refer to Hotland Survival. Finding
water will be easy enough, but remember, you should not consume water
unless it has been purified. Boiling water for 5 minutes or utilizing the water
purification tablets will be the easiest methods. Never eat snow. The snow
crystals can cause damage to the mouth and tongue and will also lower body
core temperature. Place the snow in a leak proof container and set it next to the
fire to melt or, place it between layers of clothing.
Survival in Cold Land is possible and can be made less difficult if a
little common sense is used. Work with the environment and use all its resources to your advantage.
MINIMUM
ESSENTIAL ITEMS
GOOD TO
HAVE ITEMS
ADDITIONAL
SUGGESTIONS
Plastic or metallic
container
Safety pins
(several sizes)
-Waterproof kitchentype matches
Travel razor
Waterproof matches
rolled in paraffinsoaked muslin in an
easily opened container such as small
soapbox, toothbrush
case, etc.
Small steel mirror
Needles - sail makers, surgeons, and

darning - at least one
of each
6" flat file
Split shot - for

fishing sinkers
Assorted fishhooks in
heavy foil, tin, or
plastic holders
Aluminum foil
Gill net
Fish line monofila- Additional medicament

tions may be
Clear plastic bags
Small high
quality candles
Multi-tool
Candy
Bar of surgical soap

or hand soap containing pHisoHex
Small fire starter of
paroophoric metal
(some plastic match
cases have a strip of
the metal anchored
on the bottom outside
of the case)
Personal medicines
"Band-Aids"
Insect repellent stick
Chapstick
99
desirable, depending upon nature of
Emergency ration the mission and an

can opener (can be individuals particutaped shut and
lar personal needs
strung on dog
tag chain)
Snare wire - small

hank
Water purification
tablets
50
INDIVIDUAL
MEDICAL KIT
This should be
discussed with your
local AME.
been in use for more than 1 cumulative hour, or, when 50 percent of
their useful life (or for rechargeable batteries, 50 percent of their useful life of charge) has expired, as established by the transmitter
manufacturer under its approval. The new expiration date for replacing (or recharging) the battery must be legibly marked on the outside
of the transmitter. The battery useful life (or useful life of charge)
requirements of this paragraph do not apply to batteries (such as water activated batteries) that are essentially unaffected during probable
storage intervals.
Technical Standard Order (TSO) C70a, will provide you with the latest information concerning the minimum standards that liferafts must meet.
This TSO will also address the FAA standards for liferafts.
As mentioned before, you can improve your chance of survival by
using your imagination. This rule applies not only to your kits, but to all aspects of survival as well. This means that you should look at everything as a
possible survival tool. With this in mind a list of improvised uses of the aircraft has been provided on the following two pages.
PERSONAL SURVIVAL KITS

MINIMUM
ESSENTIAL
ITEMS
GOOD TO
HAVE ITEMS
ADDITIONAL
SUGGESTIONS
INDIVIDUAL
MEDICAL KIT
High quality pocket

knife with at least
two cutting blades.
Flares
Tooth-brushsmall type
Sterile gauze compress bandage
ELT w/ GPS
capability
Colored Cloth or
scarf for signaling
Surgical tape
Antibiotic ointment
(Neomycin polymycin bacitracin
ophthalmic ointment is good)
Cell or Satellite
phone
Plastic
water bottle
Prophylactics
(make good waterproof containers or
canteens)
Tincture of
zephrine - skin
antiseptic
Pocket compass
Flexible saw
Penlight with batteries
Aspirin tablets
Match safe with

matches
Sharpening stone
Fish line
Salt tablets
Suggested Item List

98
COLD LAND SURVIVAL

Chapter Quiz
1. Hypothermia is defined as:
a.
b.
c.
d.
A lowering of the inner-core body temperature

Being exposed to cold temperatures
Decreased breathing due to extreme cold temperatures
Increased breathing due to extreme hot temperatures
2. What are the five ways in which the body loses heat?
__________________,
__________________,
__________________,
__________________.
__________________,
3. What is the first line of defense against hypothermia? ______________.

a.
b.
c.
d.
First-aid
Hot fluids
Shelter
Ice packs
4. Where will you find your most immediate source of shelter from the
elements?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Aircraft
Cave or other form of natural shelter
Raft
Clothing (Those being worn at that time)
5. Wet clothing in the wind will draw off body heat _________ times
faster than wind alone.
a.
b.
c.
d.
50 times
100 times
150 times
200 times
51
TROPICAL SURVIVAL
(i) One survival kit, appropriately equipped

for the route to be flown; or
(ii) One canopy (for sail, sunshade, or rain catcher);
When you think about surviving in the Tropics, the classic jungle that
we see in the movies is typically what comes to mind. Large trees covering the
sky, letting little to no light penetrate to the floor below. Thick foliage on the
ground requires a machete to cut your way through. As you envision a postcrash survival scenario, you probably imagine yourself dressed in khaki, hacking out a trail through the dense undergrowth as drums beat and hostile warriors try to pick you off with their spears and blowguns. The idea of surviving in
the jungle makes most people grimace. Not only is survival possible in the
jungle, many people actually live there. In fact, the requirements to survive in
the jungle are no different from any other environment; first aid, shelter, rest,
water, and food.
(iii) One radar reflector;

(iv) One life raft repair kit;
(v) One bailing bucket;
(vi) One signaling mirror;
(vii) One police whistle;
(viii) One raft knife;
The jungle is an extraordinary environment, one that produces and

nourishes many life forms. Life forms, in the jungle, will seek any stagnant
form to grow upon. If you stay stagnant too long you will also become a
breeding ground for these life forms. The key to survival in the jungle is to be
aware of your surroundings, just as those people who have thrived in the jungle for centuries.
(ix) One CO2 bottle for emergency inflation;
There are various forms of jungles, and are most common in tropical
areas such as Southeast Asia, Africa, and Latin America. The climate in these
jungles will vary with its proximity to the equator. Those close to the equator
tend to have all seasons similar in nature, with rains throughout the year.
Those further from the equator will have distinct wet seasons. Those wet seasons can include monsoons, typhoons and hurricanes. Both zones are characterized by nearly 90% humidity throughout the year with temperatures ranging
from 78 to 95+ degrees Fahrenheit. Heavy rainfall is also common, often accompanied by thunder and lightning. Annual rainfall can reach 400 inches.
(xiii) One magnetic compass;
A variety of jungles exist and they can be broken down to the following categories:
(xvii) For each two persons the raft is rated to carry, two
pints of water or one seawater desalting kit;
Rain forests
Secondary jungles
Semi-evergreen seasonal and monsoon forests
Scrub and thorn forests
Savannas
Saltwater swamps
Freshwater swamps
52
(x) One inflation pump;

(xi) Two oars;
(xii) One 75-foot retaining line;
(xiv) One dye marker;

(xv) One flashlight having at least two size "D" cells or
equivalent;
(xvi) A two-day supply of emergency food rations supplying at least 1,000 calories per day for each person;
(xviii) One fishing kit; and

(xix) One book on survival appropriate for the area in which
the aircraft is operated.
(c) No person may operate an airplane in extended overwater operations unless there is attached to one of the life rafts required by paragraph (a) of this section, an approved survival type emergency locator transmitter. Batteries used in this transmitter must be replaced (or
recharged, if the battery is rechargeable) when the transmitter has
97
(xviii) One fishing kit; and

(xix) One book on survival appropriate for the area
in which the airplane is operated.
(b) No person may operate an airplane in extended overwater
operations unless there is attached to one of the life rafts required by paragraph (a) of this section, an approved survival
type emergency locator transmitter. Batteries used in this
transmitter must be replaced (or recharged, if the batteries
are rechargeable) when the transmitter has been in use for
more than one cumulative hour, or, when 50 percent of their
useful life (or for rechargeable batteries, 50 percent of their
useful life of charge) has expired, as established by the transmitter manufacturer under its approval. The new expiration
date for replacing (or recharging) the battery must be legibly
marked on the outside of the transmitter. The battery useful
life (or useful life of charge) requirements of this paragraph
do not apply to batteries (such as water activated batteries)
that are essentially unaffected during probable storage intervals.
135.167 Emergency equipment: Extended overwater operations.
(a) No person may operate an aircraft in extended overwater
operations unless it carries, installed in conspicuously
marked locations easily accessible to the occupants if a ditching occurs, the following equipment:
(1) An approved life preserver equipped with an
approved survivor locator light for each occupant of
the aircraft. The life preserver must be easily accessible to each seated occupant.
(2) Enough approved life rafts of a rated capacity
and buoyancy to accommodate the occupants of the
aircraft.
(b) Each life raft required by paragraph (a) of this section
must be equipped with or contain at least the following:
(1) One approved survivor locator light.
(2) One approved pyrotechnic signaling device.
(3) Either 96
Tropical Rain Forests

