Structural Design Loads For One - and Two-Family Dwellings

U.S.
Department of Housing and Urban Development

Office of Policy Development and Research
Structural Design Loads

for One- and Two-Family Dwellings
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Structural Design Loads
Loads
for One- and Two-Family Dwellings
Dwellings
Prepared for
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

Office of Policy Development and Research
Washington, DC
Contract H-21172CA
and
National Association of Home Builders

Program for Research and Optimum Value Engineering
Washington, DC
by
NAHB Research Center, Inc.

Upper Marlboro, Maryland
May 2001
Acknowledgments
This document was prepared by the NAHB Research Center, Inc. The work was
cooperatively sponsored by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)
and the National Association of Home Builders (NAHB). Appreciation is extended to the
following individuals whose comments and critical review served to improve this work:
Eric Burnett, Ph.D., Director, Pennsylvania Housing Research Center (Penn State University)
Helen English, Executive Director, Sustainable Buildings Industry Council
William Freeborne, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
Lee Golanoski, Assistant Director of Architecture, Toll Brothers, Inc.
Peter L. Pfeiffer, Principal, Barley and Pfeiffer Architects
David V. Rosowsky, Ph.D., Oregon State University
Jim Rossberg, American Society of Civil Engineers
Andrea Vrankar, PE, RA, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
NOTICE
The work that provided the basis for this publication was supported by funding under a grant
with the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. The substance and findings of
the work are dedicated to the public. The author is solely responsible for the accuracy of the
statements and interpretations contained in this publication. Such interpretations do not
necessarily reflect the views of the Government.
While the information in this document is believed to be accurate, neither the authors, nor
reviewers, nor the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, nor the NAHB
Research Center, Inc., nor any of their employees or representatives makes any warranty,
guarantee, or representation, expressed or implied, with respect to the accuracy, effectiveness, or
usefulness of any information, method, or material in this document, nor assumes any liability
for the use of any information, methods, or materials disclosed herein, or for damages arising
from such use. This publication is intended for use by professionals who are competent to
evaluate the significance and limitations of the reported information.
ABOUT THE NAHB RESEARCH CENTER, INC.
The NAHB Research Center is a not-for-profit subsidiary of the National Association of Home Builders (NAHB).
The NAHB has 200,000 members, including 50,000 builders who build more than 80 percent of new American
homes. NAHB Research Center conducts research, analysis, and demonstration programs in all areas relating to
home building and carries out extensive programs of information dissemination and interchange among members of
the industry and between the industry and the public.
ii Structural Design Loads for One- and Two-Family Dwellings

Preface
This guide serves the express purpose of promoting a practical and technically sound
method of determining design loads for typical residential construction in the United States. The
scope, therefore, is limited to single-family attached and detached buildings. It is intended to
advance residential building design by unifying the current practice of applying design loads,
improving the level of efficiency in the design effort, and promoting cost-effective results.
Therefore, this guide serves as a resource document for residential building designers and as a
simple model for reasonable determination of design loads for low-rise residential buildings.
Structural Design Loads for One- and Two-Family Dwellings is based on a compilation
and simplification of best practices for the design and construction of homes in the United States.
It is intended to supplement current standards of design such as found in national model building
codes and design standards such as Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures
(ASCE 7-98)1. The scope of current standards of design typically encompass such a breadth of
applications that it is often difficult for designers to make simple and effective applications to
residential buildings. Similarly, unique technical considerations on design loads for housing are
often overlooked in generalized design criteria.
This guide is based on current practices as represented in ASCE 7-98, but it also contains
relevant technical information from newer resources such as the Residential Structural Design
Guide2 as well as older resources such as ANSI A58.13, the Minimum Property Standards4, and
Light Frame House Construction5. International methods of determining residential design loads
were are also considered, such as Wind Loads for Housing6 and Residential Timber-Framed
Construction, Part 1 Design Criteria7.
While this document is written in a “regulatory style,” it is not a consensus standard that
is currently referenced in any existing local, state, or national model building code in the United
States. Therefore, the designer is encouraged to become fully aware of any potential differences
from local regulations prior to considering the use of this guide as an alternate means or method
of design.
1
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE Standard 7-98, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston,
VA, 1999.
2
Residential Structural Design Guide: 2000 Edition, prepared for the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development by
NAHB Research Center, Inc., Upper Marlboro, MD, 2000.
3
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ANSI A58.1, American National Standards Institute, New York,
NY, 1982.
4
Minimum Property Standards, Federal Housing Administration, Washington, DC, 1958.
5
Light Frame House Construction, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, DC, 1931 (reprinted 1956).
6
Wind Loads for Housing, AS 4055—1992, Standards Australia, Homebush, NSW 2140.
7
Residential Timber-Framed Construction, Part 1 Design Criteria, AS 1684.1–1999, Standards Australia International,
Strathfield, NSW 2135.
Structural Design Loads for One- and Two-Family Dwellings iii

iv Structural Design Loads for One- and Two-Family Dwellings
Table of Contents
Page
PREFACE ......................................................................................................................................iii
1. GENERAL .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Scope ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Purpose .................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Definitions............................................................................................................... 1
1.4 Symbols and Units .................................................................................................. 5
1.5 Basic Design Criteria .............................................................................................. 6
2. LOAD COMBINATIONS ................................................................................................ 10
2.1 General .................................................................................................................. 10
2.2 Load Reductions.................................................................................................... 11
2.3 Increase in Allowable Stress ................................................................................. 11
3. DEAD LOAD (D) ............................................................................................................. 11
4. LIVE LOAD (L)................................................................................................................ 12
4.1 General .................................................................................................................. 12
4.2 Concentrated Loads............................................................................................... 13
4.3 Minimum Attic Load............................................................................................. 13
4.4 Live Load Reduction............................................................................................. 13
4.5 Unusual Live Loads .............................................................................................. 14
5. SOIL LATERAL LOAD (H) ............................................................................................ 14
5.1 General .................................................................................................................. 14
5.2 Equivalent Fluid Density....................................................................................... 14
5.3 Lateral Soil Pressure.............................................................................................. 15
5.4 Flood Loads........................................................................................................... 16
5.5 Expansive Soils ..................................................................................................... 16
5.6 Frost Protection ..................................................................................................... 16
6. WIND LOAD (W) .............................................................................................................. 17
6.1 General .................................................................................................................. 17
6.2 Basic Wind Speed ................................................................................................. 17
6.3 Wind Exposure...................................................................................................... 17
6.4 Basic Velocity Pressure......................................................................................... 18
Structural Design Loads for One- and Two-Family Dwellings v
6.5 Lateral Wind Loads on Whole Building ............................................................... 19
6.6 Wind Loads on Components, Claddings, and Various Assemblies...................... 20
6.7 Internal Pressure.................................................................................................... 21
6.8 Overturning Forces................................................................................................ 21
6.9 Wind-borne Debris Protection .............................................................................. 21
7. SNOW LOAD (S) ............................................................................................................. 23
7.1 Ground Snow Load ............................................................................................... 23
7.2 Roof Snow Load.................................................................................................... 23
7.3 Off-Balance Snow Load........................................................................................ 23
8. EARTHQUAKE LOAD (E) ............................................................................................. 24
8.1 General .................................................................................................................. 24
8.2 Design Ground Motion.......................................................................................... 24
8.3 Seismic Shear Load............................................................................................... 24
8.4 Distribution of Story Shear Load .......................................................................... 25
8.5 Vertical Seismic Forces......................................................................................... 25
APPENDIX A - DESIGN DATA
APPENDIX B - SUPPLEMENTAL DESIGN REFERENCES
APPENDIX C - METRIC CONVERSION FACTORS
vi Structural Design Loads for One- and Two-Family Dwellings

List of Tables
Table 2.1 Generalized Load Combinations........................................................................... 10
Table 2.2 Load Combinations Typically Used for the Design of Residential Building
Components and Systems...................................................................................... 10
Table 3.0a Typical Dead Loads for Common Residential Constructions............................... 11
Table 3.0b Densities for Common Residential Construction Materials.................................. 12
Table 4.1 Live Loads for Structural Members ...................................................................... 12
Table 5.2 Values of KA, Soil Unit Weight, and Equivalent fluid Density by Soil Type....... 15
Table 5.6 Minimum Frost Depths for Residential Footings.................................................. 16
Table 6.4 Basic Wind Velocity Pressures (psf) for Suburban Exposure............................... 18
Table 6.5 Lateral Pressure Coefficients for Application to Vertical Projected Area of
Roof and Wall ....................................................................................................... 19
Table 6.6 Pressure Coefficients for Building Components, Cladding, and Various
Assemblies ............................................................................................................ 20
Table 6.9.1 Windborne Debris Protection Fastening Schedule for Wood Structural Panels... 22
Table 6.9.2a Missile Types ........................................................................................................ 22
Table 6.9.2b Wind-Borne Debris Missile Impact Criteria for Missile Types Defined in
Table 6.9.2a ........................................................................................................... 22
Table 8.3a Site Amplification Factor (Fa) for Typical Firm Soils .......................................... 24
Table 8.3b Seismic Response Modifiers - R ........................................................................... 24
List of Figures
Figure 4.4 Application of Live Load Reductions ................................................................... 14
Figure 5.3 Triangular Pressure Distribution on a Basement Foundation Wall....................... 15
Figure 6.3 Wind Exposure Illustrations.................................................................................. 18
Figure 6.5 Wind Loads for Design of Main Wind-Force Resisting System .......................... 19
Structural Design Loads for One- and Two-Family Dwellings vii
viii Structural Design Loads for One- and Two-Family Dwellings

