Farm Management HANDBOOK (Crops)

Musoma R.
T (BSc Crop Science) Page 1 of 148
FARM
MANAGEMENT
HANDBOOK
SECTION C: CROP PRODUCTION
Musoma R.T (BSc Crop Science) Page 2 of 148
CHAPTER 1: FIELD CROPS.............................................................................................3

Coffee (Coffee arabica)........................................................................................................3
Cotton................................................................................................................................23
GROUND NUT PRODUCTION......................................................................................27
Sunflower...........................................................................................................................28
Bambara Groundnut...........................................................................................................30
Cowpea Production............................................................................................................32
Rice....................................................................................................................................34
Sorghum production..........................................................................................................35
Millet..................................................................................................................................39
Finger Millet......................................................................................................................42
Winter Wheat production...................................................................................................44
Oats....................................................................................................................................49
Maize.................................................................................................................................54
Soyabean Production.........................................................................................................58
Sugar Cane Production......................................................................................................62
Tobacco..............................................................................................................................65
Sweet Potato Production....................................................................................................88
Horticulture........................................................................................................................90
Planting Calendar for Vegetables.......................................................................................90
Carrots (Daucus carota......................................................................................................91
Cabbage.............................................................................................................................93
Onion Production...............................................................................................................97
Tomato Production...........................................................................................................100
Okra.................................................................................................................................104
Garlic...............................................................................................................................106
Strawberry Production.....................................................................................................108
Pepper Production............................................................................................................111
Tsunga Production...........................................................................................................112
Potato Production.............................................................................................................114
Green Beans.....................................................................................................................120
Production of Oyster Mushrooms....................................................................................129
Hypericum Production/ Flowers......................................................................................133
Citrus Cultivation.............................................................................................................135
Apiculture........................................................................................................................139
CHAPTER 1: FIELD CROPS

Coffee (Coffee arabica)
Varieties
Variety
SL28
SL34
Growth habit
Normal open growth
Normal open growth
K7
Normal open growth and

more vegetative
Dwarf and more dense and
vegetative in cooler areas
open growth habit
caturra
Mundo
Nova
Catimor
Catuai
Yellow
Semi dwarf
Semi dwarf
characteristics
Drought hardy and yields high quality
Yields good quality coffee and more suitable
to high altitude
Less susceptible to several races of leaf rust
and tolerant to dry conditions
Drought tolerant and produces lower quality
bean.
Cross from Mundo Nova. Late maturing and
can tolerate drought conditions
A variety resistant to coffee berry disease.
Cross from Mundo Nova. Late maturing and
can tolerate drought conditions
Other promising varieties include SL9, KE20, KP432, K33, 119/4, 900/10.
Length of season
First crop is obtained 2 to 3 years after planting.
One can harvest 5 to 6 crops depending on the growth rate. Rejuvenation is
needed after first crop cycle of 7 to 8 years. Second cycle may last 6-8 years.
The maximum desirable extension of the crop is up to the 3rd cycle.
Stages of growth
Plant seed to emergency
Emergency to transplanting
Nursery growing before transplanting
Field transplanting to first flowering
Subsequent flowering between September
and November each year
Flowering to ripe cherry
Period of harvest
Up to 6 weeks
6- 8 weeks
10- 12 months
14 20 months (for fly crop)
1 or 2 main flowering plus 1 or 2 minor
flowerings
6 to 8 months
2 to 6 months
Nursery practices
Seed:
Coffee seed is provided by approved seed producers during July to November
each year.
Quantity of seed required depends on population required. Aim for 5 000
plants/ha allowing for 20% discard.
Site Selection
Warm situation, frost free, sheltered from wind, convenient for supervision and
adequate clean water is the best site.
Soil
Light textures, fertile and friable. Avoid capping, saline, vlei type soils. Heavier,
compacting type soils may require mixing up with up to 50% river sand and manure
pH (CaCl2) 4,5 to 5,5)
Choose eelworm free, virgin soil. Potting soil should be screened through a course
sleeve.
Fertilizer
Compound S (6:17:6) mixed with potting soil at 3kg/m3 soil.
Composted coffee pulp manure at rate of 9%by weight is a good substitute for
fertilizer (used in pot filling).
Plant containers
Open-end polythene sleeves or containers with closed but perforated bottoms.
Dimensions; lay flat 15-20cm wide and 20cm long (height).
Pot filling
Funnel with spout same size as the diameter of the sleeve/pot fitted over the
sleeve.
Soil is poured into the sleeve via the funnel.
Output per labour day is 500 800.
Time of sowing
Normally September to December, in cooler areas it is better to sow earlier in the
season (September to October).
Nursery construction
Requires wiring, roof two metres high. Cover sides and roof with a thin layer of
thatch grass or reeds to provide 50% shade. Leave bottom side open to allow cold
air drainage.
Alternative shading of a narrow shade ban about 1m above each bed of pots. Beds
of pots dimension 1,5m wide.
Seed Treatment
Against Furasium Lateritrium 1g Benomyl 50 WP per 1kg coffee seed.
Treat 1 to 5 kg of seed at a time by shaking in a half filled plastic bag.
Plant directly afterwards.

Nursery Management
Sowing
Sow 2 to 3 seeds per pot about 5cm apart. Place seed 0,5cm below surface flat
side down.
Mulch the pots.
Watering
Watering every 2 or 3 days until germination.
Watering techniques include handled hose with fine oblong rose head, overhead
micro jet pattern, and perforated pipe.
Mulching
Place fine fibrous mulch to a depth of 5cm over pots until emergency.
Thin out the mulch and finally remove it when cotyledons emerge.
Thinning
Done at 12 weeks and leave 2 plants per pot.
Shade
Commence thinning of root shade 3 to 4 months prior to planting out.
Completely remove shade 6 to 8 weeks before planting out.
Pest control
Avoid chemicals where ever possible.
Disease control
Disease
Fusarium (bark disease) &
Cercospora (Leaf blotch)
Leaf rust / Cercospora
Control
200g Captafol 80WP per 100litres water
drenched at weekly intervals after emergency
300g Copper Oxychloride 50WP /100litres water
at 14 to 28days intervals
Fertilisation
Apply all nutrients only after first pair of leaves appear.
Symptom
Fertilizer
Pale leaves
30g AN in 20litres water drenched on by can and
thoroughly watered afterwards to avoid burning
Potash deficiency
20g AN + 50g K2SO4 in 20litres of water applied on plants
when watered
High pH
Solubor (20%B) 40g in 20litres of water applied evenly to
foliage.
Transplanting
Spacing between rows
This is determined by variety, irrigation methods layout and machinery used.
Plant populations of 5 000/ha give maximum yield.
In row spacing and arrangement
A final spacing of 2 to 3m is desirable
Fertiliser requirements
General fertiliser recommendations for irrigated coffee
Plantation
age
Year of
planting
Nutrients kg/ha
N
100
P2O5
80
Suggested
fert
K2O
100
2nd year
110
40
230
3rd year and

following
ratooning
180
40
230
4th and
subsequent
years
270
90
560
Time of application kg/ha

Sep
400
Comp S
Comp J
AN
Comp J
AN
SSP
AN
M/P
Or Comp J
AN
M/P
SSP
AN
MoP
Or Comp J
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
57
57
57
57
57
57
75
75
75
75
30
57
55
75
75
30
75
215
65
50
200
65
50
65
50
150
65
50
65
50
150
65
50
150
60
65
50
60
60
300
200
100
225
190
100
225
150
100
225
225
100
225
150
100
225
65
50
150
60
60
225
130
100
225
General fertiliser recommendations for dry land coffee

Plantation age
Year of planting
2nd year
3rd year and
following
ratooning
4th and
subsequent
years
Suggested
fert
Comp S
Comp J
AN
Comp J
AN
Comp J
AN
KCl
Comp J
Comp J
Comp J
AN
KCl
Annual rate
kg/ha
300
200
45
600
50
800
126
110
1200
1800
1125
300
225
Time of application kg/ha

Aug Sep
Oct Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
50
50
45
75
25
100
50
50
160
225
160
225
100
62
55
160
225
100
75
100
75
100
75
300
75
75
75
100
100
100
75
25
100
160
225
225
160
225
225
160
225
225
160
225
225
75
100
63
55
160
225
225
75
100
For diagnostic Norms of leaf analysis of the 3rd or 4th pair leaves refer to the table below
Nutrient
Optimum range
Nitrogen %
Phosphorus %
Potassium %
Sulphur %
Calcium
Magnesium %
Iron ppm
Manganese ppm
Copper ppm
Zinc ppm
Boron ppm
2,5 3,0
0,10 0,20
1,50 2,50
0,10 0,20
0,70 1,50
0,20 0,40
50 150
50 150
5 40
10 30
30-50
The correct use of these optimum ranges will ensure that nutrition is not a
limiting factor in coffee production.
The ranges can also be used to identify excessive use of fertilizer.
Liming
Required below pH levels of 4, 6. The ideal pH range is 4, 8 to 5, 3 CaCl2.
Trace elements
Boron- foliar spray 0, 5% solution Solubor, toxic in excess.
Zinc Oxide at rate 3kg/ha with a spreader.
Soil and leaf sampling

Soil samples should be taken well before growing coffee seed to ensure that
correct amounts of lime or phosphates are added to the soil.
Leaf samples are taken once the trees start cropping in August or September
before fertiliser for the next season is applied.
Instructions for taking leaf samples
Method of sampling
1. Sample the 3rd and 4th pair of leaves from a bearing branch. Do not count the
terminal pair of leaves if they are less than 2 cm long. Wherever possible take
perfect disease free leaves.
2. Take 4 pairs of leaves from each tree and sample at least 10trees (minimum 80
leaves).
3. Sampled leaves should be immediately placed in a polythene bag and labelled on
the outside.
4. Soil samples should be taken at the same time.
Irrigation requirements
Overhead irrigation systems are no longer recommended in coffee production. Under tree
irrigation which includes drip offer the following advantages over overhead systems used
in coffee:
Less water is required especially during early establishment period. Savings of
between 30 to 40% have been achieved without any detrimental effects to crop.
Low power required.
The effects of poor quality irrigation water e.g. bicarbonate are reduced.
Fungicides and insecticides are not washed of the leaf surface by irrigation.
Weed growth in the inter row is reduced hence the cost of weed control are reduced.
Compaction caused by pickers and droplet action from irrigation is reduced.
Very difficult to change hence during drought years coffee is likely to receive the
irrigation when it needs it most.
Will not cause drainage problems as with overhead irrigation on certain soils.
Costs of scheme are lower in the long run.
There is a lower rate of disease incidences.
Estimates of Et/Eo ratio for mature coffee plantation
Over tree sprinkler irrigation
a) Mulched inter row
b) Clean cultivated inter rows
Under tree basin or trickle
Microject irrigation
Et/EO
0.65
0.75
0.45
0.60
0.60
0.65
Estimates of water requirements

Northern Mashonaland
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
Total
Over tree sprinkler

Net (mm)
Gross (mm)
100
115
90
100
85
95
100
115
130
150
185
200
210
250
150
170
1050
1195
Under tree drip basin or trickle

Net (mm)
Gross (mm)
60
70
60
70
55
60
70
75
90
95
115
130
130
150
100
110
680
760
80
70
105
75
100
95
85
120
85
115
50
45
70
50
60
55
50
80
55
65
150
135
715
170
150
820
95
85
455
110
100
515
Chipinge
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
Estimated of the irrigation system capability required to prevent excessive water stress in
the peak use period
Northern Mashonaland
Overhead, tree sprinkler irrigation
a) Mulched
Net
180
mm/month
Gross
220

b) Clean cultivated
Under tree basin drip or trickle irrigation
a) Mulched
b) Clean cultivated
Chipinge
Overhead, tree sprinkler irrigation
a) Mulched
b) Clean cultivated
Under tree basin drip or trickle irrigation
a) Mulched
b) Clean cultivated
215
250
140
160
155
175
140
160
155
190
100
100
110
120
Mulching
Large yields advents have been obtained from mulching coffee on a field scale
without shade.
Physical benefits
Reduces soil erosion.
Improves soil moisture aeration.
Builds up on soil fertility.
Suppress weeds.
Reduces soil temperature.
Disadvantages
Harbours pests.
Increases frosts hazards.
Increases fire hazards.
Mulching requirements
Mature coffee complete 38/ha/year alternate row 19t/ha/year.
Mulching materials
Indigenous grasslands- 6t/ha, crop residues soya bean, wheat, and maize cultivated,
Napier grass in well-fertilised fields 50- 75 t/ha.
Intercropping
Coffee can be intercropped with beans, tobacco, potatoes, and maize but in the first
year.
Pruning and rejuvenating
Free growth of the tree is recommended. Regular pruning is not advisable on 2
accounts
I. Very often results in poor productivity
II. Some of the techniques e.g. single stem system of pruning is labour intensive
Any part cut must be sprayed or smeared with Captafol to prevent infection by
Fusarium.
Rejuvenation
Coffee will be out of production in 1 to 2 years
Rejuvenation should be done when crop expectation for the coming season is low
For best results rejuvenation should be done during September and not later than
October.
In cooler areas it can be done after 6 crops where as in warmer areas it may be after 4
crops.
Forms of rejuvenation
1. Parrot perched all primary branches cut back to leave 2 or 3 nodes from main
stem
2. Ratoon tree back to 50cm above ground level
3. Capped trees- usually done to 2m above ground level and then ratooned 2 years
later.
The suckers, which subsequently develop, should be progressively thinned out to leave
the required number.
Weed control
Way of controlling weeds
Hand cultivation / hand pulling
Mechanical cultivation
Mulching (mulching suppress weeds)
Herbicides
Recommended Herbicides and application rates
Trade name
(technical name)
Gramoxone
(Paraquate weeds)
Target weeds
Appl rate /ha
time
Remarks
Most annual
weeds
1.5 4litres/ha
Post emergent
Simazine 80wp
(Simazine)
Most annual
weeds
1.5- 3,5 kg/ha
Pre emergent
Gardoprim 80wp
(Teruthylazine
Gardomil 500fw
(Teruthylazine +
metalochlor
Gesapax (Ametryn
weeds)
Annual weeds
3.5-4.5litres
Pre emergent
Spray directly at any

contact with foliage.
Avoid contact with foliage
and immature bark. Apply
as often as possible in
clean water
Any time after
transplanting. Mix with
paraquat for a post
emergent effect.
As above
Annual weed
5- 6.5litres/ha
Pre emergent
Anytime after
transplanting
Annual weeds
6.5litres
Pre emergent,
early emergent
Not for young coffee, do

not apply in drip zone and
split application may be
done 6weeks apart
Ametryn 80wp
Annual weeds
4kg

(Ametryn500)
Diuron 80wp
(Diuron weeds)
Annual weeds
2-5.0kg
Pre emergent,
post emergent
Dual 720 ec
(Metalochlor)
Fusillade Roundup
(Glyphosate)
Annual grasses
1.5-2.5litres
Pre emergent
All annual and

perennial weeds
1.6litres
Post emergent
MSMA 80wp
Nustedges, some
annual broad
leafed weeds and
grasses
3litres
Anytime after
transplanting
Basafapon Dowpon
Gramevin (Dalapon)
Many grasses
including couch,
spear start grass
and kikuyu
Many annual
broad leafed
weeds and some
grasses
5.5 7.7kg
Post emergent
Cotoran 80wp
(Fluometuron)
Pre emergent,
residual
Not for young coffee,

avoid drip zone up to 2
years
Anytime after suppression
of transplanting
Avoid all crop contact. No
wetter needed. Best
results in low volume high
concentration clean water
essential
Spot spray as required in
hot dry weather. Avoid all
crop contact. 2
applications needed for
nustedges control
Not in root zone for crops
under 2 years. Repeat
after 12weeks if necessary
Apply to clean soil
Coffee Pest identification

Pest
Leaf miner very
common and
important
Damage and symptoms

Leaf miners causes
irregular brown
blotches and sever leaf
drop
Antestia Bug
Quite common
Very important
Blackening and
shedding of flower beds
and immature berries.
Rotting of beans
Common Looper
Not common
Very serious
Leaf-eating causing
severe reduction in leaf
area.
Red Tortix
Green Tortix
Occasional pest
Feeds on green berries,

leaves and shoot tips
and can act as a tip
borer.
Causes berry damage
and drop. Makes silken
nests between young
leaves or within dusters
Identification in field
Eggs: almost invisible
Larvae: white caterpillar 4-8mm long
Pupa: H shaped white cocoon around 6mm long
on underside of leaves
Adult: small white moth about 3mm long.
Nocturnal. Best seen towards evening by
disturbing skirts of trees
Eggs: White. In groups of about 12 in underside
of leaf.
Nymphs: 5 nymphal stages representing adults
but more rounded and without functional wings.
Adult: Shield shaped bug. About 6.5mm long.
Brown and white and orange markings.
Eggs: Singly on underside of leaf. Sea urchin
shape. Pale yellow-green with fine radial ribs
0.6mm.
Larva: Green looper without hair, up to 35mm, 3
pairs thoracic legs and 3 pairs abdominal legs.
White line through spiracles and series of white
lines running down the back.
Eggs: Yellow orange flattered. Groups of 230
on upper surface, overlapping like fish scales.
Egg masses about 12mm wide.
Larvae: Green tortix is green with black head
and thoracic shield.
Red tortix is reddish brown with dark brown
stripes. Skeletonizes leaf within nest. Cherries
bored out and lined with silk.
When to treat
About a week after
appearance of moth.
However if active
mines are seen spray
immediately
When average
population of adults
plus nymphs exceeds
1 per tree.
When insignificant
numbers of eggs are
noted the larger
caterpillars are very
difficult to control.
Spray at first
indication. Spot
spraying may be
sufficient. Important
to control before
larva enters berries.
Berry moth
occasional pest
Systates weevil
Common Lesser
pest
White borer
Insidious
Serious locally
of flowers or cherries.
Berry clusters webbed
together.
One or more brown, dry
and hollow.
Adult beetles feed on
leaf margins causing
characteristic
indentations.
Yellowing of foliage
often part of tree only
Wood shavings
extruding from stem
base where bark is
severely channelled or
ring barked.
Round emergence holes
of adults in lower trunk.
Stinging
Caterpillar
lesser pest
Leaf eating
Stinging field workers.
Jelly Grub
Leaf eating
Mealy Bug
Occasional
Serious
Mealy white masses of

insects. Prefer belly
clusters and shady
interior. Associated
with honeydew and
sooty mould.
Eggs: Scale like. Single.

On or near green berries.
Larva: Reddish caterpillar up to 12mm. Bores
into berries near stalk and joins cluster of berries
together with web while feeding.
Adult: Black beetle, flightless, snorted about
12mm long. Feed at night and shelter during
day.
Eggs: inserted beneath bark, about 45cm from
ground.
Larva: Bore under the bark downwards finally
penetrating the wood from below ground. Makes
a chamber within base of trunk.
Papa: Pupation 2-4 months within stem
chamber.
Adult: Beetles 30mm emerge from exit hole.
Brown with white markings. Male has very long
antennae.
Eggs: In groups.
Overlapping like tiles. On lower leaf surface.
Greenish yellow.
Larvae: Attractively coloured. Young larvae
mainly white becoming green. Covered with
tubercles bearing stinging hairs.
Eggs: White, scale like, laid singly on both sides
of leaf.
Larva: Slug like, bluish-green up to 13mm long.
Nymphs/Adults. 3 Nymphal stages. Starts of
with no wax, flat oval and light brown with 6
legs. When in feeding position develops
characteristic wax covering.
Soon after main

flowering if
indicated, re-spray 56 weeks later.
When nurseries or
young transplants are
affected. Not normal
to treat older trees.
On routine basis, just
prior to start of
seasonal rains.
Before significant of
leaf area or if
irritation to workers
becomes real
nuisance.
Before significant
loss of leaf area.
Preventive:
Annual stem banding
and lifting skirts.
Curative.
Immediate spraying if
observed.
Pest Control
Chemical control
Pest
Chemical
Code
%
Formulation
Antestia
Fenthion
Red
60ec
Dosage/100
litres of
water or as
stated
85ml
50ec
75ml
60sc
80ml
30
90sp
30g
28
Methyl
Purple
Days
Application directions
21
Full cover spray prior to

blossoming. Repeat after 3
weeks if necessary
Spray prior to main loom
period and repeat after 14
days.
Apply 1000L/Ha

Parathion
Purple
25wp
100g
21
Trichlorfon
Purple
Amber
50ec
95sp
50ml
100g
21
10
30ec
25wp
50ec
80ec
40ml
180g
90ml
3L
21
21
Ants
Berry
Moth
Black borer
Black/
brown
Scale
Chlordane
Parathion
Mineral oil
Amber
Purple
Purple
Green
Cut-worm
Endosulfan
Purple
35mo
850ml
Phoxim
Purple
Green
50wp
0.5b
625g
10kg/Ha
Trichlofon
Amber
25sp
5kg/Ha
60g/100L
10
Fruit fly
Trichlofon
Amber
95sp
50g
10
Giant
Looper
Endosulfan
Endosulfan
Methomyl
Trichlofon
Purple
Purple
purple
Amber
35mo
50wp
90sp
95sp
21
21
28
10
Parathion
Purple
Purple
Green
25wp
50ec
2.5ec
33l/100l
2kg/100l
620g
2002 000g/ha
900g
450ml
300ml
300ml
Green tortix
Moth larvae
Jelly Grub
Leaf Miner
Deltamethrin
21
21

blossoming or when pest is
noticed. Repeat after 14
days if necessary.
blossoming or when pest is
noticed. Repeat after 14
days if necessary.
Brush on to trunk of tree
Full cover spray
Full cover spray
Drench spray on young
green stage. Repeat after
one month. Do not apply in
low humidity or at
temperatures above 30C.
Do not mix with sulphur
formulation.
Add 100kg low grade maize
meal.
Moisten with water to obtain
a crubly texture. Apply in
the late afternoon or
evening. Do not apply to
tobacco lands or cotton.
Overall application. Spread
evenly. Not for use on
tobacco lands or cotton.
Band 20-50mm on planting
row. Not for use on tobacco
lands or cotton.
Apply 20kg in meal 25L h20
apply before plant
emergence.
Apply 9kg sugar.
Apply as a course spray
when flowers appear. Repeat
at 7 day intervals and after
rain at 40 l/ha.
Full cover spray adding
Molasses.
Apply 1000l/ha.
Full cover spray
Full cover spray
Full cover spray
Full cover spray
Apply in 1000-2000L
water/ha when moths or
eggs first seen and repeat 28
days later. Max. 2
pyreths/season do not use in
June, July & Aug.

Disulfoton
90
Apply to base of tree work

in lightly with shallow
cultivation. Up to 60g/tree.
60ec
15g/m of
bush
height/cora.
1.9l
30
Full cover spray at 1 100/ha.

Repeat after 21 days if
necessary.
Purple
40wsc
1.2l
30
purple
60sc
80ml
30
Apply at 500ml/tree adding

10ml wetting agent/100:1
mix
Add 10ml wetting agent.
Apply 500ml/tree.
Fernvalerate
Amber
20ec
300ml
28
Parathion
Purple
25wp
1.8kg
21
Purple
50ec
900ml
21
trichlofon
Amber
95sp
1kg
10
Full cover spray
Diazinon
Carbofuron
Aldicarb
Fernvalerate
Red
20ec
160ml
21
Purple
Amber
15g
20ec
Granules
15ml
115
21
Red Tortix
Moth larvae
Trichlofon
Amber
95sp
10
Stinging
caterpillar
Waxy Scale
Parathion
Mineral oil
Purple
Purple
green
25wp
80ec
80ec
200g up to
max.
2kg/ha.
180g
90ml
2.5 1
Apply as spot spray when

pest is seen.
10g per cover full cover
spray maximum of 2 sprays
per season.
Full cover spray
White Borer
Chlorpyrifos
Red
48ec
21
Parathion
Purple
Purple
Green
25wp
50ec
2.5ec
700ml/20l +
15g
methylin
blue
4kg
1.8L
120ml
Fenitrothion
Purple
2.5
5
30g/m of
bush
purple
10g
Red
Monocrotophos
Mealy bug
Cut-worm
Cotton
Looper (C.
chalcites)
Handbook.
Deltamethrin
Biological
polyhedral
virus
21
21
-
21
Full cover spray when adults

1st noticed. Repeat 28 days
later. 2 sprays per season
June, July 7 Aug.
blossoming at 1 000l/ha.
Repeat at 14 day intervals if
necessary.
Full cover spray

Drench spray. Do not mix
with sulphur formulations.
Do not apply at low
humidity or at temperatures
above 30 C.
Apply with a paint
brush/knapsack onto stems.
Up to 1m above ground
level.
Apply mixture to holes just
before the rains.
Soil drench a 500 l/ha.
See page 2, April 1980 issue
of C.G. A News-Letter or
Oilseeds Handbook section
9.

Yellow
Headed
Borer
ec
wp
sp
Parathion
purple
25wp
4kg
emulsifiable concentrate
wettable powder
soluble powder
g
sc
mo
21
Apply mixture to holes.
granules
soluble concentrate
miscible oil
Minimum number of days between spraying and harvesting.

Diseases
Coffee berry disease (Collectorichum kohowae)
Potentially a very serious disease for coffee in Zimbabwe mostly found in Karoi Doma
area.
Symptoms:
(a) Flowers dark brown lesions on petals
(b) Green berries small sunken dark brown or black lesions which spread rapidly to cover
the whole berry, destroying the bean. Infected berries may be shed or remain on the
tree in a black mummified condition.
(c) Ripe berries brown sunken lesions with miniature black dots.
(d) Leaves: Brown lesions that are usually confined to the leaf margins.
CHEMICAL CONTROL OF DISEASES
Disease
Chemical
Code
Fusarium Bark
Disease
Benomyl
Leaf Rust
Dosage/100 l
of water
Application directions
Green
%
Form
ulatio
n
50wp
Copper
oxychloride
Amber
50wp
500g or
10kg/ha
Copper
oxychloride
Amber
50wp
400ga
1g/kg seed as a dry treatment just before

sowing.
Full cover spray +/_ 2 00L/ha will also
control rust and cercospora leaf and berry
blotch.
Repeat at 14 day intervals if the disease is
severe otherwise 21-28 day intervals.
Before onset of the rains. Make shallow
trench along drip line and put in granules
then cover back with soil.
Bayfidan
Rust
Cercispora leaf
and berry bloth
Coffee Berry
Disease
38g
Propiconazole
Copper
oxychloride
Copper
oxychloride
Red
Amber
50ec
50wp
Amber
1 1/ha
400g
3kg captafol +
2.5 kg copper
oxychloride
per ha.
Full cover spray

Repeat at 14 day intervals if disease is
severe otherwise 21-28 day intervals
Full cover spray. spray mix the two
chemicals and repeat application every 4
weeks.
Table showing an intergrated programme for the control of Fusarium bark disease and
leaf rust in different areas of Zimbabwe. Also included are recommendations for
seedlings and seed-bearers.
Area
Chemical
Aug
Sep
Month of application
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar

Eastern
Districts
Other
areas
Copper
oxychloride
captafol
Triadimefon(rust
only)
.
.
.
.
Copper
oxychloride
captafol
.
.
.
.
.
.
The two sprays should be six weeks apart and
only applied if the is evidence of leaf rust in
August.
.
.
.
.
.
.
When fusarium becomes established it would be advisable to

apply captafol in December, January and February instead of
copper oxychloride.
Two sprays six weeks apart are required when an outbreak of
rust occurs.
* Continue at six weekly intervals if rust is still prevalent.
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Triadimefon
(rust only)
Material
SeedBeares
Chemical
Captafol
Aug
.
Seedlings
Captafol
Current seed is produced in areas where no rust is present. 80% wp applied

at weekly intervals using 200g product in 100 litres of water.
Picking, Harvesting
Coffee berries ripen progressively and may be reaped at intervals of seven to fifteen days.
Berries must be reaped evenly at the correct stage of ripening to permit uniform pulping
fermentation and finally quality, bright red for red varieties, deep yellow for yellow
varieties.
Ripening outputs depend on
1.
methods of reaping
2.
rate of ripening
3.
no. cherries/kg
Example of ripening output based on an acceptable labour efficiency level (75%) and an
average of 500 cherries per kilogram.
Method
Type of Reaping
Pocket on reaper
Minor reaping (fly pickings)) less than 1kg cherries per

bush.
Intermediate reapings, between 1-2kg of cherries per
bush.
Main reaping more than 2kg of cherries per bush.
Pocket on reaper
Pocket on reaper
Crop Processing and Drying

Considerations for sitting a pulpery:
(a)
direction-NNW- to obtain longest period of winter sun
(b)
slope four to six percent is ideal
(c)
water clean, near source
(d)
central to operations
(e)
supervision
(f)
power source
(g)
clean surrounds to avoid tainting of parchment
Output per reaper per

hour
5.5kg
10.0kg
18.5kg

Stages of processing
(a)
cherry grade 1 Size screen , 2density water(siphon tank
(b)
Pulp remove skin drum or disc pulper. One pulping disc =0.75 1.0 tonne
of cherry per hour. See paragraph on ratio by mass.
(c)
Pre grade size screen, density in water
(d)
Ferment or aqua pulp remove mucilage
(e)
Wash by hand or coffee pump; remove fermented mucilage only.
(f)
soak under water which gives a bleaching action
(g)
channel grade based on density of coffee in water
(h)
dry parchment sun or artificial
(i)
store
Approximate water requirements of four different pulperies

Type of pulpery
Pre and post washing channel
Aagard with no re-circulation
Aagard with partial recirculation
Aagard with full re-circulation
Water required per tonne of Green Coffee

100m3
75m3
50m3
25m3
Drying Coffee
(a)
Sun drying on table racks
Drying table dimension is 1.2m wide by 36m long at waist height.
Approx table requirement for area yielding 2.5t/ha, drying period 20 days,
25mm deep on tables per ha.
(b)
Artificial Drying Stages in Approx. bean moisture content
Coffee Drying
i.
skin drying
remove all free water
ii.
Main drying
Whitish colour beans
Soft black
Medium black
Hard black
Grey blue fully dried
Yellow green over dry
%
49 45
44 30
29 22
21 16
15 12
12 10
10
Drying Procedure
Skin dry as soon as possible by higher rate of drying ventilation rate
0.25m3/sec/m2 of dryer bed area through a bed depth of 150mm of fully wet
parchment at an air temperature of 35 C for a period of not exceeding 24 hours.
To soft black stage (22 percent moisture), dry at a slower rate as moisture is
drawn from within the bean. Advantageous to allow rest periods between
ventilation, e.g. at drying at 30C for 12 hours and rest for 12 hours.
Final stages of drying to hard black stage (11.5 percent moisture) continual drying
at 35 380C.
Approximate ratio by mass of forms of coffee:

Cherry :
5
:
or 6.25 :
Parchment
1
1.25
:
:
:
Green Coffee
0.8
1.0
Considerable variation can occur in these ratios depending on the season, the age of
coffee and the state of the coffee plantation.
Description of the forms of coffee:
Cherry Coffee as picked ripe red from the tree:
MBuni Coffee dried with skin, despatched to GMB at 10.5 percent moisture
content.
Parchment Coffee After pulping, fermenting and drying, despatched by farmer
to the GMB in bags 40 to 50kg at 11.5 percent moisture.
Green Coffee After hulling at the meal to remove parchment and silver skin.
Repacked n 60kg bags after classification of green coffee. In milling there could
be a 17 20 percent weight loss.
Marketing
Standards of Quality and Moisture content:
(a)
Washed coffee and green coffee 11.5 percent max. moisture
(b)
Unwashed coffee 10.5 percent maximum moisture
(c)
No extraneous, deleterious or poisonous matter unfit for human consumption.
No extraneous matter liable to damage machinery
Standards of Classification
Packed in sacks of natural or synthetic fibres, not exceeding:
(a)
(b)
(c)
green coffee 80kg

washed coffee 43kg
unwashed coffee 30kg
Delivery loads of different lots of coffee should be clearly marked to
distinguish each lot for separate classification.
All sacks should be marked in figures of no less than 70mm in height with
producers number (GMB).
Sacks should be sewn (do not use lugs) at the mouth in one of the
following ways:
Hand sown with either:
Good quality double jute twine, or
Double cotton-rayon twine of minimum breaking strain of 150Newtons, or

Single cotton-rayon of minimum breaking strain of 300 Newtons. Sew
straight with 25mm stitches across mouth of the sack and leave 100mm
free twine at each without knots.
Machine sewn with cotton/rayon/nylon thread-breaking strain of minimum 80Newtons.
GMB Depots for Coffee: Chipinge, Mutare, Banket.
Standards of Classification and Quality

Green coffee
3
4
5
6
7
9
Class
Nil Nil
Nil
Nil Nil
Nil
Maximum number of block coffee beans
10
20
30
40
Maximum number of diseased coffee-beans
Nil 5
10
15 20
Maximum number of foxy coffee-beans
Nil 5
10
15 30
Maximum number of insect damaged coffee-beans
Maximum number of pulper-nipped coffee-beans
Nil 5
5
10 Nil Nil 3
5
Maximum number of stinker coffee-beans
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
12
Maximum number of unhulled coffee-beans
Maximum number refers to the number of appropriate coffee-beans found in
working sample.
Levy
At present 1 percent of sales.
Milling
Payment to the grower is based on the mass of net green coffee. The milling losses, from
parchment form to green coffee, vary between 17 and 20 percent. Milling losses between
MBuni form and green coffee are between 47 and 50 percent.
Insurance
See chapter on insurance in Finance section of this handbook. There is no insurance
against frost damage.