Tropical forests are located in the well-known Amazon and Congo
basins, as well as parts of Indonesia, and several pacific islands. Rainfall averages can reach 33 feet a year.
The landscape is filled with up-to five layers of vegetation. Large
trees reaching heights near 200 feet produce the top layer. Smaller trees form
the lower levels, making light from above nearly impossible to reach the jungle
floor. The tree foliage, along with vines and lianas, make the jungles lower
layers a dark and damp breeding ground for a multitude of plant life. Plant life,
which includes ferns, mosses, herbaceous plants, and a great variety of fungi.
Due to the lack of light reaching the ground, the jungle floor in these regions is
usually baron. There is actually little undergrowth to hamper travel afoot.
However, the ground is usually soggy, making vehicular travel a bit more difficult. Travel afoot is made difficult as well, due to the limited visibility, making
it easy to become disoriented. The dense foliage also makes it very difficult for
rescue crews to spot you from the air.
5th LAYER
4th LAYER
3rd LAYER
2nd LAYER
1st LAYER
Secondary Jungles
A secondary jungle is very similar to a rain forest but with a dense
undergrowth. The undergrowth occurs due to sunlight penetrating to the jungle
floor. Secondary jungles are usually located near riverbanks and jungle fringes.
However, clear cutting of the rain forest is producing more and more secondary jungles. Once the clear cutting operation is over, the jungle vegetation
quickly impedes upon the cleared area.
53
Semi-evergreen Seasonal and Monsoon Forests

Semi-evergreen seasonal and monsoon forest jungles are found in
South America, Africa, and Asia. Two distinct layers of foliage characterize
them. The upper portions consist of trees reaching heights of 60 to 80 feet.
While the lower levels reach heights of 20 to 40 feet. The average diameter of
these trees approximately a foot and a half. There are seasonal draughts in
which the trees loose their leaves.
pant. If a flotation means other than a life preserver is used, it

must be readily removable from the airplane.
(2) Enough approved life rafts (with proper buoyancy) to
carry all occupants of the airplane, and at least the following
equipment for each raft clearly marked for easy identification
(i) One canopy (for sail, sunshade, or rain catcher);
(ii) One radar reflector (or similar device);
Tropical Scrub and Thorn Forests

In the Tropical Scrub and Thorn Forests there is a distinct dry season.
During this season, the trees loose their leaves and very little plant life exists
on the ground, except for a few tufted plants. These plants are found in
bunches. Most of the plants that exist in this area bear thorns. Due to this dry
environment, fires occur with a high frequency.
(iii) One life raft repair kit;

(iv) One bailing bucket;
(v) One signaling mirror;
(vi) One police whistle;
Tropical Savannas
(vii) One raft knife;
Tropical Savannas are found within the tropical zones of South

America and Africa. They are characterized by broad grassy meadows with
trees widely spaced. The soil is often red with trees that appear to be stunted in
growth.
(viii) One CO2, bottle for emergency inflation;

(ix) One inflation pump;
(x) Two oars;
Saltwater Swamps
Saltwater Swamps are located in West Africa, Malaysia, the Pacific
islands, Central and South America and India.
(xi) One 75-foot retaining line;

(xii) One magnetic compass;
These areas are common in coastal areas prone to tidal flooding. Saltwater Swamps produce trees, which can reach a height of nearly 40 feet. Visibility is limited, and travel is difficult. Though many channels may be suitable
for rafting, large amounts of travel afoot will be required.
(xiii) One dye marker;
The environment of the saltwater swamp is conducive to leeches,

insects, crocodiles, caimans and many other life forms.
(xv) At least one approved pyrotechnic signaling

device;
Freshwater Swamps
(xvi) A 2-day supply of emergency food rations

supplying at least 1,000 calories a day for each person;
Freshwater Swamps are found inland in low-lying areas. Large volumes of thorny undergrowth, reeds, grasses and small palms characterize the
plant life. These plants are dense, therefore, visibility is reduced to a minimum, and travel may be difficult.
54
(xiv) One flashlight having at least two size "D"

cells or equivalent;
(xvii) One sea water desalting kit for each two persons that raft is rated to carry, or two pints of water
for each person the raft is rated to carry;
95
(2) Enough life rafts (each equipped with an approved survivor locator light) of a rated capacity and buoyancy to accommodate the occupants of the airplane. Unless excess rafts of
enough capacity are provided, the buoyancy and seating capacity of the rafts must accommodate all occupants of the
airplane in the event of a loss of one raft of the largest rated
capacity.
(3) At least one pyrotechnic signaling device for each life
raft.
(4) An approved survival type emergency locator transmitter.
Batteries used in this transmitter must be replaced (or recharged, if the battery is rechargeable) when the transmitter
has been in use for more than 1 cumulative hour, or when 50
percent of their useful life (or for rechargeable batteries, 50
percent of their useful life of charge) has expired, as established by the transmitter manufacturer under its approval.
The new expiration date for replacing (or recharging) the
battery must be legibly marked on the outside of the transmitter. The battery useful life (or useful life of charge) requirements of this paragraph do not apply to batteries (such
as water activated batteries) that are essentially unaffected
during probable storage intervals.
(b) The required life rafts, life preservers, and survival type emergency locator transmitter must be easily accessible in the event of a
ditching without appreciable time for preparatory procedures. This
equipment must be installed in conspicuously marked, approved locations.
(c) A survival kit, appropriately equipped for the route to be flown,
must be attached to each required life raft.
125.209 Emergency equipment: Extended overwater operations.
(a) No person may operate an airplane in extended overwater operations unless it carries, installed in conspicuously marked locations
easily accessible to the occupants if a ditching occurs, the following
equipment:
(1) An approved life preserver equipped with an approved
survivor locator light, or an approved flotation means, for
each occupant of the aircraft. The life preserver or other flotation means must be easily accessible to each seated occu-
94
Survival in the Tropics

The most common medical problems experienced in a tropical environment are a result of infections and those caused by insect bites. If you sustained any injuries during a forced landing, those injuries must be treated immediately and given constant attention. Because of the warm, moist environment, the slightest scratch may become infected. All open wounds must be
frequently cleansed and covered.
Insects are to the tropics as sand is to the desert. Insects thrive in the
tropical environment. Many insects carry diseases and parasites. Mosquitoes,
especially the anopheles variety, can carry malaria.
Malaria is compounded by people, and thus is more prevalent in populated areas. Even though you may not be in a highly populated area you should
still take precautions from mosquitoes. Mosquitoes tend to be most prevalent
during the early evening hours as well as hours just before dawn.
Malaria Prevention
Dapsone and chloroquineprimaquine

Insect Repellent
Clothing which covers as much of the body as possible
Nets and/or screens whenever possible
Avoid area of likely infestation
Along with the risk of malaria, one must deal with the aggravation,
and the danger of the dreaded mosquito bite. Scratching at the surface of the
skin where the bite exists may cause an abrasion. There is a high possibility
that this abrasion, exposed to the jungles environment, could become infected.
You should take measures to prevent, or lesson the effects of itching by applying an anti-itch ointment. If you do not have any products that provide relief
from the itching you can try applying mud packs to the mosquitos bite.
Ticks are also common in the tropics. Its important to routinely examine your clothing, skin, and scalp. If a tick is found attached to your skin,
cover it with some type of irritant. By applying a drop, or two, of kerosene,
alcohol, or iodine you may persuade a tick to detach itself from the skin. A
cigarette or burning stick, placed directly on the ticks body may also work. As
soon as the tick is removed, wash the area thoroughly.
If fleas are prevalent, keep your pant legs tucked into your socks.
Tropical fleas can burrow under your toenails and lay their eggs. Tropical flies
lay eggs in open wounds, which is another reason to keep wounds clean and
55
sterilized. You can also cover them with a petroleum gel, which may cause the
tick to detach.
Leeches are prevalent in the jungles of Southeast Asia, as well as the
Southwest Pacific, and the Malay Peninsula. They are usually located in areas
of stagnant water. They are generally found in swampy areas, streams, and
moist jungle country. The leech is not poisonous; however, the abrasion left
from its bite may become infected when exposed to the jungle environment.
If you locate a leech on yourself you should not try to immediately
brush it off. The desirable method is to get the leech to release on its own.
There are several suggested methods that may help to hasten the leechs release. The suggested methods include touching the leech with:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Insect repellent.
A moist piece of tobacco
The burning end of a cigarette
A coal from a burning fire.
A few drops of alcohol.
You can increase your chances of avoiding leeches all together by