STRUCTURAL DESIGN LOADS FOR ONE- AND TWO-FAMILY DWELLINGS
1. GENERAL
1.1 SCOPE 1.1 Commentary: The develop-
ment of this guide has sought to
compile design load information
This guide provides minimum structural loads and related that is particularly relevant to
guidance for the design and analysis of residential buildings the scope of residential buildings
limited to one- and two-family attached (townhouses) and addressed. As mentioned in the
detached dwellings of three stories or less above the foundation Preface, this guide draws
with a maximum height of 40 feet as measured from the roof peak relevant technical information
from several resources including
to the lowest adjacent finish grade. Loading conditions that are to existing and past research,
be avoided, such as those produced by expansive soils and frost standards, local and national
heave, are also addressed. Conditions not addressed in the scope of building codes, and similar
this guide shall be evaluated in accordance with ASCE 7-981, the international documents. The
local building code, or accepted engineering practice. This guide is maximum height limit, while
somewhat arbitrary, defines a
not intended to preclude the use of sound engineering judgment or clear limit to the application of
alternate methods of design. this guide.
Note: This document has been written using mandatory terms, such as
“shall,” to align with current building code style. However, this guide
is not a regulatory document, neither has its development followed
accepted rules of consensus.
1.2 PURPOSE 1.2 Commentary: To the extent

possible, a goal to facilitate
efficient engineering analysis
This guide is intended to provide a technically sound, concise, and and design of residential
practical method of determining design loads for engineering structures while maintaining a
analysis of residential buildings as described in Section 1.1-Scope. practical balance between
simplicity and accuracy has
been followed throughout this
document.
1.3 DEFINITIONS 1.3 Commentary:
Air-Freezing Index: A climate index, in units of ºF-days, used to Refer to Figure A-1 of Appendix
determine ground freezing potential and, specifically, frost depth A.
for foundation design.
Allowable Stress: A material stress value derived by dividing a

characteristic strength property by a safety factor.
Allowable Stress Design (ASD): A method of design whereby

structural members are proportioned such that the maximum
computed stresses due the application of design loads do not
exceed a specified allowable stress value.
1
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE Standard 7 (ASCE 7-98), American Society of
Civil Engineers, Reston, VA, 1999.
1
Basic Wind Speed (V): A design wind speed based on a gust Refer to Figure A-2 of Appendix
wind speed at 33 feet (10 meters) above ground in open, flat A.
terrain.
Building: A residential structure that contains either a single-

family dwelling unit or multiple attached dwelling units (i.e.,
townhouse construction), neither which exceed three stories in
height above the foundation or a maximum height of 40 feet as
measured from the roof peak to the lowest adjacent finish grade.
Concentrated Load: A load that is applied to a small surface area

(i.e., point load).
Component: A part, element, or member, and not necessarily the While not considered as part of
whole of a structural system. the structural system, cladding is
a component that experiences
structural loading (i.e., service
load).
Dead Load: The estimated permanent building material loads Refer to Section 3.
from roof, floor, wall, and foundation systems, and also from
claddings, finishes, and fixed equipment.
Diaphragm: A framing system that derives its strength from the Floor and roof diaphragms are
presence of structural sheathing securely attached to the framing; known as "horizontal
diaphragms" and shear walls
used to resist building lateral (shear) loads in light-frame are sometimes called "vertical
construction. diaphragms".
Dwelling Unit: A dwelling unit is a structure suitable for housing

a single family. Attached garages, appurtenances, and other
accessory structures are considered to be a part of the dwelling
unit.
Earthquake Load: The equivalent static load as a result of a Refer to Section 8.

building’s inertial response to a design earthquake ground motion.
Earthquake Spectral Response Acceleration: A measure of the Refer to Figure A-4 of Appendix
magnitude of design earthquake ground motion (as a percent of A.
gravity) for determination of earthquake load.
Flood Hazard Area: An area subject to standing or moving water Refer to Section 5.4.
during a design flood, includes coastal and riverine flooding.
Ground Snow Load: Loads from snow deposited and Refer to Figure A-3 of Appendix
accumulated on the ground used to determine snow loads on roofs. A.
2
Horizontal Diaphragm: A sheathed roof, floor, or other

membrane system acting to horizontally transfer and distribute
lateral forces experienced by the building to vertical shear resisting
systems.
Lateral Force Resisting System (LFRS): An assemblage of The LFRS also provides support
structural elements or systems (i.e., floor and roof diaphragms and for components and cladding
that transfer lateral loads to the
shear walls) designed to provide lateral resistance to wind and LFRS.
seismic forces experienced by a building.
Lateral Load: Lateral loads are transverse loads on a building or Lateral loads are most
building surface that produce racking (shear) forces in the LFRS or commonly produced by
horizontal wind or seismic
out-of-plane bending loads on individual walls and components. forces. For lateral loads from
coastal or riverine flood zones,
refer to ASCE 7-98.
Live Load: Sustained and time-varying (transient) loads produced Refer to Section 4.
by human occupants, furnishings, non-fixed equipment, storage,
and construction and maintenance activities.
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD): A design method The LRFD method is also known
whereby structural members are proportioned such that the as Strength Design.
computed material stresses due to factored nominal loads do not
exceed factored resistance (stress) values.
Load: A force or pressure acting on a building component or While not addressed, loads may
system that originates from the weight of building materials (dead also be generated by differential
movement of parts of the
load), occupants and contents (live loads), and environmental building and by restrained
effects (i.e., soil, wind, snow, or earthquake loads). dimensional changes; refer to
ASCE 7-98 for additional
guidance.
Load Path: The "pathway" by which loads are transferred through An example of a load path
structural members and connections such that the building and its includes the inter-connection of
the roof, walls, and foundation
component parts maintain stability under design loads. to resist wind uplift forces. Load
paths often include actions from
a combination of gravity, uplift,
and overturning forces.
Main Wind Force Resisting System (MWFRS): An assemblage The MWFRS may include roof
of structural elements that receive and resist wind load (pressure) trusses, diaphragms, and
portions of the uplift or
from multiple components or surfaces of a building or that overturning load path.
comprise a large tributary surface area of the building.
3
Seismic Site Coefficient: A factor used to amplify or dampen For example, "weak" or "soft"
earthquake ground motions based on soil conditions underlying the soils tend to amplify weak
earthquake ground motions but
site and the magnitude of the design ground motion. dampen strong earthquake
ground motions.
Shear Wall: A wall with racking (in-plane shear) strength that is

capable of resisting design lateral building loads and is also known
as a braced wall.
Snow Load: The load on a roof of a building from uniform and Refer to Section 7.
drifting (unbalanced) snow deposition and accumulation.
Soil Lateral Load: Horizontal loads due to lateral pressure from Refer to Section 5.
soil and water in soil.
Story: A level of a building generally intended for human

occupancy with the story height measured between floor and
ceiling surfaces.
Strength Design: See Load and Resistance Factor Design.
Structural Safety: The ability of the building and its structural

components to adequately withstand design loading conditions and
associated load effects with an acceptably low probability of
structural failure.
Structural Serviceability: The ability of the building and its

components to provide reasonable service to the occupants or
owner regarding functional performance expectations of the
structure, usually under normal conditions of use.
Structural System: An assemblage of structural elements or

components that may include built-up members, walls, floors,
roofs, fastenings, or even a whole building.
Tributary Area: Surface area supported by a structural member

based on geometry (i.e., the spacing and span of members) rather
than stiffness.
Wind-Borne Debris: Man-made or natural materials that become For example, roof shingles are a
air-borne missiles during extreme wind speeds. typical source of debris in
residential settings during
hurricanes.
Wind Load: The wind pressure and forces exerted on a building Refer to Section 6.
and its components as a result of the basic wind speed with
adjustment for exposure and other factors.
4
1.4 SYMBOLS AND UNITS 1.4 Commentary: The units