Labour and Fuel Requirements
Labour days per ha
of coffee
(not nursery area)
Operations
i. Nursery
Digging holes for uprights placing
Uprights and refilling holes, place cross members and wire
for shade support (L)
Treat uprights (L)
Cut materials for nursery shade (L)
Transport shade material (D + 6)
Cut materials for nursery shade (L)
Transport shade material (D + 6)
Load trailer with shed material (D + 6)
Unload trailer, place shed material (L)
Digging potting material, loading trailer, transport and
unload (D + 3)
Filling pots 10mm3 of potting mix/ha of coffee grown (L)
Planting seeds (L)
Unloading (L)
Sorting coffee plants in nursery rior to planting (L)
Water, weeding, thinning, spraying etc.
(One permanent worker in nursery for twelve months (L)
L=
General worker
D+3= Driver and three general workers
Labour and Fuel Requirements
Operations
ii. Field Operations
a) Plantation
Marking plant stations (Checkrow basis) (L)
Digging planting holes (F + 12)
Refilling planting holes (F + 12)
Applying pre-planting fertilizer (F + 12)
Mix fertilizer and topsoil (F + 12)
Trailer loading with young plants, unloading and
planting (F + 12)
Cut mulch material (F + 6)
Load trailer with mulch material, transport
unload (D + 6)
Spread mulch in land (L)
Topdressing year 1
Year 2
Year 3(SSP. AN.M/P) cost of
D=
F=
1.08
0.01
0.15
0.60
0.15
0.60
0.15
0.15
3.15
12.50 (one final
plant
per pot)
17.60
4.40
4.62
9.13
Driver
Foreman
Labour days per ha of coffee

Standard
Dwarf
varieties
varieties
1.50
30.61
2.68
1.27
1.25
11.87
1.65
60.02
5.25
1.94
2.45
15.87
5.12
8.75
5.12
8.75
6.20
12.85
9.64
8.80
8.80
16.10
12.00
12.76
12.85
9.44
9.21
9.21
17.23
12.84

Alternative year 3 (J. AN. M/P) fertilizer
Year 4(SSP. AN. M/P)
Alternative year 4(J)
method
Spraying: (With herbicide extreme care is needed.
Different spray tanks essential for insecticides and
herbicides)
2.66/occasion
(4-6
sprays/annum)
2.66/occasion
(4-6
sprays/annum)
3.66/occassion
1.58/occasion
3.66/occasion
1.54/ocassion
7.5
Cultivation (L) (budget for three occasions)

Apply Dysiston (for minor control. 1 x per season
before rains) (F + 12) For covering see
cultivation.
(b) Coffee pulpery, allow three permanent workers
for 100 days in 180 day picking season (F + 2)
Sorting coffee on drying tables (F + 12)
Harvesting * (pocket on reaper)
Fly picking, less than 1kg per bush
Intermediate picking 1-2kg per bush
Main picking more than 2kg per bush
Transporting harvested coffee from land to
pulpery (D)
Ploughing (D) (actual)
Discing (D) (actual)
35.0
5.5kg/reaper/hour
10.0kg/reaper/hour
18.5kg/reaper/hour
2.5labour days/ha
0.29
0.14
For budgetary purposes allow 150ld/ha for mature crop.Labour and fuel requirements
Labour days per ha of:
Operations related to Napier fodder
production
Cut Napier fodder for seed purposes
(L) (Australia Knife)
Remove tops (L)
Remove leaves (L)
Stack for transport (L)
Cut sets (L)
Apply fertilizer (F + 12)
Cover fertilizer (L)
Plant Napier Fodder (L)
Cover sets (L)
Cultivation (Land) (L) (F +12)
Top-dress (Land) (L)
Cutting Napier Fodder for mulch
(Australian Knife. Add14% for knife)
(L)
Napier Fodder
1.89
Coffee
0.95
1.50
1.20
2.99
2.04
2.45
2.41
4.06
3.14
5.6/occasion
2.45/occasion
0.75
0.60
1.50
1.02
1.23
1.21
2.03
1.57
2.8/occasion
1.23/occasion
10.24
5.12

Operations
Litres of fuel per ha of

coffee
(not nursery area)
Fuel consumption Transporting porting soil (flat area)

(undulating area)
(hilly country)
4.75
9.50
14.25
Transporting shade material for seedbeds

Ploughing (actual)
Transporting young coffee plants to land (flat area)
(undulating area)
(hilly country)
Transporting mulch to established coffee
(flat area)
(undulating area)
(hilly country)
Transporting harvested coffee from land to pulpery
(based on an average of 1.5 tonnes/ha)
(flat area)
(undulating area)
(hilly country)
General transport of labour etc
0.20
27.0
9.5
7.50
15.00
21.50
11.00
22.00
33.00
8.75 (total
per annum)
17.50(total per annum)
25.25(total per annum)
3.00
Calendar illustrating the normal timing of main events on a coffee farm

Rainy season
frost susceptible
period
Stem extension
growth
Flowering
Harvesting/Pulping
Order seed
Plant seed
Transplant
seedlings into the
lands
*main pruning /
rejuvination
*Handling
*Capping
Moisture sensitive
period
Moisture stress to induce flowering
top
dress
foliar
Fertilizing
Mulching

Scouting for
insects and
diseases
Drieldrin banding
Stem
Spraying for
control of leaf rust
and bark disease
au
g
Sep.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan
Feb
Ma
r
Apr
ma
y
Jun.
Jul.
* Optional depending on the system of tree management chosen.
Cotton
Climatic Requirements
Cotton requires a growing season of 180 frost-free days (6-7 months).

The crop requires high temperatures, long sunshine hours and an average rainfall of
600-700mm
It is mainly grown in Midlands, Mashonaland and Manicaland provinces between
altitudes of 600-1200m and in the South-East Lowveld at the altitudes at 300-600m..
Soil Requirements
Cotton does better on well drained, fertile soils with a high water holding capacity
and unrestricted depth.
The optimal pH for cotton production is 5.3-5.5.
Fertilisers
General fertiliser recommendations are :
GOOD SOIL
N Lowveld Irrigated
N Middle veld Irrigated
N Middle veld Dry land
P205 Irrigated
Dryland
K20 Irrigated
Dryland
80kg/ha
60kg./ha
40kg/ha
40kg/ha
20kg/ha
6
MEDIUM
SOIL
100kg/ha
80kg/ha
60kg/ha
60kg/ha
40kg/ha
40kg/ha
30kg/ha
POOR SOIL
120kg/ha
100kg/ha
80kg/ha
80kg/ha
60kg/ha
80kg/ha
60kg/ha
The recommended basal fertiliser is Cottonfert/ Compound L which contains

boron for fruiting.
Ammonium nitrate or urea is used for top dressing. The top dressing can be given
as a single dressing or split into two given at 4 weeks and 8 weeks after planting..
The amounts of fertiliser applied would be:
On good soils
200 kg (4 bags) of Compound L
per ha
100 kg (2 bags) of AN.
One medium soils
300 kg (6 bags) of Compound L

150 kg (3 bags) of AN.
Varieties
SZ9314 is the variety that is being grown in most of the cotton growing areas.
Land Preparation
Good land preparation provides a fine tilth.
Planting
The earliest planting dates are controlled by legislation for the control of the pink
bollworm.
The earliest dates are 5 and 20 October for the south-east Lowveld and the
remainder of the country respectively.
For dry land cotton, planting should be done after the first effective rains.
Spacing
Interrow and intrarow spacing of 100 cm and 30 cm respectively.

Under marginal growing conditions, the interrow and intra row spacing 90 cm and
20 cm respectively.
Seed Rate
It is recommended that a seed rate of 20-25 kg/ha on light soils and 35-40 kg/ha
on heavy soil.
Place 4-8 seeds together in the planting hole and cover to a depth of 20 mm.
Gap Filling
Gap filling should within 3 to 5 days after emergence.
Thinning
This is done five days after emergence and must be completed by the time the
crop is three weeks old.
Weed Control
It is important that the cotton crop is kept weed free during the critical stages of its
growth cycle:
first eight weeks after crop emergence since the crop is most vulnerable to
competition at this stage due to its slow growth rate
During the picking stage.
The three methods for weed control are:
Hand hoeing
Mechanical methods
Herbicides: The table below gives herbicides which can be used on cotton, and of
three types:
Pre planting herbicides

Planting herbicides
These are incorporated into the top few millimetres of the

soil before the crop is planted.
These are incorporated into the seedbed at planting time.

Post emergence herbicides
These are sprayed on while the crop is growing; they kill

the weeds without harming the crop.
HERBICIDES
Product
Trade Name
Trifluralin
Treflan, Trif
Nitalin
Planavin
Fluometuron
Cotoran 80W
Time of
Application
Pre-planting :
incorporate 50100mm
immediately.
Pre-planting;
incorporate
only into top
37,5mm of soil
At planting
Fluometuron
Cotoran 80W
At planting
M.S.M.A.
Rasna Panther
Juce
Directed spray
Post emergent
Weeds
Controlled
Mainly
monocots; Incl.
S.g.*
Mainly
monocots; Incl.
S.g.* and some
dicot
Most. Usually
not S.G.*
Most. Usually
not S.G.*
Most weeds in
seedling stage
Notes
Rain or
irrigation not
required to
activate
Rain or
irrigation not
required to
activate.
Not on sand,
residual effects
Not on sand.
Residual effects
May have to
repeat. Do not
apply after 1st
blooms
S.g. Shamva grass
DISEASES
Bacterial Blight or Black Arm Diseases:
This causes dark green marks on the stems and leaves of the plant, and is
sometimes called Angular Leaf Spot.
This is controlled by using resistant varieties.
Verticillium Wilt:
This is a fungal disease favoured by cool weather
Fusarium Wilt :
This is a fungal disease which attacks the plant through wounds in the root
system.
PESTS:
Aphids:
Small green bugs which are experienced when weather conditions are hot and
dry.
Jassids:
Small, yellowish-green bugs Their presence is indicated by the initial yellowing
of leaves then reddening (hopper burn) with a slight curling of the leaf edges.
Whiteflies:
These produce honeydew which causes open cotton to become black.
Whiteflies are a mid to late season pest.
Red Spider Mite:
Tiny red dots found on the underside of leaves.

Leaves mottle on upper surface of leaf, later turn yellow and are shed.
Cotton Stainer:
Insects are orange-red and black in colour, with long stylet mouth.
Feeds on seeds and stains lint of immature bolls. The stainers produce a fungus
that stains the lint such that it develops a yellow colour.
Cotton stainers are a late season pest.
Lygus Beetle:
Very small brown bugs capable.
Young leaves show perforations and a ragged edge.

Pink Bollworm:
The pink coloured larvae attacks the green boll and feeds on the immature seeds.
Prevention is achieved by destroying all trash from the crop and having a close
season of at least 2 months (66 days).
Red Boll worm:
Larva has rose red arrow head markings.
Internal feeder in bud or bolls; growing points attacked.
Treat with 85% W.P. Carbaryl.

American Bollworm:
Larva has dark band along back.
Spiny Bollworm:
Fleshy tubercles are seen along backs and sparse coarse hairs on all segments.
It will attack buds and bolls besides tip-boring.

Leaf Eater Caterpillars:
Perforation of the leaves indicate damage done by these caterpillars.
PEST CONTROL
Scouting is very important in cotton pest control as it ensures the effective use of
pesticides and timely control of the pests.
CHEMICAL CONTROL
The pesticides used in cotton include conventional insecticides (Carbaryl,
Thiodan and Larvin), synthetic parathyroid and acaricides.
SPRAYING
Spraying can be done by:
knapsack sprayer
tractor sprayer, using a boom with 7 or 9 nozzles
aerial spraying by fixed wing aircraft or helicopter.
To calculate the amount of the concentrate liquid to use the following formula
can be used :
Amount of spray required x % concentration of active ingredient x 160 = Amount of
concentrate required.The outputs of various spraying methods are:
Method
Output
Tractor Sprayer 7 nozzles
14 ha per day
Tractor Sprayer 9 nozzles
18 ha per day

Tractor Sprayer Mist blower
Knapsack Sprayer
30 ha per day
2 ha per day
GROUND NUT PRODUCTION

Groundnuts are an important oilseed crop. Apart from human consumption it can
also be used as fodder and it generates residual nitrogen.
Two main cultivars are grown in Zimbabwe;
Long season varieties (150-190 days and short season varieties (100-140 days).
The most recommended variety is Falcon.
It requires a frost-free period and the optimum temperature is 25- 35 0 C.

The crop needs 500-600mm during growing season.
Soil Type
Requires a deep, well drained soil with pH 5.3- 6.5.
Spacing
50-75mm in row and 450mm interow and a depth of 50-75mm.
Land Preparation
Discing should be done followed by deep ploughing and harrowing
Planting
Planting should be done with first effective rains (Mid Nov to Mid Dec).
The seeding rate is 80-100kg /ha.
Fertilizer
Apply 100-300kg of gypsum at pegging stage (50% flowering).
Well-decomposed farmyard manure should be applied at the rate of 5-10tonnes
/ha one month before sowing and incorporated into soil.
Irrigation
Maintain optimum soil moisture at flowering and pod formation stages.

In general, 8-18 irrigations at 15- 20 days after sowing and then 2 nd application,
20-25 days after first irrigation. And subsequent irrigation should be given at 7-10
days intervals.
Weed Control
The critical period of weed-crop competition is 28-45 days after sowing.

Generally one hand weeding at 30 days and 2 weedings, 15 days afterwards and
35 days later will suffice. It might be necessary to use herbicides such as;
Alachlor
- 1.5kg/ha applied as a pre emergence to control most monocots.
Fluchloralin -1.5 kg/ha applied as a preplant to control dicots
Dual
-1.5kg/ha applied as a post emergence to control grassy weeds.
Pests And Diseases

PEST
Leaf miner
DAMAGE
larvae mine into leaves when they hatch from
eggs and then emerge and web adjacent leaflets
together to give a burnt look from afar
CONTROL
Dimethoate
Monocrotophos
Aphids
Nymph and adults suck sap from tender Dimethoate

growing shoots , flowers and pegs causing
stunting and distortion on foliage
Thrips
Nymph and adults sack sap from surface of Dimethoate

leaflets causing white patches on upper &
necrotic on lower surface
White grub
Feed on rootlets and nodules or tap roots and Carbamates

plants wither and die
Sunflower
(Helianthus Annuus Var. Macrocarpus)
Introduction
The plant can grow on a wide range of soil types and is therefore grown in many
parts of the country.
The bulk of the sunflower crop, about 90% is produced by communal area and
small scale farmers.
Sunflowers are a drought resistant crop that can produce high yields on as little as
410 mm of rainfall provided the soil is moist just before and during flowering
period.
Sunflowers are suited to region II and region IV and will earn more than maize in
these areas.
They are mainly planted from mid-November-mid-February.
Yield levels average between 1.5 t/ha with the November plantings and 0.5 t/ha
with the end of January to February plantings.
Land preparation
Sunflowers are sensitive to low pH and nematodes.
Light soils, especially sands should be checked for these factors before planting.
Ploughing should begin in early November or as soon as the plough will easily
enter the soil. (I.e. after the first rains).
Ploughing should be done to a depth of at least 150 mm.
A rough seedbed will cause uneven germination therefore clods should be broken
before planting.
Weeds should be removed before planting and use ripper tyne every two years.
The most critical period for moisture is 20 days before flowering, throughout the
flowering stage up to 20 days after flowering.
Plant spacing
In regions which receive high rainfalls (regions I, II, III) a spacing of 90x 25 cm
is recommended whilst in region IV and V a spacing of 90x 30 cm is also
recommended.
Planting lines can be made by opening a shallow furrow with ripper tyne. The
seed should be planted 4-5 cm deep.
6 kg/ha of seed is sufficient if using hybrid or certified seed or up to 8kg for home
retained seed.
Fertilization
The general recommendation is to use at least 250kg of compound L fertilizer.
This fertilizer should be applied at or before planting.
A top dressing of 100kg Ammonium Nitrate can be applied 8-10 weeks after
germination.
Weeding
Mechanical control can be done.

Under certain circumstances herbicides such as trif, lasso and dual can be used
Pest control
Semi looper
They consume leaf tissue between the veins. A severe attack can cause
defoliation.
It can be controlled by use of chemicals such as Trichloforn, Endosulfan or
Carbaryl
African bollworm
Caterpillar damages the crop by feeding on leaves, tender stems flowers and soft
seed
.It can be controlled as for semi loopers.
Cutworms
They feed on young tender foliage near the soil surface and reduce the crop stand.

They can be controlled using chemicals like trichloforn bait, Endosulfan Bait or
Carbaryl.
Tip wilter
They feed by sucking the sap and causing plants to wilt and die.
They can be controlled using chemicals such as Carbaryl and Endosulfan.
Seed Bug
They feed on developing seed and cause it to shrivel.
They can also feed on the stem below flower head.
Control is the same as for tip wilters.
Diseases
Foliar diseases
Can be controlled by rotation and field sanitation.

Select resistant varieties
Scleratinia Rot
Can be controlled by using certified seed.
Grow in a four year host free rotation and avoid excessive fertilisation.
Harvesting
The seed is mature when the backs of the heads have turned yellow and the bracts
are turning brown.
At this point the moisture content will be 50% and the seed too wet to harvest.
Once the heads and bracts have turned brown the moisture content will be 1620% and combining can be started.
Bambara Groundnut
Common name:
Scientific name:
Shona:
Ndebele:
Bambara groundnut or Bambara nut

Vigna subtarranea
Nyimo
Indhlubu
Brief background
Bambara groundnut is widely grown in the smallholder sector. It is native to the African
continent. Research results show that the crop has considerable promise for
commercialisation.
Soil type
The crop grows well on well drained with soils pH of 5.0-6.5
Production areas
The crop can be grown in all the natural regions of Zimbabwe.
Rainfall and climatic conditions
Best growing temperatures are 20 C to 30 C and the rainfall range is 600200mm.

Crop rotations
Rotate with cereals such as maize, millet, sorghum and root crops such as sweet
potato. Fallow lands are productive when grown to Bambara groundnut
Varieties
.Currently Zimbabwe has no released varieties on the market and production is
based on land races.
Planting
Spacing
Natural regions I, II and III (or under irrigation) use 45cm between rows
and 15cm between plants in the row.
up to 20cm between plants in the row in dry areas
Seed rate:
27-135 kg/ha depending on seed size (lower rate for small seeded types and
higher rates for larger seeded types). Plant one seed per station.
Planting time:
Mid November to mid December with effective rains.
Seed dressing
:use Thiram 80% WP at 70g/0kg of seed.
Earthing up
For good pod development and pod filling, earthing up is recommended after
flowering has started or at pegging. Pods that develop above ground result in
green coloration and the seeds are smaller.
Care should be taken when earthing not to go too close to the plant as this might
damage pegs.
Fertilizer
After a well-fertilized crop such as maize apply phosphorus fertilizer at rates of
40 to 60kg/ha and potassium fertilizer at rates of 25 -30kg.
In poor soils, an application of 200-250kg of Compound D
Weed control
Weeding should be done 15 days after emergence and then before clusters join.
The herbicide Metachlor (Dual) applied pre-emergence at 1.7L/ha can be used to
control most annual weeds. Alternatively, hand hoes are used.
Harvesting and shelling
Harvesting is done when the crop turns yellow and the leaves have fallen.
The shell will completely separate from the seed and the seed will be shiny and
tough.
Storage
Shell only when you need to use the seed in order to prevent weevil damage.
Apply grain protectants such as asphostoxin tablets.
Disease and pest management
The few known diseases of economic importance are leaf spots, pod rots and
wilting diseases.
Pests include aphids and ants in the field and storage weevils.

Marketing
Most of the crop is marketed on the informal market with unspecified amounts
going across borders, especially to South Africa, Botswana and Namibia.
Cowpea Production
Common name:
Cowpea
Scientific name:
Vigna anguiculata
Shona name:
Nyemba
Ndebele name:
Indumba
Introduction
Mainly grown as a low input pulse. The leaves and grain are a source of protein.
Soil type
Best yields are obtained from well drained soils with a pH of 6.0 to 7.0.
Production Regions
Cowpea does best in natural regions III, IV and V.
Rainfall and climatic conditions
250 500mm rainfall is adequate for cowpea production.
The crop is prone to frost but high temperatures cause flower and pod drop.
Varieties
Varieties available are CBC1, IT 18, CBC2 and CBC3.
There are two basic types of cowpea the upright and bunch types mainly used for
grain production and the spreading types mainly used for grain, vegetable or
fodder.
Improved cultivars such as CBC1 and IT 18 are ideal for grain production but are
of low leaf yield.
Spacing
Sole spacing: plant type:
spacing
seed rate
Bushy
45cm x 15cm
40-50kg/ha
Spreading
75cm x 20cm
20-25kg/ha
Intercropping: bushy
180cm x 15cm
10-15kg/ha
Spreading
180cm x 30 cm
5-10kg/ha
For sole cropping use the following rates:
Bushy types:
30-50kg/ha
(120,000 plants /ha)
Spreading types: 12-15kg/ha
(60,000 plants/ha)
Planting depth: 5-7cm
Planting time
Can be planted from end November to first week of January.
In high rainfall areas it is best to plant late from mid December to avoid diseases.
Seed Dressing
Use Thiram 80% WP at 70g/100kg of seed if not certified to control damping of
seeding disease.
Fertilizer
Cowpea responds well to manure or use-200kg/ha of compound fertilizers
Weed control
Weed as early as possible until crop canopy is formed to smother late weeds.
Pest and disease control

Pest
Control
aphids
Rogor
Suckling bugs
Endosulphan
Thrips
Cypermethrin
Disease
Control
scab
Uneconomical to
control
Bacterial blight
Benomyl
Pest
Pod borer
Beetles
Storage weevils
Disease
Ascochyta
Bacterial leaf spot
Control
Endosulphan
Endosulphan
Any grain protectant
Control
Uneconomical to
control
Benomyl
Harvesting and threshing

Leaves can be harvested from four weeks after planting to the onset of flowering.
Harvest pods when they are relatively dry and thresh when completely dry.
Storage
Dry to less than 11% moisture before storage.
Use any grain protectant against cowpea weevil.
Hessian bags store and maintain seed viability better than polypropylene bags.
Seed Selection
Cowpea seed can be retained for up to 3 harvests as long as it is treated with
Thiram 80% WP, stored in Hessian bags and kept off ground.
Rice
Common name:
Rice
Scientific name:
Oryza sativa
Shona:
Mupunga
Ndebele:
Umphunga
Brief about rice
There are two major groups of cultivated rice, namely Oryza sativa indica and Oryza
sativa japonica (sinica).
Climatic conditions affecting production
Warm season varieties require temperatures of 25-35C while the temperature for
tillering and vegetative growth is 30 C.
Varieties
The main variety grown in Zimbabwe is Blue Belle.
Mhara2 and Mhara 4 have also been released. These mature in 100 105 days in
the low veld and yield in the region of 6 8 t/ha.
Mhara 3, which matures in 104 days and is Blast resistant and high yielding, is
intended for production in seasonally waterlogged wetlands (vleis).
Seed availability
Most of the seed of rice varieties is found at Chiredzi Research Station in the low
veld.
Cultural practises
Rice requires well drained soils and is established from seed.
Wheat drills can be used for seedling with a seed rate of 90kg/ha however
comparable yields have been obtained with varying seed rates of 40-120 kg/ha.
Seed is grown in rows 250-300mm apart.
Weed control
Hand weeding three times per crop season is the conventional method of weed
control.
The following herbicides are registered for use in Zimbabwe: Basagran, Stam
F34, Propanil and Preforan.
Fertilization
Apply 140kg/ha of nitrogen, 80kg/ha of phosphorus (P2O5) and no potash in the
lowveld.
Table for nitrogen top dressing
Medium season varieties
1
/4 at sowing as basal
at five weeks
at eight weeks
at eleven weeks
Short season varieties

1
/3 at sowing as basal
1
/3 at four weeks
1
/3 at eight weeks

Pests
The major pest of rice is the Quelea quelea bird, termites, aphids, and leaf eaters.
Rodents are also a problem in rice production and rodentites such as Finale and
Storm can be used.
Spraying of birds at their roosting places can be done under the auspices of the
Department of National Parks. On a small scale, bird scaring can be effective.
Diseases
Blast (Pyricularia oryzae)
Causes bluish flesh on the leaves, which turn brown.
High temperatures, humidity, dense stands and high levels of nitrogen favour the
disease.
Sow early before the onset of the rainy season to reduce the disease..
Brown Leaf Spot (Cochliobolus myabeanus).
Brown spots on the lamina and sheaths and black spots on the husks of the grain.
Favoured by cold weather.
Seed dressing with Vitavax or Baytan reduces the incidence of this disease.
Harvesting
Can be done manually or mechanically.
Below are a number of guidelines that will ensure that grain quality is preserved
during harvest operations, and that losses are kept to a minimum.
Avoid delays in thrashing and avoid rewetting of harvested kennels
Use proper thresher machine settings
Clean grain thoroughly after threshing
Harvest and thresh at night at 20-25% moisture content.
Immediate threshing reduces the exposure of the crop to insects, birds, rodents,
disease, and moulds.
Avoid piling of the crop after harvest as this generates heat that serves as an ideal
medium for growth of moulds, disease and pests.
Marketing
White seeded varieties are popular on the formal market while brown seeded varieties
dominate the informal market.
Sorghum production
Back Ground
It is used for food, feed, building material and fuel
.It is mainly considered a subsistence crop because of its tolerance to drought and
adaptation to dry tropical ecosystems.
Climatic requirements
It is adapted to marginal rainfall areas when compared to other cereals
Sorghum can be grown in any area that receives between 300 and 900 mm of rain
that should be well distributed through out the growing season.
Can be grown in all soil types even though higher yields are obtained on sandy
loamy and heavy textured soils.
The soil should be deep and well drained..
The ideal soil pH is 5.0 and 6.5.
Fertility management
Normally band applications of moderate rates of compound D are used at a rate
of 150-300 kg/ha depending on the inherent soil fertility levels.
Ammonium nitrate at a rate of 100-200 kg/ha is used as a top dressing fertilizer

and is applied 6-8 weeks after emergence.
In very light and inherently infertile soils it is recommended to split apply the top
dressing fertilize at least 2 weeks.
Sorghum has also been observed to respond well to farmyard manure.
Variety Choice
The national sorghum improvement program has developed a number of sorghum

varieties that have proved to out yield farmers varieties in terms of grain yield.
The available sorghum varieties are SV-1, SV-2, SV-3 and SV-4.
Private companies have developed some varieties that can be accessed on the
market.
Table 1: Description of Sorghum varieties

Variety
SV-4
SV-3
SV-2
Characteristics
It is a semi dwarf open pollinated variety that is more uniform in height with an average
height of 1,30m. It is a medium maturing variety that produces whole white bold grain.
Grain type is corneous to hard hence good milling qualities of up to 70% flour yield.
The panicle is big and semi compact with good exertion (12-16 cm). Physiological
maturity is within 113 to 127 days. SV-4 generally does not tiller.
SV-4 has a high yield potential of between 3.4 and 9.0 t/ha.
SV-3 is a creamy white-grained sorghum open pollinated variety that is semi dwarf in
height. Plant height ranges from 1.14 to 1.59m depending on environment and it also
show a high degree of uniformity. It produces a semi loose heads that mature in 112 to
124 days. The grain texture is corneous to hard and has a flour yield of up to 70%. SV-3
has a high crude protein quality (10.35%). It can tolerate Striga better than SV-1 and
SV-2. It generally does not tiller.
This variety has a high yield potential of between 3,8 and 8 t/ha.
A semi dwarf variety with an average height of between 1,4 and 1.6m with a
characteristic thin stem. It is an open pollinated variety with characteristic pearl white
grain. This is so far the earliest maturing variety that matures in about 110 to 115 days
and has also shown some tolerance to drought. SV-2 has good milling quality and it
produces up to 70.4% flour yield. Tillering is minimal with an average of 1.5 tillers per
plant. Yield ranges between 3 and 6 t/ha.