avoiding the areas in which they are most likely to exist. If this is not possible
you can blouse your pants around the ankle area to prevent the leeches from
finding their way up your legs and into the crotch area. If you have no way of
blousing your pants you may tuck your pant legs into your boots, or socks.
You are more likely to encounter snakebites in the remote areas of
Texas and New Mexico than in the jungle. You will likely encounter very few
snakes, however, if you do encounter one, avoid it. Just as in any other environment, the best way to avoid snakebites in the jungle is by avoiding them.
This means you should not attempt to provoke or handle any snake. Most bites
occur when a snake feels threatened or startled, meaning most bites occur
when humans are not paying attention to where they are stepping. When traveling you should always be alert to where you are stepping.
High humidity is associated with tropical regions; therefore, your
clothing may remain damp or wet. Try to stay as dry as possible, especially
before bedding down for the night. A good shelter or poncho will aid in this
task. Staying dry is important in preventing skin disease.
You must begin early because it will become dark more quickly due to the
dense canopy of foliage above. When it is time to rest and sleep, you will need
to construct a shelter. The following are suggestions to keep in mind when
building your shelter:
1.
Construct your shelter on a high point such as a knoll.

56
(b) No person may takeoff an airplane for a flight over water more
than 30 minutes flying time or 100 nautical miles from the nearest
shore unless it has on board the following survival equipment:
(1) A life preserver, equipped with an approved survivor
locator light, for each occupant of the airplane.
(2) Enough life rafts (each equipped with an approved survival locator light) of a rated capacity and buoyancy to accommodate the occupants of the airplane.
(3) At least one pyrotechnic signaling device for each life
raft.
(4) One self-buoyant, water resistant, portable emergency
radio-signaling device that is capable of transmission on the
appropriate emergency frequency or frequencies and not
dependent upon the airplane power supply.
(5) A lifeline stored in accordance with 25.1411(g) of this
chapter.
(c) The required life rafts, life preservers, and signaling devices must
be installed in conspicuously marked locations and easily accessible
in the event of a ditching without appreciable time for preparatory
procedures.
(d) A survival kit, appropriately equipped for the route to be flown,
must be attached to each required life raft.
(e) As used in this section, the term shore means that area of the land
adjacent to the water which is above the high water mark and excludes land areas which are intermittently under water.
121.339 Emergency equipment for extended overwater operations.
(a) Except where the Administrator, by amending the operations
specifications of the certificate holder, requires the carriage of all or
any specific items of the equipment listed below for any overwater
operation, or upon application of the certificate holder, the Administrator allows deviation for a particular extended overwater operation,
no person may operate an airplane in extended overwater operations
without having on the airplane the following equipment:
(1) A life preserver equipped with an approved survivor locator light, for each occupant of the airplane.
93
(1) Unless excess rafts of enough capacity are provided, the

buoyancy and seating capacity beyond the rated capacity of
the rafts must accommodate all occupants of the airplane in
the event of a loss of one raft of the largest rated capacity;
and
(2) Each raft must have a trailing line, and must have a static
line designed to hold the raft near the airplane but to release
it if the airplane becomes totally submerged.
(c) Approved survival equipment must be attached to each life raft.
(d) There must be an approved survival type emergency locator transmitter for use in one life raft.
29.1415 Ditching equipment.
(a) Emergency flotation and signaling equipment required by any operating rule of this chapter must meet the requirements of this section.
(b) Each life raft and each life preserver must be approved. In addition(1) Provide not less than two rafts, of an approximately equal
rated capacity and buoyancy to accommodate the occupants
of the rotorcraft; and
(2) Each raft must have a trailing line, and must have a static
line designed to hold the raft near the rotorcraft but to release
it if the rotorcraft becomes totally submerged.
(c) Approved survival equipment must be attached to each life raft.
(d) There must be an approved survival type emergency locator transmitter for use in one life raft.
91.509 Survival equipment for overwater operations.
(a) No person may takeoff an airplane for a flight over water more
than 50 nautical miles from the nearest shore unless that airplane is
equipped with a life preserver or an approved flotation means for each
occupant of the airplane.
92
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Make sure it is in an open area and well away from water (The ground
should be dryer there with fewer crawling insects.)
To avoid insects, design your sleeping area so that it is off the ground.
Piling up several layers of palm fronds or other broad leaves works
well.
Constructing an elevated A-Frame may make a better bed. Place your
sleeping platform off the ground.
Cover the top with four or five layers of long, spineless palm leaves.
Pieces of bark or mats of grass will help to waterproof the shelter.
Because of the heat and humidity in the tropics, you will find that the
simplest tasks will drain your energy. You will need large amounts of rest and
sleep to recover. Again, start your shelter construction well before dark.
A fire in the tropics is most desirable. It will keep you warm and comfortable during the night. As well as protect you from mosquitoes, flies, and
curious animals. A roaring fire is not necessary. A small fire will serve the
purpose and will be easier to maintain.
Fuel for a fire is plentiful, though most of it may be damp. To find dry
tinder, try the inner layers of bark. Fibers in the base of palm leaves also make
good tinder. Once you have a good, hot fire going, you can add damp wood.
Signaling in the tropics poses a few more difficulties than normal.
Surface-to-air signals, such as reflectors and rescue codes, may be ineffective
because of the thick foliage overhead. Flares and launchers are also not as effective in such situations. To ensure effective signaling, these and other such
devices need to be used out in the open. This may require you to travel some
distance. However, unless you know where you are and where you are heading, dont chance it and stay at your present location.
If your aircraft were to go down there will likely be some telltale
signs for rescuers. Scattered debris of the aircraft, bent or broken tree limbs, or
severed tree tops. Also, the aircraft's emergency locator transmitter (or E.L.T.)
should be on and transmitting. These signs will help rescuers locate the aircraft. Therefore, stay near the wreckage.
Finding water should be an easy task. But be sure to purify all water
from streams and surfaces before consumption. Water from precipitation is
good and safe to drink.
You can also drink water from plants without purifying it. Many vines, if cut,
will drip a steady stream of water.
A banana plant cut down to a one-foot-tall trunk is an excellent water
source. After cutting it down, hollow out the trunk to form a deep bowl. In a
few hours, the bowl will overflow with water. The bowl will produce water for
57
about four days. Cover it to protect it from insects. One word of caution: If the
surface of the water becomes covered with a blue-tinted film, skim-off as much
of the film as possible, as drinking the film may make you sick.
The tropics are a virtual farmers market filled with delicious fruits
for you to eat. Papaya is abundant. Some papaya may get up to five pounds in
weight. The tropical star apple is also there for your consumption. Wild pineapple can also be found and eaten raw, but you may consider cooking it. Too
much raw pineapple can cause stomach discomfort. Roots and bulbs such as
taro, cassava, and wild yams are abundant and nutritious. Coconuts are also a
potential source of sustenance. The coconuts meat, milk, and flowers can be
safely eaten. In the tropics, keep in mind, there is an abundance of fruits and
vegetables that are safe to eat.
Concerning meat in the tropics, fish and land crabs are probably the
easiest meat source. However, make sure that the crabs and fish are thoroughly
cooked.
Survival in the tropics can be like paradise, or it can be like purgatory.
You can live off what the environment provides by using knowledge, common
sense, and your innate desire to survive. By becoming knowledgeable and being prepared, you should return home safely with some interesting stories to
share.
Choose a raft that you are comfortable with and that meets all of
your personal requirements. Keep in mind that you will have to lift it out of
the aircraft when it comes time to use it. For this reason you should choose a
raft that is light enough so that most who fly with you can lift it.
If you determine that it is not feasible to buy a raft there are various
FBOs in the coastal regions that rent rafts. An average cost for a four to six
person raft is around $17 a day; a 9 to 13-person raft; around $25 a day. Some
FBOs rent life preservers for roughly $5 a day. Some FBOs sell life preservers for around $50. If you seldom travel over water renting might be the best
choice for you. However, if you do rent you should ask the FBO to familiarize you with the equipment and its proper use.
The following are FARs referencing rafts & equipment and their
requirements pertaining to life rafts.
Federal Air Regulations (FARs)
Pertaining to Life Rafts
(a) Emergency flotation and signaling equipment required by any
operating rule in this chapter must be installed so that it is readily
available to the crew and passengers.
(b) Each raft and each life preserver must be approved.
(c) Each raft released automatically or by the pilot must be attached
to the airplane by a line to keep it alongside the airplane. This line
must be weak enough to break before submerging the empty raft to
which it is attached.
(d) Each signaling device required by any operating rule in this chapter, must be accessible, function satisfactorily, and must be free of
any hazard in its operation.
(a) Ditching equipment used in airplanes to be certificated for ditching under . 25.801, and required by the operating rules of this chapter, must meet the requirements of this section.
(b) Each life raft and each life preserver must be approved. In addition -
58
91
choose a pack that fits your equipment proportionately and is easy and convenient to carry. You can find various packs at any outdoor store specializing in
camping and hunting and at most department stores. Fanny packs work very
well for PSKs because they are strapped on. This frees your hands to perform
other tasks. It also provides you with the luxury of having your equipment
with you at all time, without the hassle of having to carry it by hand every time
you go somewhere.
One more question remains as far as packing a PSK: How many days
should I prepare my kit for? Statistics show that nearly all survival situations
last 72 hours or less. You can increase your chances of survival and decrease
the length of time before rescue by filing a flight plan or letting someone know
where you are going. Maybe you should consider this as part of your survival
preparation.
TROPICAL SURVIVAL
Chapter Quiz
1. Some jungle types can have unto this many layers forming its canopy:
a.
b.
c.
d.
2. All jungle types have dense vegetation growth on the ground:

Yes
RAFTS & ACCESSORIES

Although the PSK is a great item to have on all flights, it may not be
the only piece of equipment you will need. If your flight takes you over vast
stretches of open water, you might consider carrying some type of raft and/or
life preservers. If you decide that you would like to purchase a raft for your
aircraft, choose one that fits your needs, and not those of the salesperson.
When choosing a raft for your aircraft you must first determine what
the maximum weight allowed would be for your raft. Most four to six person
rafts range in weight from 40 to 70 pounds. You should then determine the
number of people who, at any given time, might have to use the raft for survival. If you normally fly with just one passenger, but occasionally with three,
you should have enough raft space for four persons.
It is true that any raft is better than no raft at all. However, if you are
looking for ways to improve the quality of your raft, consider some of the following items when searching:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
2
5
10
15
Canopy
Inflatable floor
Dual Cells
Boarding lights
Sea anchors
Accessory kit
Visible colors (florescent orange)
Rain catches (water procurement)
Life line (around outside of raft)
Heaving line
90
No
3. These are found in coastal areas that are prone to tidal flooding:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Freshwater swamps
Tropical rain forest
Saltwater swamps
Tropical savannas
4. The two most immediate medical concerns in the tropics are:

a.
b.
c.
d.
Infections, and hangnails

Diarrhea, and infection
Dehydration, and disease from insects
Infected wounds, an disease from insects
59
WATER SURVIVAL
Water covers more than 75% of the earths surface. Even though
mankind has mastered travel over these vast expanses of water, ditching your
aircraft on the open sea will find you trying to survive one of the most inhospitable environments anywhere. It may be inhospitable but it is survivable. Not
only survivable, it may be the best option if given a choice between ditching on
land or water. It is important to keep in mind that a water ditching not only
involves the ocean, but rivers and lakes as well. This chapter will discuss wet
ditching procedures from pre-ditching through post-ditching.
STATISTICS
It is important to understand that ditching an aircraft in water is survivable. A study of General Aviation ditchings shows that nearly 92% of occupants were able to egress successfully and nearly 88% survived. The numbers
go up to 95% for successful egress and nearly 90% for survivability when you
exclude high-risk operations such as long distance ocean ferry flights. The
numbers imply not only that ditchings are survivable, but also that proper training and equipment will improve ones chances of survival.
Statistics also prove that most ditchings, nearly 64%, occur near
beaches, bays, gulfs, or islands. Only 12% occur in the open sea with 15%
occurring on lakes and 7% on rivers. If presented with the choice of ditching
on land or in the water, your best choice may be to put the aircraft down in a
lake, river, or maybe near a beach.
If flying in a high-wing aircraft you can count on the aircraft flipping
upon ditching, right? Not necessarily. In an article written by Doug Ritter, A
Ditching Gone Awry, http://www.equipped.org/aopa-ditch-rebut.htm, Mr.
Ritter addresses the issue of whether high-wing aircraft are more likely to flip
over upon impact with the water. He interviewed many survivors of aircraft
ditchings, which took place over a five-year period. Of those interviewed, approximately half were flying fixed-gear high-wing aircraft. Only three reported
flipping over and completing the water landing upside down, while all survived
the experience.
WHEN DOES A SURVIVAL SITUATION BEGIN?
A water ditching is defined as an intentional water landing in which
the aircraft touches down under control. An important fact to remember is that
a survival situation
deciding on equipment for your PSK, you should also keep these priorities in
mind. The priorities may change according to the situation, but for the most
part, they will be as follows:
First Aid
Shelter
Water
Food
Signaling
By following these priorities as a guideline for choosing equipment

for your kit, you ensure that those items that you choose will immediately provide for your personal needs.
Identify your flying environment. After you have established the
priorities, you need to define the environment that you will be flying over.
Since the environments) that you fly over may consist of various climates and
terrain, you should prepare for the worst. This means that if you take off from
Los Angeles and are planning to fly over the Rockies, you should not dress
down to the comfort level in LA. You should wear appropriate clothing, or
have them readily accessible, for the cold temperatures you might be facing if
stranded over-night in the Rockies. You can always take clothing off if need
be but you have to have the clothing with you to add layers.
Determine which items will be beneficial to you. The items you
choose for your PSK should cover the priorities listed above. There should be
at least a minimal first-aid kit, some form of shelter from the elements, water
procuring items and purifier, and some form of signaling device. Food was not
mentioned because you could survive as many as 30 days without it, while
most survival situations involving aviation last less than 72 hr.s. However, if
you have room left after packing your other items, then by all means provide
some high caloric food, as it will provide comfort to you.
Since it is a personal survival kit you might also find it beneficial to
provide items that might meet your specific needs. These items could include
a couple days supply of a prescription medication, even an extra set of eyeglasses and/or eyeglass repair kit. You should also pick items that can serve
dual functions. An example of this would be the use of trash bags for collecting garbage, but might also be used as an immediate shelter or even a solar
still. Plastic being used to build a solar still should be clear.
A list of suggested PSK items has been provided on the following
page. Most of the items listed can be found at local department stores or stores
dealing with camping, hunting, and fishing equipment.
Choose an appropriate pack for the equipment chosen. You should
60
89
KITS, RAFTS, and ACCESSORIES

Every year countless people die because they were not prepared for
the environment in which they were vacationing, hiking, working, or just passing through. It is heartbreaking to think that some of these deaths could have
been prevented with just a little planning for the environment or environmental
changes that may take place. Imagine a pilot who takes off from Las Vegas,
Nevada at 12:00 p.m. Pacific Time, temperature at 78 F, enroute to Omaha,
NE. While over the Rocky Mountains at around 7:00 p.m. (Mountain Time),
temperature dropping below 40 F, he/she loses power and manages to land the
aircraft with minimal injury to himself/herself and a passenger. Due to poor
planning, however, they are both in short-sleeve shirts and do not have any
survival equipment on the aircraft. Within hours, they both succumb to exposure. Another scenario could find the pilot and passengers) surviving a ditching in the Pacific ocean and due to the lack of life preservers and/or rafts, some
or all of the group perishes within hours, even minutes. This chapter will introduce you to the make-up and preparation requirements of the Personal Survival Kit (PSK), as well as inform you about various life rafts and life preservers that are available to the general aviation community.
The following was taken from the chapter six of the Aeronautical Information
Manual, Emergency Procedures, effective February 19, 2004.
6-3-1. Distress and Urgency Communications
a. A pilot who encounters a distress or urgency condition can obtain assistance simply by contacting the air
traffic facility or other agency in whose area of responsibility the aircraft is operating, stating the nature of the
difficulty, pilot's intentions and assistance desired. Dis-
tress and urgency communications procedures are pre-
PERSONAL SURVIVAL KITS

The PSK is defined as any equipment you carry on the aircraft for the
specific intention of utilizing if you are forced into a survival situation. If you
choose only to carry a knife in your pocket, it can be considered your PSK. A
PSK should be small enough so that it can easily be carried or attached to you
when exiting the aircraft.
Why pack a PSK if you already have survival gear in the back of the
aircraft? Every survival situation poses a multitude of different challenges, but
keep in mind that you might have to exit the aircraft swiftly and the only items
that will leave the aircraft with you are those that you are wearing or are readily accessible on the way out.
When deciding how to put a PSK together, you should:
1.
2.
3.
4.
begins at the same time as an in-flight emergency. Once it is apparent

that ditching is a possibility, you are in a survival mode. The main
objectives are to notify as many people of your situation and location
as possible and to get the aircraft safely into the water with as little
damage as possible. Each crewmember will have specific tasks to
perform. Use a checklist to ensure that all tasks are completed. Also,
a checklist will help everyone to think and act in a rational and logical
manner.
Define your priorities.