associated with the symbols are
defined by the context of use in
The symbols listed and defined in this section, as well as
this guide (certain symbols may
Customary English units, are used throughout this guide. Factors
assume different represen-
for conversion from English to Metric units are provided in
tations of units depending on the
Appendix C.
particular use). The user is
cautioned to verify the correct
use or conversion of units in the
AT - Tributary floor, roof, or wall surface area
execution of calculations.
Ce - Roof snow load exposure factor
Cs - Roof slope factor
D - Dead load
E - Earthquake (seismic) load
Fa - Seismic site coefficient
h - Depth of soil backfill
H - Soil lateral load
Ka - Active soil pressure coefficient
KD - Wind directionality factor
Kz - Velocity pressure exposure coefficient
Lo - Unreduced floor live load
Lr - Uniform roof live load
L - Live load
p - Uniform roof snow load
pg - Uniform ground snow load
P - Lateral soil pressure at depth h
q - Soil equivalent fluid density
R - Seismic response modification factor
S - Snow load
SDS - Seismic design spectral response acceleration.
Ss - Mapped spectral response acceleration at short periods (0.2
seconds).
V - Basic Wind Speed
W - Wind load*
Wu - Wind uplift on roof or suction load*
Ws - Weight of building (dead load) used in seismic load analysis
w - Soil unit weight
*Wind loads include internal and external surface pressure.
5
1.5 BASIC DESIGN CRITERIA
1.5.1 Structural Safety and Integrity. Buildings, and all parts 1.5.1 Commentary: The basic
thereof, shall safely resist the structural actions and load effects criteria for structural safety and
integrity are inherent to the
resulting from the load combinations specified in this guide using fundamental objectives of
the design data of Appendix A. Structural components, systems, structural design. Safety
and connections shall be designed such that a continuous load path requires that the stresses
is present and capable of transmitting lateral and vertical design induced by design loads do not
loads through the structure and ultimately to the ground. Buildings exceed the ability of structural
members and connections to
shall be designed such that the local failure of any one component resist the induced stresses with a
or element of the structural system will not precipitate immediate reasonable margin of safety. In
and catastrophic damage to the remaining structure. general, safety implies a low
probability of failure. While
concepts of safety can be placed
in analytical form and
incorporated into various design
formats (i.e., ASD or LRFD), the
establishment of an acceptable
level of safety as a “target” for
design is a subjective matter that
relies heavily on interpretations
of past successful or unsuccess-
ful design and construction
practices. Structural safety in
terms of residential design is
largely an unexplored realm of
engineering science and
specification development.
Structural integrity is a broader

area of concern than safety and
is related to the execution of
design practices that ensure that
intended levels of safety are
achieved and that the
consequences of extreme loads
(beyond that intended by design)
are reasonably minimized. Thus,
the “common sense” concept of
providing a continuous load
path with the intended level of
safety is paramount to achieving
overall structural integrity. It
implies an idealistic goal of
balanced design where no
“weak links” exist in the
structural system. It is also
similar to the basic principle of
providing for equilibrium of
forces. Structural integrity also
implies that a failure should not
propagate to damage beyond
that which would be in
proportion to the nature of the
cause. This design concept is
known as redundancy. Typical
6
light-frame homes are generally

considered to be highly
redundant structures and special
evaluation of redundancy is not
usual.
1.5.2 Structural Serviceability. Structural components and 1.5.2 Commentary: Structural

systems shall provide adequate stiffness to limit deflections, lateral serviceability is a criteria of
secondary importance to safety
drift, deformations, and vibrations that may otherwise exceed and can be ideally considered as
normal expectations relative to the intended use, occupancy, and a completely independent
function of the building. Alternatively, owner-specified or project- objective of design. Never-the-
specific serviceability criteria may be substituted for “normal less, it is a necessary design
expectations.” consideration. Structural
serviceability is generally aimed
at providing for acceptable
function of the building system
and components under normal
use conditions or “service
loads.”
Design loads specified for the
purpose of safety are not
necessarily appropriate for
provision of serviceability.
However, as a matter of
convenience, serviceability limits
(i.e., deflection limits) are
typically evaluated using the
same design loads used for
safety purposes. In such cases,
the evaluation is “calibrated” to
provide reasonable function
under a service load condition.
1.5.3 Durability. The basic design criteria are based on the 1.5.3 Commentary: Durability is
assumption that the specified materials, building design, an important design criteria and
can be considered as a time-
installation, and maintenance will result in adequate structural dependent aspect of structural
safety and serviceability over the intended life of the building. safety and integrity. The
provision of durability is directly
related to the life-expectancy of
a structure, its first cost, and its
operational or maintenance
costs. Durability cannot be
easily analyzed, tested, or
predicted and is very dependent
on material selection,
architectural detailing (i.e.,
protective overhangs, flashing,
etc.), and site specific climatic or
ground conditions (i.e., salt
spray from ocean exposure, soil
sulfate content, etc.). A
structural designer should
consider these effects on the
long-term structural integrity of
a building. Certain practices or
criteria related to durability are
7
mandated in most building

codes, usually by virtue of
reaction to past experience.
1.5.4 Structural Evaluation Methods. Structural evaluations

shall use methods of analysis as described in Section 1.5.4.1,
testing in accordance with Section 1.5.4.2, conventional
construction practice in accordance with Section 1.5.4.3, or a
combination of these approaches.
1.5.4.1 Analysis. The structural resistance of systems and elements 1.5.4.1 Commentary: The design
of buildings shall be evaluated using reasonable methods of references in Appendix B are
provided as a matter of
analysis including, but not limited to, those methods included in convenience and should not be
Appendix B or as required by the local building code. The design considered exhaustive of
analysis shall apply design loads and load combinations available or acceptable methods
determined in accordance with Section 2 of this guide or the local of design.
building code.
1.5.4.2 Testing. For the purpose of structural evaluation or design 1.5.4.2 Commentary: In
verification, the structural resistance of elements or assemblies general, recognized material
design specifications (Appendix
shall be evaluated by testing in accordance with recognized test B) embody a standardized
methods. Test specimens and loading conditions shall be treatment of relevant material
comparable to that experienced in the actual end-use. A sufficient test data in the development of
number of tests covering an expected range of materials and design procedures that
assembly characteristics shall be conducted to adequately accompany the analysis of
individual structural elements
document the variability and range of structural properties using simplified models (i.e.,
commensurate with the intended scope of application of the test simply-supported beam or
data. Allowable design values for Allowable Stress Design (ASD) column elements). In this
shall be established on the basis of the test data and incorporate a context, these specifications and
safety factor reduction in reasonable agreement with recognized standards establish material
design values that incorporate
material design specifications, standards, and accepted design safety factors (ASD), resistance
practice. Design values and resistance factors for Load and factors (LRFD), and other
Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) or Strength Design shall be necessary material property
established on the basis of the test data in reasonable agreement adjustments. However, design
with recognized material design specifications and standards. information related to the
consideration of structural
assemblies or systems is often
lacking or may not be
representative of specific end-
use conditions and the actual
structural capacity (strength)
and stiffness of the particular
system being designed. While
this section provides only
general guidance, it is intended
to bring recognition to the
traditional practice of "proof
testing" as a method of design
verification, particularly when
current practices, specifications,
standards, or manufacturer data
may not provide an efficient,
8
accurate, or complete basis of

design.
1.5.4.3 Conventional Construction Practice. Prescriptive 1.5.4.3 Commentary: The use

construction provisions for residential construction shall be of code-approved prescriptive
(pre-designed or deemed-to-
considered to be an acceptable method of design in accordance comply) construction solutions is
with the local building code. Where the scope limitations of such a routine occurrence in
provisions are exceeded, the entire building or certain affected residential building design. The
portions shall be evaluated in accordance with Sections 1.5.4.1 or designer must, however, verify
1.5.4.2. that the conditions of use do not
exceed applicable scope
limitations.
9
2. LOAD COMBINATIONS
2.1 GENERAL 2.1 Commentary: The load
combinations of this section and
Table 2.1 are intended to be
Design load combinations shall comply with Table 2.1 for use with applied uniformly for residential
design methods that are based upon Allowable Stress Design building design using material
(ASD) or Load and Resistance Factor (Strength) Design (LRFD). design specifications listed in
The individual loads used in the load combinations of Table 2.1 Appendix B including, but not
shall be determined in accordance with Sections 3.0 through 8.0. limited to, wood, concrete, steel,
and masonry design
Load combinations typically used for design of residential specifications. Combined load
buildings are provided in Table 2.2. proportioning of ASD load
combinations has been done in a
TABLE 2.1
manner consistent with the

GENERALIZED LOAD COMBINATIONS1
proportioning of loads in the

ASD LOAD COMBINATIONS LRFD LOAD COMBINATIONS LRFD format. This propor-
D + H + L + 0.3(Lr or S) 1.2D + 1.6(L+H) + 0.5(Lr or S) tioning will result in a more
D + H + (Lr or S) + 0.3L 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S) + 0.5 (L or 0.8 W) realistic application of ASD load
D + (W or 0.7E) + 0.5L + 0.2S 1.2D + 1.6W + 0.5L + 0.5(Lr or S) combinations than may be found
0.6D + W 1.2D + 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S
0.6D + 0.7E 0.9D + 1.6W in existing codes and design
0.9D + 1.0E specifications using the ASD
Note:
format. Thus, the computed
1
For load conditions not addressed in this guide (e.g., flood loads, rain loads,
loads for certain ASD load
etc.), refer to ASCE 7-98.
combinations will be
comparatively less. The 1.6 wind
load factor is relatively new and,
TABLE 2.2
in part, it is based on the use of
LOAD COMBINATIONS TYPICALLY USED FOR THE DESIGN OF
gust wind speeds (see Figure A-2
RESIDENTIAL BUILDING COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS
of Appendix A) rather than
ASD LOAD
COMPONENT OR SYSTEM LRFD LOAD COMBINATIONS fastest-mile wind speed values as
COMBINATIONS
found in older design wind maps
Foundation Wall D+H 1.2D + 1.6H
(Gravity & Soil Lateral Loads) D + H + L + 0.3(Lr or S) 1.2D + 1.6H + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S)
in the United States.
D + H + (Lr or S) + 0.3L 1.2D + 1.6H + 1.6(Lr or S) + 0.5L
Headers, Girders, Floor System, Interior D + L + 0.3 (Lr or S) 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5 (Lr or S)
Load Bearing Walls, Footings D + (Lr or S) + 0.3 L 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S) + 0.5 L
(Gravity Loads)
Exterior Load Bearing Walls Same as above plus, Same as above plus,
(Gravity & Wind Lateral Load) D+W 1.2D + 1.6W
D + 0.7E + 0.5L + 0.2S 1.2D + 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S
Roof Rafters, Trusses, & Beams; D + (Lr or S) 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S)