SV-1
Macia
SV1 is a creamy white seeded open pollinated variety that was developed in
Zimbabwe in 1985. It is a semi dwarf variety with a semi compact medium sized head
that is well exerted. Average plant height is 1.25-1.8m. Physiological maturity is
attained in about 115-125 days. SV-1 can tiller to produce 2-3 tillers per plant and is
also photosensitive. Grain texture is very hard hence an excellent milling quality of
85% flour yield.
Yield ranges between 3 and 6 tons/ha
An open-pollinated variety with creamy white seeds.1.2 to 1.5 m tall, 115 to 120 days
to maturity. Excellent milling quality to produce up to 80% flour.
DC-75
A hybrid red-seeded variety needs 120-125 days to maturity. Normally used for
brewing. Yields from 3-6 tons/ha
NS55
A hybrid with brown seeds which requires 110-120 days to maturity.

Yields from 4-6 tons /ha
Pan 888
A hybrid forage sorghum variety which can be cut or grazed at 60-90 cm
Seed rates/ planting populations
Seed rate of 8-10 kg /ha is recommended to achieve a plant population of

130000-150000 plants/ha.
The recommended spacing is 75 cm between rows and 15-20 cm between plants

in a row.
The common practice of planting is broadcasingt seed on a well ploughed land

and covering lightly using a light harrow, bush drag or cattle driven over the lands
and covered to a depth of 2-3 cm.
Mechanical planting can also be done but this will require high seed rates and will
require more labour for thinning
Weed management
Sorghum is very sensitive to weed competition especially during the early stages
of growth and establishment.
Normally 2-3 hoe-weeding regimes are done even though the use of preemergence herbicides like artrazine can be recommended in soils with greater
than 25% clay content.
Thinning
Thinning should be done to establish an inrow spacing of 15-20 cm and this
should be done before tilling begins and is normally done 4 weeks after
emergence.
At this stage it is also recommended to fill in for the seeds that that did not
germinate or seedlings that were affected by diseases.
Disease and pest management
The tables below show some of the common pest and diseases on sorghum in Zimbabwe.
Table 2: Common pests of sorghum in Zimbabwe
Pest
Symptoms/damage caused
Control

Shoot fly
Feeding larvae cause drying up of central leaf Timely planting, use of

and dead heart symptoms in 1-4 weeks high seed rates
seedlings
Chemical control using
thionex, carbaryl etc).
Aphids
Found on the under side of leaves and funnel.

Secret honeydew that leads to sooty molds
growth.
Suck sap from leaves to cause stunting.
Mainly prevalent during hot dry spells
Penetrate stem through funnel at any stage of
growth
Spider mites
Stalk borer
Head bugs
Adults suck sup from the developing grain
Armoured
crickets
These feed on the sorghum head thereby

reducing grain yield
Head bugs
Chemically
using
malathion,
dimethoate
(rogor), diazinon
Spaying with acaricides
like
Use
chemicals
like
endosulfan,
carbaryl,
thionex, carbofuran
Control chemically using
dimethoate
Control biologically by
scouting
and
hand
picking but chemical
control may be used.
Chemically
using
dimethoate
Scaring is the answer to
the problem
They suck the sap in the spikelets during

grain filling
Birds
Remove sown seeds or seed from panicle.
Less damage when crop mature at same time
or on extensive sorghum fields
Table 3: Common sorghum disease in Zimbabwe
Disease
Symptoms/ damage caused
Control
Stalk rots
Irregular molted pattern within internodes Control (rotations, clean
especially on peduncle.
cultivation,
destroy
residues
Downey
Infected seedlings are chlorotic, stunted and Treat seed metaloxyl,
mildew
may die pre maturely.
deep ploughing, use
resistant varieties
Grain moulds Molds develop on grain on the panicle Control by adjusting
especially when crop matures during periods sowing dates.
of high rainfall and humidity
Ergot
Infection is from panicle emergence through Use
of
resistant
fertilization May cause complete crop loss
varieties,
proper
rotations,
destroy
residues
Smut
Ear head become swollen and turn gray and
Spray with fungicides,
use of resistant varieties,
removing smutted heads
Harvesting/drying /storage
Harvesting is normally done when plants reach physiological maturity. Leaves
will be turn yellowish and beginning to dry up naturally..

Marketing
Grain sorghum is marketed through the grain marketing board that presets the
prices. Private companies like delta can buy brewing sorghum from farmers
mostly those under their growers contracts.
Millet
Background
Adapted to harsh environments. Pearl millet hybrids are highly responsive to

intensive crop production inputs
Mainly grown in Matebeleland, Manicaland, Mashonaland East, Midlands and
Masvingo province by smallholder farmers..
Adapted to warm dry climates of Natural region 3,4,5 that are marginal for Maize
production.
Growth temperature of 2832c is optimum for normal crop growth..
It does not tolerate flooding..
Fertility Management
Fertilizer rate of 200kg/ha Compound D plus 100kg/ha Ammonium Nitrate can be used..
Varieties
PMV-1
Is an average yielder Dwarf variety that matures early in 90-95 days. It is a high
tillering variety with 5-10 tillers per plant.
TABLE: Agronomic characteristics of PMV-1
Yield Potential
2-3 t/ha
Days to Maturity
90-95 days
Grain colour
Plant height
Grey seeded
0.9 1.3 (dwarf )
PMV-2
Is an average yielder which escapes drought and matures in 95-100 days. It

produces 3-5 effective tillers and the head shape is candle like.
PMV-3
PMV-3 is currently the highest yielding pearl millet variety. It is drought resistant,
matures early in 85-90 days. And has an intermediate height with 3 5 effective
tillers. The head shape is cylindrical to lanceolate.
Seed Rates/ Plant Population
Seed rate of 6 10kg /ha is recommended the crop will be thinned to 50 - 75cm
inter-row and 20 30cm in-row to give a population of 53 333 to 100 000 plants
per hectare.
Planting Time/Depth/Method
Depth varies from 25 - 75 mm the optimum being 35-45 mm. Sowing depth
varies in different soils and climate condition:
Optimum sowing depth
3.504.50 cm
Heavier soils
1.252.50 cm
Red soils
2.505.00 cm
Desert sandy soils
5.007.00 cm
The crop is planted in early summer to late summer (i.e. from November to end
January) The crop can be planted by broad casting, hand drilling and machine
drilling in rows and also can be transplanted when it has reached close to kneeheight or at tillering.
Weed Management
Competition with weeds reduces grain yield by 2550%. For effective weed control,
following two alternative measures are recommended:
Two manual weeding along with hoeing 15 and 30 days after sowing are most
effective.
Application of pre-emergence herbicide atrazine at @ 0.5 Kg a.i. ha-1, followed by
one hoeing after 3 weeks of sowing is effective and more economic
Pests Control
The red billed weaverbird and Quelea can be controlled by scaring or use of
bristled varieties.
The stem borer and shoot fly are also damaging, can be controlled by crop
rotation and use of insecticides like carbaryl, malathion and endosulfon.
Disease Control.
Major diseases
Causal organism
1. Downy mildew
Sclespora graminicola
2. Ergot
Claviceps fusiformis
3. Smut
Tolyposporium pennicillariae
Downy mildew
Downy growth covering mostly under-surface of the leaf and green ear as small green
leaves replaces grains in the ear head.
Use resistant cultivars.
Seed treatment with Apron S.D. 35 @ 6 gms kg-1 seed.

Foliar spray-Ridomil 25 WP (100 ppm) after 21 days of sowing if infection
exceeds 25%.
Infected plants should never be allowed to remain in field. Such plants should
be uprooted and burnt.
Avoid monoculture of particular cultivar.
. Ergot
Honey-like secretion dries on earhead and later becomes hard in place of normal grain.
There is no effective control measure through fungicides; therefore genetic
resistance is the best option.
Precautionary measures.
1.
Dip seeds in 20% brine water solution, stir and remove floating seeds
and sclerotia. Seeds lying in bottom be dried and sown.
2.
Adjust sowing dates so that ear emergence does not coincide with
more rainy days.
3.
Plough the field soon after harvest so that ergot is buried deep.
Smut
Grain or grains becomes in infected earheads becomes swollen and turn dark
brown.
Host resistance in best way to control.
Spray of with fungicide Captafol (2 ppm) followed by Zineb (2 ppm), on panicle
at boot leaf stage reduces infection, but is not economic measure.
Remove smutted ear.
Rust
Host resistance in the best remedy.
Fungicidal spray Zineb 0.15% attains varying degree of success on rust incidence.
Havesting/Drying/Storage
Pearl millet is ready for harvest 3- 4 weeks after flowering.
The crop is harvested by hand, by clipping the heads from the standing stalks this
allows periodical pickings to reduce field damage from birds leaving the green
heads to mature out
The crop is either stored unthreshed or threshed.
The grain is treated with insecticides such as Malathion, Lindane dust or neem
tree leaves are scattered throughout the grain to prevent insect attack and other
cereal insecticides can be used.
Finger Millet
Importance
Mostly grown inMashonaland, Midlands, Masvingo and Manicaland provinces.

Its uses include preparation of beer, food for pregnant woman, young children and
for the sick, possibly due to the high calcium and iron content in the grain.
It grows on a wide range of soils.
It tolerates dry spell in the early stages of growth and then grows rapidly
Land Preparation
Bed preparation should be thorough because of the small seed and because it
cannot stand weed competition
Fertility Management
Fertilizer rate of 200300 kg/ha Compound D plus 100 150 kg/ha Ammonium
Varieties
FMV-1
FMV-1 is higher yielding than local
Nitrate is required
Varieties and is the earliest to mature in 120-130 days. The variety is used for
food and brewing.
FMV-2
The variety is higher yielding and

Matures late in 150 160 days. The variety is used for food and brewing.
Seed Rates/ Plant Population
Seed rate is 3 5 kg /ha. The crop can be planted at 50 cm inter-row and

15 20 cm
In-row to give plant population of between 100 000 to 133 333 plants per
hectare.
Planting Time/Depth And Method
Being a small seeded it is usually surface sown. Rolling after sowing

would improve germination.
It is sown early in the season with the first rains or in October November
or late towards end of December.It is either broadcasted or drilled in
rows.
Weed Management
Ability to compete with weeds is poor.
It is mostly hand weeded to remove E.indica and E. Africana. These are hard to
distinguish from finger millet in the young stage.
Diseases and Pest Management

Head Blast caused by Piricularia oryzae which also attacks rice, can cause damage.
Harvesting, Drying and Storage
Finger millet is ready for harvest 3- 4 weeks after flowering, is harvested by hand,
by clipping the heads.
Crushing with a heavy stoneroller or flailing often threshes this crop.
Winter Wheat production

Common name:
wheat
Scientific name:
Triticum aestivum
Shona name:
Gorosi
Ndebele name:
Ingqoloyi
Introduction
Wheat is the second most important cereal crop in Zimbabwe in terms of
quantities consumed.
Climatic factors affecting Wheat
Grows well under temperate conditions.
High temperatures after flowering reduce period of grain filling and hence yield.
Frost during ear emergency and flowering may cause floral sterility thereby
reducing grain set.
Severe frost after heading can destroy the stem just below the ear thus stopping
further development of grain.
Severe frost after grain setting may cause moisture within the grain to freeze thus
distorting and damaging the grain and affecting test density.
The most sensitive periods for water stress in wheat are during heading,
flowering, and early grain filling.
Drought during these periods reduces yield.
Rainfall during and after hard dough stage can cause germination of the grain in
the ear of some varieties, which reduces the taste density and quality.
Early rains can cause lodging, down grading of wheat and interfere with
harvesting.
Wheat Varieties and characteristics
Variety
Seed Co
SC Nduna
Smart
Shangwa
Stallion
Yield level
Lodging
Diseases
Very high white

coloured grain and
has good grading
and baking qualities
High yielding, red
coloured grain and
has good grading
and baking
qualities.
High yielding,
white grained
variety with
exceptionally high
protein content
Very high yielding
Resistant but
medium to tall in
height
Resistant to
lodging due to its
short stature
Immune to stem rust,

moderate resistant to leaf
rust and powdery mildew.
Have high field resilience
Resistant to powdery
mildew and recurring
stem rust, Have high field
resilience, not resistant to
sprouting
Immune to stem rust, leaf
rust, and powdery
mildew.
Medium to tall in
High disease tolerance
High lodging
resistance
because its of
medium height
Pannar
Pan 3490
Pan 3492
Government bred
Kana
Insiza
(up to 10t/ha) red

grained early
maturing variety
height
levels for stem rust, leaf

rust and powdery mildew
High yielding (up

to 6-8t/ha) and
matures in about
158days
High yield potential
and matures very
early
Have good straw

strength
Excellent leaf, stem and

stripe rust resistance with
moderate resistance to
powdery mildew
Red grained
cultivar
Dwarf hence
reasonable
lodging qualities
Semi dwarf
White grained early

maturing variety of
good quality.
Tall and has good

standability
Resistant to current leaf

rust strains
Soil Requirements
Requires deep heavier textured soils, well drained and with good organic matter status.
Convectional Tillage
Usually involves primary tillage operation (ploughing or ripping) followed by
secondary tillage to create a seedbed (disc or tine harrow with or without rolling).
Rolling is necessary for rough soils.
Ploughing can be done every 2 to 3 years (with a ripper or chisel plough used in
other years.
Planting
Broadcast seed over the residue using an oscillating spout (VICON) or double
spinning disc fertiliser spreader or convectional seed drill planter with the
counters removed.
Fertiliser should also be broadcasted on the surface after the seed.
Seed rates should be 10 - 20% greater than under drilled conditions because seed
losses are higher. It is important to check distribution of seed and fertilizer when
fertiliser broadcaster is used.
Checklist to get an even distribution when broadcasting seed and fertiliser;
There must be 100% overlap of swath
The height the product leaves the machine is critical.
The nylon tip on oscillating spout machines must be in good conditions
On spinning disc machines the length of band arms of the fingers must be set
according to the instructions for the swath width and the size range and density of
the material being used.
Fertiliser with wide varying prill sizes and blends are not good for very wide
swath width.
If all the above have been tried and variation is still unacceptable and then reduce
swath width.
Direct seeding
This can be done into maize or soya bean residue in two ways that are
with the use of no till drill, broadcast and light disc system.
Irrigation may be applied at 2-3 day intervals.
Planting dates
Area
Highveld
Planting dates
Up to 25 May
Middleveld
Lowveld
7 to 15 May
1 to 10 May
Reason
To avoid the coinciding of flowering with
frost
To avoid sharp rising temperature during
grain filling stage
Seed Rates
Broadcasting 120 -130 kg/ha
Drilling- 100 to 120 kg/ha.
At Least 10% of required seed is purchased each year to maintain quality.
The ideal planting depth is 30 mm.
Row spacing is 15-25 cm.
Nutrients requirements
Fertilizer type
Application rate (kg/ha) N%
basal
300-500
7
Ammonium nitrate (AN)
300-400
34.5
Urea
225- 300
46
Lime ammonium nitrate (LAN) 350-500
28
Options of applying urea
First option
Mix the required basal and half of the total urea
The mixture is applied and incorporated into soil just before planting using disc or
roam harrow.
If seed drilling method is used then the mixture can be applied during seed
drilling
The other half urea can be applied at flowering (6- 8 weeks)
At flowering apply the urea followed by a light irrigation of water about 3-4 hours
around 15-20 mm
Urea should be applied to an area that can be covered by an irrigation cycle.
Second option
On heavy soil, apply the urea in one application at 14-21 days after emergency
On sand split applications can be done at 14 days and at 35 days after emergency

Immediately follow with a light irrigation of water about 3-4 hours around 1520mm
Urea should be applied to an area that can be covered by an irrigation cycle
Weed control
Start with a clean seedbed by controlling late weeds in summer. Scout for weed
infestation early 2- 3 weeks after emergency and again 10 days later. After scouting
decide which of the following policies to adopt:
No weeds
No need to spray
Isolated weeds
Hand pull
Weeds in patches
Spot spraying
Weeds present throughout the land
Overall spray
Chemical weed control
The choice of the herbicide is depended on the weeds not on the cost
Name of herbicide Stage of application
Rate
of Types of weeds
application
Banvel
3 leaf stage after 250ml/ha
Control of broad leaf
emergency
weeds
Ally
Any
time
after 20g/ha
Control of broadleaf
emergency
weeds
MCPA
3 leaf stage after 2.5l/ha
Control of volunteer
emergency to 30 days
soyabeans
after germination
Pumer super
After emergency
300-500ml/ha
Control of annual and
perennial grasses
Ally + Banvel mix
5g +100ml+ 0.1% As above
Sanawett
Banvel + MCPA
250ml +750ml
As above
mix
Roundup
At 6 leaf stage of 1l/ha
Control all weeds and
(Glyphosate-a I)
weed. Applied as a
even tree shrubs (The
pre plant for zero or
tree shrubs should be
minimum tillage
cut and roundup is
applied on the cut
stumps
Irrigation
The most critical stages of moisture require are during root development, heading, early
flowering, and early grain filling (milk dough stages). Water
The following recommendations can be used
Pre irrigation before sowing and bringing soil slightly below field capacity
Immediately after sowing 22 mm of water should be applied and this is repeated
five days later
Water is applied again 3-4 weeks after sowing or when the crown roots have
developed.
Apply 44mm after top dressing and herbicide application.
Recommended water requirement for a season ranges from 350-600mm.

Irrigation Scheduling
The maximum irrigation cycle length (days), which may be employed on wheat under
deficit irrigation, is as follows:
Soil texture
Highveld
Middleveld
Sand
11
9
Sand clay / loamy
15
13
Clay
18
16
Major diseases
Disease
Occurrence
Symptoms
Wheat leaf Highveld, late Masses of light brown
rust
July
pores on leaves. Black
September.
spores later.
Lowveld,
early
JuneJuly
Powdery
Mildew
Excess
nitrogen and
water favours
disease
development
Colonies of white to
grey cottony or fluffy
growth with thousands
of dry spores on upper
surface of leaf
Maize streak Transmitted

Chlorotic streaks on leaf
virus
by leaf hopper blades
Stunted plants and may
not
bear
heads
depending on stage of
attack
Loose smut
Kennel
of
infected
plants are transformed
into a mass of dark
powdery spores covered
with a thin membrane
Pest
Quelea birds- have red beaks and
move in flocks of up to a million
birds, they feed on soft dough wheat
Lowveld
5
7
9
Control
-Plant
resistant/
tolerant
varieties
-Following
recommended
planting dates
-Destruction of volunteer
wheat plants
- Spray with Shavit
-Use resistant varieties
-Avoid excessive use of water
and nitrogen
-Destroy volunteer plants
-Deep ploughing and burying
infected debris
-Use of recommended plant
populations
-Rotations
-Use of fungicides
-Control
vector
using
insecticides
-Breed for resistance
-Rogue and burn all infected

heads
-Plant certified seed
-Treat see with systemic
fungicides (Baytan, Vitavax)
-Use of resistant varieties
-Rotation
Management
-Identification of roosts
-Informing AREX and Parks and Wildlife
Management Authority

grains and start from the edge of the
field. A bird a feed up to 4g/day and
can destroy up to 10g. They roost
near water sources and this may be
about 50km away from field
Aphids These feed on leaves of
developing ears. They are small and
green in colour. They pierce, suck,
and found on underside of leaves.
May cause leaf curling
-Spraying roosts using Fenthion 640 UL

(Queletox, Shiritox640 UL)
-Bird scaring
-Mist nests: harvesting for relish
-Blasting
-Regular scouting
-Chemical control using; Systematic insecticidesDimethoate( rogor) , Carbosulfan (Marshal),
Dimeton-S-Methyl
(Metasystox),
Monocrotophos, Pirimicarb (Pirimor 50 DG),
Thiometon (Ekatin 25 EC)
Armyworm- the larva stage feeds on - Use Carbaryl 85% WP 625g/ha as soon as pest
the leaves of the crop. Serious is noticed
damage may be caused in young
seedlings if outbreaks are not
controlled
Leaf and ear caterpillar- these feed by - Can be controlled by Carbaryl 85% WP at a
eating or stripping the leaves. Serious rate of 625g/ha or Malathion 50%EC at 600damage may result if outbreaks are 1200ml/ha
not controlled.
Leafhoppers- these can transmit Dimethoate 40% at a rate of 70ml/ha
streak virus
Harvesting
Should be done when wheat is fully ripe at 12.14% moisture level.
For large scale use a combine harvester and for small scale it can be done by
hand.
Assessing field loss
A total of 50 to 60 grains per 0.1m 2 indicate loss of 50 kg/ha. Field losses of 1 to 1.5 bags
are a great loss. Combine blades should be fixed so as to avoid great loss.
Oats
Land Preparation
Oats can be groan on a wide range of soils and will tolerate more acidic soils than
either wheat or barley.
Cereal
pH range
Oats
4.5-5.5
Wheat
5.1-7.0
Barley
5.5-7.0
Good land preparation is essential for establishment of a good crop. Land should be
ploughed to a depth of 150- 225mm and harrowed and/or disc to produce a fine seedbed.
Planting Dates
Variety
Days to mature Planting date
Florida selected
160
End of April
Rapida
120-125
May onwards

Seed Rates
50-60 kg/ha if drilled or 70 kg/ha if seed is broadcasted.
Varieties
1. Florida selected- a late maturing variety, but high yielding
2. Rapida- an early maturing variety, medium to high yielding
3. Oatline Larry- a mid season maturing low yielding variety. It performs well under
nitrogen regimes and produces much greater seed yield than Florida selected.
Fertilising
General Recommendations
Soil status
N (kg/ha)
P 2 O 5(kg/ha)
K 2 O (kg/ha)
Good
30
20-30
20-30
Medium
30-60
30-60
30-50
Poor
60-90
60-90
50-70
Apply nitrogen with caution especially Florida Selected grown for seed since it the
variety is prone to lodging. If it is grown for fodder apply Ammonium Nitrate (25-30 N)
top dressing of up to 75kg/ha after each cut.
Irrigation
Similar to that of wheat and barley

Weed Control
Apply Fenron at the rate of 1.7kg/ha at any stage and a lower rate of 1.0kg/ha 3
weeks after germination.
Diseases
Crown Rust (Puccinia Coronata)
Small oval strange yellow particles scattered on both leaves.
Controlled by using resistant variety
Barley Yellow Dwarf Diseases
Causes reddening of leaves, stunting, an upright posture of thickened stiff leaves,
reduced root growth and a reduction in yield.
Heads of affected plants tend to remain erect and become black and discoloured
during ripening due to colonisation by saprophytic fungi
Loose smut (Ustilago Avenae)
A seed borne disease, which reduces ears to black powder.
Seed dressing best controls this disease.
Stem rust (Puccinia Graminis var avenae)
Causes reddish brown elongated pustules on stems and leaves.
No other known control methods other than planting resistant varieties.
Maize Seed Production

Site Selection
- Good fertility and near to a water source
- Easy accessibility to inspection, harvesting, processing and storage
- Protected from livestock
Avoid fields that had maize the previous season
Isolation
Spatial isolation
- Minimum distance 300m though variable.
- Vegetation barriers around the field are preferable
Time isolation
- Plant 6 weeks before or after the nearest maize crop
- Check with neighbours plants
- Look out for volunteer plants
Soil and fertility management
Requires a pH of 5.5-6 and Follow site specific recommendations
Yield expectation
N fertilizer application
1 t/ha
30 kg N/ha
2 t/ha
60kgN/ha
3 t/ha
90kgN/ha
4 t/ha +
120kgN/ha
Land preparation and planting
Fine and firm seed bed for good and uniform germination to ensure good seed soil
contact.
Planting distances
Follow site specific recommendations and remember Low moisture and low fertility
reduce plant density
High rainfall area 4-5 plants/m2 0.9 x 0.3
Low rainfall area
2-3 plants /m2 1.0-1.2 x 0.3
Very dry areas1-2 plants/m2 1.2-1.5 x 0.3
Weeding
Manual weeding
Start as early as possible and weed a minimum of 2 times
Small weeds are easier to control
Chemical weeding
More effective but costly (must have knowledge of the weed spectrum)
- Pre-emergence Atrazine and Dual post-emergence
- Basagran
- Gramoxone
- Bladex
Scouting and pest and disease management
Scout and identify pest and disease before action

Ensure proper and safe use of chemicals
Rogue and burn diseased plants
Remove alternative pest and disease host plants on and off season
Keep the field weed free
Use disease and pest free equipment (e.g. witch weed seed)
Avoid unnecessary movement of people across the field
Practice crop rotation
Common diseases:
GLS Grey Leaf Spot
MSV Maize Streak Virus
Maize Rust
Maize Blight Turcicum
Ear rots Diplodia and Fusarium
Phasoepheria Leaf Spot
Varietal Characterization
Why is this important?
- To benefit from the genetic advantages of the improved variety
- To enable rouging during seed production
- To identify the variety
Roguing
Avoid genetic contamination
Ensure varietal integrity and purity
Reduce incidence of seed-transmitted diseases
Avoid mechanical contamination
Ensure physical purity of the seed
Eliminate weeds
Systematic evaluation of a seed production field
Removal of all undesirable plants
Rogue any atypical plant that do not conform to the varietal description
Roguing Before and During Planting
Good site selection (no volunteers, weeds)

Use good seed (Foundation seed)
Verify that isolation is adequate
Use herbicides; eliminate weeds
Roguing During Vegetative Cycle
carefully rogue undesirable plants

- Post emergence: can often be seed off-types (taller; thicker stems, different
colour, out of place)
- Flowering: earliest and latest plants to flower, tassel colour, silk colour, weak
or diseased plants
Clean all equipment before entering field (e.g. cultivator)

Clean-up, rogue perimeter fields (isolation area) to eliminate maize (volunteers)
plants and problem weeds
Recommended seed moisture
Harvest = 30-35%, Shelling = 14-16%, Storage = 12%

Sun drying
Done before shelling on either a clean and dry surface a patio with a concrete floor or on
black plastic sheeting.
Mechanical drying
Permits earlier harvest and Ensures higher seed quality.
Is expensive in terms of equipment and power and initial investment and Can
damage the seed if poorly managed
Drying time is on average 4.5 hrs per 1% moisture
Double pass system
Initial maximum temperature: 28oC
Absolute maximum temperature: 43oC
Roguing During Harvest and Processing
Use/display sample boards with example cobs to facilitate visual rouging of cobs.
Remove partially filled ears, malformed cobs, diseased and germinating kernels,
extremely dent kernels or flint.
Clean all harvest and processing equipment.
Tag/identify all harvested cobs, bags, seed containers and Store each seed lot
separately from others
Shelling the Seed Crop
Manual shelling
Rotten or deformed seeds are removed.
Best seed quality is achieved and little mechanical damage occurs.
Labour intensive and slow but allows shelling at higher moisture; then sun-dry
grain instead of cobs.
Mechanical shelling
Seed moisture content is critical
Too wet: mushes, bruising whilst too dry: cracks, breaks
Just right: 14-16% moisture
Use slow speed (<300 RPM)
Hand-operated shelling machines can be very practical
Conditioning the Seed
Enhances seed quality but does not compensate for poor production
Cleaning
Involves the use of screens or sieves.
Eliminates foreign matter, broken and shriveled seed.
Winnowing can remove light, poor quality seed whilst.
Gravity table uses air and vibration

Denser seed = healthier seed
Classification, sizing
Use screens (large, small, flat, round)
Treating the seed
Timing of treatment is important.
Carefully use correct quantities, rate and ensure uniform coating of seed. Also
ensure seed is at appropriate moisture content.
Packing/Bagging the Seed
Requires accurately labeled packages which will make it convenient for handling
and transport.
Choose appropriate packaging for likely storage conditions. Paper is better than
plastic in hot, humid conditions.
Protect seed against contamination and damage.
Seed Storage
Objective:
Keep seed in viable (germinable) condition until the next planting season
Dry, cool conditions are best. (Good sanitation practices are essential)
Seed Quality
Viability = capacity of the seed to live, grow and develop.
Germination = capacity of the seed to develop normal seedlings in optimum
conditions.
Vigor = properties of the seed which determine potential for uniform and rapid
emergence and the development of normal seedlings in a wide range of field
conditions.
Maize
Common name:
Scientific name:
Shona:
Ndebele:
Maize
Zea mays L.
Chibage/Magwere
Umumbu
Rainfall
Favours long seasons (110-140 days) in which there is adequate moisture.

Severe moisture deficit at tasseling and silking causes crop failure due to poor
pollination.
If rainfall is inadequate during taselling/silking, it is advisable to irrigate the crop.
Water logging also has negative effects on maize.
Temperature
Mostly night temperatures tend to affect maize yields.
Temperature also affects time taken to maturity. Lowveld area crops tend
to mature much faster due to high photosynthesis.
Temperatures above 38C destroy pollen viability.