Identify your flying environment.
Decide on items, which you see as beneficial.
Choose an appropriate pack for the equipment chosen.
Define priorities. In every survival situation, there will be priorities.

These priorities were mentioned earlier in the "will to survive" chapter. When
88
scribed by the International Civil Aviation Organization

( I CAO ) , however, and have decided advantages over
the informal procedure described above.
b. Distress and urgency communications procedures
discussed in the following paragraphs relate to the use
of air ground voice communications.
c. The initial communication, and if considered necessary, any subsequent transmissions by an aircraft in
distress should begin with the signal MAYDAY, preferably repeated three times. The signal PAN-PAN should
be used in the same manner for an urgency condition.
d. Distress communications have absolute priority over all other
communications, and the word MAYDAY commands radio si61
SEA SURVIVAL
Chapter Quiz
lence on the frequency in use. Urgency communications have

priority over all other communications except distress, and the
word PAN-PAN warns other stations not to interfere with ur-
gency transmissions.
e. Normally, the station addressed will be the air traffic
facility or other agency providing air traffic services, on
the frequency in use at the time. If the pilot is not communicating and receiving services, the station to be
called will normally be the air traffic facility or other
agency in whose area of responsibility the aircraft is
operating, on the appropriate assigned frequency. If the
station addressed does not respond, or if time or the
situation dictates, the distress or urgency message may
be broadcast, or a collect call may be used, addressing
"Any Station ( T ower ) ( Radio ) ( R a dar ) ."
f. The station addressed should immediately acknowledge a distress or urgency message, provide assistance, coordinate and direct the activities of assisting
facilities, and alert the appropriate search and rescue
coordinator if warranted. Responsibility will be transferred to another station only if better handling will result.
g. All other stations, aircraft and ground, will continue to
listen until it is evident that assistance is being provided. If any station becomes aware that the station
being called either has not received a distress or ur-
gency message, or cannot communicate with the air-
62
1. The survival situation begins:

a.
b.
c.
d.
When you reach the ground and are out of the aircraft
When you finish rendering First Aid
After all equipment has been inventoried
At the same time as an in-flight emergency begins
2. At what point of the ditching should you unstrap from your seat?
a.
b.
c.
d.
After first impact

Before any impact
After aircraft comes to complete stop
After second impact
3. What one medical problem will most likely be present in all survivors
after an aircraft accident?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Shock
Hypothermia
Dehydration
No significant problems
4. Swimming cools the body _____% faster than just staying still in water.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
15
25
35
50
Swimming will warm you up
5. The use of this will give adequate protection against cold water and
also promote buoyancy.
a. Trash bags
b. Extra clothing
c. An exposure suit
d. None of the above
87
craft in difficulty, it will attempt to contact the aircraft

and provide assistance.
h. Although the frequency in use or other frequencies
assigned by ATC are preferable, the following emergency frequencies can be used for distress or urgency
communications, if necessary or desirable:
1. 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz. Both have a range generally limited to line of sight. 121.5 MHz is guarded by direction finding stations and some military and civil aircraft.
243.0 MHz is guarded by military aircraft. Both 121.5 MHz
and 243.0 MHz are guarded by military towers, most civil
towers, FSSs, and radar facilities. Normally ARTCC
emergency frequency capability does not extend to radar
coverage limits. If an ARTCC does not respond when
called on 121.5 MHz or 243.0 MHz, call the nearest tower
or FSS.
2. 2182 kHz. The range is generally less than 300 miles
for the average aircraft installation. It can be used to request assistance from stations in the maritime service.
2182 kHz is guarded by major radio stations serving
Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Centers, and Coast
Guard units along the sea coasts of the U.S. and shores
of the Great Lakes. The call "Coast Guard" will alert all
Coast Guard Radio Stations within range. 2182 kHz is
also guarded by most commercial coast stations and
7-6 cont Venomous Spine Fish USAF Reg. 64-4
some ships and boats.

6-3-2. Obtaining Emergency Assistance
86
63
a. A pilot in any distress or urgency condition should
immediately take the following action, not necessarily in

the order listed, to obtain assistance:
1. Climb, if possible, for improved communications,
and better radar and direction finding detection. However, it must be understood that unauthorized climb or
descent under IFR conditions within controlled air-
rents as transportation and float just under the surface. Watch for and avoid
them. To avoid hazardous marine life, take the following precautions:
Do not splash water around raft (could attract sharks)

Throw all body waste far from raft
Keep feet and hands in raft
Try to keep all blood and wounds out of water
Keep clothing on
Do not fish if sharks are seen in area
Stay in raft at all times
space is prohibited, except as permitted by 14 CFR

Section 91.3( b ) .
2. If equipped with a radar beacon
transponder ( c ivil ) or IFF/SIF
( m ilitary ) :
( a ) Continue squawking assigned Mode A/3 discrete code/VFR code and Mode C altitude encoding when in radio contact with an air traffic facility
or other agency providing air traffic services,
unless instructed to do otherwise.
( b ) If unable to immediately establish communications with an air traffic facility/agency, squawk
Mode A/3, Code 7700/Emergency and Mode C.
3. Transmit a distress or urgency message consisting of as many as necessary of the following elements, preferably in the order listed:
( a ) If distress, MAYDAY, MAYDAY,
MAY-DAY; if urgency, PAN-PAN, PANPAN, PAN-PAN.
7-6 Venomous Spine Fish USAF Reg. 64-4
64
85
is rainwater. Keep a lookout for rain showers. Have rain catches ready for
quick use.
The FAA has placed aboard its rafts a reverse osmosis pump. Pumping this device continuously will allow a person to filter out salt and all other
contaminates from water leaving behind purified drinking water. If this device
were pumped for 24 hours continuously (at one stroke per second), it would
produce about 6 gallons of drinking water. This production would alleviate
any water needs as long as you are physically able to work the device.
- Food: The Sea has the greatest source of food on the face of the
earth. Do not consume any food unless there is ample drinking water. The
primary food source of the sea is, of course, fish. Fish from the ocean can be
eaten raw. Most all fish are edible, although, there is a few whose flesh is considered poisonous to man. A good rule of thumb to follow is, if it looks like a
typical fish, it is probably safe to consume.
Avoid the following types of fish:
( b ) Name of station addressed.

( c ) Aircraft identification and type.
( d ) Nature of distress or urgency.
( e ) Weather.
( f ) Pilots intentions and request.
( g ) Present position, and heading; or if
lost, last known position, time, and heading

since that position.
( h ) Altitude or flight level.
Fish that are brightly colored

Fish with bristles or spines
Fish that puff up
Fish with beak-like lips
If you make it to land, shellfish are a good food source and may be
eaten raw or cooked. Be sure to eat only fresh shellfish as they spoil quickly
once removed from water.
Hazardous marine life in the ocean is more a psychological threat than
a physical one. Apprehension of "what is down there" stems chiefly from fear
of the unknown.
( i ) Fuel remaining in minutes.