Roof & Wall Sheathing 0.6D + Wu 0.9D + 1.6Wu
(Gravity & Transverse Loads) D+W 1.2D + 1.6W
Floor Diaphragms and 0.6D + W 0.9D + 1.6W

Shear Walls 0.6D + 0.7E 0.9D + 1.0E
(Lateral & Overturning Loads)
10
2.2 LOAD REDUCTIONS 2.2 Commentary: Because

adequate proportioning of
Load reductions to account for multiple transient loads shall not be multiple transient loads has been
included in the ASD and LRFD
permitted for use with the load combinations of Table 2.1, except load combinations of Tables 2.1
as permitted for live loads in Section 4. and 2.2, the practice of applying
an additional reduction for
multiple transient loads (i.e., use
of a 0.75 load reduction factor)
is disallowed in this guide.
2.3 INCREASE IN ALLOWABLE STRESS 2.3 Commentary: The use of a

one-third allowable stress
Increase in allowable material stress values for wind and seismic increase for wind and seismic
loading is not permitted in this
load conditions shall not be permitted for use with the load guide because adequate
combinations of Table 2.1 except when justified by the specific proportioning of ASD load
material or structural system’s time-dependent response to the combinations in Tables 2.1 and
load. 2.2 has accounted for this past
practice.
3. DEAD LOAD (D) 3. Commentary: Dead load

values for various construction
materials are provided as a
Dead loads shall be based on the actual materials used in the matter of convenience to the
construction or the estimated weights and densities of commonly designer. These values are based
used materials and building constructions as shown in Tables 3.0a on typical practice as defined in
and b. various sources such as the
Residential Structural Design
TABLE 3.0a
Guide and ASCE 7-98. The
TYPICAL DEAD LOADS FOR COMMON
designer should use dead load
RESIDENTIAL CONSTRUCTIONS
values representative of the
Roof Construction actual construction.
Light wood or steel framing (trusses), sheathing & gypsum board ceiling, with:
- asphalt shingles, metal roofing, or wood shakes or shingles 15 psf
- built-up roll roofing, tar and gravel 18 psf
- light weight tile or 1/4” slate 20 psf
- conventional clay tile, concrete tile, or 3/8” slate 25 psf
Floor Construction
Light wood or steel framing, wood sheathing & gypsum board ceiling, with:
- carpet or vinyl flooring 10 psf
- wood flooring 12 psf
- ceramic tile & thin-set or dry-set mortar 15 psf
- 1/2”slate or ceramic tile with 1/2” mortar bed 20 psf
Light-Frame Wall Construction
Light wood or steel framing, wood sheathing, & gypsum board interior finish, with:
- vinyl or aluminum siding 8 psf
- lap wood siding 9 psf
- thin coat stucco on insulation board 11 psf
- 7/8” portland cement stucco 17 psf
- standard brick veneer 45 psf
Interior partitions (2x4 at 16” o.c. with 1/2” gypsum board applied to both sides) 6 psf
Concrete or Masonry Masonry (light-weight block)
Concrete
Wall Construction Hollow Solid or Full Grout
4” thick wall 22 psf -- 48 psf
6” thick wall 24 psf 55 psf 72 psf
11
TABLE 3.0b
DENSITIES FOR COMMON
RESIDENTIAL CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
Aluminum 170 pcf Wood Structural Panels

Copper 556 pcf - Plywood 36 pcf
Steel 492 pcf - Oriented Strand Board 40 pcf
Concrete (normal wt. w/reinforcement) 144 pcf Gypsum Board 50 pcf
Masonry, Grout 140 pcf Stone (Quarried and Piled)

Masonry, Brick 100 – 130 pcf - Shale 92 pcf
Masonry, Concrete 105 – 135 pcf - Granite and Slate 96 pcf
- Sandstone 82 pcf
Glass 160 pcf
Earth
Wood (approx. 10% moisture content)* - Sand and gravel, dry,
- Spruce-Pine-Fir (G=0.42) 29 pcf loose 100 pcf
- Spruce-Pine-Fir, South (G=0.36) 25 pcf - Sand and gravel, wet 120 pcf
- Southern Yellow Pine (G=0.55) 37 pcf - Clay, damp 110 pcf
- Douglas Fir – Larch (G=0.5) 34 pcf - Silt, mist, loose 78 pcf
- Hem-Fir (G=0.43) 28 pcf - Silt, moist, packed 96 pcf
- Mixed Oak (G=0.68) 47 pcf
Slate 172 pcf
Granite 153 pcf
Water 62.4 pcf Marble 156 pcf
Sandstone 137 pcf
*
G-Specific Gravity
4. LIVE LOAD (L)

4.1 GENERAL 4.1 Commentary: The live loads
of Table 4.1 represent typical
practice, but may vary relative
Live loads shall be based on the values provided in Table 4.1. to local building code
TABLE 4.1
requirements. In particular, the
LIVE LOADS FOR STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
values for decks and balconies
APPLICATION UNIFORM LOAD (psf or plf) CONCENTRATED LOAD provides an allowance for use of
(lbs) a 40 psf load for decks and
Roof balconies not greater than 48
- Slope ≥ 4:12 15 psf 250 lbs inches above finish grade (i.e., a
- Slope < 4:12 20 psf 250 lbs minimal hazard in the event of
Attics
collapse). Most deck and
- without storage1 10 psf 250 lbs balcony failures have been the
- with storage2 20 psf 250 lbs result of inadequate detailing
and design of connections to the
Floors house structure rather than an
- Bedroom areas 30 psf 300 lbs
inadequacy in the assignment of
- Other areas 40 psf 300 lbs
live loads.
Garages 40 psf 2,000 lbs
Decks & Balconies3 60 psf 300 lbs
Stairs 40 psf 300 lbs
Guardrails & Handrails 20 plf 200 lbs
Grab bars n/a 250 lbs
Notes:
1
Attics “without storage” are considered to be attic spaces without adequate access or open spaces
that would be necessary to allow for its significant use as a storage area. The 10 psf minimum
load for attics without storage is intended solely for the design of attic members (i.e., ceiling joist)
to allow for safe function during construction, maintenance, and related activities.
2
Applies to portions of attic areas that are considered to be accessible for storage.
3
For decks and balconies that are not more than 48 inches above finish grade, the deck load shall
be permitted to be based on the interior floor area served by the deck (i.e., 40 psf).
12
4.2 CONCENTRATED LOADS
Concentrated loads shall be applied to a small surface area

consistent with the application and shall be located and directed to
produce the maximum possible load effect on the element or
assembly under consideration. Concentrated live loads shall not be
required to be applied simultaneously with uniform live loads.
4.3 MINIMUM ATTIC LOAD 4.3 Commentary: Attic live loads

are not usually included when
considering the combined effects
The live load for attics with storage shall be permitted to be of other roof and floor live
reduced in accordance with Section 4.4.2 when considered in loads. In keeping with
combination with other sources of live loads as required in the load reasonable proportioning of
combinations of Section 2. The live load for attics without storage loads, this guide requires live
shall not be included in the load combinations of Section 2, except loads for attics with storage to
be considered in determining the
for the purpose of designing attic floor members. Attics intended live load component of the load
for occupancy shall be designed using live loads as required for combinations in Section 2.
floors.
4.4 LIVE LOAD REDUCTION 4.4 Commentary: The uniform

live load values for floors in
Table 4.1 are based on a floor
4.4.1 Tributary Floor Area. A structural member which supports area of 200 square feet. As the
a tributary floor area of greater than 200 ft2 on a given story is floor area under consideration
permitted to be designed using a reduced uniform floor live load becomes larger than 200 square
for each qualifying story in accordance with the following feet, the potential for a large
formula: uniform live load over the entire
area decreases. The equation
for live load reduction makes
 10.6  this adjustment specifically for
L = L o  0.25 + ≥ 0.75 for AT > 200 ft2
 A T 
residential occupancies. The
 equation used in existing
building codes and standards is
AT is the tributary area of floor surface in square feet supported by based on commercial buildings.
the structural member and Lo is the floor live load from Table 4.0.
4.4.2 Multiple Stories. When floor, roof, and attic live loads from The approach of combining
multiple story levels are considered in combination, the total live multiple sources of live loads
(multi-story construction)
load for use in the load combinations of Section 2 shall be factored provides a conservative
as follows: adjustment, not on the basis of
floor area supported, but rather
L = L1 + 0.7(L 2 + L 3 + ⋅⋅⋅) on the basis of the statistical
“independence” and the
improbability of maximum live
where L1 is the live load from Table 4.1 producing the maximum loads occurring on different
individual load effect and L2, L3, and so forth are live loads from stories of the dwelling at the
other sources or stories in accordance with Table 4.1. The live load same time. This live load
reductions shall be applied as shown in Figure 4.4. adjustment for multiple stories is
not recognized in existing
building codes and design
standards.
13
L 3 = 20 psf
Live Load @ A = L1 + 0.7(L2)