Soil types
Sandy clay loams and heavier soils are most suitable.
Soils should be well drained and the optimum pH range is 5.5-6.5
On heavy soils pH should not be allowed to drop below 5.0.
Land Preparation
Winter ploughing, immediately after harvest kills weeds, conserves moisture, controls
pests and promotes early decomposition of weeds and residues.
Summer ploughing and harrowing will create a fine tilth for planting.
Cultivar selection
There are two major groups of cultivars:
Hybrids whose seeds cannot be recycled and
Open-pollinated varieties, whose seed can be recycled for at least 3 seasons before buying
fresh seed,
Some of the advantages of OPVs

Cheaper seed
Seed can be recycled for ( 2-3 season )
Recycling hybrid seed result in loss of hybrid vigour, hence the need to buy seed
every season.
Long season variety:
Matures in 140+ days, e.g. SR52, SC701
Intermediate season variety:
130-140 days, e.g. SC627, ZS255
Short season variety:
120 -130 days, e.g. SC407, ZS257, SC403, SC401
Long season and medium season varieties are recommended for high rainfall areas while
short season varieties are for drier regions.
Seed rates
On average 25kg/ha of seed maize is recommended.Planting time:
Dry planting can be done 2-3 weeks prior to the first effective rain or alternatively plant with
first effective rains.
Long season varieties can be planted with irrigation (where it is available) in mid October
before the rain.
Late planting of maize after mid-December reduces yields.
Rotation can be done with legumes.
Plant population and spacing
45 000 plants/ha ( 90 cm x 25 cm) for high rainfall areas of NRI and NRII and
37 000 plants/ha ( 90 cm x 30 cm) for low rainfall areas of NRIII and IV
22000 plant/ha (1.5m x 30 cm) on tied ridges for dry areas of NRV.
Varieties with short stature can be planted at higher plant populations.
The general Planting depth is 50 mm, but variations can occur depending on soil type and
planting method.
Fertilizer application rates and time:

Table showing general Fertilizer Recommendation according to soil fertility status
Fertilizer Nutrients
Soil Fertility Status

Good
Kg/ha of fertilizer nutrient required
Medium
Poor

N
P2O5
K2O
Fertilizer in bags
Up to 100
30-50
20-30
3-4 compound D
100-160
50-70
30-50
4-7 compound D
160-200
70-90
50-70
7-10 compound D
Table 1: General recommended fertilizer rates according to Natural Region

Fertilizer
Natural II
Natural III Natural IV
Compound/maize fertilizer (kg/ha)
300 to 350
200 to 300
150-200
(6-7 bags)
(4-6 bags)
(3-4 bags)
Ammonium nitrate (AN) top dressing 250 to 300
(kg/ha)
(5-6 bags)
150 to 200
(3-4 bags)
100-150
(2-3 bags)
Generally, the whole of P & K requirements and at least 1/3 N should be applied at planting
by either broadcasting or banding in planting rows.
The top dressing fertilizer (AN) is recommended at 4-6 weeks after planting or at maize knee
height if applied once.
If topdressing is split because of high rainfall, the first 1/3 can be applied at 4-6 weeks and
the last 1/3 at 8 weeks after maize planting.
Liming
It is recommended that fields be limed once in three years.

General recommendation is 600-kg/ha limes.
If the soil is strongly acidic comparatively large applications of lime are required,
to 2/3 of the recommended lime should be applied in the first season and the
remainder in the following season.
It is important that the lime should be incorporated through out the plough Zone (30
cm). It is recommended also that it be applied after winter ploughing to give it time
to react with soils before planting.
NB manure & ash have liming effects on soils
Other soil nutrient replenishing methods to supplement inorganic fertilizers:
Use of cattle manure, cured in pits or heaped.
Rotation mainly with grain legumes such as groundnut, Bambara groundnut
(Nyimo /indhlubu) and soyabean.
Maize intercropping with legumes such as cowpea (Nyemba / indumba)
Green manuring using legumes such as velvet bean and sun hemp
Use of agro forestry species such as e.g. Sesbania sesban for improving fallows
before planting maize.
Use of termitaria (termite mound) soils
Use of compost and ashes in fields to be planted to maize
Weed management
A maize crop should be maintained weed-free for at least 2 to 6 weeks after establishment.
There are basically three types of weed control practices used in Zimbabwe
Hand weeding, using a hoe

Mechanical (using ploughs and cultivators) in combination with hand hoeing
Use of herbicides. Atrazine is the most common herbicide recommended for use in maize. It
can be combined with mechanical weeding by applying a rate reduced by 50% in the crop
rows only and using the cultivator or plough in between the maize rows. Atrazine controls
most broad leaf weeds, but depending on the weed species, other herbicides may be
recommended.
Pests and diseases

Table 2: Major maize diseases and insect pests and their cultural or chemical control
Diseases
Cultural and/or chemical control
Leaf blight
Breeding for resistance and use of rotations
Leaf streak virus 40% Dimethoate at 50ml in 455 litres of water
Standard seed dressing eradicates the seed borne
Boil smut
infection
Bacterial stalk
rot
Do not irrigate in hot, sunny conditions
Maize rust
Breeding for resistance
Grey leaf spot Breeding for resistance
Pests
Aphids
Armyworm
Leaf hopper
Stalk-borer
Chemical control:
Active ingredient
Demeton-S-Metyhyl
Dimethoate
Thiometon
Trade name
Metasystox 25 EC
Dimethoate 40 EC,
Rogor CE
Ekatin 25 EC
Carbaryl
Malathion
Benfuracarb
Carbofuran
Imidacloprid
Dimethoate
Carbaryl
Trichlofin
Endosulfan
Carbaryl 85 WP
Malathion
Dust,
Malathion 50 EC
Oncol 20 EC
Curater
10
G,
Carbofuran
10 G
Gaucho 70 WP
Rogor CE, Dimethoate
40 EC
Carbaryl
5
Dust,
Carbaryl 85 WP
Dipterex 2.5 Gran
Thiodan 1%
Termites
Fipronil
Imidacloprid
Weevils
Pirimiphos methyl
Permethrin
Malathion
Pirimiphos methyl
Regent 250 SE, Regent

3G
Confidor 200 SL
Actellic Super
Ingwe/Nhoro
Shumba 2 Dust
Harvesting, drying and storage

Maize can either be dried artificially or naturally.
In natural drying, the cob is left on the plant and on small plots the sheath could be opened
to speed up drying.
Acceptable moisture for effective storage is 12.5%.

Marketing
Marketing of maize grain is currently controlled by Legislation with the Grain
Marketing Board being the sole trader.

Innovative utilization at farm level i.e. for stock feed
Soyabean Production
Soils and climate
The soyabean is suited to soils with high clay content. The optimum pH is 5.5
.Soyabean requires reliable rainfall particularly from flowering to pod maturity.
It is a good crop to grow in rotation with maize, cotton and wheat.
Fertilisation
Soyabeans grow well on residual fertiliser.\

General recommendation is 200 - 300 kg/ha of either a Compound fertiliser (D or L),
Gypsum or Single Super Phosphate before planting.
Soyabeans respond well to manure application.
Soyabeans do not need much nitrogen either in the basal fertilizer or as top dressing
they are able to obtain their nitrogen requirements from the soil air.
It is therefore essential to apply Bradyrhizobium inoculant to the seed at planting.
Do not leave the inoculant in a hot place, but store it in a cool, dark place.
When ready to plant, the inoculum is mixed with a little water and sugar, and applied
to the seed immediately prior to planting.
One packet of inoculant is required for each 100 kg of seed. However, a higher rate is
preferable on sandy soils or in first year soyabeans fields.
Cultivars

There are two basic types of soyabean cultivars: Determinate and indeterminate
Determinate cultivars grow vegetatively for about six weeks and then begin
flowering, having put on 10 to 12 leaves. Once flowering begins, no further new
leaves are produced on the main stem.
Indeterminate cultivars, on the other hand, grow vegetatively for about six weeks,
then begin flowering when the main stem has about 10 leaves, but at the same time
as flowering, the stem continues to grow for another three weeks or so, producing
another five to seven leaves.
Determinate cultivars are better suited to warm fast growing environments where
irrigation is available, like the lowveld, whilst on the middleveld and highveld, both
types are suitable. Under drought conditions, indeterminate varieties may have some
advantage over determinates.
Some of the cultivars available include Soprano and Solitaire, which are
indeterminate, and Storm and Soma, which are determinate.
Planting and crop management
The seed rate is about 100 kg per ha.

The desirable plant population is around 350 000 plants per ha. The minimum plant
population is 200 000 plants per ha, while the maximum is 500 000 plants/ha.
The row spacing may be from 25 - 90 cm.
Do not plant seed deeper than 5 cm.
Covered the seed such that the soil forms a slight mound over the row, as this makes
it easier for the seedling to emerge.
Seed should be planted 25-50 mm deep, depending on soil texture. If soil crusting
occurs before emergence, wetting the soil with irrigation or breaking the crust with a
millipede implement will improve emergence.
Planting is ideal around mid-December.
A fungicide seed dressing of Thiram 80 WP (85 g/50 kg seed) or Captan 50 WP (125
g/50 kg seed) will help ensure good emergence.
Soyabeans are particularly sensitive to weed competition during the first six weeks of
the season.
Soyabeans are very susceptible to drought during the pod-filling stage.
Soyabean Planting Guide
Target
Harvest
Population
per ha
Required average number of seeds

Required per metre of row
Planting
Population Row width (m)
per ha
0.45
0.60
0.75
0.90
Seeding rate (kg/ha)

Thousand seed weight
(g)
250
220
190
200000
248000
11
15
19
22
62
54
47
240000
297000
13
18
22
27
74
65
57
280000
347000
16
21
26
31
87
76
66
320000
396000
18
24
30
36
100
87
75

360000
446000
20
27
33
40
111
98
85
400000
495000
22
30
37
45
124
109
94
440000
545000
25
33
41
49
136
120
104
Soyabean Management Guide

Establishment
Lime acid soils (Ideal
pH=5.3).
Fertilise as necessary.
Best variety.
Use certified seed.
Inoculate with
Rhizobium.
Do not plant too deep.
Population: 300,000
plants/ha
Row width 45 - 75 cm.
Ensure early weed
control.
Late vegetative, early

flowering period
Control any new weed
growth.
Start scouting for Semiloopers and Rust.
Apply first fungicide spray
for Rust at first flower.
Seed filling
Ensure good control of Rust
and Semi-loopers.
Apply two fungicide sprays
during this period.
Irrigate when there is a dry
spell longer than 5 days.
Harvest early to avoid
shattering losses
Pests
Semi-looper caterpillars
Often a problem during the flowering and seed-fill period.
They eat the leaves and sometimes the pods.
Normally controlled by a naturally occurring virus disease, which kills the
caterpillars. Caterpillars that have died from the disease are black and hang from the
leaves. These may be collected, crushed, mixed with water and sprayed around the
field to help control other caterpillars.
If the virus is not killing the semi-loopers then an insecticide spray may be required.
Diseases
Frog Eye Leaf Spot (Cercospora sojina)
Most cultivars available today are resistant to this disease.
Rust (Phakopsora pachyrhizi).
o The Rust disease may be recognised as numerous small grey to russet coloured
tufts on the underside of leaves. They may appear similar to red spider mites.
o In advanced stages the leaves become distinctly yellowy-brown and a light brown
cloud of spores are seen in and above the canopy when the plants are shaken.
o It can be controlled using a fungicide spray.
o A number of chemicals are available, such as Punch Xtra (350 to 500 mL/ha)
and Shavit (500 ml/ha). Two or even three, fungicide sprays are at 3 week
intervals beginning at first flower. Ensure good leaf cover when spraying.
Red Leaf Blotch (Pyrenochaeta glycines).

o Severe infections can reduce seed yields by 30% - 50%. D.
o Solitaire and Soprano are moderately resistant.
o Chemical control is not available.
Harvesting
a) Hand harvesting.
o Suitable for small areas.
o Advantages of hand harvesting are that:
Losses can be reduced to a minimum
Soyabeans of a high quality are produced
The beans normally have a high viability.
Therefore, hand harvesting is suitable for seed production.
b) Mowing or cutting by hand and shelling.
A variation is to use a mower to cut the plant material, and a mechanical
winnower for the final cleaning.
This method should enable an output of 150 kg (3 bags)/labour/day. This
method enables harvesting to commence before the pods split, but allows
sufficient moisture to be lost, thereby preventing mould developing in the
established cocks or stacks.
c) Swather plus combine.
This method involves the use of a swather to cut and wind-row the crop before it
is combined. A pick-up attachment is required to be fitted to the combine table.
d) Combine harvesting.
Large areas are usually reaped by combine harvester and losses are inevitable.
The degree of loss depends on the efficiency of the machine and operator,
evenness of the land, the height of the pods off the ground, lodging, the moisture
content of the beans, and weed control.
Sugar Cane Production

Introduction
Sugar Cane is a long season crop (12 months growing cycle).

It has a high water requirement of about 1500 mm / yr.
It thrives well under high temperature conditions (Min.16-21C and Opt. 2738C).
Hence bulk cultivation of the crop is in Chiredzi and Triangle.
Seed Cane
Growers are encouraged to plant more than one variety to minimise losses due to
pests and diseases.
Varieties N14, N10 and NCO376 are available.
Farmers must make arrangements with seed producers to grow seed for them.
The ZIMBABWE Sugar Association (ZSC) certifies seed cane producers and no
charge is levied for seed production.
It takes 8-10 months to produce seed cane
Propagation
Seed cane consists of cuttings with shoots (25-30 cm long) called setts.
An ideal sett should have at least 2 internodes and at most 3 internodes.
Number of buds that germinate decrease with an increase in the number of
internodes beyond 3. Use of certified seed cane will minimise systematic smut
infection.
Planting
The ideal time is mainly in the later summer months (August- November).
March and April are also suitable due to the low weed pressure characteristic of
the period. The crop results in high sucrose yield because the well grown cane is
dried off when conditions are best suited for ripening.
Sugar cane planted from May to July is generally slow growing due to the very
low temperatures characteristic of the period.
Planting procedures
Generally spacing is 1, 5-1, 8 m inter-row and 0.6 intra-row.

First sprinkle Bayfidan to the setts to protect against termites
Plant by laying setts in the furrow. Cover the setts with soil.
Overlap the setts to an increasing degree if there is any doubt about seed cane
quality
Spray the setts and furrow with Dieldrin solution to protect the crop from
Heteronychus Beetle.
8-10 tonnes of seed cane are required per ha.
Failure to germinate may be due to:
*Mechanical injury of the buds.
*Chemical injury.

*Poor nutritive status of the setts.
*Lack of nitrogen.
*Disease.
*Low temperatures expose setts to decay.
Fertilisation
The ZSA provides soil analysis services to all cane growers.
The general recommendation is to apply 200 kg/ha MOP, 200 kg/ha SSP and 150
kg/ha AN at planting.
These fertilisers are put in the furrow and covered with soil before putting the
cane /setts
Generally AN rate is 450 kg/ha. Note that the remainder of AN should be applied
before the crop is 12 weeks old.
For ratoon crops the fertiliser is usually applied in a band shortly after cutting.
Blends can also be used in sugar cane production and these are a much cheaper
option
Blend
1
430 kg/ha
2
620 kg/ha
3
700 kg/ha
Irrigation
Overhead and furrow irrigation are the common methods of irrigation used in
production of sugarcane.
The average water requirements, from planting to harvesting, is about 16 mega
litres of water/ha. This requirement necessitates a peak water requirement of
about 70mm a week in hot, dry periods and in winter 2-4 weeks with the same
application.
Weed Control
Hand and mechanical weeding can be used, but herbicides are more widely used.
Pre-emergent or early post emergent herbicides
Atrazine 1, 6 l/ha
Alachor 1, 3 l/ha
The crop should be kept weed free at least until it has established an effective canopy.
Pests
Heteronychus beetle
This is the major pest at present.
The beetle causes stem and root damage.
Spray with dieldrin (2, 25 kg in 440 litres water) into the furrow and over the setts
before covering. The mixture is enough for one hectare.
Dieldrin sett dip can also be applied by dipping the setts into the chemical before
planting.
Migratory Locust
Devours cane leaves and this has a bearing on yield since the leaves are
photosynthesis sites.
Spray with cabarayl
Pearly scale

This is controlled by Dieldrin applied for Heteronychus control
Diseases
Smut
Is the most serious disease of sugarcane
Can be controlled through use of resistant varieties, use of clean certified seed, general
field hygieneand planting material can also be treated with fungicides e.g Tilt
Ratoon stunt
Results in stunted growth and can also seriously reduce yield.
Can be controlled by using hot water treatment in the setts.
Leaf Scald
Controlled by using resistant varieties, e.g. NCO 376, N 14
Quota system
Currently, in Zimbabwe milling is done at Triangle.

For commercial production all prospective farmers have to enter into agreement
with the milling company on how much cane they propose to deliver on a set date
(12 months from planting).The farmer has to estimate the hectarage to be planted,
variety and estimate of anticipated yield.
Harvesting
Sugarcane is cut after being burnt.

Burning is preferably done at night since temperatures will be slightly lower. This
minimises the conversion of sucrose into alcohol.
Farmers are advised to inform the milling company in advance if they are unable
to meet the milling quota agreements in order not to disadvantage other farmers.
NB: There are 203 harvesting days for the year and after the mills will be shut down. On
average, a cutter can harvest 0,066 ha/day.
There are better returns if harvesting is done before the onset of the rainy season.
For a bundle weighing 5 tonnes and above, a cutter is given a bonus.
Yield levels are in the range 90-120t/ha.
Transportation
The time spent between burning of cane and milling should be less than 72 hours
in order to minimise the loss of sucrose from the cane.
Management
If cane is poorly managed and the Plant Protecting Group of ZSE discovers
serious pest and disease infestation the crop may be declared useless and will be
ploughed out.
At least 90 days have to be allowed between ploughing out of the cane and
introduction of a new crop.
Returns
Most farmers tend to break even at between 65 - 70t/ha of cane yield.

Excellent farmers can even go up to between 100 - 120t/ha of cane.
For every 50 tonnes of sugarcane delivered, there is automatic sampling and subsequent
filtration of the juice which is done by the laboratory department of the milling
companies to determine how much sucrose is in the juice.
Generally, 12% of the cane will be sucrose, i.e. the estimated recoverable crystals will be
12% of the tonnage delivered. The farmer will be paid the remainder after milling and
transport costs plus levies that might apply are deducted.
Tobacco
Tobacco: Flue Cured
The Ideal seedling
Is 15 cm in length from bud to root-crown;
Is at least as thick as a pencil;

Has produced not more than eight to ten visible leaves
Is well hardened
Is disease free, Has a strong root system
Tobacco Seedling Production Using The Float Seedbed System
The float tray system replaced the conventional system on tobacco seedling production
following the phase out of Methyl bromide.
Advantages:
it uses fewer chemicals and in smaller quantities
it employs economical integrated management of diseases and pests
it uses less water and fertilizers
it produces superior and more uniform drought tolerant seedlings
it offers additional flexibility in planning following pulling
it facilitates easier field management arising from a more uniform crop
it has a permanent seedbed site and there is no need for rotations
trays can last for five or more years if kept properly
Materials Required For One Hectare Worth of Seedlings

Trays
Seed number
Black plastic
Pine bark
Washed river sand
Water
Ammonium nitrate
No. of bricks
Hydrofert
Floatfert
Dibbler
Site Selection
Choose less level ground
200 Cell Tray

87
20 000 pellets
39m2
220 litres
220 litres
2060 litres
600g (22 x cup 30)
400
1.6kg
7 litres
200 cell dibbler
242 Cell Tray

72
20 000 pellets
34m2
Up to 432 litres
108 litres
1700 litres
800g (18 x 30 cup)
320
1.3kg
6 litres
242 cell dibbler
Bed Construction
Beds should be sufficiently wide to accept three or four floating trays side-byside.
This means that the inside dimensions of the retaining float water wall must be
approximately 1.05 m wide for three trays and 1.40m for four trays.
Two courses of farm bricks can be used and may be loose-laid or be set in
position permanently with mortar.
Next the entire construction must be lined with 250 micron black plastic sheeting.
The sheet must be at least 0.5m wider and longer than the inside dimensions of
the bed to allow for the plastic to be laid over the top of the wall and at least
partly down the outside of the wall.
The bed should then be filled with water to a depth of 10 cm. This will flatten the
plastic against the bottom and sides of the pond and any wrinkles or irregularities
can be pulled straight during this filling exercise.
During this stage loose soil can be piled up against the outside of the walls up to
within about 3 cm of the top, so as to hold the plastic in place. Permanent beds
have to be properly lined with Super Impemo to make water proof and to obviate
the need to use plastic.
Media
Pine bark, washed river sand and water mixed in the ratio 1; 1; 0.5 by volume are
used as the growing medium for the 200 cell trays.
For 242 cell trays use 100% pine bark and water and mix in the ratio 1:0.5, or
mix pine bark, sand and water in the ratio 3:1: 0,5 by volume. The ratio of the
water may be reduced or increased depending on the moisture content of the other
constituents.
The pine bark used is supplied by Flora Pine Bark Produce (Pvt) Ltd in Mutare
and Nyanga.
Large pieces of pine bark or sand are removed by screening through a 6mm sieve
The pH of the pine bark should be maintained at 5.5.
The sand can be a source of weed seeds, pathogens and nematodes and so it
should be solarised, steamed or boiled before use. Limited amounts of amended
composted pine bark are available at Kutsaga as Gromix.
Tray Filling, Dibbling And Sowing
Hand fill each tray with the above media that has been thoroughly mixed.
Lift the tray to about 20 cm above a firm flat surface and drop gently on to the
surface. This will slightly compact the media in the tray.
Do this twice and refill the tray and then make the dibbles.
Pelleted seed is then sown into depressions (dibbles) that are made at the centre of
each cell.
Dibbles 1.0 cm deep can be made using a dibble board. The trays should then be
floated in beds soon after.
Seedbed Covers
The plastic tents recommended for conventional early sowings in the high altitude areas
are also recommended in the floating tray system.

Basal Fertiliser
Fertilizer
type
floatfert
Hydrofert
Tray
Total no. Total
Timing of application
type (cell of
amount (days after sowing)
no.)
trays/ha
of water
in beds
(L)
200
242
200
242
87
72
87
72
2058
1700
2058
1700
7 days
1.0 l
1.0 l
260g
212g
21days
2.5 l
2.0 l
515g
425g
35 days
3.5 l
3.0 l
772
640
Total
fertilizer
required
for one
ha in the
field
70. l
6.0 l
1.6 kg
1.3 kg
Top Dressing Fertiliser
At 6 weeks (42 DAS) ammonium nitrate is applied at 100mgN/litre of water as

shown in the following table.
Watering
After the initial bed filling ensure that the water is replenished in beds regularly in
order to avoid trays and media drying.
Good quality water, which is free from nematodes, pathogens, salts and other
undesirables, should be used.
The ideal water pH is between 5.5 and 6.4.
Clipping
The benefits of clipping include;
Increased seedling uniformity.
Removal of excess foliage thus allowing the plant canopy to dry.
Regulation of seedling growth.
Hardening of the plant later in the cycle.
Holding the transplant past its due date.
Clipping should be frequent and light, beginning when the seedlings are about 5
to 7 cm in height.
Sanitation is a critical part of clipping therefore plant clippings should be properly
disposed of to avoid spread of diseases. The mower or cutter must be thoroughly
cleaned and sanitized before and following each use to ensure there is no spread
of Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) or other diseases.
Hardening
Seedlings should be sufficiently hardened so as to survive the difficulty of
transplanting under difficult conditions experienced in the lands.
Hardening is done by ensuring that the seedlings utilize most of the nitrogen early
in the growth and that little remains in the water during the last two to three weeks
before transplanting
Clipping also has a hardening effect.
For further hardening remove the fertilizer solution from the waterbed, and
replace the solution with water only for the last week of production.
The simplest test for hardness is that a seedling should be able at least to be
bent over without snapping.
Problems and Possible Solutions
Algae Growth:
Actual harm to the seedlings is unusual..
Cover as much as possible of the surface water with trays so as to exclude
sunlight on water, which encourages algal growth.
It can also be controlled by delaying the fertilizing of the float bed to 14
days after seeding, this allows the seedlings to germinate and grow above
any algal growth on the cell surface.
Used trays should be washed and sanitized before use. Use of Algaecides
is uneconomical.
Avoid using pine bark/sand mixture in 242 Cell trays as they become
heavier and tend to sink thereby creating waterlogged conditions.
As a preventative measure apply a Quaternary Ammonium Compound
(QAC) or copper oxychloride in float water at sowing. Copper
oxychloride is applied at the rate of 0.012 g/L and Pentakill at 0.18 ml/L
for one hectare of seedbed.
Amount
of Copper
Sporekill 12% at Pentakill 20% at
water(L) in 1 ha oxychloride 85% 36 ppm
36 ppm
bed
wp at 10 ppm
Tray
g
No.
30 ml
No.
30 ml
No.
30
type
cups
cups
cups
242
1700
20
1.3
508
17
305
10
200
2000
24
1.5
592
20
355
12
2.Pythium root rot
Water amount (L)
Ridomil MZ 68% wp at 5 Ridomil MZ 68% wp at 10

ppm
ppm
g
No. 30 cup
g
No. 30 cup
212
22.3
424
44.67
247
26
494
52
242
1700
200
200
3 Sore Shin
Sore shin in the field is managed by drenching seedlings in the float bed two days
before pulling with one of the following fungicides at 1 litre/tray as indicated
below:
(a) Tridemenol
-Baytan 15% wp at 1.5 g/L/tray
-Shavit 25% ec at 0.9 ml/L/tray
(b) Cyproconazole
-Alto 100 sl at 0.6 ml/L/tray
(c) Triticonazole
-Premis 200 fs at 1.2 ml/L/tray

No
of Area m
trays
242
200
72
84
16.6
19.4
Baytan
15% wp
1.5g/tray
g
No.
30
cup
108 8.75
126 10
Shavit 15%
ec
0.9ml/tray
ml
No.
30
cup
65
2
75.6 2.5
Alto 100sl Premis

0.6ml/tray 200fs
1.2ml/tray
ml
No.
ml No.
30
30
cup
cup
43
1.5
86 3
50.4 1.67 100 3.3
Spiral/Aerial Roots: Thought to be associated with inadequate media aeration

(too much water/too little air). Spiral root plants occur when the root of
germinating seedlings does not penetrate into the growing media. Plants will
either die or lag behind other plants. Avoid packing media too tightly and avoid
overhead watering.
Dry Cells: Water fails to move up the cell by a process called wicking due to
loose compaction of media in cells. No wicking means no germination. Follow
the tray filling and handling procedure correctly.
Cold injury: The float beds should not be allowed to get cold. The June sown
nurseries need to have both cropgard and plastic tent and a greenhouse.
Salt Injury: Greyish salt deposits on substrate surface. Severe cupping of
seedling. The possible solution is to water with a knapsack sprayer thoroughly to
leach the salts from the surface. Also cover with Cropgard or a sterile mulch plus
plastic cover at night.
Chickens: These are a pest. Protect seedbed area.
Maize Shellers: maize chuff and dust is detrimental to seedling growth. Ensure
float bed site is situated away from maize shellers.
Pests and Diseases

Seedbed diseases (From TRB Recommendations)
DISEASE
SYMPTOMS
CONTROL
Anthracnose
(Collectotricum
tabacum)
Brown lesions on
leaves, midribs and
stems. Leaf lesions
fawn, circular often
with darker edge
See also disease in

lands for altenaria
control
Wild fire
(Pseudomonas
tabacum)
Circular brown
lesions with a halo
round each
1. Pre-treatment with Zineb (65% WP at 225g in 15-20 litres

of water per 25m bed in dry soil. Water and leave several
days before sowing. Sow 10 days before normal date as this
treatment retards growth.
2. One of the following weekly;
a) Thiram: 80% WP 150-250g/100 litres
water
b) Dithane M 45: 80% WP 100-150g/100
litres water. Commence when plants are
10mm in diameter. Application rate: 5
litres/25m increasing to 115-20 litres/25m
c) Start spraying 222-3 wks after germination.
Anilazine 50% WP 195-375g/100l water
75% WP 130-250g/100l water
3. If disease appears use 400-800ml/m Benomyl at
220g/100l water.
Copper oxy-chloride or oxy-sulphate at 300g WP containing
50% copper in 100 litres water, applied at rate of 200ml/m
weekly

Angular Leaf
sport
Pseudomonas
angular
Frogeye
Cercospora
nicotiane
Irregular,
usually
small, angular dark
lesions on leaves and
stems
As preventative spray, use same chemical, 300g/100 litres

water, applied at rate of 200ml/m weekly
Brown circular spots

with greyish centres
on leaves. Brown
lesions on stem with
white centres.
Spray at 2 4 t0 4.8 bar pressure, each nozzle delivering 8502300ml/min. For full details refer to TRB handbook.
Note: - Do not mix fungicides with insecticides

Cutworms and ants
Apply a coarse spray of 135g Neotox sp in 100 litres water at a rate of 200ml/m
or drench with 65g/100 l at rate of 1.5 l/m
Aphids
There should be no treatment within four weeks of germination.
Neotox or Monocrotophos 40%WSC, 120ml/100 l water will control aphids. For
specific aphid control drench at the rate of 1 l/m or spray 500ml/m every 2 wks.
Alternatively, drench or spray beds at the following rates every two wks with one
of the following insecticides:
Insecticides
Ml/100 litres water

Drench
Dementon-S-Methyl 25% EC
Dimethoate 40% EC
Spray
150
190
300
380
Repeat one or two days before pulling
Planting
Single Row System
Row
Spacing
100cm
105cm
110cm
115cm
120cm
125cm
130cm
40cm
43cm
46cm
49cm
52cm
55cm
58cm
60cm
25 000
23 810
22 727
21 739
20 833
20 000
19 231
23 256
22 148
21 142
20 222
19 380
18 605
17 889
21 739
20 704
19 763
18 904
18 116
17 391
16 722
20 408
19 436
18 553
17 746
17 007
16 327
15 699
19 231
18 315
17 483
16 722
16 026
15 385
14 798
18 182
17 316
16 529
15 810
15 152
14 545
13 986
17 241
16 420
15 674
14 992
14 368
13 793
13 263
16 667
15 873
15 152
14 493
13 889
13 333
12 821
Twin Row System

Twin
Row
90cm
90cm
Working
row
125cm
130cm
43cm
21 633
21 142
Plant spacing
46cm
49cm
20 222
18 984
19 763
18 553
52cm
17 889
17 483
55cm
16 913
16 529
60cm
15 504
15 152

90cm
100cm
100cm
100cm
110cm
110cm
110cm
140cm
120cm
130cm
140cm
120cm
130cm
140cm
20 222
21 142
20 222
19 380
20 222
19 380
18 605
18 904
19 763
18 904
18 116
18 904
18 116
17 391
17 746
18 553
17 746
17 007
17 746
17 007
16 327
16 722
17 483
16 722
16 026
16 722
16 026
15 385
15 810
16 529
15 810
15 152
15 810
15 152
14 545
14 493
15 152
14 493
13 889
14 493
13 889
13 333
Summary of planting methods

Method
detail
Land size
Hectares
Plant pop
Per ha
Total plant
stations
Period of
planting (hrs)
Period of
planting (days)
Required output
per hr
Output per hours
of team at 75%
of standard No.
of plants per hr.
Teams required
LABOUR
Watering labour
Boom carriers
Planters
Planters
waiters
Plant supply
labour
Drum labour
Main hose
attendant
Pump attendant
Spare
Foreman
planting
Covering labour
Cutworm
treatment labour
Foreman
covering in and
cutworm
treatment
Sub-total
Drivers
Buckets
and
cups
Water cart
4 horses
Water cart
6 horses
Boom with
4 horses
9
Parallel
Feed line
And
irrigation
3
Hoses
From
Standpipe
irrigation
5,8
15 151
15 151
15 151
15 151
15 151
15 151
136
359
24
136 359
136 359
136 35
45 453
87 826
38,30
25,25
37,10
4,79
3,45
4,64
5 681
740
3 560
5 400
3 675
5 660
10 833
16
8
8
2
4
4
3
1
6
6
2
2
4
4
3
6
6
4
12
12
4
-
-1
4
1
2
1
3
1
1
2
1
2
1
4
1
6
8
3
4
5
6
3
4
6
6
12
12
54
2
20
2
33
2
26
2
31
-
58
-

Seedling labour
at 930
seedlings/hr
Total Labour
Labour days per
ha at 75% of
standard
13
63
22.33
26
14.89
42
15.63
32
16.49
38
13.33
71
12.93
Insect control (Lands)

Routine spray I: (Cutworms, Leaf eaters, Leaf miner, millipedes, budworm, Aphids)
One of the following insecticides should be applied in a 30 cm swath directly over the
plants using 500 litres/ha and minimal spraying pressures to ensure maximum run-off
and plant wetting:
Cypermethrin 20 % EC, 50 ml/100 litres water
Decamethrin2.5 % EC, 120 ml/100 litres water
Application
Using a knapsack sprayer fitted with an ES 12-80 degree or 8015 nozzle at 1-1.5
bar pressure and traversing the row at 1m/sec will apply approximately the correct
volume (3.6litres/m). The knapsack sprayer will have to be refilled every few
minutes.
Tractor mounted boom: treat two rows at a time with nozzle outlets directly above
the row centres. An alternative is a spray boom with four to six hand held spray
laces.
Calibration: To obtain large droplets for maximum plant wetting and run-off, low
spraying pressures (1.0-1. 5 bar) must be used.
i. Select a suitable tractor speed
ii. Select correct nozzle size to give 500 litres/ha in 30 cm band over
ridge
iii.
If nozzle is limited, select suitable tractor speed.
Routine Spray II
Use same equipment as for Routine Spray I where plants are about to enter their
main growth phase. A high clearance tractor will reduce plant damage. This
second spray is intended to function with Routine Spray I.
Disease Control (Lands)
DISEASE
White Mould
(Erysiphe)
Wildfire, Angular Leaf
Spot
Anthracnose, Frogeye
Alternaria leaf spot
DESCRIPTION
Powdery white spots on
both surfaces of lower
leaves which gradually
move up the leaves
Small lesions, surrounded
by green halo, older lesions
have brown center and
surrounded by yellow halo
Circular white lesions,
surrounded by brown
necrotic rings and small
yellow haloes
Brown necrotic lesions with
concentric rings surrounded
by a yellow halo on leaves
CONTROL
Dinocap 25% WP,(Karathane 20% WP) 400800g/ha + 20ml wetting agent
Benomyl (Benlate 50% WP); 200g/ha + 20ml
wetting agent
None. Resistant varieties
Benomyl (Benlate 50% WP), 200g/ha + 20ml

wetting agent
Iprodine (Rovral 250 sc, 2litres/ha
tebconazole (Folicur 250 ec, 500ml/ha
Iprodione (Rovral 250 sc, 2 litre/ha
Soreshin
Black Shank
Mosaic
Rossette and Bushy

Top
Leaf Curl
and elongated on stems.