( j ) Number of people on board.
( k ) Any other useful information.
REFERENCEPilot/Controller Glossary Term- Fuel Remaining.

b. After establishing radio contact, comply with advice and instruc-
- Sharks: A shark's primary role in the oceanic food chain is that of a

scavenger. There are 300 or more species of sharks in the world's oceans, and
of this number, only about 9 are considered a threat to man. Chances are, you
will probably never see a shark. Concentrate your mental energies on something more productive, such as rescue.
tions received. Cooperate. Do not hesitate to ask questions or clar-
- Sea Snake: Sea snakes surface about every 20 to 30 minutes. If

you spot one you should not try to capture, or provoke it, as they are extremely
poisonous.
not change frequency or change to another ground station unless
- Jellyfish and the Portuguese Man of War: These invertebrates

have a bulbous-shaped body and long tentacles that sometimes can be 100 feet
in length. The tentacles have stinging cells used to stun small fish. If a person
comes in contact with its tentacles, it can deliver a painful sting. Both use cur-
in the blind if necessary. If two-way communications cannot be
84
ify instructions when you do not understand or if you cannot comply with clearance. Assist the ground station to control communications on the frequency in use. Silence interfering radio stations. Do
absolutely necessary. If you do, advise the ground station of the
new frequency and station name prior to the change, transmitting
established on the new frequency, return immediately to the fre65
quency or station where two-way communications last existed.

c. When in a distress condition with bailout, crash landing
or ditching imminent, take the following additional actions
to assist search and rescue units:
1. Time and circumstances permitting, transmit as many as
necessary of the message elements in subparagraph a3
above, and any of the following that you think might be helpful:
( a ) ELT status.
( b ) Visible land-
7-4 HELP AND HUDDLE POSITIONS. Illustration taken from the Search and Rescue Society of British Columbia Address: http://www.islandnet.com/sarbc/resqair/help-hud.html
marks.
( c ) Aircraft color.
( d ) Number of per-
An exposure Suit gives adequate protection against

cold water and promotes buoyancy. There is a variety of
exposure suits on the market; you should find one that meets
your specific needs.
sons on board.
( e ) Emergency
equipment on board.
2. Actuate your ELT if the installation permits.
3. For bailout, and for crash landing or ditching if risk of fire
"In a matter of minutes the Cloverleaf rolled

over and sank off the Alaskan coast. I floated in
37-degree water for 27 hours without a life
raft. The Bayley Exposure Suit saved my life,
without it I had no chance for survival."
Captain R.T. Laws
is not a consideration, set your radio for continuous transmission.

4. If it becomes necessary to ditch, make every effort to
ditch near a surface vessel. If time permits, an FAA facility
should be able to get the position of the nearest commercial
or Coast Guard vessel from a Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Center.
66
7-5 Photo of exposure suits
- Dehydration: "Water, water everywhere but not a drop to drink."

This old saying still holds true today. Finding drinking water, to fight dehydration while stranded at sea, will be a challenge. You will find packaged water in
the survival kits, but not in great quantities. The primary thing to remember is
that you should ration your sweat, not your water. If there is water, drink it.
It's better to have it in the body where it's doing some good. The temptation to
drink seawater could be a lethal one. Seawater is no substitute for drinking
water. When you drink seawater, you also consume large amounts of salt,
which will eventually poison cells. The only safe substitute for drinking water
83
coming incapacitated. As a rule, if water temperature is 50 degrees or below

and you have a flotation aid, don't swim. Go into a fetal position and conserve
body heat. If the raft is 100 feet or so from you, should you swim for it? Common sense would say yes, however, this is going to be a judgment call. By
staying still in cold water, your body will transmit heat to a layer of water surrounding the skin. This will reduce the amount of heat lost to cool water passing over the skin.
Situation
Predicted Survival Time

(Hours)
5. After a crash landing, unless you have good reason to believe that you will not be located by search aircraft or ground
teams, it is best to remain with your aircraft and prepare
means for signaling search aircraft.
6-3-3. Ditching Procedures
Situation No Flotation
Drown-Proofing
1.5
Treading Water
2.0
FIG 6-3-1
Single Swell ( 1 5 knot wind )
With Floatation
Swimming
2.0
Holding Still
2.7
HELP
4.0
Huddle
4.0
7-3 EXPECTED SURVIVAL TIME IN 50O WATER. Information located at the Washington State Parks and Recreation Commission Boating Programs website. Address: http://
www.boatwashington.org/hypothermia.ht
While wearing a personal flotation device, you will be able to float

while expending minimal energy. Wearing a flotation device will also afford
you the opportunity to assume the Heat Eliminating Lessening Position
(HELP). This position, sometimes referred to as the fetal position, helps to
reduce the amount of heat loss while protecting those areas most susceptible to
heat loss. These areas include the armpits, sides of the chest, groin, and the
back of the knees. If several persons are in the water, they can huddle together
and use one another to transfer, and maintain, ones body core temperature.
82
67
socks for long periods; use body heat to dry them. Promote good circulation in
feet by wiggling toes and ankles. Do not wear tight-fitting shoes.
FIG 6-3-2
Double Swell (15 knot wind)
Hypothermia: Hypothermia is covered in detail in the chapter on

Cold Land Survival.
Immersion Hypothermia: Hypothermia is the cooling of the body's
core. In immersion hypothermia, the rate of cooling is greatly accelerated. In
cold water, the skin and peripheral areas cool very rapidly because of increased
body area in contact with the cold. Seawater freezes at 28 - 29 degrees F.; water near icebergs is usually this cold. A person who comes in contact with water at such temperatures goes into an immediate form of shock. Upon submersion, smaller blood vessels and capillaries contract, causing the blood pressure
and heart rate to increase. The victim would be unconscious in 7 minutes and
could die in 20. Many factors affect survival time in cold water: age, body
size, energy levels, and type of clothing all influence survival time to some
degree. Table 7-1 shows times that were established by the University of Victoria, British Columbia. Subjects were wearing life jackets and light clothing
while remaining motionless.
FIG 6-3-3
Double Swell (30 knot wind)
WATER
TEMPERATURE(F)
SURVIVAL TIME
32
15 Min
36.5
30 Min
41
60 Min
50
3 Hrs
59
7 Hrs
68
16 Hrs
77
3 Days or more
7-2 WATER TEMPERATURE AND SURVIVAL TIMES. Information taken from

SURVIVAL SENSE FOR PILOTS, Robert Stoffel and Patrick La Valla,1990
Swimming would seem to be the best way to keep warm in the water,
but this is not the case. As a person swims, circulation increases in arms and
legs, bringing the blood in contact with cooler water. This cooler water is continuously being dumped over the body, accelerating hypothermia. Studies
have shown that swimming cools the body 35% faster than just staying still.
The average person can swim about .85 miles in 50-degree water before be68
81
sea and stabilize the raft.)

Dry raft using bailing bucket and sponge.
Check sea anchor for proper release. Sea anchor will reduce drift and
increase stability. Length of line should be adjusted according to the
nature of the seas. Keep the sea anchor line long; adjust its length so
that when the raft is at the crest of a wave, the sea anchor will remain
in the trough.
Keep survivors distributed evenly and low in the raft.
Secure and adjust canopy according to sea conditions and climate.
Activate the ELT.
Retrieve reverses osmosis pump. (For fresh drinking water)
Inventory all survival equipment from the MOD-1 and the raft accessory kit.
Rescue. Don't consider yourself rescued until the rescue vehicle
reaches dry land
FIG 6-3-4
(50 knot wind)
Medical problems that arise due to sea survival can be debilitating

and life threatening. These problems should be treated as soon as they arise:
Shock: After the initial chaos and ditching, all survivors may suffer
from shock. Once in the raft, it is important to keep everybody as warm as
possible, without overheating. By erecting the canopy and raising the spray
shields, the temperature will increase quickly. Some will suffer from shock
more than others. Look for pale and cool skin. Shock victims may be sweaty
and breathing rapidly. Their pulse will be weak and rapid. They may act
dazed or be unconscious. If you notice any of the symptoms, suspect shock
and treat for it. Lay the victims flat, with feet raised, and keep them warm with
solar blankets, extra clothing, and body heat.
FIG 6-3-5
Wind-Swell-Ditch Heading
Salt Water Sores: These sores are produced by the constant rocking
and chafing with the raft in a salt-water environment. These sores have a blister like appearance and feel like a mild burn. Do not open the sores or squeeze
them. Apply an antiseptic and keep them dry.
Dark Urine and Constipation: These conditions are common among
people in a survival situation. These are simply ways your body copes with
stress in a short-term. In the long-term, it is probably due to dehydration.
When water is finally obtained, this will clear up by itself. Do not give laxatives for constipation, as this will hasten dehydration.
Immersion Foot (Trench Foot): Immersion foot is an injury caused
by prolonged exposure to damp conditions. The feet will have a cracked and
pruned appearance, and will be red, and then become pale in color. The foot
will swell and become very sensitive. To prevent this problem, keep your raft
and feet dry. As soon as your feet become wet, dry them. Never wear wet
80
69
a. A successful aircraft ditching is dependent on three

primary factors. In order of importance they are:
1. Sea conditions and wind.
2. Type of aircraft.
3. Skill and technique of pilot.
b. Common oceanographic terminology.
Now, your other hand, still on the harness, can follow the harness
down to the buckle and release. Once you have released the harness, you can
move your hand over the the exit frame and proceed to pull yourself out. You
should not attempt to kick your feet as if you were swimming. This may cause
you to become entangled in the harness or, if others are on board, you may
cause injury to other survivors. Simply pull yourself through the exit
completely and push yourself away from the aircraft.
Once you have ensured that you are free of the aircraft you can inflate
your lifevest, if applicable. While surfacing you should keep one hand above
your head for protections.
of both waves and swells.
It is important to note that if a buoyancy device aids your ascent you

should make a conscience effort to exhale on the way up. If the aircraft was
sinking when you took your final breath, it is remotely possible that the air
may have been compressed. Likewise, it is very important that you exhale on
ascent if you are breathing from any form of compressed air cylinder.
2. Wave ( or Chop ) . The condition of the surface
RAFT ACTIONS
1. Sea. The condition of the surface that is the result
caused by the local winds.