Live Load @ B = L1 + 0.7(L2+ L3)
L 2 = 30 psf
Notes:
1. L1, L2, and L3 may be reduced
according to their individual floor
L 1 = 40 psf tributary areas when AT for each is
greater than 200 ft2; refer to Section
4.4.1.
2. Load values shown for L1, L2, and
L3 are for example only.
A B
FIGURE 4.4
APPLICATION OF LIVE LOAD REDUCTIONS
4.5 UNUSUAL LIVE LOADS 4.5 Commentary: Special use

conditions include rooms that
are used for activities that are
Residential buildings with areas subject to special use or not typical to residential
equipment loads or other unusual live loads not addressed in Table construction and that are not
4.1 shall be designed using an appropriate live load value for the addressed in the values of Table
affected portions of the structure. 4.1. Examples include rooms
intended for heavy storage,
office space, libraries, etc.
Special equipment loads may
include items such as hot tubs,
water beds, exercise equipment,
etc.
5. SOIL LATERAL LOAD (H)

5.1 GENERAL
Soil lateral loads for foundation and retaining wall design shall be
determined in accordance with this section.
5.2 EQUIVALENT FLUID DENSITY 5.2 Commentary: The equivalent

fluid density (Rankine) method
of determining soil lateral loads
The values of Ka in Table 5.2 shall be used to determine the is a traditional method that is
equivalent fluid density value for well-drained, lightly compacted relatively simple and effective
soils in accordance with the following equation: for shallow residential founda-
tion walls and soil retaining
q = Kaw structures. For typical residen-
tial foundation wall design, the
14
For saturated soil conditions as would be experienced in a flood use of a minimum 30 pcf
plain or in poorly drained soil, an equivalent fluid density value of equivalent fluid density has been
in long-term use with reasonable
85 pcf shall be used. success.
TABLE 5.2
VALUES OF KA , SOIL UNIT WEIGHT,
AND EQUIVALENT FLUID DENSITY BY SOIL TYPE1,2
Type of Soil3 Active Pressure Soil Unit Equivalent Fluid

(unified soil classification) Coefficient (Ka) Weight (pcf) Density (pcf)
Sand or gravel
0.26 115 30
(GW, GP, GM, SW, SP)
Silty sand, silt, and sandy silt
0.35 100 35
(GC, SM)
Clay-silt, silty clay
0.45 100 45
(SM-SC, SC, ML, ML-CL)
Clay
0.6 100 60
(CL, MH, CH)
Notes:
1
The table values are applicable to well-drained foundations with less than 10 feet of backfill placed with
light compaction as is common in residential construction.
2
The table values do not consider the significantly higher loads that can result from expansive clays and
the lateral expansion of moist, frozen soil. Such conditions should be avoided by eliminating expansive
clays or frost-susceptible soil (i.e., silty soil) adjacent to the foundation wall and providing for adequate
surface and foundation drainage.
3
Organic silts and clays and expansive clays are unsuitable for backfill material and design values for
these soil types are not provided.
5.3 LATERAL SOIL PRESSURE 5.3 Commentary: This section

provides for calculation based
on the traditional (Rankine)
The lateral soil pressure, P, at depth, h, shall be determined using a assumption of a triangular load
triangular uniform load (increasing with depth) in accordance with distribution. Actual pressure
Figure 5.3 and the following formula: distribution can vary from this
assumption and, therefore,
P = qh (psf) alternative methods of
calculation using different soil
pressure distribution models are
permissible. However, the use of
a simple triangular distribution
has generally provided service-
able designs for shallow
foundations and soil retaining
structures.
FIGURE 5.3
TRIANGULAR PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION ON A BASEMENT
FOUNDATION WALL
15
5.4 FLOOD LOADS 5.4 Commentary: In general,

elevated foundations (e.g., pile
foundations in coastal flood
In areas subject to hydrodynamic loads due to moving flood water zones) should be used to
or hydrostatic loads due to standing flood water, the provisions of minimize or avoid hydrodynamic
ASCE 7-98, accepted engineering practice, or local requirements flood loads from velocity flow
for design of building foundations in flood hazard areas shall be (fast moving flood waters).
followed. Ideally, locating homes in flood
plains (usually defined by a 100-
yr flood elevation) should be
avoided. Local flood plain
ordinances, many of which are
based upon the National Flood
Insurance Program (NFIP)
regulations, should be consulted.
5.5 EXPANSIVE SOILS 5.5 Commentary: Expansive soil

forces require special design
considerations to prevent
Foundation on expansive clay soils shall be designed such that damage to foundations
forces from expansion and contraction are avoided or the depending on the degree to
foundation shall be designed to resist forces from differential soil which a clay soil exhibits
movement in accordance with accepted engineering practice. expansive behavior. Refer to
references in Appendix B.
5.6 FROST PROTECTION 5.6 Commentary: In general,

residential foundations have
been protected against frost by
Foundations shall be adequately protected against frost heave or placing footings at a depth
bear on soils at a depth equal to or exceeding that required by equivalent to a locally
Table 5.6 using the Air-Freezing Index (AFI) map, Figure A-1, in prescribed frost depth. Frost
Appendix A. depths in accordance with Table
5.6, while technically accurate,
may not agree with locally
TABLE 5.6 prescribed frost depths which
MINIMUM FROST DEPTHS FOR RESIDENTIAL FOOTINGS rely on various interpretations of
Air-Freezing Index (oF-days) Footing Depth (inches) local experience. Alternate
250 or less 12 means of frost protection, by use
500 18 of insulated foundations or non-
1,000 24 frost susceptible soil, may be
2,000 36 used (refer to Appendix B for
3,000 48 design guidance).
4,000 60
Notes:
1. Interpolation is permissible.
2. The values do not apply to mountainous terrain or to Alaska.
16
6. WIND LOAD (W)

6.1 GENERAL
Wind loads shall be determined in accordance with this section.
6.2 BASIC WIND SPEED 6.2 Commentary: The basic wind

speed in this guide is based on a
gust measurement rather than a
For the purpose of calculating wind loads, a site’s basic wind speed sustained (1-min average) or
shall be based on the gust wind speed provided in Figure A-2 of fastest-mile measurement. Most
Appendix A. older U.S. wind maps use the
fastest-mile measurement of
wind speed. If an older fastest-
mile wind map is used with this
guide, the wind speed must be
converted to a gust measurement
as shown below.
Gust, mph Fastest-mile,

mph
90 75
100 80
110 90
120 100
130 110
140 120
150 130
6.3 WIND EXPOSURE 6.3 Commentary: Wind exposure

is one of the most significant
factors affecting the wind loads
Wind exposure for a specific building site shall be designated as on low rise buildings, yet it is
one of the following categories as illustrated in Figure 6.3: one of the most difficult
parameters to define
Open - Exposed open terrain with few, well scattered obstructions consistently. Most homes are
having heights generally less than 30 feet; it includes flat open sited in suburban or protected
(i.e., shielded) exposures. For
country, grasslands, and direct coastal exposures. this reason, the suburban
exposure (which is itself based
Suburban - Urban, suburban, and mixed wooded areas, or other on a fairly open terrain
terrain with many obstructions having the size of single-family condition for the purpose of
dwellings or larger, scattered open areas and fields are included. determining conservative design
wind loads) is often used as a
reasonable "default" condition
Protected - Densely wooded terrain with the building not for residential design. However,
extending above the average height of surrounding obstructions when homes are located in
(i.e., trees or buildings) and with the site design wind speed less predominantly open terrain,
than 130 mph. such as an isolated home on the
plains or oceanfront property,
the open exposure condition
must be used. In cases where
the exposure is mixed, the
designer may consider
evaluating the building with
different wind exposures relative
17
to wind direction or taking an