Decay of stalk below soil
level
Wilting in field and
yellowing of bottom leaves.
Base of stem blackened and
if split longitudinally pith is
laddered
Dark green and chlorotic
light green areas on leaves.
Also curling, mottling,
distortion and blistering of
leaves plus dwarfing of
plant
Mottling of leaves and vein
distortion leading to
backward and downward
curling of leaves. Plants
look bushy because of
excessive growth of side
shoots.
Veins thicken on lower leaf
Drench seedbeds with Baytan 15% wp 2 days

before pulling
Propamocarb-HCL (Previcure N), 60 ml/litre
water
Metalaxyl 68 MZ (Ridomil 68 MZ), 200g/litre of
water
Resistant cultivars plus sanitation
Transmitted by aphids
Transmitted by whitefly
Cutworm infestation, early and late: keep land free from weeds for at least a
month before planting.
Apply the material as a drench to wet the soil round the base of the plant, using up
to two 30 fertiliser cups per plant.
Output per hour per labourer treating plants against cutworms:
Level of
productivity% of
standard
Plants per
hour per
labourer
100
90
80
75
70
60
1 060
955
850
795
740
635
For planning purposes use figures below 75% of standard. Outputs may be halved if two
applications per plant are required (late infestation)
Aphids:
Granules: Disulfoton 5% granules at 45kg/ha (3g/plant) or Menazone granules at
90 kg/ha (6g/plant)
Sprays:
Dementon-s-methyl 50% e.c 150 ml/100litre water, Dimethoate 40% ec
375ml/100 litres water, Menazon 70% DP 300g/100 litres water
Apply to Dec and Jan plantings at weekly intervals for three weeks, starting one
week after planting.
Rate of application is 200 litres/ha. Add 33 % more active ingredient/ha for aerial
spraying.
Budworms:
Can be controlled by hand picking, but this should not be attempted where mosaic
is troublesome. If hand picking cannot restrict the infestation to 10 caterpillars per
100 plants or less spray with:
Acephate 75% sp 90g/100 litres water: Monocrotophhos 40% sp, 110/100 litres
water
Methamkidophos 40% wsc, 350/100 litres water
Penetration of bud is essential. High volume application- 250 litre/ha, through flat
fan nozzle minimum pressure three bars, held 15 cm above heart of plant e.g.
application will be achieved with FS8 or 504 nozzle, moving along the row at
1m/sec.
Crickets:
Use discarded seedlings dipped in either Trichlorform 95% sp-10g/100 litres
water. Distribute the treated seedlings or maize meal bait in the late afternoon,
especially near obvious cricket holes.
Lace worms:
Control by hand picking but when more than eight worm/100 plants spray using
Methomyl 90% sp, 333g/ha.
Leaf Miners;
Monocrotophos 40 % wsc, 190m/100 litres water. Apply over plants-small plants
150 litre/ha and large plants 3000 litre/ha
Three applications at weekly intervals will be required to eradicate severe
infestations.
Lesser armyworm:
Spray Acephate 75% sp-180g/100 litre water or;
Methomyl 90% sp 110g/100 litre water
Stinkbugs and loopers;
Hand picking is usually sufficient. Severe infestations spray Monocrotophos 40
% wsc, 800 ml/ha.
White grubs and False wireworms:
Can be controlled culturally by early ploughing, planting and grass rotations.
Where they are troublesome, apply Chlorpyrifos 48% ec in planting water at
minimum of 500 ml/plant. For one ha at 115 000 plants/ha, require 50 ml of the
concentrate.
Topping and Suckering
By hand
Topping plants in bud stage, one row at a time.
% to be
topped
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Level of productivity-%of standard metres of ridge per labourer in eight hours.

100%
27 100
21 900
18 600
15 900
14 050
12 400
11 100
90%
24 400
19 700
16 750
14 300
12 650
11 150
10 000
80%
21 700
17 500
14 900
13 700
11 250
9 900
9 000
75%
20 300
16 400
13 940
11 900
10 550
9 300
8 350
70%
18 950
15 300
13 000
22 250
9 850
8 700
7 800
60%
16 250
13 150
11 150
9 550
8 450
7 450
6 000

80
90
100
10 000
9 250
8 500
9 000
8 350
7 700
8 000
7 400
6 850
7 500
6 950
6 400
7 000
6 500
6 000
6 650
5 550
5 150
Output for various methods of applying suckercide

Method of
application
Level of productivity-% standard
To two leaves in a
split application
from one measure
cup
With tipping bottle
(Kurt type
applicator)
With measuring cup
in one application
over top of stem
From bottle with
plunger
With
handgun(Manipular,
windmill etc
With boom,
handgun and tractor
equipment
100%
865
90%
780
80%
690
75%
650
70%
605
520
915
825
730
685
640
550
1 015
915
810
760
710
610
1 020
920
815
765
710
610
1 020
920
815
765
715
610
850
725
645
605
565
485
For planning purposes always use figures below 75% of stem card
Reaping
Tying methods
Single strings: untying slow unless the string is cut. If cut, use expendable string
(expensive)
Double string-over stick: causes most damage and fallout.
Double string under stick, horizontal and vertical string hanging: causes less
damage, use re-usable string.
Tilita clips; minimum damage and fall out, but untying is slow.
Manipular clips; untying is fast. Possible damage or breakage of large mid-ribs.
Information on string
String
T1
M/kg
623
Breaking strain kg
25
Finish
Glazed
T2
364
27
Glazed
T9
1 260
Unglazed
T22
648
20
Unglazed
Comments
Sold in spools of 500g and 2.5kg.
Normally used for sewing bales. When use
a substitute for T2 it unravels badly on
reuse
Sold in spools of 500g and 2.5kg.
Commonly used for and horizontal string
hanging of tobacco in the barn
Sold in spools of 500g only. Most
commonly used with sticks. Too weak for
horizontal hanging of tobacco in barns.
Normally cut when untying, but can be re
used
Sold in spools of 500g only. Suitable for
horizontal hanging and reuse. Better than
T13
296
11
Glazed
T410
T480
3 940
738
3
14
Unglazed
Unglazed
T12.
Sold in spools of 500g only. Normally used
with Oriental Tobacco
May cut too much with single string tying
Expensive compared with T22
Outputs
Kurt machine, using string
Output per reaper per hour at 75% of standard, 102 leaves per string
Position on
plant
Bottom
Middle
Top
Average number of leaves per plant

0.5
9
1.0
11
1.5
13
2.0
13
2.5
14
3.0
15
12
13
16
16
17
17
18
18
19
19
19
19
With a proper land layout (including parallel), it should be possible for two reapers to
share one waiter.
Short clips
Output per reaper per hour at 75% of standard 45 leaves per clip.
Position on
plant
Bottom
Middle
Top

0.5
1.0
1.5
16
24
31
17
27
32
19
29
34
2.0
36
37
38
2.5
39
39
40
3.0
39
39
40
With proper layout, it should be possible for two reapers to share one waiter
Position on
plant

0.5
13
16
19
Bottom
Middle
Top
1.0
14
17
20
1.5
16
18
21
2.0
16
19
23
2.5
17
19
24
3.0
17
19
24
Allow one waiter for every two reapers.

Traditional reaping (for bulk curers
The output per reaper in bundles per hour at 75% of standard is 102 leaves per
bundle or equivalent.
Position on
plant
Bottom
Middle
Top

0.5
8
8
11
1.0
16
16
22
1.5
20
21
28
2.0
24
27
32
2.5
25
29
34
3.0
28
31
34
Allow one waiter for every reaper.

Barns; Barn to land ratio for standard barns, at least on 5m x 5m x 8 Tiers for
every 1.5 2.0 ha

Rule of thumb: allow one standard barn (5m x 5m x 8 tiers) per day for every 10
hectare of tobacco grown. A 40 hectare crop will require 6 x 4 = 24 barns if barn
turn round time is seven days.
Barn spacing and capacities
Barn size
No. bays
Spacing
between
strings, clips
or sticks
Tiers per barn
10
Strings or sticks
5m x 5m
4
5m x 6m
4
6m x 5m
5
6m x 6m
5
200mm
200mm
200mm
200mm
700
840
875
1 050
800
960
1 000
1 200
900
1 080
1 125
1 350
1 000
1 200
1 250
1 500
Long clips
5m x 5m
5m x 6m
6m x 5m
6m x 6m
200mm
200mm
200mm
200mm
875
1 050
1 050
1 260
1 000
1 200
1 200
1 400
1 125
1 350
1 350
1 600
1 250
1 500
1 500
1 800
5
5
6
6
Strings or sticks
5m x 5m
4
225mm
616
704
792
880
5m x 6m
225mm
728
832
936
1 040
6m x 5m
225mm
770
880
990
1 100
6m x 6m
225mm
910
1 040
1 170
1 300
Long clips
5m x 5m
225mm
710
880
990
1 100
5m x 6m
225mm
910
1 040
1 170
1 300
6m x 5m
225mm
924
1 056
1 188
1 320
6m x 6m
225mm
1 092
1 248
1 404
1 560
Long clips, stagger packer

5m x 5m
5
175mm
980
1 120
1 260
1 400
5m x 6m
175mm
1 190
1 360
1 530
1 700
6m x 5m
175mm
1 176
1 344
1 521
1 680
6m x 6m
175mm
1 428
1 632
1 836
1 040
Vertical
string
5m x 5m
5 per stick
2 layers
3 layers
300mm
640
960
5m x 6m
300mm
800
1 200
6m x 5m
300mm
800
1 200

6m x 6m
300mm
1 000
Summary of barn loading methods

Method
Minimum labour per team
For 8 tier barn
Horizontal string and
Rope method
Horizontal string, hand
To hand
Horizontal string and conduit
Vertical string and rope
Method
Vertical string, hand to hand
Long clips, hand to hand
Sticks and double short clips,

hand to hand
Loading trailer for bulk
Curer
CURING LABOUR
Barns, hand stoked
Barns, auto stoked
Tunnel, Chongololo, bulk
Coal consumption
Hand stoked;
Heat exchanger;
Packer + 2 labourers. A
Balanced team consists of
2 packers and 3 waiters at
280 strings/hr per team
P+5
1 500
Output per team per hour
Based on packer (75% of
Standard)
140
260
P+3
P+2
300
155
P+3
P+5
390
330
output can be increased to 480 if
intermediate labour assists with
packing
320
see also above
Loading bulk curer. Driver + 2
general workers. Time to load
bulk curers: 75 95 min
depending on method
P+5
Loading press in land + 3
labourers. Loading trailer in
Land = 2 labourers
: 10 12 barns per labourer

: 15 18 barns per labourer
: 1 labourer per shift. Trolleys may be moved at shift
Change-over time so that two workers are available
for moving trolleys.
3 kg coal to 1 kg cured tobacco

1.25kg coal to 1 kg cured tobacco
Wood furnaces hand stoked. Allow 3 m3/100 kg of cured tobacco

Summary of barn unloading method
Method
Minimum labour per team

For 8 tier barn
Horizontal string and

Rope method, 5 strings per
Occasion
Unloader + 1 final passer +

Waiters or trolley 2 labourers are
needed to load
The trolley
U + 1 plus waiters or trolley
Vertical string, rope method, 5

strings per occasion
Sticks or clips, hand to hand
Clips from tunnel trolley,
Hand to hand
U + 3 plus waiters. Only one

worker needed to load trolley if
used
3 labourers in team at 810 clips
per hour per team
Output per team per hour

Based on packer (75% of
Standard
430
660
530
810

Unloading bulk curer
(including transport)
Team of three + one cleaning

fallen leaves
Time per curer of 1162 trays = 90

min
Final Operations
The following figures may be used as a guide. All outputs at 75% of standard:
Unclipping long talita clips
115 clips/ha/lab.
Unclipping short talita clips
130 clips/ha/lab
Unclipping manipular clips
190 clips/ha/lab.
Untying reusable string
120 strings/ha/lab/
Unclip and temporary store contents, 110 min for team of two for team of two for
162 bulk curer trays.
String bulking; two labourers can place 260 strings/hr.Slate packing; two labourers can
place 225 strings or equivalent in bundles per hour including pressing and bale moving.
BULKING
Rough bales
Average size in mm; 900 x 600 x 600.
Maximum mass; 50 55 kg for lugs and primings
55 60 kg for cutters
60 70 kg for leaf
Rough bales should not be stored more than three deep and should be turned at
regular intervals. Space requirements 350 kg/m2.
Loose leaf bulks; not higher than 2 m settled height
Allow 200 250 kg/m2, exclusive of pathway
Stick bulks
Temporary; 15 m2 per 1000 sticks
Permanent; 120 150 kg/m2 for bulks 3.5m high.
Slate packs; 600 mm square pack holds +- 45kg
750mm square pack holds +- 67.5kg
When packed five deep, allow 625 kg/m2
Clip bulks (775 mm clips); allow 140 150 clips/m2
Grading
Allow approximately 100 grading days for the crop. One grader can grade at least
50 kg of tobacco a day.
Up to twice as much tobacco may be graded off the string. Allow one check
waiter for every five graders. Have one Super check or Master Grader.
As a rough guide use half the number of labourers for tying as there are graders.
Include a leaf issuer, conditioning labourer, boiler attendant and the labourer
working on the bulks. It may be necessary to have a sweeper to keep the shade
clean. The output of a shade must be in excess of 20 kg per day per person
involved.
A grader can handle between 7 500 and 10 000 leaves per day.
A baling team consists of three labourers who can bale and sew two to three bales
per hour.
The flow through the shade must be logical and continuous. Use as few grades as
possible. To calculate the output of a grader uses the following formula:
7 500
. =kg/grader/day
No. of leaves per kg
Crop uniformity and the facility with which tobacco may be graded are
determined by many managerial factors. Thus land selection, preparation,
fertilizing, planting, reaping, curing and storage, all contribute towards the
relative ease, or otherwise, of grading.
Leaf from different lands, different reapings and different barns should be kept
separate.
Grades
The farmer should keep the number of grades down to a minimum of twelve to
fifteen.
Sample grading by the farmer should be done daily.
Each leaf should be graded according to the following criteria:
Leaf type
Primings
colour
White
Lugs
Lemon
Leaf
Orange
Tips
Mahogany
Green
factor
Clean
Black guinea fowl
Green Guinea fowl
Spot
(Do not mix)
Ponge
Slate
Water stain
Harsh
High maturity
Open grained
Close grained
Slick
Greenish
Slightly discoloured
(Bad barn rot should
be stripped)
quality
(degree of
factor, waste or
injury)
1. good to
fair
2. fair to
mediu
m
3. balance
length
Short or long (may
be done by check
grader)
See tying below
Tying hands
Tolerance for leaf length in a hand.
Where the leaf length is less than 400 mm, not more than 75 mm variation of leaf
lengths within the hand is permitted. Where leaf length is over 400 mm, not more
than 125 mm variation in length is permitted.
Butt diameter; This may vary between 25 mm and 28 mm, whilst binder measurements
may vary between 37 mm and 43 mm from the butt.
Output; 85 hands/ tyer/ hour.

Loose leaf; Growers may present their tobacco for sale in loose leaf form, subject to the
following provisions;
the tobacco must be properly graded
the leaves must be straight laid and unbroken
Burley tobacco leaves must be under 230 mm in length
The length variation within the bale must not exceed 75mm for leaf under
400mm, and 125mm for leaf over 400mm.
Baling
Baling boxes; internal measurements should be 860 mm x 610 mm.
Bale height; all +- 30 mm height of bale for every five kg of tobacco, depending
on leaf type.
Bale markings; Numerals to be 75 mm high, except where the bale mass is less
than 30 kg when 50 mm high numerals are acceptable.
Bale mass; Minimum 25 kg; maximum 110 kg nett, or 27 kg to 112 kg gross
Wrapping materials;
Hessian; Length of material: (Where one piece used; 2.8m, Where two pieces
used; 1.4m per piece; Width of material: 1.35 m: Mass of material: 340 g/m2:
Waterproof paper: Mass per roll = 17.2 kg)
Where used, identify with a black cross, marked from corner to corner, on the lot
number ticket sewn to the side of the bale, so that the tare mass may be adjusted
by the floors.
Polythene sheet: alternative to paper, minimum thickness; 150 micrometer.
Baling output:
10 minutes per team of two for 25 kg bale
Steam: steam pressure should be 1.7 bars 2.8 bars for conditioning
Sewing output;
28 minutes per sewer per bale of 61 120 kg
Grading Shed requirements
Grading table should be 1.8m across x 1.2m or 4.5 mof floor area per grader and
the optimum working height when standing should be 93 cm above ground.
Check grading trolley should be 0.9 m across x 0.6 m x 0.9 m.
Blending table should be 2 m x 1.2 m.
Grade boxes should be 1.2 m x 1.2 m for each tyer.
Baling area should be 35 m.
Bale store should be 150 kg/m excluding passages.
Allow 450 mm for people sitting or standing beside tables, or 300 mm in the case
of cut-out tables.
Passages must be wide enough to allow free movement (i.e. trolleys)
Shed Lighting
The ideal requirement is 400 lux at the grading surface (although a minimum of
250 lux is acceptable
Natural light: South facing is best. 15% of roof should be transparent over the grading
areas and 10% over the areas. Even light distribution is best achieved by using small
roof-light sheets.
Artificial light
Fitting: Single 1.2 m power factor correct industrial fitting with reflector
Type: 1.2 m, 40 watt fluorescent colour matching or north light tube of British
manufacture or daylight No. 55 or 57 of Continental manufacture.
Mounting height: Mount fittings, 1.2 m above grading tables, grade boxes and wherever
final inspection is carried out. Over other areas mount at 2.9 m above floor.
Spacing: A 1.2 m 40 watt tube gives 250 lux over an area of 1.5 m x 1.2 m. A 1.5 m 80
watt tube at 1.8 m above table covers 2.4 x 1.5 m. N.B When using artificial light, black
out all natural light.
Maintenance: Wipe reflectors and tubes daily. When tubes begin to fail, replace all tubes
in one area. Re-use those that are still operational in the general lighting area.
Relationship between crop size and grading area for flue cured tobacco
Possible factors leading to yield reduction
Crop stage
Germination
Planting out
Timing
0 7 days
8 12 weeks
Weeding
Critical time 4 6 weeks after

planting
Topping
8 10 weeks after planting
Reaping
Curing
Marketing
General information on graders
Remarks
Optimum time 20th October to
10th November. Yield loss/week
from 10th - 30th Nov = 3.5%,
thereafter = 7%/week
In wet years poor weed control at
this stage can lead to 40%
reduction in yield
In dry years similar reduction can
occur through over cultivation
Delays reduce yield 5 8% per
week and will affect grade
If lower one third of plant colours
in 48 72 hours+,, reaping is
ripe. If top two thirds of plant
colours in 36 48 hours +,
reaping is ripe. If colouring takes
place in less time, this indicates
over-ripe reaping and can lead to
a 6% loss in mass per day for
every day over ripe.
Weight loss of 10% per day over
7 days of cure

A grade mark consists of 3, 4 or five symbols. The first indicates the position on the
plant, strip or scrap.
i.e
P -Primings
T - Tips
X -Lugs
A -Strips
L -Leaf
B -Scrap
The second indicates the quality; 1 5 for P, X, L and 1 - 3 for T, A, B. the third symbol
indicates the colour i.e.
L - Lemon
R -Light mahogany
E
- Pale lemon
S -Dark mahogany
O
- Orange
D -Walnut
The fourth and fifth symbols are extra factors which are sometimes added i.e.
A -Spot
D -Droughted (harsh)
F -High maturity
G -Green
J
-Water stained thin
K - Sub standard (variegated)
Other marks
If the bale is not sold these marks show the reason why:
MR -Mixed hand
BMR -Mixed leaves
BGR -Badly handled
LR -Mouldy
HR -Funked
U -Unsound
Selling expenses (one bale = 90 kg)
handling fee of 40 cents per bale
three percent commission
Levy 0.72 c/kg + 0.72 percent of value
O
V
W
Y
Z
-Scotched
-Greenish
-Waterstained
-Guinea fowl spot
-Slick
NG -No grade
SR -Stem rot
NDR -Undeclared split
RR -Rejected
NR -No sale
DR -Damaged
Hail and Wind Insurance

Consult ZTA, Jupiter etc
Summary of labour days and fuel inputs flue cured tobacco production
Standard
Plant population
15 000
Av. No. leaves per plant
18
Reaping period
9 weeks
Mammoth
15 000
21
11 weeks
Basic operations: all figures at 75% of standard

Operation
Seedbeds (D + 20)
Apply lime (D + 2)
Plough (D)
Dryland
Labour days Fuel litres/ha
per ha
25.95
0.75
0.34
3.00
0.34
26.00
Irrigated
Labour days per
Fuel litres/ha
ha
25.95
0.75
0.34
3.00
0.34
26.00

Disc (D)
Herbicide and disc (D
+ 1)
Ridge, fertilise and
fumigate single row (D
+ 2)
Hole plant stations (F
+ 12)
Planting, water cart
with 6 hoses (D+F+19)
Reridging (x2 )(D)
Cultivate by hand (x2)
(F+15)
Topdressing (min x2)
(F+12)
Pest and disease
control (C+4)
Budworm control
(C+12)
Topping (single row)
(F+6)(min 3 occ)
Apply suckercide
(F+6)
Irrigation (C+6)
Remove stalks by hand
(F+12)
Disc regrowth (D)
Sow grass (D+2)
Cover seed (D)
Commuting
Total basic at 75%
0.28
0.28
9.50
6.00
0.28
0.28
9.50
6.00
0.74
15.00
0.74
15.00
1.57
0.25
1.57
0.25
19.37
20.00
19.37
20.00
0.46
8.35
22.00
0.50
0.46
8.35
22.00
0.50
14.77
0.50
14.77
0.50
4.80
3.00
4.80
3.00
2.71
0.50
2.71
0.50
1.24
0.75
1.24
0.75
2.86
0.25
2.86
0.25
3.33
0.25
10.00
3.33
4.50
0.25
0.28
0.34
0.26
9.50
3.00
6.00
4.00
135.25
0.28
0.34
0.26
88.27
9.50
3.00
6.00
4.00
130.75
98.27
Allow 20l Fuel/ha for harvesting all methods.

Summary of labour days input Flue cured tobacco production
Harvesting
Operation
Reaping for
stadard barns
using:
Strings
Long clips
Short clips
Sticks
Reaping for
chongololos using:
Strings
Long clips
Short clips
Reaping for
tunnels
Long clips
Reaping for Tilden
Labour days per hectare

Standard variety (9 weeks)
Reapers to waiters
2:1
1:1
based on
100 000
Mammoth variety (11 weeks)

Reapers to waiters
2:1
1:1
leaves per barn
39.03
43.24
36.00
43.67
48.01
40.16
Based on
51.95
57.56
48.16
72.02
120 000
37.77
45.77
41.84
Based on
48.61
60.93
53.35
140 000
41.99
50.83
46.61
Leaves/barn
53.35
67.68
59.25
45.35
Based on
58.27
140 000
50.40
Leaves/barn
64.87
Leaves/barn
58.27
64.03
53.49
80.73

and mechanical
batch curers
Long clips
Reaping for
standard long low,
using:
Strings
Long clips
Short clips
Reaping for bulk
curer using trays
45.49
Based on
60.65
140 000
50.55
Leaves/barn
67.39
36.92
45.07
37.77
40.29
60.23
50.40
33.28
43.11
50.12
41.99
-
54.89
66.83
55.73
36.92
For budgetary purposes add 10% for contingencies to any of the above figures
Summary of labour days and fuel inputs flue cured tobacco production
Operation
Loading standard
barns using:
Chongololo using
(i) Rope
String hand to
hand
Conduit with
string
Long clips hand to
hand
Short clips hand to
hand
Sticks hand to
hand
Long low barns
Rope with string
Hand to hand with
string
Conduit with
string
Long clip hand to
hand
Tilden batch
Long clips hand to
hand
Mechanical batch
Long clips, hand to
hand
Tunnel
Long clips on
trolleys
Bulk curers trays
Labour days per ha

Standard varieties
Mammoth
Fuel litres per ha

Standard varieties
Mammoth
6.17
8.13
9.55
12.49
5.75
7.57
20.25
24.75
4.63
5.89
7.44
9.68
6.45
8.56
6.03
9.12
7.72
11.77
20.25
24.75
5.61
7.16
5.61
7.16
5.33
6.60
20.25
24.75
5.33
6.60
20.25
24.75
5.33
6.60
20.25
24.75
0.99
1.12
20.25
24.75
Summary of Labour Day input Flue cured tobacco production

Curing
Operation
Standard barns
Hand stoked
Auto stocked
Long lows
Standard varieties
Mammoth
10.80
7.20
13.20
8.00

Hand stoked
Auto stocked
Chongololo(long low or standard)
Tunnel bulk and batch curers
16.13
10.80
19.87
13.20
5.47
6.67
Summary of Labour Day input flue cured tobacco production
Unloading and untying
Operation
Standard barns
I. strings
ii. long clips
iii. short clips
iv. sticks
Chongololo
I. strings
ii. long clips
iii. short clips
Long low barn
I. strings
ii. long clips
Tilden batch
Long clips
Mechanical batch clips
Tunnel long clips
Bulk curer trays
Labour days per hectare

Standard varieties
Mammoth varieties
Unloadi Untying
Total
Unloading
Untying
ng
Total
0.61
1.72
1.87
0.97
12.96
4.63
5.95
1.93
13.75
6.35
7.82
2.90
0.81
2.27
2.43
1.28
16.27
5.89
7.75
2.57
17.08
8.16
10.18
3.85
0.61
1.72
1.83
12.35
5.75
5.84
12.96
7.47
7.67
0.81
2.27
2.43
16.27
7.57
7.57
17.08
9.84
10.18
0.60
1.68
12.65
5.61
12.65
5.61
0.77
2.51
15.44
7.16
16.21
9.31
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.25
2.24
2.24
2.24
-
3.20
3.20
3.20
0.25
1.45
1.45
1.45
0.28
2.64
2.64
2.64
-
4.09
4.09
4.09
0.28
Bulking/slate packing
Operation
Rough baling (includes sowing)
Slate packing
I. using 70kg packs
ii. using 45kg packs
String bulking
Loose leaf bulking
Standard barns
i. strings or sticks
ii. long clips
iii. short clips
Chongololo
i. strings or sticks
ii. long clips
iii. short clips
Long-lows
i. string
ii. long clips
Yield
1 600 kg
3.20
2 000 kg
4.0
2 500kg
4.93
3 000 kg
6.0
2.24
2.88
3.73
4.80
Standard varieties
3.52
4.32
5.87
7.20
Mammoth varieties
2.47
3.24
5.59
3.25
4.12
7.27
2.47
3.21
5.47
2.35
4.24
7.27
2.41
3.15
3.09
4.01

Tilden/mechanical batch
i. long clips
Tunnel
i. long clips
Bulk curer
Trays
4.27
5.28
3.31
4.09
1.79
2.93
Grading, including tying, sewing and despatch (based on yield)
Operation
Grade ,tie, sew,
bale and dispatch
Labour days per hectare based on yield

1 600
2 000
71.33
72.8
2 500
84.26
3 000
84.26
Cassava
Scientific name: Manihot esculenta Crantz
Shona name: mufarinya, mujumbura
Ndebele: Umjumbula
Climatic requirements
Cassava is a drought tolerant starchy, root crop which yields well under marginal
conditions.
It grows well in areas with an annual well distributed rainfall of 750 1000 mm
but can tolerate low rainfall.
It prefers high temperatures of 25- 29C.
Soil requirements
Performs best in deep well drained, light textured soils of intermediate fertility.
Has high tolerance to acidity and optimum pH is between 4.5 and 6.5
Seed
It is propagated from stem cuttings
Seed rates
A plant population of 10 000 plants per hectare is economic and gives a good crop
. Stem cuttings for seed should be 25 30 cm long i.e. 5-7 nodes
Spacing and depth of planting
It is planted on ridges about 1m apart but may be planted on flat land in deep sand
soils..
Spacing is 80- 100 cm within and between ridges.
2/3 of the cutting must be buried in the ground and the remaining part exposed
above the ground.
Soil fertility and fertilizer management
Applied 300kg/h of Compound C (6:17:15).
Optimum N application is 60kg/ha .
Yield potential
High yielding improved varieties can yield up to 50t/ha (fresh weight)..
Weed management and Control

It requires 2 hand weeding. First at 3-4weeks and then at 7-8 weeks after planting.
Diseases
Cassava Mosaic Disease is a potential threat in areas with white flies and
farmers should use healthy planting material or plant a range of cassava
cultivars to mitigate against disease outbreaks.
Insect Pests
Cassava Green mite and Cassava Mealy Bug are potential threats to cassava.
There is need to use tolerant varieties.
Termites are also a problem especially during dry season.
Harvesting and storage
Most varieties mature at 12 months after planting however some can be harvested
as early as 9 months.
Harvested tubers are highly perishable and can not be store for more than 2 days
in fresh form.
Sweet Potato Production

Time of Planting
Where there is irrigation and no frost dangers, planting can be done throughout
the year.
However where rainfall is less than 1000mm it should be done early with the
onset of the rains..
Varieties
Improved varieties include brondal and cordner.
Local varieties include chizou and chigogo.
Soil Requirements
Well drained sandy to loamy soils.