3. Swell. The condition of the surface which has
been caused by a distance disturbance.
4. Swell Face. The side of the swell toward the observer. The backside is the side away from the observer. These definitions apply regardless of the
direction of swell movement.
5. Primary Swell. The swell system having the greatest height from trough to crest.
6. Secondary Swells. Those swell systems of less
height than the primary swell.
7. Fetch. The distance the waves have been driven
by a wind blowing in a constant direction, without
obstruction.
70
Check all crewmembers and assist the injured. If time and conditions
permit, gather as much survival equipment as you can. Next, locate the raft
and get it out of the fuselage. After the raft is out, evacuate. The first person
out of the fuselage should inflate the raft. Once the raft is inflated, pass the
lanyard to the next person out, or have one person retain the lanyard till everyone is out and into the water or raft. You may opt to tether the lanyard to the
aircraft since aircraft have been know to float for hours, even days, after ditching. If the fuselage goes under suddenly, you will not have to worry about cutting the lanyard. This is because the lanyard is designed to break away from
the raft at a tensile strength of 500 lb.s. Once in the water, get as far away
from the fuselage as possible and board the raft. If the aircraft is still afloat,
you can board directly into the raft. But, if it is doubtful that the fuselage will
remain afloat for a period of time, get into the water and away from the fuselage. Remember to hold on to the tether line if you choose to enter the water.
This will ensure that you remain in contact with the raft. Once in the raft, ensure that all crewmembers are present and assist the injured with boarding.
Basic raft actions include:
One individual assumes command. (Usually the pilot in command in
accordance with international law)
Retrieve accessory container tied to raft. (Always keep tied to raft and
closed after use)
Retrieve hand pump.
Inspect buoyancy tubes for damage. If punctures are found, repair.
Inflate as necessary. Tubes should be firm, but not drum tight.
(Temperature variance) Inflate floor. (This will insulate you from the
79
apply to general aviation ditchings.
8. Swell Period. The time interval between the passage
The numbers dont lie, and only emphasize

the importance, and benefits, of prior training. One
way in which the Airman Education Programs is
introducing crewmembers on how to egress a
submerged aircraft is by use of its Shallow Water
Egress Trainer (SWET). The SWETis intended to
provide students with an opportunity to practice an
underwater egress in a controlled environment.
Although the chances that you will ever have to ditch
are remote, training will increase your chances of
survival.
of two successive crests at the same spot in the water,

measured in seconds.
9. Swell Velocity. The speed and direction of the swell
with relation to a fixed reference point, measured in
knots. There is little movement of water in the horizon7-1 Shallow Water Egress
Trainer (SWET)
Performing a successful underwater egress actually begins with

preperation. You should know how to move through the fuselage of your
aircraft with your eyes closed. Reference physical objects that will lead you to
exits without having to rely on sight. These objects must be fixed to the aircraft
so that they will not be altered or moved during the ditching. It is also a good
idea to use items that provide a grip, since you will be pulling yourself
towards, as opposed to swimming to, the exit.
If an actual ditching does occur it is extremely important for you to
hold the proper brace position throughout the ditching, until the aircraft has
ceased all violent motion. This will help to protect the body from flailing
injuries as well as reduce the effects of disorientation. As the water movement
slows within the fuselage you should be thinking of your reference points.
However, you should not reach for your designated reference point until the
aircraft has settled.
You should take a breath of air as soon as you sense any rollover
motion of the fuselage. You should not take too large of a breath so as to
overfill the lungs, this will make it difficult to maintain the brace position.
Once you have become inverted, you will find it easier to stay
orientates by maintaining the proper brace position. You will also need to
focus on your pre-planned exit route and remember the location of the
reference points you have chosen. Sit up straight in your seat.
You should use a predetermined body part such as a knee to locate
your reference point. Slide one hand to the predetermined location and then
onto the reference point. If this is near the exit door, or hatch, release the hatch
at this time. You should then grab the exit frame with that hand. Once you
have grabbed the exit frame do not let go, this is your navigation system for
exiting the airframe.
78
tal direction. Swells move primarily in a vertical motion,

similar to the motion observed when shaking out a
carpet.
10. Swell Direction. The direction from which a swell is
moving. This direction is not necessarily the result of
the wind present at the scene. The swell may be moving into or across the local wind. Swells, once set in
motion, tend to maintain their original direction for as
long as they continue in deep water, regardless of
changes in wind direction.
11. Swell Height. The height between crest and trough,
measured in feet. The vast majority of ocean swells are
lower than 12 to 15 feet, and swells over 25 feet are
not common at any spot on the oceans. Successive
swells may differ considerably in height.
c. In order to select a good heading when ditching an aircraft, a
basic evaluation of the sea is required. Selection of a good
ditching heading may well minimize damage and could save
your life. It can be extremely dangerous to land into the wind
without regard to sea conditions; the swell system, or systems,
must be taken into consideration. Remember one axiom-
AVOID THE FACE OF A SWELL.

71
1. In ditching parallel to the swell, it makes little difference whether touchdown is on the top of the crest or in
the trough. It is preferable, however, to land on the top
or back side of the swell, if possible. After determining
which heading ( and its reciprocal ) will parallel the
swell, select the heading with the most into the wind
component.
2. If only one swell system exists, the problem is
relatively simple-even with a high, fast system. Unfortunately, most cases involve two or more swell
systems running in different directions. With more
than one system present, the sea presents a confused appearance. One of the most difficult situations occurs when two swell systems are at right
angles. For example, if one system is eight feet high,
and the other three feet, plan to land parallel to the
primary system, and on the down swell of the secondary system. If both systems are of equal height, a
compromise may be advisable-select an intermedi-
contact with the water, it may make several impacts or skips across the water.
Never unstrap from your seat until the aircraft has come to a complete stop.
This is especially true if the aircraft flips, or goes underwater.
IMPOSING FACTORS
Injury, panic and disorientation are problems that could cause a great
deal of difficulty in egressing the aircraft. Any of these, if not dealt with, can
lead to a survivable ditching becoming an unsuccessful egress. In other words,
you may survive the ditching but not the egress due to your inability to exit the
aircraft.
Obviously injury is something that should be taken into consideration.
You can greatly reduce your chances of injury by assuming the proper brace
position. This means that seats should not only be aft, but up as well. This
allows the seat to absorb a portion of the impact loads. You should also sit as
erect in your seat as possible while placing your head firmly against the
headrest. You should also place your hands in your lap while tucking your
elbows in tightly. Your feet should be placed flat on the floor.
The pilot in command will not be able to put his/her hand in their lap.
They should, if able, keep from wrapping their thumb around the controls. It
will be better to keep the thumb parrallel to the other fingers.
One concern with any injury is that it may lead to shock. If this occurs
you may be unable to react to the situation. You must make up your mind to
survive at all cost regardless any pain that may exist. This requires focus on the
egress rather than the injury and pain.
ate heading at 45 degrees down swell to both sys-
UNDERWATER EGRESS
tems. When landing down a secondary swell, at-
It may sound awkward but you can act too hastily while trying to
egress. If you panic and react too hastily during a ditching you may actually
cause more harm than good. For instance, if you try to release your harness too
early you could create a situation that is more disorientating than waiting a
couple of seconds for all violent motion to stop. It wont be easy, but the
calmer you can remain the easier your egress will become. There is a good
chance disorientation will be a factor due to the limited vision underwater. You
must rely on physical reference points that you can feel. You will more than
likely have to feel your way out of the aircraft as opposed to seeing your
way out.
tempt to touch down on the back side, not on the