OPEN “average” condition. Mixed
protected and suburban
exposures are typical in
moderate to high density housing
developments where adjacent
homes shield one another in one
wind direction and the general
terrain condition (i.e., suburban)
SUBURBAN defines exposure for the other
(orthogonal) wind direction. It
should also be recognized that,
with possible exceptions,
exposure conditions will likely
change over time as trees and
developments mature and
PROTECTED expand
FIGURE 6.3
WIND EXPOSURE ILLUSTRATIONS
6.4 BASIC VELOCITY PRESSURE 6.4 Commentary: The basic wind

velocity pressures of Table 6.4
are generated using the familiar
Using the site’s basic wind speed, the basic velocity pressure shall relationship where velocity
be determined in accordance with Table 6.4. pressure (psf) equals 0.00256 KD
KZ V2, where KZ is the velocity
TABLE 6.4 pressure exposure coefficient
BASIC WIND VELOCITY PRESSURES (psf) associated with the vertical wind
FOR SUBURBAN EXPOSURE1,2,3,4,5 speed profile in suburban terrain
BASIC WIND SPEED ONE-, TWO- AND THREE- at the mean roof height of the
(MPH, PEAK GUST) STORY BUILDINGS building. KD is the wind
85 12 directionality factor with a value
90 13 of 0.85. For up to three-story
100 16 buildings (mean roof height not
110 19 exceeding approxi-mately 35 ft),
120 23 a Kz value of 0.75 is used. Since
130 27 the table is based on the
140 31 “default” assumption of
150 36 suburban exposure, adjustments
Notes: to other exposure conditions are
1
For open wind exposure conditions, multiply the table values by 1.4. provided in the table notes. In
2
For protected exposure conditions, multiply the table values by 0.8.
3
Topographic wind speed-up effects as experienced at or near the crest of addition, homes located on or
protruding topographic features shall be considered in accordance with ASCE 7-98. near the tops of large exposed
4
For two-story buildings, multiply table values by 0.9; for one-story buildings, hills and escarpments can
multiply table values by 0.8. experience significant topo-
5
Interpolation is permissible.
graphic wind speed-up and
increased loads. Houses sited in
such conditions should be
designed using an additional
topographic factor adjustment in
accordance with ASCE 7-98.
18
6.5 LATERAL WIND LOADS ON WHOLE BUILDING 6.5 Commentary: This simplified
method of determining lateral
wind loads is intended to
To determine lateral wind pressures on the main wind force facilitate the determination of
resisting system (MWFRS) of a building, multiply the appropriate lateral loads to be resisted by the
lateral pressure coefficients from Table 6.5 by the basic wind building’s shear walls and
velocity pressure from Table 6.4. These pressures shall be applied horizontal diaphragms (floors
to the vertical projection of the roof and walls for two orthogonal and roofs). Such methods have
existed since the earliest
directions of loading (parallel to ridge and perpendicular to ridge) consideration of wind loads on
as shown in Figure 6.5 for a gable roof building. For hip roof buildings. Lateral loads assigned
buildings, the roof vertical projected area shall apply to both to shear walls and horizontal
directions of loading. diaphragms are typically
determined based on the use of
TABLE 6.5
tributary area methods (i.e.,
LATERAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS FOR APPLICATION
assigning a lateral wind load
TO VERTICAL PROJECTED AREA OF ROOF AND WALL
based on a tributary portion of
APPLICATION LATERAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS1 the vertical projected area). A
Roof Projected Area (by Slope) more accurate method assigns
Flat to 6:12 0.5 lateral loads to shear walls
7:12 0.6 based on relative stiffness of the
8:12 to 12:12 0.7 walls (assuming a rigid
diaphragm).
Wall Projected Area 1.1
Note:
1
These values are composite pressure coefficients which include the effect of positive
pressures on windward face of the building and negative (suction) pressures on leeward
face of the building.
FIGURE 6.5
WIND LOADS FOR DESIGN OF MAIN
WIND-FORCE RESISTING SYSTEM
19
6.6 WIND LOADS ON COMPONENTS, CLADDINGS, AND 6.6 Commentary: The pressure
VARIOUS ASSEMBLIES coefficients of Table 6.6 are
based on a simplification of the
ASCE 7-98 provisions. In
To determine wind pressures on components and claddings, addition, the coefficients are
multiply the appropriate pressure coefficients from Table 6.6 by presented for the various
the basic wind velocity pressure from Table 6.4. With the systems and components
exception of the roof uplift coefficient, all pressures calculated typically found on homes.
Coefficients are not provided for
using these coefficients shall be applied perpendicular to the actual siding and roofing materials for
building surface area tributary to the component under two reasons: (1) air-permeable
consideration. The roof uplift pressure coefficient shall be used to cladding systems (such as
determine a single wind pressure to be applied to the horizontal shingles and lap siding) are
projected area of the roof assembly to determine roof tie-down subject to reduced pressure
differentials due to venting and
connection forces and to evaluate the roof uplift contribution to (2) finish materials are often
building overturning forces as shown in Figure 6.5. considered as a serviceability
item with a lesser design criteria
TABLE 6.6
than would be used for safety.
PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS
Therefore, it is not uncommon to
FOR BUILDING COMPONENTS, CLADDING, AND VARIOUS
multiply design wind loads by a
ASSEMBLIES
factor of 0.75 when using the
APPLICATION PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS1,2 load for a serviceability purpose
ROOF (i.e., checking building drift or
Trusses, Roof Beams, Ridge & Valley Rafters -0.9, +0.4 attachment of finishes). Air-
Rafters & Truss Panel Members -1.2, +0.7
-2.2, +1.0
permeable cladding systems
Roof Sheathing (panels, boards, or purlins) such as shingles or lap siding or
Skylights & Glazing -1.2, +1.0
Roof Uplift3 -1.0 (hip roof with slope less than 3:12) brick may experience effective
-0.8 (hip roof with slope between 3:12 and 6:12) surface pressure coefficients of
-0.4 (hip roof with slope greater than 6:12)
-1.0 (gable roof of any slope) ±0.6 to ±0.9 in comparison to
Windward Overhang4 +0.8 values of +1.1 to –2.2
experienced across an entire
WALL
All framing members -1.2, +1.1 roof or wall system. In addition,
Wall Sheathing (panels, boards, or girts) -1.3, +1.2 items like roof shingles are
Windows, Doors, & Glazing -1.3, +1.2 usually “designed” for high
Garage Doors -1.1, +1.0
wind use by specifying a greater
Notes:
number of nails per shingle (i.e.,
1
All coefficients include internal pressure in accordance with an enclosed building condition (i.e.,
no openings). Higher internal pressures shall be considered and table values adjusted in accordance
6 nails per shingle in lieu of 4)

with Section 6.7.
and by requiring perimeter
2
Positive and negative signs represent pressures acting inward and outward, respectively, from the
shingle tabs to be adhered with
building surface. A negative pressure is a suction or vacuum. Both pressure conditions shall be
mastic. Thus, practical and
considered.
3
The roof uplift pressure coefficient is used to determine uplift pressures that are applied to the
comprehensive wind design is

horizontal projected area of the roof for the purpose of determining uplift connection forces.
often a blend of simple
Additional uplift force on roof connections due to windward roof overhangs shall also be included.
calculation and good practice.
The uplift force must be transferred through a continuous load path to the foundation or to a point
where it is adequately resisted by the factored dead load of the building.
4
The windward overhang pressure coefficient is applied to the underside of a windward roof
overhang and acts upward on the bottom surface of the roof overhang. If the bottom surface of the
roof overhang is also the roof sheathing, then the overhang pressure shall be additive to the roof
sheathing pressure.
20
6.7 INTERNAL PRESSURE 6.7 Commentary: Internal

pressure is a particular concern
In hurricane-prone regions where design wind speeds are 120 mph toward increased roof uplift
forces. Internal pressure
or greater (see Figure A-2 of Appendix A) and where exterior associated with the loss of
glazed openings are not protected against potential wind-borne windows and the existence of
debris impacts as recommended in Section 6.9, buildings shall be small openings in homes may not
designed in consideration of potentially increased internal have wide spread affect on
pressure. In such consideration, the values in Table 6.6 shall be homes due to compartmentaliza-
tion of the building and other
increased in positive or negative magnitude by ±0.35. factors. However, catastrophic
losses of large openings (such as
detachment of a garage door)
often precipitate the types of roof
blow-off damage and wall blow-
out damage that are associated
with internal pressurization. In
high wind areas, particular
attention should be focused on
roof attachment and attachment
of garage doors and similar
large openings (i.e., slider doors
or french doors).
6.8 OVERTURNING FORCES 6.8 Commentary: Overturning is

not normally a significant design
Lateral wind pressures and roof uplift pressure determined in issue for typical residential
buildings. However, for tall
accordance with Sections 6.5, 6.6, and 6.7 shall be used to homes with a relatively narrow
determine overturning forces in accordance with the dead plus plan dimension, overturning
wind load combinations of Section 2. forces from lateral and roof
uplift wind loads can create a
stability problem which may
require additional ballast or
anchorage to the ground.
6.9 WIND-BORNE DEBRIS PROTECTION 6.9 Commentary: The require-

ment of and specifications for
Wind borne debris protection, if required or desired, shall be wind-borne debris protection
vary from locality to locality in
designed in accordance with the local building code, the hurricane-prone areas. Some
recommendations of this section, or local accepted practice. require protection while others
do not. There are various
factors that may locally affect
the potential for debris including
local building practices, terrain
exposure, and design wind
speed. Current test methods and
criteria for debris resistance of
windows and doors do not
necessarily represent these local
factors. Therefore, this guide
simply defers to local practice,
but offers some recommended
provisions for debris protection
in particularly severe hurricane
prone regions (i.e., 130 mph or
21
greater in Figure A-2 of