Soil pH from 5 to 6.3.
If pH goes below 5.0 then liming will be necessary.
Prefers high temperatures of 24 to 29C.

Vines are killed by winter frost.
Requires relatively high light intensity. Requires 750- 1000 mm of rainfall / year
Planting
Planting is done on mounds of about 20 cm to 30 cm high. Intra row is 20 cm and

inter row is 90 cm, but for low rainfall areas wider spacing is recommended.
It can also be done on ridges or flat land
Two thirds of the cutting should be in the ground and one third exposed. Plant at a
45-degree angle for increased yields.
40 000 cuttings are needed per hectare and cuttings should be 5 to 7 nodes long.
Terminal cuttings produce the highest yields.
The cutting should be at an angle of 45 and should have between half and two
thirds in the soil.
Fertilisation
60 kg nitrogen per hectare in natural region 1 and natural region 2. Apply in splits,
half at planting and the other half a month later.
Also apply 300 kg per hectare of compound D.
They respond well to organic manuring.
Propagation
Usually propagated by vine cuttings, slips or roots.

Propagation material should be taken from a vigorously growing disease free
stock.
Vine cuttings should be 30-40 cm.
Irrigation
When rainfall is less than 750 mm during the growing season or if the distribution
is poor supplementary irrigation is required.
Overwatering must be avoided at the later stage of growth since it causes
extensive vine growth at the expense of root development.
Weeding
Weed at 4 to 8 weeks after planting.

Herbicides like Naptalam, Alachlor and Sencor can be used.
Harvesting
Lifting can start about 120 days after planting though some cultivars take up to 240 days.
Roots are suitable for lifting when the cut surface dries to a white colou.r
The plough or potato harvester may be used to harvest but they cause damage so forks or
spades are more advantageous.
After harvesting the roots are left on the land for 2-3 days to suberise.
Yield Potential
19t per hectare fresh yield.

High yielding varieties can reach up to 50t per hectare.
Storage
They do not store well after harvesting so it is advisable to dig up tubers when
they are required.
After harvesting and curing the tubers can be placed in a basket and covered by
grass or banana leaves and placed in a pit lined with grass.
Insect Pests
Sweet potato weevil
The weevil tunnels tubers resulting in secondary bacterial and fungal infection.
The adult female bores into the stem or root and deposits an egg in the hole.
After hatching the larva moves to a storage root which enters and feds upon the
root tissue until it pupates.
Use healthy material and get rid of infected tubers for control.
Rotations can also control pests.

Carbaryl can also be used to control the pest.
Nematodes
They attack roots and they are controlled by using resistant varieties.
Sweet potato butterfly
Prevalent in dry season.
The caterpillar feeds on leaves leaving only skeletons of primary midribs.
Complete defoliation can occur
Diseases
Sweet Potato Mosaic Virus Disease
It causes vine clearing chlorosis, puckering, leaf strapping, leaf curl and stunting.
Control is by burning all affected plants
1. Scurf
2. Charcoal rot
3. Tuber rot
Horticulture
Planting Calendar for Vegetables
Ja
Beet root
Brinjal (egg
plant)
Broccoli
Butternut
Cabbage
Carrots
Cauliflower
Chillies
Green beans
Green mealies
Lettuce
Marrow (baby)
Onion
Peas
Peppers
Potato
Squash
Squash (germ)
Squash
(marrow)
Tomato
Water melon
Fe
Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Carrots (Daucus carota)

Temperature
Optimum production temperature is 15 21 0C.
At high temperatures, above 25 0C the growth is slower and short thicker roots
with pale colour are produced.
Soils
Plant in deep, rich light soils.
Insufficiently decomposed manure and stony soils cause forking in carrots.
The soil pH ranges from 5.5-6.8. Acid soils must be avoided.
Planting
The crop is sown in situ.
Can be grown all year round but the best time to plant is May to July.
Carrots may be drilled in or broadcast but should be thinned after 1 month to

leave 3 6 cm apart. The sowing should be at the rate of 3-8 kg/ha.
Fertilization
Before sowing apply a basal fertilizer of 100 200kg / ha Compound D.
. Manure may be incorporated at a rate of 10-20 tonnes per hectare at sowing.
Top dressing should be done after 20 40 days of sowing applying 150 kg of AN.
Irrigation
Supply 35 mm 55 mm every 7-14 days
Cultivar selection
Variety
Days to maturity
Maturity Category
Kuroda
70 - 120
Medium
Chantenay
70 - 120
Medium
Nantes
70 - 120
Medium
Laguna
85 - 95
Early
Star 3006
85 - 95
Early
NB: Buy seed from a recognised seed dealer. Keep the pack together with the paper
found inside
Weed Management
Care should be taken in weeding to avoid damaging roots

Weeds can be kept under control by mechanical means.
Insect Pest Management

Pest
Aphids
Symptom
Sucking pests
Leaves wilt and turn yellow
Control
Dimethoate 40EC at
10ml/10L of water.
Nematodes
Attack the root and cause

slow growth
Tubers are deformed,
Crop rotation and use of

resistant plants and soil
disinfection

forked or stringy
NB: For details on chemicals, consult your local AEW or chemical representative. For
rate of application refer to container
Diseases
Disease
Powdery Mildew
Leaf Blight
Bacterial Soft Rot
Symptoms
Whitish growth on leaf
under surface and later
whitish spot appear on both
leaf and stem surface.
Blackening of foliage which
subsequently dies
Reduce the carrots to a soft
slimy mass
Control
Application of sulphur in the form
of Dithane M45 at 30g/15l water or
Benomyl at 30 ml/15 l water
Dithane M45 20g/ 10L
Copper oxychloride 85% wp
200g/100L every 7 10 days
Growing carrots in well drained
soils,
Rotation do not follow carrots after
lettuce or cabbage.
The roots must be kept well
ventilated after lifting
Harvesting
Done after 3 months, ideally when the roots are more than 2 cm diameter.
A plough must loose the soil first. Harvest during cooler day times and keep in a
cool place or sprinkled with water to maintain the fresh state.
The tops are cut off and carrots are packaged in transparent film bags to increase
shelf life.
The expected yield is > 25 tonnes per hectare with good management.
Storage
The crop can be stored for 6 months at about 0 oC and relative humidity of
98 %..
93-
Cabbage
Requires daytime temperatures ranging between 160C and 240C.

Mature plants can tolerate temperatures of 30C for a very short period.
Soil Requirements
Can be grown in well drained soils, provided they are adequately fertilised and
well supplied with organic matter (manure).
Slightly acidic to neutral soils are required with a pH range of 6.5 - 7, and with a
good water holding capacity.
Land Preparation
The soil should be worked to a fine tilth.
Planting
Highveld - August to April
Lowveld - January to May.
Certified disease-free seed should be used.
Retained seed should be heat treated at 500C for 25 minutes to eliminate seed
borne diseases. The seed should then be dried and dusted with 2 g Thiram/kg
seed.
Sow seed in seedbeds using a rate of 300-450 g for one hectare.
The seedbeds are treated with 60 g of compound sand and 3 kg manure per m2.
It takes 7 - 14 days from germination to emergence
Emergence to transplanting it will take four to eight weeks depending on variety.
Harden seedlings and transplant when they are 10 - 15 cm tall
Transplant with the roots intact and irrigate immediately after transplanting to
reduce transplanting shock.
Only healthy and vigorous seedlings should be used and transplanting should take
place in cool overcast weather or late in the afternoon.
Spacing
The recommended spacing is shown in the table below and vary depending on the variety
of cabbage grown.
Variety
In-row
Between
Population/ha
(mm)
rows (mm)
Early
300
450
74 000
450
450
49 300
Mid-season 450
500
44 400
500
600
33 300
Late
450
750
29 600
600
750
22 200
Fertilisation
A basal dressing of 1000 kg/ha compound S is recommended or manure can be

used at a rate of 25-50 tonnes/ha.
Topdressing using ammonium nitrate is done using a rate of 100 kg/ha. This is
applied twice at three weekly intervals after transplanting.
Irrigation
Irrigation schedule for cabbage
Assumed planting
First month of
Remainder of
Out date
planting out
growing period
(Days)
(Days)
Application of 35 mm net per irrigation
April
12
8
August
8
5
December
10
6
Application of 45 mm net per irrigation
April
16
10
August
10
6
December
12
8
Cultivar Selection
Variety
Days to maturity
Maturity Category
Golden Cultivar
65 90
Early
Cape Spitz
75 110
Medium
Copenhagen Market
70 - 110
Medium
Drumhead
120 - 160
Late
Adelita F1 hybrid
71 - 80
Early
Rotan F1 Hybrid
70 - 80
Early
Star 3311 F1 Hybrid
75 - 85
Early
Green Coronet F1 Hybrid
120 - 140
Late
Star 3315 F1 Hybrid
90 - 100
Medium
Klabishi F1 Hybrid
90 - 100
Medium
Marcanta F1 Hybrid
70 - 80
Early
Weed Control
Weed
Chemical
LR/SR (Long/short
Stage of application
residual effect)
Annual and certain Trifluralin
Residual for
Cross-disced into soil before
broad leaf weeds
approximately 4
transplanting.
months
Annual and certain Lasso
Residual for 6 8
After first transplanting
broad leaf weeds
weeks
irrigation but before weeds
emerge
Annual and
Fusilade
Apply after weed emergence
Perennial grasses
Super
PEST
SYMPTOMS
CONTROL
Bagrada bug
Leaves wither and young plants
Dichlorvos 5% EC at 200 ml/100 litres
may even be killed if the attack is water, or Parathion 25 WP at 125g/100
severe
litres water.

Cabbage
Aphids
Small soft-bodied sucking insects

that feed on the crop leaves and
stems
Cut young plant stems at the
base.
Dimethoate 40% EC at 75ml/100 litres

water.
Red Spider
Mite
Diamondback
Moth
It causes silvering and mottling

of the leaves
Mine through the leaf and feed
around the growing bud of the
young plants. They create
irregular holes, sometimes
leaving the upper surface of the
leaf in place (windowing).
Same as for aphids.
Webworm
The larvae feed on the growing

Same as for Diamondback moth.
points of the young plants
causing deformed growth and the
formation of many growing
points
Burrows into leaves causing
Same as for aphids
them to fall or become
unmarketable
Cutworms
Leaf miner
Diseases
Disease
Bacterial
Black Rot
Bacterial
Soft Rot
Bait made up of 100 kg mealie meal plus

625 g endosulfan, 50% WP is applied to
the ground before planting or near plants in
the late afternoon. Other chemicals that can
be used are Mavrik 2 E, Carbaryl 85 WP
and
Dursban .
Cover sprays at regular intervals of not

longer than ten days using endosulfan at a
rate of 700 ml (35% EC) in 500 litres
water/ha.
Symptoms
Kills the seedling leaves
completely
after they turn dark in colour. When the
plants are larger, the disease causes
yellow V-shaped areas at the edge of the
leaves, particularly lower leaves near to
the soil.
Cabbage turns soft and rotten with a bad
smell
Control
Use of resistant varieties
Use of certified disease free seed
Plant on ridges to prevent water

logging around the plants
Prevention of other diseases will
reduce the ability of soft rot to
penetrate the crop.
Avoid harvesting under warm moist
conditions
Wash and disinfect hands and
harvesting knives.
Avoid growing cabbages in the
Yellows
Leaves often bend sideways since only

one side of the leaves sap tubes is
blocked, but they do not survive long
and usually go yellow and drop off.
Fluffy fungal growth on the underside
of the leaf.
Downy
mildew
Damping
off
Damping off and wire stem of seedlings

in the seedbed and bottom rot and head
rot in growing cabbage crops or after
harvest
same field for at least three seasons

Growing resistant varieties and by
practicing crop rotation
Dithane M45 at 200g/100 litres
water every seven to ten days.
Dip seedlings at transplanting.
Sow seed thinly and drench with
Thiram at 10 g/5 litres of water
each week.
Harvesting
Harvesting takes place 60 to 90 days after transplanting depending on variety.

As soon as the heads are full, firm, well closed and sufficiently developed they
should be harvested.
Harvesting may be for a period of 15 to 20 days at 4-day intervals.
Yield
Expected yields vary according to variety.

Open pollinated varieties yield 30 - 35 tonnes/ha and F1 hybrids yield 50 75 tonnes/ha.
Onion Production
Temperature
The optimum temperatures are 1827 C.
Bulbing is more rapid at warmer temperatures and low winter temperatures

induce bolting which results in reduced yield, quality and storage potential.
Soil Requirements
Requires well drained soils with high levels of organic matter.
The soils should be fertile and should be ploughed to a depth of 600mm.
The suitable pH is 5.0 to 6.8
Planting
The planting time is February - March

For direct sowing use a seed rate of 5-6kg/ha
Construct nursery be1- 1.5 metres wide, leaving a 50cm path between the beds.
Apply basal fertiliser of Compound S at a rate of 450 to 550kg/ha and incorporate
into the soil. Manure or compost can also be used.
Top dress with 350g/m2 of ammonium nitrate 2-3 weeks after emergence avoid
over application as too much Nitrogen may cause excessive foliage and delayed
bulbing.
Mark out rows 10 - 20 cm apart across each bed. Do not broadcast the seed.
2.5 -3 kg of seed is sufficient for a hectare and will need a nursery with an area of
300m2 when the seed has been sown into the marked out lines, cover with sand or
if the sand is unavailable cover lightly with soil then mulch and irrigate
Transplanting is done after 810 weeks when seedlings are pencil thick and are
about 1525cm long.
Mulch must be removed gradually as seedlings grow.
Approximate irrigation schedule for the nursery
Apply two light irrigations daily until germination.
Apply 5mm daily for the first week after germination
Apply 10mm every two days up to 8 weeks from sowing.
Sets or Bulblets
This method leads to early maturity has the advantage of harvesting early by 50
55 days but is not commonly used.
Sowing is done in AugustSeptember.
Bulbs mature in three months and these are lifted and resown in January
February.
Transplanting
Plough, disc and harrow the field to a depth of 30 cm.
Broadcast and incorporate lime (preferably a month before transplanting). This is

only necessary when pH falls below 5.0 (CaCl2).
Broadcast compound S at a rate of 800-1000 kg/ha and incorporate. Top dress
with 100-kg/ha ammonium nitrate 4-6 weeks after transplanting.
Transplant to 5-7.5cm spacing within row and 30 cm between rows.
Irrigation schedule for the field is as follows:
20 mm weekly from 8 to 10 weeks
40 mm fortnightly from 10 to 14 weeks from sowing
40 mm every 7 to 10 days until bulbs mature
Stop irrigation when 25% of the tops have collapsed
Cultivar selection
Variety
Radium
Texas Grano
White Lisbon
Red Pinoy
Days to maturity
210 - 220
210 - 220
180 - 200
120 - 150
Yield
8 10 t/ha
60 t/ha
10 25 t/ha
20 - 25 t/ha
NB. Expected yields vary depending on cultivar, planting date and management.
WEED MANAGEMENT
Weed
Chemical
Annual and
perennial grasses
Fusilade
super
LR/SR (Long/short Stage of application

residual effect)
Apply early post emergence of
grass and crop
Ronstar
3 months
Apply immediately after

planting seedlings or sets
Broad leaves and Goal
Apply to clean land at 10 to
grasses
18 days after transplanting
PEST
Thrips
SYMPTOMS
Silvery or blanched
appearance on leaves,
tender centre leaves become
curled and deformed, outer
leaves turn brown at tips
Cutworm
Cuts plants at the base
NB: For details on chemicals, consult your local AEW or
CONTROL
Thionex 35 EC
Karate
chemical representative. For
Diseases
Disease
Purple Blotch
Symptom
Control
Small
irregular
white Dithane M45
patches on the leaves
Ridomil
Downy Mildew
Grey down covering the Dithane M45.
leaves
Ridomil Gold
White bulb rot
Black sootylike mould Benlate
between the scales
Quintozene
Harvesting
Done when at least 50% of the tops have wilted/collapsed.
A light irrigation is applied before harvesting.
Sort and grade, removing all thick-necked onions, then store in a well ventilated
shed with low temperature and low humidity.
Inspect weekly and remove all spoiled bulbs.
Expected yields vary from 20-100 t/ha depending on cultivar, planting date and
management.
Tomato Production
Temperature
Should be grown in frost-free areas and optimum growth temperatures range from
18 25 oC.
Soil Requirements
Optimum pH is 5.0 5.5 CaCl2.
Liming is done when pH is below 5.0.
Grows best in sandy loam soils
Seed bed
The seed rate is about 120 160 g in a nursery seed bed of about 60 m2.
Emergence takes 7 -10 days depending on prevailing soil temperatures.
Seedling trays
These are mostly made of silicon boards.
Trays should always be suspended on tables or benches to allow for free water
movements and root pruning.
Seedling trays offer a good stand of crops at germination and transplanting if used
correctly.
At transplanting the seedling is taken with the soil that it germinated from which
reduces root damages which causes transplanting shock.
Boxes or asbestos trays
Care should be taken to allow for free drainage to prevent damping off of
seedlings.
Transplanting
Transplanting id done 6 -8 weeks after emergence.
Harden seedlings when they have 3-5 true leaves and are pencil thick or
approximately 12 cm tall.
Spacing
Use 300 mm to 500 mm in row and 1.5 2 m between rows.
Fertiliser Management
Apply basal dressing of Compound S 1 000 1 500 kg/ha (6:17:6), or Tobacco fert
(6:15:12) at 700 kg/ha Broadcast half and disc into the soil then apply the other
half at planting
Apply top dressing of Ammonium Nitrate and Potassium Sulphate each at 100
kg/ha, split into 2 or 3 applications.
Cultivar Selection
Cultivar
Alboran
Rodade
Growth Habit
Determinate
Determinate
Fruit Shape/Quality
Round, Smooth and pleasant taste
Good quality with high grading

Roma
Determinate
Long red and almost plum shaped
Floradade
Determinate
Firm fruit
Money maker
Indeterminate
Round red firm fruit
Red Khaki
Determinate
Poor fruit firmness
Rossol
Determinate
Poor fruit firmness
UC82B
Determinate
Firm block fruit
Heinz
Determinate
Medium firmness
Fortune Maker F1
Determinate
Square shaped, thick walled
Adelaide F1
Indeterminate
Round, firm deep red
Thomas F1
Indeterminate
Medium to large size, deep red
Raissa F1
Indeterminate
Glossy fruit with constant size
Star 9030 F1
Indeterminate
Round smooth fruit
Weed Management
Weed
Chemical
LR/SR
Stage of application
(Long/short
residual effect)
Annual and
Fusilade super
Apply post emergence to
perennial grasses
young and actively growing
weeds
Broad leaves and
annual grasses
Sencor 480 SC
Trifluralin (Trif)
Pests
PEST
Cut worm
Aphids
African Bollworm
8 12 weeks and Apply as directed. Spray at

longer
least 14 days after
transplanting
Cross disc into soil before
5 months and
transplanting
longer
SYMPTOMS
Cut young plant stem at the
base
Suck plant sap and reduce
plant growth.
Feed on leaves, flowers and
fruit
Red spider mite
Leaves may become

spotted, yellow, brown or
silvery
Leaf miners
Causes white spotting or

stippling in leaves
Suck plant sap and reduce
plant growth.
Whitefly
CONTROL
Carbaryl, Dursban, Pyrinex,
Karate
Dimethoate, Metasystox 25
EC, Malathion 50%
Thionex 35 EC, Dedevap,
Tamaron 600 SL, Carbaryl,
Dipterex 95 SP
Malathion, Dimethoate 40
EC, Mitac, Armitraz 20 EC,
Kelthane 18 EC, Dicofol
Tamaron, Trigard
Confidor, Naturell, DDVP

Diseases
Disease
Bacterial
canker
Bacterial
wilt
Bacterial
spot
Bacterial
Speck
Early blight
Late Blight
Symptom
Wilting of the foliage, stem splitting and
mealy breakdown of internal tissues of the
stem with a separation of wood from pith.
Sudden wilting of the plant, browning of
woody tissues from which bacteria slime
oozes after cutting across the main root and
lower part of the stem
Dark brown raised pustules on the fruit, later
becoming slightly sunken and scabby.
Control
It is controlled by using healthy
seeds, planting on ridges and the
use of crop rotation
Use crop rotation and avoid use
of areas prone to water logging.
Healthy seed , crop rotation and
Copper oxychloride, Mancozeb,
Captan and Metiram
Use certified disease free seed
Copper oxychloride and
Mancozeb
Mancozeb, Ridomil, Maneb,
Bravo
Brown spots 2mm in diameter on leaf edges

On fruit black slightly raised superficial spots
3mm in diameter
A dark reddish brown leaf spot with
concentric markings appearing first on the
lowermost leaves, causing defoliation.
Infection of the fruit is usually associated
with cracks and other skin injuries
Greyish green water soaked lesions on the
leaves which rapidly turning black Lesions on Mancozeb, Ridomil, Maneb,
the stem are dark brown and large mottled
Bravo, Captan
brown areas develop on the fruit.
Tomato
Affected plants show light and dark green
mosaic virus mottling. Young leaves may be distorted and
will show stunted or elongated growth in
condition known as the fern leaf
Tomato
Tomato spotted wilt symptoms include
spotted wilt overall yellowing, spots on leaves or terminal
virus
shoots and general stunting.
Tomato
yellow leaf
curl virus
Physiological disorders
Physiological
Symptom
disorder
Blossom end
Appears as small 3
rot
3 water soaked area at the blossom end
of fruit. This enlarges, becomes sunken
and turns black and leathery and
sometimes turning the core of the fruit
brown.
Use resistant cultivars

Control vectors
Practice good hygiene
Rogue out and destroy infected
plants
Control
Grow resistant cultivars such as
the processing cultivars. Foliar
applications of calcium chloride at
transplanting time can be useful.

Puffiness
Fruits appear and angular. The fruit feels

lighter than it should be and when cut
holes in the flesh are seen.
A sound nutrition regime should

be followed.
Sunscald
White or light tan discoloration of the

fruit that has been over heated due to sun
exposure.
In concentric cracking, the fruit normally
develops circular, concentric cracks
around the stem end of the fruit. Radial
cracking, the fruit cracks radiate from the
blossom end.
Care should be taken when

pruning fruits and harvesting not
to overexpose fruits to the sun.
Use cultivars that are tolerant to
cracking such as Floradade and
Rodade.
Fruit cracking
Harvesting
The stage at which harvesting is done will depend on proximity to the market,
package available and the variety of tomato being harvested.
There are four distinct stages at which tomatoes can be
harvested.
Pale blossom-end stageCream coloured streaks at blossom end of the fruit.
Pink blossom-end stagePink dull red colour at blossom end of the fruit.
Pink stageDull red fruit
Ripe stagethe fruit is virtually ripe but still firm.
Yields
Yields of over 100t/ha can be obtained depending on cultural practices and

cultivars. However a yield range of 20-60 t/ha is usually achievable.
Storage
Ripe tomatoes may be stored for 7 to 10 days at 5 to 10 oC and humidity of 80 to

85%. To increase storage life, fruits should be harvested at the mature green stage.
Okra
(Abelmoschus esculentus)
Varieties
There is only one improved variety that is available on the local market and this is the
American variety Clemson Spineless.
Uses
The cooked pods are used as relish and are consumed with the staple sadza.
The seeds have a high oil content that can be extracted for household and
industrial uses.
Climate
It is best grown in hot areas or during summer either as a rain-fed crop or under
irrigation.
Soils
It can be produced on well drained sandy loam soils with an optimum pH range of
6-6.8 (CaCl2).
Fertilizers
Basal fertiliser:
Apply 450-750 kg/ha Compound C or Compound D per planting station. Cover
the fertiliser with a bit of soil before placing the seed and covering it..
Top dressing
Apply 290 kg/ha ammonium nitrate split 2-3 times starting 3 weeks after seed
emergence and at three week intervals thereafter.
Spacing
Inter row spacing of 60-90 cm and in row spacing of 20-30 cm depending on the
size of the variety being grown.
Time of Planting
In the highveld plant from August to December under irrigation. December to
April during the rainy season.
In the lowveld planting all year round is possible where irrigation is available.
Crop Establishment
8-10 kg of seed will be enough to plant a hectare.
Direct seeding is the most common method.
Raising seedlings in the nursery as transplants in seedling trays is another possible
method.
Pre-soaking seeds in water a day before planting increases the germination
percentage.
Harvesting
Harvest the young pods 5 to 10 days after flowering while the pods are still tender
and not fibrous.
Harvesting can continue once per week for more than two months.
Yields of up to 2-3 t/ha are obtainable.
Diseases

Powdery mildew
This disease is common in okra especially when the plants are fully mature.
The symptoms are white powder on the leaves and stems.
It is controlled by the fungicides Dithane M45 at a rate of 20 g/10 litres of water.
Cercospora leaf spot
This is observed as brown spots on the leaves with the middle part of the spot
being white.
It is controlled by spraying with Dithane M45 at a rate of 20g/10 litres of water.
Pests
Aphids
The symptoms are curled leaves and growing tips resulting in retarded growth.
They are controlled using Dimethoate 40 EC at a rate of 10 ml/10 litres of water,
or Malathion 25 WP at a rate of 20 g/10 litres of water.
Root-Knot Nematodes
They infect the roots of the plant affecting movement of water and minerals
within the plant.
Symptoms are stunted growth and swollen galls on the roots.
Control is best by observing crop rotations at 4 year intervals excluding other
nematode sensitive crops
Garlic
Garlic is used as condiment for flavouring and it also has medicinal properties. It
can be dehydrated and crushed to powder, for use in different dishes.
Climate
Garlic is less able to stand high temperatures.
The crop is frost hardy.
Optimum growth is achieved at 12-16 0 C and the best planting time in Zimbabwe
is April to May.
Bulbing occurs during longer days and higher temperatures and subsequent
exposure to lower temperature.
Soils
Requires well drained soils with good tilth and which are rich in organic matter..
Soil pH range is 5.5-6.0 (CaCl2) for best results.
Propagation
Garlic is propagated by segments of bulb called cloves.
The seed rate is 900-1100 kg /ha.
Use biggest cloves to obtain vigorous high yielding plants.
Planting
Soils should be worked to a fine tilth.
The cloves should be separated carefully to avoid double cloves which give twin
plants and misshaped bulbs. Plant with the tip of clove just above ground level.
Spacing
Rows spacing is 20 cm. Place the cloves at 8-10 cm apart in the row.
Fertilisation
Apply compound C at a rate of 350-500 kg /ha and top dress with 200-300 kg /ha
AN per month after planting.
Garlic also responds well to Organic Manure.
Irrigation
Never allow garlic to run short of moisture.
At each irrigation water to field capacity .Water less frequently but increase the
rate during bulb enlargement and cease watering 1 month before harvest.
Diseases
Garlic is not very susceptible to diseases but some of the diseases are listed below.
Downy mildew
Common when weather is wet with high humidity. Symptoms include a violet
greyish mould on the leaves.
Can be controlled using Radomil at the rate of 25 g /10 L of water.
Purple blotch
Causes drying of leaves with sunken spots.
Leaves become purple with yellow halo.
Can be controlled using Dithane M45 @ 20g/ 10 litres of water or Bravo 10ml/
10l of water.

Neck rot and Black mould
These are destructive storage diseases which result in bulbs turning black.
Can be controlled by storing under low temperatures and well ventilated rooms.
Eliminate any damaged diseased bulbs before storage.
Pests
Thrips
These cause silvery blotches on leaves and are usually found inside the leaf sheath
at the apex.
Scouting is very important because usually when symptoms appear on leaves the
damage would have occurred.
Control using Malathion 20g/10 litres of water.
Nematodes (Dictylenchus dipsaci)
May infect the bulb and stem of plant the basal portion of plant becomes swollen,
spongy and splits followed by decay.
Stunted growth and twisting also occur.

Always check source of planting material to avoid transferring nematodes and
diseases.
Harvesting
Crop matures 4-6 months after planting. Harvesting should be done in August to
October when conditions are dry
The bulbs must be lifted and left to cure on the ground for a week.
Expected yield is 8-12 tonnes /ha with good management. .
Post Harvest
At higher temperatures of (26 32 0C) garlic can be stored for 1 month.