face of the swell.
3. If the swell system is formidable, it is considered
advisable, in landplanes, to accept more crosswind
in order to avoid landing directly into the swell.
4. The secondary swell system is often from the same
direction as the wind. Here, the landing may be made
parallel to the primary system, with the wind and sec72
The U.S. Navy performed a statistical evaluation on 316 aircraft

ditchings that occurred between 1983 and 1988. The findings concluded that
47% of those who survived did so by performing an underwater egress.
Although this was a Navy study, the best guess is that similar statistics also
77
The actual slope of a swell is very gradual. If forced to
ondary system at an angle. There is a choice to two
land into a swell, touchdown should be made just after
directions paralleling the primary system. One direc-
passage of the crest. If contact is made on the face of
tion is downwind and down the secondary swell, and
the swell, the aircraft may be swamped or thrown vio-
the other is into the wind and into the secondary swell,
lently into the air, dropping heavily into the next swell. If
the choice will depend on the velocity of the wind ver-
control surfaces remain intact, the pilot should attempt
sus the velocity and height of the secondary swell.
to maintain the proper nose above the horizon attitude
d. The simplest method of estimating the wind direction and
by rapid and positive use of the controls.
velocity is to examine the wind streaks on the water. These
f. After Touchdown. In most cases drift, caused by

crosswind can be ignored; the forces acting on the aircraft after touchdown are of such magnitude that drift
will be only a secondary consideration. If the aircraft is
under good control, the "crab" may be kicked out with
rudder just prior to touchdown. This is more important
with high wing aircraft, for they are laterally unstable on
the water in a crosswind and may roll to the side in
appear as long streaks up and down wind. Some persons

may have difficulty determining wind direction after seeing
the streaks on the water. Whitecaps fall forward with the wind
but are overrun by the waves thus producing the illusion that
the foam is sliding backward. Knowing this, and by observing
the direction of the streaks, the wind direction is easily determined. Wind velocity can be estimated by noting the appearance of the whitecaps, foam and wind streaks.
1. The behavior of the aircraft on making contact with
ditching.
REFERENCEThis information has been extracted from Appendix H of the "National Search and
Rescue Manual."
Before ditching the aircraft, there are some fundamental steps to be

considered:
Hatches Upon impact with the water the airframe may twist and
warp, impeding egress due to hatch impingement. However, some experts
feel that this will not affect the emergency exits, since the frame is reinforced
around them. It is suggested that if you are in a pressurized aircraft you follow the aircraft manufacturers pre-ditch checklist regarding pulling of
hatches. If you are in an aircraft that is not pressurized you should prop the
door open with something to keep it from being jammed shut.
All Loose Items Stowed - This includes hatches, equipment, anything
that could become a projectile. But most importantly, this means you! Make
sure that you and all crewmembers are strapped in. When the aircraft makes
76
the water will vary within wide limits according to the

state of the sea. If landed parallel to a single swell system, the behavior of the aircraft may approximate that
to be expected on a smooth sea. If landed into a heavy
swell or into a confused sea, the deceleration forces
may be extremely great-resulting in breaking up of the
aircraft. Within certain limits, the pilot is able to minimize these forces by proper sea evaluation and selection of ditching heading.
2. When on final approach the pilot should look ahead
and observe the surface of the sea. There may be
shadows and whitecaps-signs of large seas. Shadows
73
and whitecaps close together indicate short and rough
tude by 50 feet or more. Under such conditions, carry enough
seas. Touchdown in these areas is to be avoided. Se-
power to maintain nine to twelve degrees nose up attitude,
lect and touchdown in any area ( only about 500 feet
and 10 to 20 percent over stalling speed until contact is made
is needed ) where the shadows and whitecaps are not
with the water. The proper use of power on the approach is
so numerous.
of great importance. If power is available on one side only, a
3. Touchdown should be at the lowest speed and rate

of descent which permit safe handling and optimum
nose up attitude on impact. Once first impact has
been made, there is often little the pilot can do to control a landplane.
e. Once pre-ditching preparations are completed, the pilot
should turn to the ditching heading and commence let-down.
The aircraft should be flown low over the water, and slowed
down until ten knots or so above stall. At this point, additional
power should be used to overcome the increased drag
caused by the nose up attitude. When a smooth stretch of
water appears ahead, cut power, and touchdown at the best
recommended speed as fully stalled as possible. By cutting
power when approaching a relatively smooth area, the pilot
will prevent overshooting and will touchdown with less
chance of planing off into a second uncontrolled landing.
Most experienced seaplane pilots prefer to make contact with
the water in a semi-stalled attitude, cutting power as the tail
makes contact. This technique eliminates the chance of misjudging altitude with a resultant heavy drop in a fully stalled
condition. Care must be taken not to drop the aircraft from
too high altitude or to balloon due to excessive speed. The
altitude above water depends on the aircraft. Over glassy
smooth water, or at night without sufficient light, it is very
easy, for even the most experienced pilots to misjudge alti74
little power should be used to flatten the approach; however,

the engine should not be used to such an extent that the aircraft cannot be turned against the good engines right down to
the stall with a margin of rudder movement available. When
near the stall, sudden application of excessive unbalanced
power may result in loss of directional control. If power is
available on one side only, a slightly higher than normal glide
approach speed should be used. This will insure good control
and some margin of speed after leveling off without excessive use of power. The use of power in ditching is so important that when it is certain that the coast cannot be reached,
the pilot should, if possible, ditch before fuel is exhausted.
The use of power in a night or instrument ditching is far more
essential than under daylight contact conditions.
1. If no power is available, a greater than normal approach speed should be used down to the flare-out.
This speed margin will allow the glide to be broken
early and more gradually, thereby giving the pilot time
and distance to feel for the surface - decreasing the
possibility of stalling high or flying into the water.
When landing parallel to a swell system, little difference is noted between landing on top of a crest or in
the trough. If the wings of aircraft are trimmed to the
surface of the sea rather than the horizon, there is
little need to worry about a wing hitting a swell crest.
75

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OK-06-033

BASIC SURVIVAL SKILLS

Enjoy the course.

Director: Melchor J. Antuano, M.D.

AEROSPACE MEDICAL EDUCATION DIVISION

AIRMAN EDUCATION PROGRAMS

Search and rescue

Kits, rafts, and accessories..

FAA kits, rafts, and accessories.

First Aid/Self Aid.

Advisory Circular 120-47.

(18) A survival kit, appropriately equipped. Some of the items

Quickening of the pulse

Dilation of the pupils

Dry mouth and throat

(4) Inflation devices, including hand pumps and cylinders (that

1-1 PHYSICAL AND MENTAL SYMPTOMS OF FATIGUE

(vi) Radio beacon with water activated battery.

Panic When faced with danger, individuals tend to panic or freeze.

(vii) Radar reflector.

Once recognized positive action should be taken to control the fear.

(13) One magnetic compass.

AC 120-47 - SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT FOR USE IN

(3) Raft repair equipment such as repair clamps, rubber

Anything that you think will cause bodily harm

Infections and hangnails

13. C 14. C 15. D

8. The three types of deserts are:

Northern, southern, and equatorial

9. Fill in the blanks. Ration your ___________, not your ___________

10. Hypothermia is defined as:

A lowering of the inner-core body temperature

11. The act of attracting attention is a good description of:

3. In survival, what is the biggest threat to the Will to Survive?____________

12. A signal that uses fire, smoke, or ballistics is a:

4. How strong is your Will to Survive? _______________________________

8. C 9. sweat, water 10. A 11. C 12. A

2. Are we born with the Will to Survive, or is it acquired?_________________

1. For each item below, rate it's value in a survival situation?

Designed for four survivors

Have two cells to protect against sinking

6. Three basic elements necessary for fire building are:

5. A dual redundancy raft is one that:

2. On which body function does survival place the greatest stress?

4. The MOD-1 survival kit:

Tinder, kindling and fuels

Without this, your chances of survival are greatly reduced.

7. A fire can provide a survivor with a source of:

2. On which body function does survival place the greatest stress?

To begin this chapter, we need to distinguish between two key words:

LAST KNOWN POSITION

LAST KNOW POSITION

Any time an aircraft is overdue, missing, or sends a radio distress call,

SEARCH & RESCUE

mated Mutual-assistance Vessel Rescue System (AMVERS) works under a

4. When is the use of a tourniquet recommended in a survival situation?

SURVIVAL FIRST AID/SELF AID

Every other year

Open the airway by tilting the head back

9. Fill in the blanks. Ration your _, not your _