Appendix A). The 130 mph
condition reasonably delineates
current localities where debris
protection requirements may be
enforced.
6.9.1 Temporary Shutters. Adequate temporary shutters include 6.9.1 Commentary: Plywood or
minimum 7/16-inch-thick wood structural panels spanning no similar temporary shutters have
been used for some time by
more than 8 feet and fastened to structural framing on the interior building owners in hurricane
or exterior side of the glazed opening in accordance with Table prone areas. It is important that
6.9.1. the panels be installed with
proper fastening to the building
or window frame so that the
TABLE 6.9.1
panels do not detach from the
WINDBORNE DEBRIS PROTECTION FASTENING SCHEDULE
building, expose the window
FOR WOOD STRUCTURAL PANELS1,2
opening, and become sources of
FASTENER SPACING (inches) debris impacting buildings
FASTENER TYPE Panel Span 2 ft< Span 4 ft< Span 6 ft< Span downwind. Table 6.9.1 is
≤ 2 ft ≤ 4 ft ≤ 6 ft ≤ 8 ft provided as a simple prescrip-
2-1/2” x #6 tive solution for temporary
16 16 12 9 shutters.
Wood/Deck Screws
2-1/2” x #8
16 16 16 12
Wood/Deck Screws
Notes:
1
This table is based on a maximum basic wind speed of 130 mph (gust). For a maximum basic
wind speed of 140 mph, multiply fastener spacing values by 0.85. Fasteners should be
installed at opposing ends of the wood structural panel.
2
Screws shall penetrate wall framing members adjacent to the window or door opening. Where
screws are applied to concrete or masonry construction, they shall have a minimum ultimate
withdrawal capacity of 490 lbs.
6.9.2 Permanent Shutters and Impact Resistant Glazing. The 6.9.2 Commentary: The criteria
impact resistance of shutters and glazing may be evaluated in recommended in this section for
determining debris resistance of
accordance with criteria specified in Tables 6.9.2a and b or other shutters and impact resistant
approved criteria. glazing products is believed to
TABLE 6.9.2a provide a conservative degree of
MISSILE TYPES1 protection relative to the
MISSILE TYPE DESCRIPTION VELOCITY ENERGY predominant forms of debris
B 4.5 lb 2x4 40 fps 100 ft-lb found in typical residential
C 9.0 lb 2x4 50 fps 350 ft-lb settings during major hurricane
Notes:
events. Other more stringent
1
Missile types and impact velocities do not necessarily represent the types of debris or impact
standards have been developed
risks expected in typical residential settings.
and may be required by the local
2
Impact tests should be conducted in accordance with ASTM E1886 - Standard Test Method for
Impact Resistance of Glazing or other acceptable methods using the missile criteria of Table
building code (e.g., South

6.9.2b.
Florida Building Code). Use of
impact resistant glazing and
TABLE 6.9.2b
fixed shutters should also

WIND-BORNE DEBRIS MISSILE IMPACT
consider potential conflicting

CRITERIA FOR MISSILE TYPES DEFINED IN TABLE 6.9.2a
safety hazards such as

DESIGN WIND SPEED (mph, peak gust)
hinderance of emergency (fire)
1301 140 150
egress. In addition, it may also
Missile Types B C C be prudent to consider wall
Note:
systems that offer a reasonable
1
Missile type B may also be used in lower wind speed regions where local conditions are
considered to be hazardous.
level of resistance to wind-borne

debris impacts.
22
7. SNOW LOAD (S)

7.1 GROUND SNOW LOAD
Ground snow loads shall be based on Figure A-3 of Appendix A or

approved local climate data.
7.2 ROOF SNOW LOAD 7.2 Commentary: It is not

uncommon in residential
construction to simply equate the
The uniform roof snow load shall be determined in accordance uniform roof snow load (placed
with the following formula. on a horizontal projected area of
the roof) to the ground snow
p = CeCs pg load (i.e., p = pg). In so doing, it
is also common practice to
neglect the consideration of off-
where values for Ce and Cs are as follows: balanced snow loading as
required in Section 7.3.
Ce = 0.8 for windy areas with open exposure
= 1.0 for typical suburban areas
= 1.2 for sheltered or wooded areas
Cs = 1.0 for slopes ≤ 6:12
= 0.9 for 7:12 slope
= 0.8 for 8:12 slope or greater
7.3 OFF-BALANCE SNOW LOAD
An off-balance snow load of 0.8p on one side of the roof and 1.2p
on the opposite side of the roof shall be considered.
23
8. EARTHQUAKE LOAD (E)

8.1 GENERAL
Earthquake loads shall be determined in accordance with this

section.
8.2 DESIGN GROUND MOTION
The site design ground motion shall be based on the short period
spectral response acceleration, Ss, provided in Figure A-4 of
Appendix A.
8.3 SEISMIC SHEAR LOAD 8.3 Commentary: The equation

for the seismic lateral (shear)
load, E, is a simple application
The total seismic shear (lateral) load for each level of the building of Newtonian mechanics (i.e.,
shall be determined by the following formula: force equals mass times
acceleration) and it follows a
 (S )(F )  traditional seismic design
E = 0.8  s a  Wg approach while making use of
 R  newer seismic ground motion
parameters and mapping data.
Values for Fa and Rs shall be obtained from Tables 8.3a and 8.3b, The acceleration component is
respectively. associated with the parameter,
Ss, as modified by Fa and R. The
building mass subject to the
TABLE 8.3a seismic acceleration is defined
SITE AMPLIFICATION FACTOR (Fa) FOR TYPICAL FIRM SOILS by Wg. The seismic weight, Wg,
Ss ≤0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 ≥1.25 includes the tributary dead load
Fa 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.1 1.0 of supported portions (stories) of
Notes:
the building and its permanently
1
Interpolation is permitted.
fixed components and equip-
2
For sites with soft soil conditions, see ASCE 7-98.
ment. Live Loads are not

included. It is customary to
include 20 percent of the roof
TABLE 8.3b
snow load in Wg where ground
SEISMIC RESPONSE MODIFIERS - R
snow loads are 30 psf or greater.
BUILDING SYSTEM R The 0.8 coefficient adjusts Ss to a
Light-frame walls (wood or cold-formed steel) 475-yr return period design
- with wood structural panel sheathing 6.0 basis and accounts for
- stucco and wire lath 4.0 uncertainties in simplified
- gypsum wall board 2.0 seismic design by increasing the
Masonry walls load by 20 percent. Thus, it is
- unreinforced 1.5 derived from two factors as
- reinforced 3.5 follows: (2/3)(1.2) = 0.8.
Concrete walls The seismic design provisions in
- unreinforced 2 this section are in part based on
- reinforced 4.5 extraction of relevant design
information from the NEHRP
1997 seismic design provisions
published by the Federal
Emergency Management
Agency, Washington, DC. While
24
not considered necessary for

typical residential construction,
more complicated methods of
design and more detailed data
on Fa and R may be found in the
NEHRP seismic provisions or
ASCE 7-98.
8.4 DISTRIBUTION OF STORY SHEAR LOAD
The story shear load shall be distributed to and resisted by shear

walls in a manner that does not induce unacceptable torsional
response or overloading due to differences in stiffness of various
structural systems or building configuration. Acceptable methods
to distribute seismic story shear load to supporting shear walls or
other vertical shear resisting elements include the use of tributary
building weight (dead load) or stiffness-based procedures. Seismic
story shear loads shall be considered in separate directions acting
parallel to each major axis of the building. Stability shall be
provided by adequate direct shear, torsional, and overturning
resistance.
8.5 VERTICAL SEISMIC FORCES 8.5 Commentary: Light

buildings have rarely (if ever)
exhibited any significant
Vertical seismic forces shall be evaluated in accordance with problem associated with vertical
accepted engineering practice only when the live load is less than acceleration during seismic
one-half the dead load supported by the vertical load resisting events (which is usually taken as
system of the building. 2/3rds of the horizontal seismic
acceleration). However, for
heavier buildings the gravity
load analysis (which includes
live loads) may not provide
adequate resistance to vertical
seismic forces which are
calculated considering only the
dead load (as amplified by the
increased vertical acceleration
above that of gravity).
Therefore, a vertical load
analysis is required when the
live load (as used in gravity load
analysis) is only one-half or less
of the building dead load. For
typical light frame homes, this
requirement does not apply.
25
26
APPENDIX A
DESIGN DATA
FIGURE A-1
A-1
AIR-FREEZING INDEX (�� F-DAYS) FOR 100-YEAR RETURN PERIOD

BASED ON ANNUAL EXTREME VALUES
Units: mph, gust (m/s, gust)
FIGURE A-2
BASIC WIND SPEED MAP FOR UNITED STATES
A-2
Source: American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA

Ref: ASCE 7-98
A-3
FIGURE A-3
GROUND SNOW LOADS FOR THE UNITED STATES (psf)
Ref: ASCE 7-98
Units: %g, short period (0.2 sec)
spectral response acceleration
A-4
FIGURE A-4
EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTION MAP OF THE UNITED STATES
Ref: ASCE 7-98
APPENDIX B
SUPPLEMENTAL DESIGN REFERENCES
This list of design references is not intended to be exhaustive and earlier editions of these
references may also be used.
GENERAL DESIGN & BUILDING CODE REFERENCES
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures (ASCE 7-98), American Society of
Civil Engineers (ASCE), Reston, VA (2000).
International Residential Code, International Code Council, Inc., Falls Church, VA (2000).
International One- and Two-Family Dwelling Code, International Code Council, Inc., Falls
Church, VA (1998).
One- and Two-Family Dwelling Code, Council of American Building Officials, Falls Church,
VA (1995)
Uniform Building Code, International Conference of Building Officials, Whittier, CA (1997).
Standard Building Code, Southern Building Code Congress International, Inc., Birmingham, AL
(1999).
National Building Code, Building Officials and Code Administrators International, Inc., Country
Club Hills, IL (1999).
Residential Structural Design Guide – 2000 Edition, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban
Development, Washington, DC (2000).
WOOD DESIGN
National Design Specification for Wood Construction (ANSI/AF&PA-NDS), American Forest &
Paper Assoc. (AF&PA), American Wood Council, Washington, DC (1997).
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Manual for Engineered Wood Construction,
American Forest & Paper Association (AF&PA), American Wood Council (1996).
National Design Standard for Metal Plate Connected Wood Truss Construction (ANSI/TPI 1-
95), Truss Plate Institute, Madison, WI 1995.
HIGH WIND CONDITIONS
Wood Frame Construction Manual for One and Two Family Dwellings – 1995 SBC High Wind
Edition, American Forest & Paper Association (AF&PA), Washington, DC (1996).
Standard for Hurricane Resistant Residential Construction (SSTD 10), Southern Building Code
Congress International, Inc. (SBCCI), Birmingham, AL (1999).
B-1
CONCRETE
Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-95), American Concrete Institute
(ACI), Detroit, MI (1995).
Design and Construction of Post-Tensioned Slabs-on-Ground (First Edition, Sixth Printing),

Post-Tensioning Institute (PTI), Phoenix, AZ (1993).
Residential Concrete Construction (ACI-332), American Concrete Institute (ACI), Detroit, MI

(1982).
MASONRY
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ACI-530/ASCE-5/TMS-402), American

Concrete Institute (ACI), Detroit, MI (1999).
STEEL
Specification for Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members, American Iron & Steel
Institute (AISI), Washington, DC (1996).
Manual of Steel Construction - Allowable Stress Design, Ninth Edition, American Institute of
Steel Construction (AISC), Chicago, IL (1989).
Manual of Steel Construction - Load and Resistance Factor Design, Volume 1, Second Edition,
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), Chicago, IL (1995).
FROST PROTECTION
Design Guide for Frost-Protected Shallow Foundations, Second Edition, NAHB Research
Center, Inc., Upper Marlboro, MD (1996).
Design and Construction of Frost-Protected Shallow Foundations (ASCE 32-01), American

Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA (2001).
SOIL
Bearing Capacity of Soils, Technical Engineering and Design Guides as adapted from the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers, No. 7, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA (1993).
B-2
APPENDIX C
METRIC CONVERSION FACTORS
The following list provides the conversion relationship between To convert from to multiply by
U.S. customary units and the International System (SI) units. A
complete guide to the SI system and its use can be found in ASTM Mass (weight)
E 380, Metric Practice.

pound (lb) avoirdupois kilogram (kg) 0.4535924
To convert from to multiply by ton, 2000 lb kilogram (kg) 907.1848
grain kilogram (kg) 0.0000648
Length
Mass (weight) per length)
inch (in.) meter (µ) 25,400
inch (in.) centimeter 2.54 kip per linear foot (klf) kilogram per 0.001488
inch (in.) meter (m) 0.0254 meter (kg/m)
foot (ft) meter (m) 0.3048 pound per linear foot (plf) kilogram per 1.488
yard (yd) meter (m) 0.9144 meter (kg/m)
mile (mi) kilometer (km) 1.6
Moment
Area
1 foot-pound (ft-lb) Newton-meter 1.356
square foot (sq ft) square meter (sq m ) 0.09290304E (N-m)
square inch (sq in) square centimeter (sq cm) 6.452 E
square inch (sq in.) square meter (sq m ) 0.00064516E Mass per volume (density)
square yard (sq yd) square meter (sq m ) 0.8391274
square mile (sq mi) square kilometer (sq km ) 2.6 pound per cubic foot (pcf) kilogram per 16.01846
cubic meter (kg/cu m)
Volume pound per cubic yard kilogram per 0.5933
(lb/cu yd) cubic meter (kg/cu m)
cubic inch (cu in.) cubic centimeter (cu cm) 16.387064
cubic inch (cu in.) cubic meter (cu m) 0.00001639 Velocity
cubic foot (cu ft) cubic meter (cu m) 0.02831685
cubic yard (cu yd) cubic meter (cu m) 0.7645549 mile per hour (mph) kilometer per hour 1.60934
gallon (gal) Can. liquid liter 4.546 (km/hr)
gallon (gal) Can. liquid cubic meter (cu m) 0.004546 mile per hour (mph) kilometer per second 0.44704
gallon (gal) U.S. liquid* liter 3.7854118 (km/sec)
gallon (gal) U.S. liquid cubic meter (cu m) 0.00378541
fluid ounce (fl oz) milliliters (ml) 29.57353 Temperature
fluid ounce (fl oz) cubic meter (cu m) 0.00002957
degree Fahrenheit (°F) degree Celsius (°C) tC = (tF-32)/1.8
Force degree Fahrenheit (°F) degree Kelvin (°K) tK= (tF+ 459.7)/1.8
degree Kelvin (°F) degree Celsius (°C) tC = (tK -32)/1.8
kip (1000 lb) kilogram (kg) 453.6
kip (1000 lb) Newton (N) 4,448.222 * One U.S. gallon equals 0.8327 Canadian gallon
pound (lb) kilogram (kg) 0.4535924 ** A pascal equals 1000 Newton per square meter.
pound (lb) Newton (N) 4.448222
The prefixes and symbols below are commonly used to form names
Stress or pressure and symbols of the decimal multiples and submultiples of the SI
units.
kip/sq inch (ksi) megapascal (Mpa) 6.894757
kip/sq inch (ksi) kilogram/square 70.31 Multiplication Factor Prefix Symbol
centimeter (kg/sq cm)
pound/sq inch (psi) kilogram/square 0.07031 1,000,000,000 = 109 giga G
centimeter (kg/sq cm) 1,000,000 = 106 mega M
pound/sq inch (psi) pascal (Pa) ** 6,894.757 1,000 = 103 kilo k
pound/sq inch (psi) megapascal (Mpa) 0.00689476 0.01 = 10-2 centi c
pound/sq foot (psf) kilogram/square 4.8824 0.001 = 10-3 milli m
meter (kg/sq m) 0.000001 = 10-6 micro µ
pound/sq foot (psf) pascal (Pa) 47.88 0.000000001 = 10-9 nano n
C-1
C-2
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Structural Design Loads

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

National Association of Home Builders

NAHB Research Center, Inc.

Helen English, Executive Director, Sustainable Buildings Industry Council

William Freeborne, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

Lee Golanoski, Assistant Director of Architecture, Toll Brothers, Inc.

Peter L. Pfeiffer, Principal, Barley and Pfeiffer Architects

David V. Rosowsky, Ph.D., Oregon State University

Jim Rossberg, American Society of Civil Engineers

ABOUT THE NAHB RESEARCH CENTER, INC.

ii Structural Design Loads for One- and Two-Family Dwellings

NAHB Research Center, Inc., Upper Marlboro, MD, 2000.

Strathfield, NSW 2135.

Structural Design Loads for One- and Two-Family Dwellings iii

1.1 Scope ....................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Purpose .................................................................................................................... 1

1.4 Symbols and Units .................................................................................................. 5

1.5 Basic Design Criteria .............................................................................................. 6

2. LOAD COMBINATIONS ................................................................................................ 10

2.1 General .................................................................................................................. 10

2.2 Load Reductions.................................................................................................... 11

2.3 Increase in Allowable Stress ................................................................................. 11

3. DEAD LOAD (D) ............................................................................................................. 11

4. LIVE LOAD (L)................................................................................................................ 12

4.1 General .................................................................................................................. 12

4.2 Concentrated Loads............................................................................................... 13

4.3 Minimum Attic Load............................................................................................. 13

4.4 Live Load Reduction............................................................................................. 13

4.5 Unusual Live Loads .............................................................................................. 14

5. SOIL LATERAL LOAD (H) ............................................................................................ 14

5.1 General .................................................................................................................. 14

5.2 Equivalent Fluid Density....................................................................................... 14

5.3 Lateral Soil Pressure.............................................................................................. 15

5.4 Flood Loads........................................................................................................... 16

5.5 Expansive Soils ..................................................................................................... 16

5.6 Frost Protection ..................................................................................................... 16

6. WIND LOAD (W) .............................................................................................................. 17

6.1 General .................................................................................................................. 17

6.2 Basic Wind Speed ................................................................................................. 17

6.3 Wind Exposure...................................................................................................... 17

6.4 Basic Velocity Pressure......................................................................................... 18

Structural Design Loads for One- and Two-Family Dwellings v

6.5 Lateral Wind Loads on Whole Building ............................................................... 19

6.6 Wind Loads on Components, Claddings, and Various Assemblies...................... 20

6.7 Internal Pressure.................................................................................................... 21

6.8 Overturning Forces................................................................................................ 21

6.9 Wind-borne Debris Protection .............................................................................. 21

7. SNOW LOAD (S) ............................................................................................................. 23

7.1 Ground Snow Load ............................................................................................... 23