. Intermediate temperatures (4.4 18 0C) favours rapid sprouting and high relative
humidity cause moulding.
At 0 0 C and 65 % relative humidity, garlic stores for 28-36 weeks.
Strawberry Production
Nursery Establishment
Site
Selected site should be far from other strawberry fields to reduce the chances of
infection with nematodes and viruses
.It should be free from frost.
Soil
Deep well-drained soil is desirable.
Fertilisation
Fertiliser recommendations for runner and field production
300 kg/ha Tobaccofert (6:18:15) should be broadcast and disced into the soil
before planting.
3 - 4 weeks after planting top-dress with 200 kg/ha ZFC Coffeefert (14:5:20) or
150 kg/ha ZFC Coffee Blend (16:5:22).
Three topdressings of 100 kg/ha Ammonium Nitrate are sufficient.
Spacing
Plants should be established on raised beds (1m - 1.2m wide) or ridges spaced
0.90 cm apart.
A spacing of 1m x 1m is best for runner production. Spacing for fruit production
is 30 cm x 45 cm or 30 cm x 30 cm.
Planting
Trim roots to about 10 cm. remove all leaves except one or two (this minimises
transpiration).
Spread the roots before covering in the soil. The plant is then set with the crown just
above the ground level.It is best to plant in moist soil and irrigate immediately..
Irrigation
Irrigation should be to field capacity at planting and during the first 4 weeks,
watering 3 times a week.
Water should be increased during hot days and reduced at cooler times.
Pests
Aphids and other pests should be controlled by spraying every two weeks with
Dimethoate - Thionex, Thiodan, Carbaryl and Malathion can also be used.
Bravo or Benomyl alternated with Dithane M45 applied once or twice a week
will control most fungal pathogens.
Harvesting
Runners should be lifted in February/March.
When lifting daughter plants, the mother plants (branch crowns) should always
be discarded. An average of 35-40 runner plants per mother plant can be expected.
N.B. Runners should not be allowed to set flowers as this retards the vigour of the
newly-set plants and slows runner productions.
Field Planting
Soil
Deep well drained, light soils with plenty of compost (20-30 t/ha).
pH should be in the range of 5.5 - 6.5 (CaCl2 scale).
Field preparation
Raised beds (1m - 1.2m) 0.90m apart or ridges are recommended.
The strawberry crop should not follow after a crop susceptible to verticillium wilt
(such as tomato and potato).
Fertilisation
Pre planting: 500 - 750 SSP/ha and 200 kg K2SO4/ha broadcasted and mixed to a
depth of 30 cm.
After establishment (at 4 weeks):75 - 100 kg AN/ha as topdressing, then 75 - 100
kg AN/ha and 100 kg K2SO4/ha from commencement of active growth at monthly
intervals.
Planting time
February to April is the best time to plant.
Spacing
Spacing should be 30 cm x 45 cm on raised beds. Closer spacing may be used if
planting is late to compensate for the small size of the resulting plants.
Plant population of 45000 plants/ha.
Mulching
UV stabilised black or clear plastic or rye grass can be used as mulch.
Strawberries can also be produced in tunnels.
Irrigation
Frequent light irrigations are recommended as strawberries are shallow rooted. .
Frost
A frost free site should be selected.
Straw mulch should be used where/when there is danger of frost e.g. during
winter.
Harvesting
Fruit should be harvested at red-ripe stage (130 - 135 days after planting for the early
planted crop). The harvesting may last for 2 - 3 or more weeks.For shipping, berries
should be harvested slightly earlier. The fruit will colour fully after harvesting..
Post - harvesting handling
Harvesting should be done with minimal damage as the crop is very perishable.
The fruit should be picked with the stalk attached, placed in shallow punnets and
cooled to remove field heat.
Cultivars
Rolinda
High yielding with rather soft, small berries. It has some
Rovelle:
resistance to mites.

Very firm, among the hardest. Has a very good flavour.
Selekta:
It has firm, large conical berries. Selekta is very popular in taste and appearance.
The flavour is good in winter but rather tart in summer.
Tioga:
An early cropper, usually earlier than Selekta. Has large berries that are firm
throughout the season. The flavour is superior to Parfaite and can be better then
Selekta. It has uniform ripening and is more resistant to mites. Has been grown
under tunnels.
Tiobelle:
Has firm, conically shaped and dark coloured fruit very floribundant.
Rolissa:
Fairly high yielding with small berries. The flavour is good.
Rorine :
Has medium sized berries with a flavour that can be better than Rolissa.
A good year yielder.
N.B. Flavour in strawberries depends on the cultivar but might be influenced by other
factors such as locality and cultural practices, in particular fertilisation.
Pests
Nematodes are the most important.
Aphids and mites might also cause problems. Morestan or some other acaricide
can be used against mites. Full cover sprays of Dimethoate at a rate of 75
ml/100l water will control mites
White grubs - larvae of several beetles - feed primarily on grass roots but can
cause severe damage to strawberries.Thiodan (drench) can be used as a control. It
will also control cutworms.
Diseases
Verticillium wilt, which is soil-borne, can be controlled avoiding planting after a

solanaceous crop..
Pepper Production
Propagation
Sowing
Seed is sown in spring after the danger of frost has passed.
Seed should be dressed with some fungicidal dressing such as thirum and soil
should be treated by solarisation.
Spacing of 75 X 45 cm or 90 X 45 cm with a seed rate of about 150-200 grams

per hectare is used.
Seedlings are transplanted after four to six weeks when approximated to be about
15 cm tall.
Any fruit that may have developed at transplanting should be removed because it
causes dwarfing of the plant and hence reduces yield.
Soil Requirements
Sands and sandy loams are preferred.
Heavy soils should always be avoided because of their poor drainage
. Ideal pH lies between 5.5 and 7.0 CaCl 2 scale.
Fertiliser Applications
Adequate organic manure is necessary and recommended at the rate of 25 35

mm tonnes of compost or manure per hectare.
Harvesting And Storage
Harvesting commences two or three months after planting and continues with
regular pickings at intervals of one to weeks for a period of three months.
Ripe chillies can be stored at 4.5 7 C and will keep for three or four weeks at
these temperatures.
Tsunga Production
Introduction
Tsunga Brassica junceat belongs to the Brassicae family, so it shares the same diseases
and pests with cabbage, Rape, Covo and Rugare.
Uses
The leaves are cooked as a vegetable. The vegetable is commonly mixed with
onion, tomato and cooking oil.
The most popular is when it is prepared in peanut butter. Tsunga can also be dried
green or after a few minutes of par-boiling
Production Requirements
Soil
Does better where soils are rich in organic matter, leaf size and quality improves
where organic manure is added.
Soil pH should range between 5- 6 (CaCl2). Avoid waterlogged soils.
Time of Production
It is common or was common for rural women farmers to grow Tsunga during the
rains December-April and on anthills.
The highest yield are obtained when planting is done in April to August, as the
cold winter temperatures delay flowering and induce the production of bigger
leaves.
Fertilizers and Manure
The following fertiliser rates are recommended.
Basal fertiliser
1. 50 t/ha manure no basal fertiliser except top dressing
2. 30 t/ha manure and 150 kg/ha Compound D
3. 450 kg/ha Compound D
Top dressing
Apply 290 kg/ha ammonium nitrate split three times.
First application 3 weeks after emergence and the rest is applied in three splits at
three week intervals.
Spacing
Rows can be spaced at 30-50 cm. inside the row plants should be spaced at 30 cm.
Crop establishment
Apply the manure and basal fertiliser and mix it in the soil.
Mark the rows and planting stations and plant 3 to 4 seeds per station. Thinning to
one plant per station is done when the seedlings are 2-3 weeks old.
Thin to one plant per station and apply the first top dressing after.
Irrigate before and after thinning to allow soil around the seedlings to settle. .
Harvesting
Harvest leaves after about 6 weeks of growth. Do not remove all the big leaves,
leave one for subsequent growth.
Harvest once per week and the number of leaves per harvest per plant will depend
on the plant growth conditions..

Diseases
Fungal diseases may appear if the crop is produced during the rainy season. Spray
with a fungicide at least once a week if conditions remain humid.
Pests
Aphids have been observed on Tsunga and are controlled using Malathion or
Dimethoate.
Bagrada bugs (vanaRudo) suck the sap from the leaves and leave dry spots on the leaf
making them unsightly and unmarketable. Bagrada bugs are controlled using
Carbaryl, Dichlorovos (Dedevap) and Parathion. Other organic methods of control are
available.
Potato Production
(Solanum Tuberosum)
Soils
Best soils are medium textured loamy soils with good organic matter content and
a pH of between 5.0 and 5.5 (CaCl2).
Land Preparation
The land should be ploughed to a fine tilth which is necessary for good tuber
development and a soil depth of at least 600 mm is preferable.
Seed
Certified seed should always be used in the production of potatoes..
Grade AA
Varietal purity:
99. 5%
Health:
Not more than 0.25% leaf roll or severe mosaic viruses.
Not more than 2% visible mild mosaic
No bacterial wilt at any growth stage
Grade A
Varietal purity:
99.5%
Health:
Not more than 1% leaf roll or severe mosaic viruses
Not more than 2% visible mild mosaic
Grade XX
As for Grade A, but tubers have been subjected to a limited amount of mechanical
damage.
Grade AA is available for a limited period (June-July) in any one year, while
Grade A is available throughout the year.
Newly sprouted seed produce the most vigorous plants and highest yield. Newly
sprouted seed is used when the sprouts are between 5 and 15 mm long.
Tubers which are firm, disease free, reasonably free of damage and which have
strong sprouts should be selected. Seed is sorted according to size and tubers
smaller than 25 mm are discarded.
Sprouting
On a commercial scale, seed potatoes are usually unsprouted when obtained.
These should preferably be sprouted under daylight conditions with protection
only from the strongest sun.
Force sprouting
Heat: A constant temperature of 30-35 o C will initiate sprouting. Merely covering
with a tarpaulin in moderate sunshine will help.
Acetylene:
a) The tubers may be stacked in an air-tight room at 21-27 o C containing 0.1 per cent
acetylene gas. 30 g calcium carbide will generate sufficient gas for 2 m3.
(b) Immersion in acetylene solution for 4-6 hours. For 45 litres of solution 230g calcium
carbide is added slowly.
Sprouting can be retarded by storing the seed at low temperatures, for one year at
3 o C, or by the application of a sprout inhibitor..
Varieties
Montclare
A very high yielding variety, producing medium quality tubers, which tend to be large
and of poor shape with deep eyes.
It is late maturing variety and is an uneven sprouted.
Its resistant to Late Blight but is susceptible to virus diseases.
BPI
A medium-early variety, taking 3-4 months in the ground.
White flesh, hard skin, good oval shape and very high yielding.
It is fairly resistant to Late blight.
An even sprouter.
Pimpernel
Late maturing variety, medium yield, and red skinned, yellow fleshed tubers for
chip trade.
Keeps well, has good field resistance to Late blight and is fairly tolerant of virus
diseases.
Inyanga Amethyst
Late maturing, white purple flowers.
White fleshed flat oval, shallow eyed, white skin with slight russet and quick
sprouting.
Consistently high yielder, both in summer and winter. Good resistance to Late blight.
New varieties that are available on the market are Jasper and Garnet.
Fertilisation
Fertiliser Nutrient Status Of The Soil
Nutrient
Good
Medium
Poor
Kg per Hectare Of Fertiliser
Nutrient Required
Nitrogen Up to 70
70110
110160
Phosphate Up to 325
350400
400450
Potash
Up to 70
70110
100135
All phosphate and potash requirements should be applied at/before planting, by
banding to the side of the seed.
To reduce fertiliser burn a single line may be drawn along the bottom of the furrow to
mix it with the soil, or the fertiliser covered with a thin layer of soil before planting the
seed.
Another method of application is to broadcast the fertiliser after ridging, set the seed
in the furrow, then split the ridge back over the seed
. When the tubers are in direct contact with the fertiliser, a good initial irrigation will
reduce the chances of burn occurring.
Compound S (7:21:7) is recommended in cases where it can be obtained.. The rate
of application of Compound S ranges from 1300-2100 kg/ha. Part of the nitrogen
requirement is supplied at planting in the Compound S and the balance, 100-150 kg/ha

ammonium nitrate, is supplied as a top dressing 1-3 weeks after the crop has emerged.
The top dressing should be applied between rows or per plant before the final earthing up.
Planting
Tubers are planted 70-100 mm deep under irrigation.
Dryland planting may be up to 150 mm deep.
Interrow spacing is 900 mm and the inrow spacing is 300 mm. .
Large seed tends to produce more stems and a higher proportion of smaller tubers,
small seed.
Seed producers will use a spacing of 600-1200 mm between rows and from 150-160
mm in the row.
Seed is supplied in 30 kg pockets containing sizes from 25 to 56 mm and an average
of 400 tubers per pocket
Time of Planting
Potatoes can be grown all year round in the middleveld and highveld. However
because of considerations of frost, wet months and utilisation of irrigation equipment,
three main planting times are recognised.
Summer crop
Normally planted in November to mature towards the end of the rainy season.
Earlier planting is possible and can lead to very high yields but lifting can be difficult.
Use late blight resistant varieties since complete chemical control during rains is
extremely difficult.
First Winter Crop
Planted from February to April to mature before frost according to area, but later in
the lowveld to take advantage of cooler weather.
Varieties resistant to Late blight should be grown.
Supplementary irrigation is essential.
Second Winter Crop
Planted in late July to early August after the risk of frost has passed.
Irrigation is required and when flood irrigation is used Late blight is not a problem.
With the use of overhead irrigation the risk of late blight..
Method of Planting
A uniform tilth is required and where flood irrigation is used ridging is essential.
Where overhead irrigation is used planting is done on flat land and ridging is done
later.
Hand planting is done behind a tractor-drawn ridger, which opens the furrows.
The tubers are placed in the open furrow and are closed by the soil thrown during the
following pass.
Furrows are spaced 90-120 cm and tubers are placed 30-60 cm.
Irrigation
Potatoes are shallow rooted with a maximum root depth of 600 mm.
Irrigation to field capacity is done at planting and no further irrigation is done during
emergence.
When the first flower buds appear the crop should be watered regularly until maturity.
Excessive watering should be avoided since this leads to undue leaching of nutrients
and reduces the keeping quality of potatoes.

An irrigation guide is given in the table below:
.
Soil Type
Hot Months Cold Months Irrigation required
Light soils
3-4 days
5-7 days
25-30 mm
Heavy soils
4-5 days
8-9 days
30-35 mm
Weed Control
Excessive cultivation should be avoided because potatoes are shallow rooted.
Earthing up by ridging is necessary to protect the tubers from greening, tuber-moth
and Late blight and should planned so as to be an integral part of weed control
Re-ridging should be completed by the time the plant is 25 cm high.
The ridges should be made as low as is consistent with good coverage for the tubers
and for efficient flood irrigation.
High steep ridges are subject to greater erosion and more rapid drying due to the
greater surface area exposed to the sun.
Wide flat-topped ridges are satisfactory for making adequate soil available for tuber
development and tuber protection.
Herbicides that can be used are Topogard, Dual, Sencor, MCPA and 2-4D.
Harvesting
If done early or in the production of seed potato the haulms are destroyed prematurely
by hand chopping, use of mechanical haulm pulverisers or rotor beaters or by the use of
chemicals.
Normally harvesting is done when 95% of the leaves have died off.
When chemical haulm destruction has occurred lifting should be completed inside 10
days to avoid attack by Black scurf (Rhizoctonia)
Harvesting begins when the potato skin has hardened sufficiently to reduce physical
damage during lifting.
The highest yields are obtained when the tubers are harvested 12-15 days after 95%
of the leaves have died off under conditions of overcast cool weather.
In hot dry conditions the tubers should be moved to a sheltered place immediately
after harvesting to avoid a reduction in the keeping quality. Only very muddy potatoes
should be washed.
Yields
Yield of up to 40t/ha can be obtained but on average the summer crop produces a yield of
17-20 t/ha and the winter crop 24-27 t/ha.
Storage
At temperatures between 3 oC and 5 oC, potatoes will only start sprouting after 8-12
months.
Clean pest free tubers should be dressed with 1% malathion and stored in a clean
room that has been treated with a suitable insecticide.
Ware potatoes must be stored in a cold dark place to prevent greening and reduce
sprouting.
Seed tubers are best stored in wooden trays called chitin trays, which have protruding
planks on all four corners to facilitate ventilation when the trays are staked on top of each
other.
Pests of Potatoes
Nematodes
Three main types of nematodes occur in Zimbabwe.
Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp) give rise to characteristic watery blisters
on the tubers at lifting time. These subsequently collapse and present a rough surface
of crinkly scar tissue. This type is most common and economically dangerous.
Root-lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp) are characterised by lesions on tubers
which are visible as slightly raised, light to dark brown-purple areas with a groovelike depressed border. Symptoms may develop during storage.
Burrowing nematodes (Radopholus) cause minute intensely black sunken spots
easily visible on freshly lifted tubers. This nematode is as yet of little economic
significance.
Control of nematodes is by rotation with nematode resistant grass leys of Ermelo
Love, Katambora Rhodes and Sabi Panicum grasses.
Soil fumigation with EDB can also be done three or four weeks before planting. Due
to the ban on EDB alternatives can be used e.g. Nemacur
Insect Pests
1. Potato tuber moth (Phthorimea operculella)
The larvae of this pest cause leaf damage by tunnelling between the upper and lower leaf
surface thus hindering photosynthesis, they also tunnel the stems and the tubers.
Control
Can be controlled using the parasitic wasp Copidosoma as biological control.
Clean fields by removing all tubers after harvesting and by weeding out alternative
hosts e.g Nicandra (Apple of Peru)
Ridge up tubers to bury them with about 250 mm soil. Do not ridge just before
spraying since covered leaves will receive no insecticide.
Chemical control using chemicals such as Monocrotophos or Carbofuran.
2. Aphids
Aphids transmit several virus diseases such as Leaf roll, Necrotic Virus Y and Virus
Y.
They cause wilting, premature senescence and a consequent decline in yield.
Chemical control can be done using Dimethoate.

3. Cutworms
Cutworms are the larvae of certain moths that chew through the stems at surface
level.
They are plump, dark, greasy grey caterpillars 25-38 mm long that feed at night
Control:
Apply a band of insecticide along the rows as a spray or bait.
Chemicals registered for use in potatoes are Monocrotophos, Deltamethrin,
Chlopyrifos and Endosulfan.
4. Potato leaf hopper (Empoasca fascialis)
These are small wedge-shaped insects that feed on the underside of the leaves.
They rarely cause economic damage and are controlled by Malathion.

5. White grub
These are soft bodied, white larva with a brown head that feed on the tubers making
shallow holes.
They are controlled by chlorpyrifos at planting.

6. False wireworms (Trachynotus and Psammodes spp)
Tough skinned cylindrical, yellow-brown larvae which eat into the plant stem just
below soil level. Control is by Chlorpyrifos.
Physiological disorders
Black heart Black centre of tuber caused by storage at high temperatures
Hollow heart Irregular cavities caused by rapid or irregular growth due to irregular
irrigation
Internal browning Occurs on infertile soils which are acid and phosphate deficient
Diseases
1. Late blight (Phytophthora infestans)
It appears as small brown lesions with a pale green border which rapidly coalesce to
form black water-soaked areas.
Under severe conditions all the foliage is destroyed within 5 days of the onset. On the
tubers it is seen as a rosy red necrosis of marginal tissue.
Fungicidal sprays are important on susceptible varieties and may be necessary on
tolerant/resistant varieties at peak period, particularly the months of February or March.
2. Early blight (Alternaria solani)
It is seen as target spots, roughly circular, dark brown with concentric markings.
Most fungicides that control Late blight also control Early blight.
3. Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum)
Symptoms are wilting of foliage, brown discoloration of vascular tissue, and dirty
white bacterial ooze which exudes from cuts made across a stem or tuber.
Control is by using certified seed and cultivation of the crop on disease free land.
Virus diseases
Leaf roll (Solanum virus 14)
Leaf drop streak (Potato Virus Y)
Mosaic (Potato Virus X)
Control is by the production of healthy seed in aphid free areas and by limiting spread by
aphid control in commercial ware crops.
E
Green Beans
(Phaseolus Vulgaris)
Beans are classified into two distinct groups:
Bush or dwarf beans
Runner or pole beans
Climate and Soils
A relative humidity of not less than 50 percent is required for good setting, although dry,
cool conditions are required for harvesting.
Best yields are obtained on sandy clay loams. The optimum soil temperature range is
between 25 and 30oC as this promotes good seed germination.
Soils which tend to become waterlogged should be avoided as water logging causes
flower and pod drop.
Optimum soil pH is 5.0-5.5 (CaCl2). Liming where soil pH is below 5.0 is advisable.
The recommended planting times are as shown below.
Below 750m altitude-sow March, April and May
750m-1200m altitude-sow early September to March
Above 1200m altitude-sow mid/end September to early November and end of February.
Fertiliser Requirements
The general recommendations for fertiliser application are a basal dressing of 600
kg/ha Compound D and a light top dressing if required of ammonium nitrate at 100
kg/ha.
The fertiliser must be banded at least 75 mm to the side and 75 mm below the seed
rather than broadcasting the fertiliser.
Boronated fertilisers should be avoided as beans are susceptible to high levels of
boron.
Planting
Seed should be sown at a rate of 80100 kg/ha, and the seed should be treated with
thiram and dieldrin to protect against attack by soil-borne fungi and the stem maggot.
Bush beans are planted in situ at a spacing of 50 mm x 450 mm. Double rows 200 mm
apart and 700-750 mm apart in the row is more convenient for mechanisation.
Runner beans are planted 100-150 mm apart, in rows 900mm apart. Planting depth
should not exceed 25 mm.
Beans should be planted in a soil that has been ploughed to a depth of 200-300 mm,
and before seeding; the soil should be brought to a reasonable tilth and irrigated.
Weed Management
Weed control should begin shortly after germination of the seeds.
Cultivation must be shallow since most of the roots are in the top 200 mm of the soil.
A number of herbicides are available for chemical weed control., examples of some
are listed below.
1. Linuron (Afalon), a pre-emergence herbicide applied at a rate of 1.5-2.5kg/ha.

2. Metalochlor (Dual) is another pre-emergence herbicide that is applied at a rate of
1.75 2.0 litres for grass control. In areas where nutgrass is a problem, the rate is
adjusted to 2.0-2.5 litres/ha
Irrigation
Most of the roots of a bean plant are concentrated in the top 200 mm of the soil,
therefore light irrigations are recommended, 35-40 mm (net) on fine textured or
clay soils and 25-30 mm on light sands or coarse textured soils.
A guide to irrigation requirements for different altitudes is given below.
1. Above 1000m planted in early to mid September
Emergence to flowering
Flowering to final harvest
Fine textured Soils
40 mm every 9 days 40 mm every 5 days
Light sands
2. Above 1000m planted in late February or early March or below 750 m planted in
April
Fine textured Soils
Light sands
30 mm every 8 days 30 m every 6 days
Harvesting
The first harvest occurs about 14 days after flowering and lasts from three to four
weeks
The crop is harvested by hand when the pods are nearly full size, straight and
easily snapped, and the seeds small with a jelly substance surrounding them.
Beans are ready for the first harvest about 50 days after planting and this
continues for 21 to 30 days. Beans must not be harvested during the hottest time
of the day, and after rain or irrigation, should be allowed to dry before picking.
Green Beans usually give yields of 8-10 tonnes/ha
Diseases
1. Rust (Unronyces appendiculus)
Characterised by brown pustules on lower leaves with yellow halo of variable

size.
It is controlled by Mancozeb 80% at a rate of 300g/100 litres of water or Maneb

80% at a rate of 200g/100 litres of water.
2. Anthracnose (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum)
It is characterised by circular sunken brown pits on the pods containing pink

spores.
It is controlled by Mancozeb 80% at a rate of 300g/100 litres of water, Maneb

80% at a rate of 200g/100 litres of water, Thiram 80% at a rate of 200g/100 litres
of water Zineb 80% at a rate of 200g/100 litres of water.
3. Bacterial blight (Pseudomonas midicagiu)
It is characterised by small spots with yellow green halos on the foliage, pods and
seeds.
It is controlled using Copper oxychloride at a rate of 400g/100 litres of water.
Other diseases that can attack beans are scab, pre-emergent damping off and bacterial
pustules.
Pests
1. Aphids (Aphis fabae)
Aphids are sap sucking insects that transmit viruses.
They are controlled using Dimethoate or Malathion 50% or Endosulfan 35%.
2. Bean stem maggot
This is a small cream maggot that burrows through the stem forming swellings.
It causes yellowing of the foliage and plant wilt.
It is controlled using Dieldrin.
3. Heliothus bollworm (Heliothus armigera)
The heliothus bollworm hollows out the plant buds. It is controlled using
Endosulfan.
4. Loopers
Theses are green caterpillars that eat the leaves and the pods.
They are controlled using Carbaryl 85%.
5. Red spider mite
The Red spider mite makes fine webbing on the under surface of the leaf leading
to the leaves turning to a silvery colour and mottling of the leaves.
It is controlled using Malathion 25%.
6. CMR Beetles
These are large clumsy black beetles with yellow and red markings.
They are controlled using Malathion 50%.
Granadilla Production
(Passiflora Edulis),
Uses
It is a popular constituent of cool drinks, cakes, icing and ice creams..

The plant
Most of the cultivated Passion fruit are woody, perennial climbers.
The main stem is green in colour while the leader of the yellow granadilla, P.
edulis forma flavicarpa, is maroon to purple in colour.
The lobed leaves are borne alternatively on the main stem and laterals. In the axil
of each leaf, tendrils, which assist the climbing plant and flowers, are borne. . are
The Flowers.
The flowers are 50 mm in diameter and striking in form and are borne singly in
the axils of the leaves along the new shoots.
Flowers on the younger part of the shoots open later, so that a crop from one
flush of shoot growth and fruit setting is harvested during a period of two to three
months.
The Fruit.
The fruit is oval in shape, 50 to 65 mm in diameter and dark purple colour
(externally) when ripe.
It has a hard shell of about 3 mm thick and the internal lemon coloured flesh
contains some 150 blackish seeds, each seed being embedded in an individual
juice sac
A selection of this granadilla with a slightly larger fruit is often found in local
plantings but this fruit is usually poorly filled and hence of poor quality.
The yellow granadilla fruit differs from the purple type in that it has a yellow rind
when ripe, more aromatic and more acid pulp, brown seeds (larger than P edulis)
and the fruit is generally larger.
Pollination can be accomplished by installing a number of beehives in the
plantation.
It is a tropical plant which prefers a moderate temperature throughout the year but
is susceptible to frost.
Mature vines are resistant to a few degrees of ground frost, but the young
seedlings are rather tender.
The yellow granadilla, however, is not frost tolerant.
In low lying areas like Chiredzi, Middle Sabi, the economic life span of the
granadilla is about 3 4 years.
In the higher lying escarpment areas like the Eastern highlands, the plants may
produce a reasonable crop for about eight years, depending on management.
The soil
Prefers well drained medium textured soils.
Planting
Planting is done as from September to December in cooler areas.
Obtain seedlings from a reputable nursery.

Transplant the seedlings when they have attained a height of 60 cm.
Systems in Production
There are two systems in the production of Passion fruit:.
High density/ intensive system

Rows are spaced at 4m apart and in row spacing of 10 cm to give a plant
population of 25 000 plants per hectare.
Each vine is trained to the top wire and horizontally, on the direction of the
prevailing wind until it reaches the opposite row.
Vines must be wound loosely around wires to prevent damaging the plants. All
suckers should be removed
Low density /Extensive system
Rows are planted at 1m and 2.5m apart alternately to facilitate tractor movement.
Plants are planted in pairs, 20 cm apart with 2m separating each pair. A plant
population of 5 714 plants per hectare is achieved.
Correct trellising is essential to allow light to enter so as to improve fruit colour,
reduce insect pests and disease incidence.
One plant is trained to the low horizontal wire and along it. Laterals are allowed
to grow and hang down. Remove all suckers from these laterals on a regular basis.
Fertilization
Before flowering, apply 150 Kg/ha/ month of compound J and ammonium nitrate
50 Kg/ha/month.
After flowering, apply:
100- 150 Kg/ha/month Ammonium Nitrate (AN)
100 Kg/ha/month Muriate Of Potash (MOP)
After cutting back apply 200 kg/ha compound J.
Before flowering, apply 75 Kg/ha/ month compound J and ammonium nitrate 30
Kg/ha/month.
After flowering, apply:
75-100 Kg/ha/month AN
75 Kg/ha/month Muriate Of Potash
After cutting back apply 150 kg/ha compound J.
Pruning
Flowers and fruits develop on current season growth; hence pruning is advised to
rejuvenate growth, increase air circulation and light penetration.
Pruning should be carried out in dry weather to reduce diseases.
Severe pruning from year one is advised.
Remove all suckers as they come out. After harvest cut back to 30 cm above the
ground 12 16 months after transplanting.

Vines are cut back after harvesting all the fruits.
Spray to prevent possible phytophthora infection.
Cut back main leaders to about 30 cm below their respective wires.
Protect against Anthracnose die back by painting with a strong fungicide on the
cut wounds.
Irrigation.
As from August to the end of February, apply light but frequent irrigation of 2535 mm after every ten days.
No water should be applied during the rains or when the soil has enough moisture.
Overhead irrigation should be avoided since it may promote the development of
foliage diseases.
Weeds
Hand weeding is the most appropriate.
Appropriate herbicides may also be used depending on the type of weeds in the
orchard.
Harvesting
Fruits are harvested when they are 90-95% coloured depending on the distance
from the market.
Fruits should be kept in a shade after picking.
In the extensive system, yields of 8-15 tons /ha are expected while 15 30 tons/ha
may be obtained from the intensive system.
Diseases and their control

Damping off
It is caused by pathogens like Pythium and Rhizoctonia.
Symptoms include wilting of seedlings with water soaked girdling of the stem at
just or just below the soil surface.
Control is done by good nursery practices and seed dressing with fungicides.
Leaf and fruit spot.
Caused by fungal pathogens such as Septoria, Alternaria and Cladosporium.
They cause necrotic lesions round to angular on both the fruit and the leaves and
at times the shoots.
The disease spreads when conditions are wet, humid.
Affected leaves later die and drop off while the fruits are down graded.
Good pruning and orchard management is essential to minimise diseases.
. Powdery mildew.
Causes leaves to turn yellow and drop off.
The disease is seen as white powdery patches on the underside of the affected
leaves.

Control is by spraying with wettable sulphur.
Phytophthora.
Causes yellowing of the vines starting at the tips.
Dark water soaked areas on the stem which develop to swollen areas are the
symptoms.
The swelling becomes corky, dry and the bark gets rough and cracks resulting in
wilting and death of the plant. It is a common disease in older plantations.
Control is done by good drainage and use of chemicals like Bravo, Dithane M45.
Bullets Disease or Mosaic Woodiness
Is caused by a virus that cause fruits to become lumpy with a thick skin and little
pulp.
Control can be effected by planting virus free seedlings and remove and destroy
infected vines.
Anthracnose.
Occurs where vines have been damaged or cut.
The tissue near the wound dies, spreading down the plant causing its death.
Paint cuts and damaged areas with a strong fungicidal solution.
Pests
Fruit fly and Pumpkin fly
These insects lay eggs in the fruit while the fruit is young and still developing.
A round depression is formed, with a small hole in the middle.
A soft brown area develops around the spot.
Control may be effected by the use of Lebaycid and any other bait spray such as
Malathion added with sugar sprayed at four day intervals can also be effective.
Nematodes.
These are common in sandy soils and affects root growth and development.
Prevention may be effected by the use of nematicides applied before planting such
as 30 ml of nemacur per station
Thrips
Tiny cigar, shaped insects that can at times be found in large numbers on the
flowers of passion fruit.
Their feeding and egg laying may cause small white blemishes on the fruit.
They are common in warm dry weather especially in September.
They cause distorted leaf growth and also flower drop.
Tip wilters
These are large black stinkbugs with spiny projections on thorax and legs.
This sap sucking activity causes the wilting and dying of shoot tips.
Hand collection is the most effective control.
Green stink bugs
Causes damage by piercing young fruit, that later become discoloured and not of
good quality.
Hand picking is the best method.
Eggplant Production
Background
The immature fruit is eaten when it is attractively coloured and glossy and the
seeds are still immature.
Fruits are eaten grilled, fried or steamed or stewed with other vegetables, meat or
fish or roasted.
Some cultivars can be eaten raw, made into pickles or sweet jam and can be
preserved by freeze drying, canning or deep-freezing.
It is a good source of vitamin B and C, calcium and iron.
Temperature
Eggplant is frost sensitive.
Seed germinates in 7 14 days at temperatures of 21 24oC.
Plants should be transplanted when mean daily temperatures have reached 18
21oC.
Maximum growth temperature is 26 32oC with night temperatures of not less
than 20oC.
It requires a long growing season of 150 160 days and it needs 85 90 days to
the first harvest.
Soil
Eggplant requires well-drained fertile sandy loams.
In sandy soils add manure or compost to improve the organic matter content.
It requires a pH of 5.5 6.5 (CaCl2).
Liming is recommended if pH falls below 5.5
Its susceptible to root knot nematodes therefore avoid old tobacco lands or lands
with previous history of nematode infestations.
Soil fumigation is recommended before planting.
Water requirements
It has high water requirements and as a rank growing crop should not suffer from
water stress at any stage.
It has a shallow root system with most of the roots occurring in the top 300 mm of
soil.
Light frequent irrigations are recommended.
Table 1:Irrigation schedule for eggplant
First month
Second month to
maturity
Medium textured
soils
Apply 30mm net per
week
Apply 40 mm every 6
days
Sandy soils
Comments
Apply 20 mm net
every 5 days
Apply 25 mm net
every 3 4 days
In cloudy or cooler
weather increase cycle by
2 days for every 10 mm of
rain experienced
Irregular water supply during fruiting disturbs the calcium supply to the fruit and
results in blossom end rot or related symptoms
Land Preparation
Seedbeds
Grown from seedlings and is not sown directly into the field.
Prepare raised beds 40 50 mm above ground level.
Apply 4 6 kg manure or compost per square meter, 60g single super phosphate,
30 g sulphate of potash and lime if required.
If manure is unavailable apply 100 200 g/m2 compound D.
Seedlings are sown all year round in frost-free areas but in frost areas sow in
August to October.
Seed is sown by drilling 130 300 mm apart at a depth of 10 mm.
A thin layer of grass mulch is beneficial.
350 500 g of seed is needed to plant 1 hectare
Transplanting is done 6 8 weeks after sowing.
Production of Oyster Mushrooms

The mushroom house
It is also called the Fruiting or Growing house.
Construction of the mushroom house is based on a simple basic design.
1. The dimensions depend on the number of substrate bags the grower can handle at
any one time.
2. The walls are constructed out of farm bricks or poles and dagga or a wooden
frame and thatch. Plastic or foam sheets may be used to line the walls in order to
increase the relative humidity in the production house.
3. A roof thatched with grass or banana leaves.
4. Air vents and windows on the upper side of walls are required for ventilation and
lighting to initiate fruiting. Light sufficient to read a newspaper when in the house
is adequate.
5. Wooden shelves for holding the bags or wooden racks for hanging spawned
substrate bags
The mushroom house should provide optimum conditions for fruiting. Temperatures
should be maintained at 18 25oC and relative humidity should be 80 90%.
Incubation/Spawning Room
Spawned substrate bags are kept in this room for the mushroom mycelium to
grow. Growers may construct a separate incubation room with shelves to hold the
bags.
Alternatively the spawned bags can be covered with a black plastic in the
mushroom house.
If using the mushroom house for incubation the air vents and the windows should
be closed to provide dark conditions required for spawning.
Light is not required in the incubation room. Temperatures should be about 24oC.
Mushroom Spawn
Spawn refereed to, as the mushroom seed is mushroom mycelium growing on
sorghum, wheat or barley. It is used to seed substrate.
High quality spawn should be obtained from reputable Spawn Laboratories
Good spawn is the key to successful mushroom production. Pleurotus ostreatus
and Pleurotus sajor caju are the strains available locally for Oyster Mushroom
production.
Substrates
o Substrate is the agricultural waste on which the mushroom grows. Oyster
mushroom can be grown on several agricultural wastes;
o Finely chopped rice or wheat straw
o Shredded maize cobs
o Cotton waste
o Finely chopped maize stalks
o Sawdust from broad leaved trees
o Banana leaves
o The type to use depends on availability and accessibility.

o Any of these substrates may be supplemented with rice or wheat bran at
15 20% and lime at 1 2%. Any substrate used must be pasteurised to
eliminate contaminants or undesirable organisms.
A good substrate has the following properties;
Easy availability
High nutrient content for the mushrooms to grow
Good aeration not too compact and not too loose
Good water holding capacity not too dry and not too wet
Wheat and rice straw are the most commonly used substrates in Oyster mushroom
production.
Steriliser
o The steriliser is required for pasteurising the substrate to eliminate pests and
diseases.
o The steriliser can be a huge pot, container or metal drum to hold large quantities
of substrate for boiling in water at 100oC.
o Firewood or other local materials are used to provide fire for heating the
steriliser.
Other requirements
Thermometer used to check temperaturesHygrometer used for monitoring relative
humidity
Sprayer for watering the substrate during fruiting
Watering can or bucket for watering the floor in cooling the temperature and
increasing the humidity
Plastic bags these are required for containing the substrate during the cultivation
process.
Bags should be 10 20 kg capacity and preferably transparent. This makes it
easy to check substrate colonisation and to detect contaminants.
String required for tying the mouths of bags and for hanging onto racks.
Production
Oyster mushroom production has four major steps.
1. Substrate preparation and pasteurisation
2. Spawning
3. Incubation
4. Fruiting and Harvesting
Substrate Preparation and Pasteurisation
Pasteurisation aims at killing pests and diseases that can spoil development of the
mushroom. Immersion in boiling water is a cheap but efficient way of pasteurising the
substrate.
1. Prepare the substrate by chopping and shredding into small pieces.
2. Soak the substrate in water overnight.
3. Drain off the water and add the supplements
4. Pack the substrate into a steriliser and fill with water hot water is the best
5. Heat and pasteurise by boiling for 1 hour.

6. Transfer the substrate onto a clean plastic sheet and cool to about 40oC just at the
stage when you can hold it but not get burnt.
7. Pack the substrate into plastic bags taking care not to pack too tightly or too
loosely.
8. Add the spawn whilst packing the substrate.
Spawning
This is the process of planting the mushroom.
1. Use about 0.5 kg or 300 ml of spawn to plant 10 kg of substrate.
2. Distribute the spawn evenly in alternating layers with the pasteurised substrate.
3. Tie the mouth of the bag soon after spawning
Substrate spawning is the most delicate operation in mushroom production.
It must be done in a clean environment free of air movements
Care should be taken not to contaminate the spawn itself and the substrate too.
Workers must operate under strict hygienic conditions.
Incubation
During incubation the mushroom mycelium grows to cover the whole substrate.
Place spawned bags at 24oC in the dark incubation room or cover the bags with
black plastic in the mushroom house.
Bags are ready for mushroom formation when the substrate appears white.
Full colonisation occurs in about 14 40 days.
Transfer bags to the mushroom house or expose the bags by removing the black
plastic.
Fruiting
Fruiting is the formation of the mushrooms in the mushroom house.
Open the air vents or windows in the mushroom house to provide light and to
initiate fruiting
After one day open the bags by making long cuts or holes at the top and at the
bottom of the bags using clean sharp instruments. Mushrooms will form through
thee openings.
Mushrooms will begin to form in 3 to 4 days and will be ready for harvesting in
the next 2 to 3 days.
A temperature range of 20 28oC and relative humidity of 80 95% is required in
the mushroom house.
Some measures have to be taken during the process to ensure development of
good mushrooms:
1. To provide adequate moisture, water the substrate daily taking care not to over
water.
2. If temperatures rise to 30oC apply a light water mist to cool and to quicken
fruiting.
3. The door and air vents or windows may be opened especially at night to allow
cool air to enter.

4. Maintain high relative humidity by applying water on the floors and walls several
times a day.
Incomplete substrate colonisation delays fruiting. Ensure that the substrate
is well colonised.
Harvesting
Oyster mushrooms are harvested by gently twisting the stalk and pulling out.
Harvest from the opened ends first.
Make more long cuts or holes on the central portion of the bag so that more
mushrooms develop
Continue harvesting as long as the substrate appears white.
The bags can be removed from the house when the substrate becomes colourless
and soft to touch.
A total weight of 10 to 20 kg of mushrooms can be harvested from 10 kg of dry
substrate.
The mushrooms will remain fresh for 3 to 6 days when kept in the refrigerator or
in a cool area. They can also be dried using local methods of sun drying.
Problems in Mushroom Growing

The common problems are:
1. Poor yields
2. Pests and diseases i.e. fungi, bacteria, insects and snails
The best remedy is to prevent these problems by taking precautions in every stage of
production.
1. Obtain high quality spawn from reputable sources
2. Observe strict hygienic practices especially at substrate preparation and spawning
3. Pasteurise the substrate well
4. Sterilise all working instruments and equipment. Jik can be used for this purpose.
5. Keep doors and window closed or use a wire mesh for covering all openings to
prevent insect from entering the mushroom house
6. Keep the floors clean all the time
7. Do not touch any suspicious material during harvesting
8. Throw used substrate a long distance away from the mushroom house.
Hypericum Production/ Flowers
Hypericum is propagated from cuttings which are cut from saleable stems 40
cm or more in length.
Cuttings are cut at every internode and should be 5 cm in length with two
nodes.
Seradix is used to promote rooting and plant cuttings direct into beds.
The beds should be 1m wide and 4 rows spaced 20 cm apart are marked on
each bed.
Fertilisation
Vegetative stage 1: time from planting to 20cm in height
Hand application of 800g/30 m bed of the following fertilisers mixed to make a
blend in the ratio of 1:1
Calcium nitrate, magnesium nitrate, mono ammonium phosphate, mono
potassium phosphate and Ammonium nitrate.
Vegetative stage 2: flower initiation stage
Apply 1300 g/30 m bed of the fertiliser mixture.
Supplement with compound J applied every 2 weeks until harvesting at a rate of
600 g/ 30 m bed.
If rains occur excessively apply weekly
Harvesting
Harvesting can occur 12 weeks from planting in summer and 16 to 18 weeks from
planting in winter.
Monitor the growth rate daily. Hypericum can grow about 1 cm daily in summer.
An average of 40 to 50 stem can be harvested per square metre but its possible to
harvest 80 to 90 stems/m2
Stems should be pencil thick when harvested and the stem length varies from 40,
50, 60, 70 and 80 cm
Harvesting is done when brown berries form on the plant after the flowers fall off.
Harvest for 7 flushes or less. Each flush is 12 weeks long
Leave 6 stems per plant as this ensures maximum production. Remove all weak
stems
After harvesting take flowers to pack shed and spray with water
5 bunches of 5 stems are bunched together and left till water dries off. Flowers are
then packed and cooled to 3 4oC
Harvesting is done in the late afternoon then plants are left to stand in water
overnight then grading and packing are done in the morning
Lighting
20% shade cloth is used to cover the flowers.
Artificial lights are used and their use can start as early as one week after cutting
back the plants as this promotes faster shooting.
Recommendations are that lighting should begin when plants are 15 20 cm in

length.
Fluorescent lights are used at a height of 3m above the crop. Flood lights can also
be used.
Diseases
Rust
This is controlled using Amister at a rate of 50ml/100 litres water, or Folicur at
50ml/100 litres water, or Plantvax at 100 ml/100 litres water
Botrytis
Controlled by sterilising pruning shears as one moves from plant to plant and by
practicing good hygiene when handling plants
Pests
Thrips control using Lanet, Oncur or Confidor
White fly
Aphids
Citrus Cultivation
Soils
Citrus grows well on well-drained sandy soils with clay content of less than 30%.
Planting should be done on ridges 1 m high and 2.5 m wide and the ridges should
go along the slope and not down the slope.
Irrigation
A citrus need an all year round water supply and irrigation is essential to
supplement rainfall.
Watering depends on two things-:
1. Age of the tree
2. Time of year
Age of tree
The younger the tree the less water it requires.
As the tree grows the water requirements also increase.
Time of year
A productive tree of about 10 to 15 years requires up to 120 litres of water per day
during the hot summer season around September/November
.During the cooler seasons from January to April it needs about 10 litres a day.
Types of irrigation
1. Drip
Used by commercial producers
2. Hose and Basin
Used by small scale producers
3. Microjet
Irrigation should be done every third day to avoid water stress.
Altitude
Des not tolerate frost, thus it should be grown in frost-free areas.
Effect of temperature varies with the type of citrus being grown, for example
Naartijies prefer the cool climate of the highveld around Mvurwi and Nyanga.
Grapefruit and Valencias prefer the hot climate of the lowveld, while Navels
and Lemons prefer the middleveld..
Nursery Practices
It is recommended that to get the best planting material it should be purchased
from established nurseries.
Land preparation
Citrus can be grown on slopes. The ridges should be prepared running down the
slope and should be angled slightly so that they act like contours.
Spacing
Citrus
Between row spacing
In row spacing
Orange
6m
3m
Lemon
7.5 m
4m

Naartijies
4.5 5 m
2.5 3 m
Cultivar Selection
Cultivar selection is dependant on:
1. Rootstock
2. Citrus type to be grown (This is also affected by altitude)
Types of rootstocks
Rootstock
Advantage
Disadvantage
Rough Lemon (Used
Rapid tree growth
Poor internal fruit quality i.e.
on all citrus varieties) Big fruit size
low sugar content
Susceptible to Phytophthora
root rot
Troya (used on all
Big fruit size
citrus varieties)
Resistant to Phytophthora
Better internal fruit quality than
Rough Lemon
Swingle
Good internal fruit quality
Low fruit yield
The scion used depends on the altitude.
Planting time
Citrus trees are planted from September to February when there is active growth.
Method of planting
Dig a hole 75 cm x 75 cm x 75 cm.

Mix 400 g Single Super Phosphate (SSP) with the soil per hole.
When planting leave about 10 cm of the sleeve above ground level to avoid
phytophthora root rot.
Remove all flowers and fruits produced in the first three years from planting.
Fertilisation
A tree from 0 to 3 years should get a monthly application of 50 g AN that is

watered in.
Two weeks later apply a foliage spray of zinc, copper, boron and manganese in
the following proportions;
1. Zinc Oxide 150 g/100 litres water
2. Solubor 100 g/100 litres water
3. Copper oxychloride 150 g/100 litres water
For productive trees one needs to take soil and foliar samples for analysis before applying
fertilisers.
The recommended fertilisers should then be applied from July to January split into equal
amounts.
Weeding
Use of herbicides is strongly recommended in citrus growing.
The hoe can be used on young trees because use of herbicides at a young age can
cause stunted growth
The area covered by the drip line should be kept weed free, and this is a 1.25 m
band on either side of the tree.
The grass in between the plant rows should be cut short.
For trees 3 years and above Round up can be used, this is a non-systemic post
emergent herbicide.
Diuron a pre-emergent herbicide can also be used on trees 3 years and above.
Diseases
Phytophthora root rot
This is a water born fungal disease that attacks the roots. This disease should be
controlled early.
Symptoms: The bark starts cracking from the ground level to the canopy.
Control:
Spray using Alleate or Phytex using rates on the container.
Citrus Black spot
This is a viral disease that is wind borne. There is no tolerance for this disease on
the export market.
Control:
Spray 2 to 3 prophylactic sprays every year.
Spray copper oxychloride in September at a rate of 200 g/100 litres water. The
copper also benefits the tree.
In mid-November or when rains start spray Dithane M45 at a rate of 200 g/100
litres water.
6 weeks after the November spray, apply Benomyl/Benlate at a rate of 35 g/100
litres water. When spraying add an oil e.g. Orchex at a rate of 100 ml/100 litres
water to ensure a good coverage
Pests
Thrips
These are a problem from September to December.
Control using Tartox.
Citrus Psylla
This pest causes greening disease, where the tree does not produce fruit.
The pest also causes bumps on the leaves.
Control using Dimethoate or Thiodan
Red Scale
The levels of this pest should be controlled as high levels can kill the tree.
It is controlled by spraying with an oil such as Orchex or Lannate.
Mites (Red, spider, grain, silver, rust, lowveld, flat etc.)
Mites cause damage by leaving marks on the fruit e.g. the rust mite causes the
fruit to get a red colour which is undesirable.
Mites also defoliate the tree.
Mites can be controlled using Nuron, Torque or Tedion (Tetradiofon) at a rate

of 30 ml/100 litres water.
Bollworm
This pest drills holes onto the fruit
False codling moth
Fruit fly
Harvesting
Harvesting is done at different times of the year depending on the citrus

variety being grown.
Lemons are harvested all year round
Oranges have different varieties that ripen at different times of the year. For
example Navels are harvested from April to May while Valencias have
varieties such as Delta that is harvested in June, Midnight is harvested in
June/July and Valencia late harvested in August.
Naartijies have varieties that ripen at different times of the year.
Citrus can be stored for 2 to 3 months at a temperature of 4 oC.
Yields
Mature trees can produce up to 40 to 60 t/ha.
Marketing
There are three ways to market citrus:
Export Europe, Russia, Middle East and Canada. To export citrus one needs a
marketing agent such as SAFE, OCEANIC, CAPES BAND.
Local market
Juicing
Labour requirements
Labour requirements are seasonal.

For harvesting and packing there is a high labour requirement
e.g. 30 people for harvesting
30 35 people for packing
1 labourer/3 ha fruit depending on management.
Apiculture
Apiculture means beekeeping for the benefit of mankind.

The honeybee subspecies found in Zimbabwe is Apis mellifera scutellata which is
kept for its large quantities of honey.
Stingless bees also occur but they produce small quantities of honey.
The benefits of beekeeping are: i)
Honey production
ii)
Income generation
iii)
Medicinal purposes
iv)
Beeswax
v)
Pollination of crops
vi)
Propolis
vii)
Employment creation
viii) Rural afforestation and woodland management programmes
Honeybee colony
A honeybee colony is the whole family of bees with combs and brood living in a hive or
natural nest.
Queen
This is the mother of all the honeybees in a colony and can live for 3 5 years.
She has a curved sting that she uses against other queens.
Her abdomen extends beyond the tips of her wings. The younger the queen the more
eggs she should lay. A good queen lays about 2000 eggs/day during the nectar flow.
The queen emerges from a peanut shaped queen cell
She maintains harmony in a bee nest or beehive by releasing pheromones that
suppress the development of ovaries in worker bees.
Workers
Found in large numbers of up to 80 000 100 000.
Smallest of the three bee castes
They are females but they do not lay eggs in the presence of the queen
They emerge from worker cells
They defend the nest or hive from intruders
They collect nectar and pollen
They feed the brood and the queen with protein rich food.
Life span is 4 6 weeks during the busiest time of the year
They have barbed straight stings.
Worker bees have long tongues (proboscis) for collecting deep seated nectar.
Drones
Their only known function is to mate with young queen bees
Mating occurs in the air and immediately after mating they die.
In winter when food is scarce they are driven out of the bee nest by the worker bees.
Drones have no stings and therefore cannot defend themselves

Traditional beekeeping with the use of bark or log hives
Advantages
Initial cost is very low
More beeswax obtained
Familiar to many people
Disadvantages
Difficult to control bees
More wasteful
Traditionally unacceptable for women in some parts of Zimbabwe as the system
demands climbing up trees when harvesting honey.
Causes depletion of forests through beekeepers striping bark to make beehives
Beehives do not last long
Movable Top Bar Hives (Kenya Top Bar Hives)
This is a beehive that is narrower at the bottom and wider at the top
400mm
240-300mm
200mm
860-1000mm
Advantages
Simple to construct
High honey yields of up to 80kg/ cropping can be obtained
Durable
Easy to control bees
Good quality honey can be obtained
High beeswax yields can be obtained
Only capped honey is cropped
Combs are interchangeable
Disadvantages
Cost of timber is high
Combs can easily break if not carefully lifted
Greek Basket Top Bar Hive
The walls are plastered with a mixture of two parts cow dung and one part ant
heap soil.
Advantages
Can be made of locally available material such as reeds or straw
More beeswax obtainable.
Honeybees can be easily handled
Only ripe honey can be cropped
Disadvantages
Combs can easily break if not properly handled
Brood and honey can be mixed
Top cover needs replacement very often.
Frame Hives
The most commonly used frame hive is the Langstroth Frame Hive
It consists of boxes with frames stacked one on top of each other
Top cover
Super
Queen excluder
Brood box
Advantages
High yields of honey can be obtained
Honey not mixed with brood
Combs are interchangeable
Boxes are durable
Easy to control bees
Disadvantages
Costly
Not familiar with beekeepers
Needs mechanical honey extraction
Site selection
Vegetation cover should provide forage for the honeybees, shade for the beehives
and protection from prevailing winds.
There must be a consistent water suppy in or close to the apiary for cooling the
hive and for dilution purposes.
The site should have minimal danger from veld fires.
Easy accessibility to the site in all weather by the beekeeper.
Free from disturbance by animals.
A place where honeybees do not become a nuisance to the public
Avoid frost pockets such as vleis to avoid chilling of brood in winter.

Setting beehives
Materials required for setting beehives:
For beehive setting to be successful the following materials are required:
Propolis for attracting.
Beeswax for top bar lining.
Wax foundation sheets or strips for honeybees to draw out combs
Top bars for placing on top of the beehives
Frames for the brood or super cambers
Small tin for melting wax.
Guiding plank for straightening the wax linings on the top bars
Bucket of cold water for dipping the guiding plank and holding excess wax
Firewood for making fire required to melt propolis and beeswax.
Setting Top Bar and Frame Hives
The following steps should are taken when setting both Greek and Kenya Top Bar
hives: Prepare a small fire
Melt propolis in a container
Smear melted propolis on the hive entrance and the inside of the hive walls
Draw a centre line along the entire lengths of at least eight top bars on a Kenya
Top Bar Hive and about four top bars on a Greek Basket Top Bar Hive.
Melt beeswax in container but do not overheat.
Submerge the guiding plank in water and hold it against the centre line on the dry
top bar.
Tilt them with the lower end pointing into the bucket with cold water.
Pour melted wax so that it flows following the centre line marked on the dry top
bar to form a wax ridge and let the wax lining to cool down.
Remove the guiding plank and scrap off about 5cm lengths from both ends of the
top bar that will rest on the hive body.
Place all top bars with wax ridges starting from the front of the Kenya Top Bar
Hive.
Place the rest of the top bars without wax ridges up to the end of the beehive
For a Greek Basket Top Bar Hive place top bars with wax rides starting from the
centre and they should be placed at right angles to the hive entrance.
Factors to Be Considered When Mounting Top Bar and Frame Hives
Place hive at a workable height.
Hive entrance to face leeward side to prevent draughts.
Place hive under shade to prevent the hive from direct heat of the sun.
Top of hive to be covered with a roof top..
Consider security from enemies of honeybees
Handling honeybees

Steps to follow when manipulating honeybee colonies
Put on the complete bee tight suit consisting of: A zip up overall
Jacket
Hat and veil
Gloves
Light the smoker and ensure that there is a smooth flow of smoke
Approach the hive from the back or side.
Apply 3-4 gentle puffs of smoke into the hive through the entrance.
Wait for a few minutes to allow honeybees to engorge honey.
Remove roof top for top bar hives and the top cover for frame hives.
Start lifting top bar hives using a hive tool. Start from the back for a Kenya Top
Bar hive and from sides for both frame and Greek Basket Top Bar hives.
Smoke should always be available and apply gentle puffs at regular intervals to
control the temper of honeybees. A beekeeper should be assisted to make the work
easier.
Brood Nest Inspection
Inspect the brood nest 2- 3 times a year especially during the swarming season
Inspect the hive in winter as briefly as possible to prevent chilling the brood and
robbing of honey by bees from adjacent beehives
Push light honeycombs to the empty side
Take out the darker combs and examine one by one but not exposing them to the
cold wind or sun.
Look for eggs, larvae and pupae to ensure the presence of the queen bee but brood
can be absent as the queen reduces egg laying at this time of the year.
Place the top bars back onto the hive in the same order and position to maintain
the structure of the hive or nest.
Place combs with drone brood cells to the edge of the brood nest on the empty
side of the hive.
Spare valuable space of the brood nest especially 1-8 combs mainly for new
workers instead of unproductive drones.
Remove crooked combs, very black ones or combs with large patches of drone
brood from the brood nest.
Cropping
Take only combs with capped honey. Uncapped honey contains too much
moisture in excess of 17%, which can lead to fermentation of honey soon after
cropping.
Do not take any combs containing brood.
In the case of combs from top bars, crop when 75% of a single comb has capped
honey.
Cut off the capped portion and tie back the portion with brood on the same top
bar.

Grading
Grading of honey starts at cropping.
There are four grades of honey based on colour, aroma, flavour and moisture
content.
First Grade
New wax combs
Light coloured honey
No pollen grains
Acceptable flavour/aroma
Low moisture content
Second Grade
New wax combs
Medium light honey
Very little pollen
Few uncapped cells/honey (80% capped)
Acceptable flavour/aroma
Third Grade
Mostly new combs
Light brood combs
Small amount of uncapped cells
Acceptable flavour
Fourth Grade
Old combs
Dark honey
Pollen present
Doubtful flavour
Medium moisture
Marketing
Honey is in comb or liquid form and prices are determined by the grades.
Marketing is controlled by legislation.
Methods of honey extraction

Floating.
Break honey combs into small pieces.
Tie the broken combs in a cheese cloth
Hang the cheese cloth in a warm room and honey will slowly drip into a clean
bucket placed below.
Leave the honey to drip overnight.
Centrifuging
Centrifuging is ideal for extracting honey from frame combs
Uncap the combs using a hot uncapping knife
Place the uncapped frames in an upright position in a mechanical honey extractor.
Place settling tank with strainer below the outlet and start centrifuging.
Honey collects in the settling tank
Settle honey for at least 10 days to allow air bubbles and impurities to float.
Scoop out the impurities and honey will be ready for bottling.
Enemies of the honeybee and control

i) Man
Destroys the honeybee and its habitat
Control:
Education
Law enforcement
Keeping honeybee colonies in Bee Houses
i i) Bee wolves (wasps)
The females use the adult bee as food for their larvae. It catches the bee at the hive
entrance.
Control:
Usually difficult
Water with a film of paraffin in a dish and placed close to the hive entrance is
used for trapping bee pirates.The bee pirate plunges in water on seeing its
image in the paraffin film.A few honeybees will be lost but the loss can
outweigh the advantages obtained from the elimination of the bee pirates.
iii) Honey Badgers (Mellivora capensis)
Its skin is loose and so tough that the dogs teeth cannot penetrate.
It has strong claws for digging and strong teeth for biting and breaking hives.
Badgers do not suffer from stings. They overrun hives, break them up and
feed on the brood and honey.
Control:
Trap or hunt to shoot them
Secure the beehives
iv) Wax Moth (Galleria mellonela)
The larvae of the wax moth feeds on combs Weak colonies are vulnerable to
attack by the wax moth larvae.
Growing larvae construct silk lined tunnels through the cell walls. Larvae prefer
dark combs because they contain a variety of growth enhancing impurities such
as entrapped pollen and cast larval skin.
Mature larvae usually spin cocoons in oval depressions that they chew on the
inside of hive bodies, inner cover, lid and on frames. They even make some deep
furrows on top bars and the inside of Kenya Top Bar Hives.
Control
Maintaining strong colonies

Avoid queenlessness of colonies
Put infected combs in freezers for about 48 hours
Carbon dioxide fumigant
v) Large Hive Beetle (Coleoptera)
The beetles interfere with the activities of honeybees as they gather at beehive entrances,
crawl on combs and hive floors. They also feed on wax leaving combs very thin.
Control:
Control is difficult but honeybees propolise them
Hand pick and throw them in soapy water.
vi) Ants (Hymenoptera)
Especially the tropical ants are serious pests
They steal honey, bee brood or live in the colony where honey bees cannot
remove them.
Control
Hive stands should have ant guards such as barriers of grease.
Chemical control can be hazardous but when mixed with water can be applied
around hive stands.
vii) Spiders
Several kinds of spiders eat honeybees. Others construct a large web to trap
flying insects like honeybees.
Control
Remove webs from the bee flight areas.
vii)
Varroa mites
They feed on the blood of larvae, pupae and the adult insects
Control
Contact acaricides are used in the form of strips placed between top bars.
viii) Braula coeca (Bee louse)
These are wingless flies that attach themselves to the bees hairs near the head or
thorax. They feed on nectar and pollen at the bees mouth.
A queen is likely to collect more bee lice than the worker
Control
Blowing tobacco smoke into the hive can make the flies leave the queen.

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Musoma R.

T (BSc Crop Science) Page 1 of 148

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CHAPTER 1: FIELD CROPS.............................................................................................3

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CHAPTER 1: FIELD CROPS

Normal open growth and

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3rd year and

Time of application kg/ha

General fertiliser recommendations for dry land coffee

Time of application kg/ha

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Soil and leaf sampling

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Estimates of water requirements

Over tree sprinkler

Under tree drip basin or trickle

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Appl rate /ha

1.5- 3,5 kg/ha

Spray directly at any

Not for young coffee, do

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All annual and

Not for young coffee,

Coffee Pest identification

Damage and symptoms

Feeds on green berries,

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Mealy white masses of

Eggs: Scale like. Single.

Soon after main

Full cover spray prior to

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Full cover spray prior to

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Apply to base of tree work

Full cover spray at 1 100/ha.

Apply at 500ml/tree adding

Full cover spray

Apply as spot spray when

Full cover spray when adults

Full cover spray

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Apply mixture to holes.

Minimum number of days between spraying and harvesting.

1g/kg seed as a dry treatment just before

Full cover spray

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When fusarium becomes established it would be advisable to

Current seed is produced in areas where no rust is present. 80% wp applied