2014-SP5-Organic Farming and Sustanability

SP5-2014
Editors
P K Shetty
Claude Alvares
Ashok Kumar Yadav
ORGANIC FARMING
AND SUSTAINABILITY
NATIONAL INSTITUTE
OF
ADVANCED STUDIES
Bangalore, India
Organic Farming and

Sustainability
Editors
P. K. Shetty
Claude Alvares
Ashok Kumar Yadav
National Institute
of
Advanced Studies
Indian Institute of Science Campus, Bangalore-560012
National Institute of Advanced Studies 2014
Published by
National Institute of Advanced Studies
Indian Institute of Science Campus
Bangalore - 560 012
Tel: 080 2218 5000, Fax: 2218 5028
E-mail: admin@nias.iisc.ernet.in
SP5-2014
ISBN: 9789383566037
Disclaimer: The responsibility for opinions and factual matter as

expressed in this document rests solely with its author(s), and its
publication does not constitute an endorsement by NIAS of any
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information herein provided.
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ii
Preface
Environmental preservation, resource conservation and assuring
of food quality for the ever growing population had been the
major challenges in agriculture during the last two decades.
Growing awareness among consumers for safe and healthy food
grown in tandem with nature has triggered the growth of another
food segment across the world. Organic farming was found to be
the most viable and effective option to address all these concerns
and to address the consumers need. Although modern organic
agriculture has its roots in consumers desire for safe and healthy
food and has emerged from western developed economies, of
late it has also caught the attention of sustainability promoters
and has been found to address all the global concerns. Organic
farming in its modern form is not only productive enough to
meet our growing demands but is also resource conserving and
continuously contributing to the improvement of soil health
and fertility. Ardent promoters of organic farming consider that
present day organic agriculture, which is a mix of traditional
wisdom and modern science and technology, can meet emerging
demands and become the means for complete development of
rural areas, especially in the developing countries like India
where large chunk of farmers are small, with limited resources
and with limited access to water, mainly through seasonal rains.
With increasing hazards caused by the use of synthetic
chemicals in agro ecosystems, organic farming provides an
alternative option, not only for sustaining productivity and
retaining soil health but also promising chemical residue free
food. Today, organic farming is a well-researched science
that combines the knowledge of soil fertility, plant pathology,
entomology, and other biological and environmental sciences.
Globally organic agriculture is being adopted by more than
162 countries and more than 37.2 million ha of land is registered
under organic certification process. This does not include
the traditional and/or default organic areas which remained
untouched from green revolution era and may comprise of
three times the certified area, located mainly in Africa and
India. Besides this approximately 32.5 million ha of wild harvest
collection area is also registered for organic certification. India is
iii
the second largest producer of organic agriculture commodities

in Asia after China. As per the latest survey conducted by
FiBL and IFOAM (2014) Indias share in the global market for
organic food is although less than 1% but there is tremendous
scope to increase it. Hopefully, India can soon become the leader
in organic agriculture and accelerate the growth towards a
sustainable future.
In India, agriculture has been practiced for thousands
of years, which was essentially organic, is also the repository
of traditional wisdom and genetic germplasm. Civil society
organizations and innovative farmers have developed
technologies which are not only effective and productive, but
are also explainable and accepted by the modern science. Many
farmers with their farms are acting as centres of learning and
serves as source of inspiration to thousands of upcoming organic
agriculture enthusiasts.
Organic farming has many advantages such as energy
efficiency, preservation of traditional knowledge, ecofriendliness, profitability, reduction and mitigation of Carbon
emissions, etc. However, there are various queries regarding its
contribution in sustaining food security and nutritional quality,
adoptability, organoleptic quality, certification, economic
feasibility and the resistance capacity of organic produce towards
pests and diseases, etc.
This book contains lead papers from distinguished experts,
policy makers and dedicated researchers. Efforts have been
made to compile the latest information on the present status
of organic agriculture in India and other major practicing
countries. Efforts were also made to record initiations in
organic agriculture by the various governments, farmers, nongovernment organizations and other stakeholders. We hope that
this book will be of immense help to researchers in planning
their future line of research, for policy makers to take rational
decisions on organic agriculture for the benefit of farmers as well
as consumers and for students and the general public to obtain
a wealth of information on organic agriculture in India. It must
be mentioned here that while the scholarly papers included in
this volume do help enrich the readers understanding on the
issues related to organic agriculture, the views expressed by the
iv
authors in their respective papers are their own and the editors
do not necessarily subscribe to them.
We thank all the contributors of this volume and are grateful
for their valuable contributions. Our sincere thanks to Dr V S
Ramamurthy, Director, National Institute of Advanced Studies
and Dr Parveen Arora, Sc-`G/Advisor, Department of Science
and Technology, Government of India for their support and
encouragement at every stage of its preparation. We are grateful
to Ms I S Shruti, Mrs V B Mariyammal, Shri Krishna Prasad, Shri
N R Shetty, Ms G F Aiyasha and Mr Thomas K Varghese for their
support and involvement.
P K Shetty
Claude Alvares
Ashok Kumar Yadav
Contents
Indias Organic Farming Movement
Claude Alvares....................................................................................1
Future Sustainable Food Security of India through Organic
Farming: Myth or Reality
Ashok Kumar Yadav........................................................................13
Current Status and Relevance of Organic Farming in Indian
Agriculture
P Ramesh............................................................................................29
Policies, Programs and Institutional Initiatives on Organic
Farming in India
K Ramakrishnappa...........................................................................43
Organic Livestock Production in India: Why, How and Road
Ahead
Mahesh Chander...............................................................................51
Scope and Potential of Organic Farming in Vegetable Crops
M Prabhakar, S S Hebbar, A K Nair, K S Shivashankara,
P Panneerselvam, R S Rajeshwari and K Bharathi ......................69
Maximising Yields in Organic Farming: Three Case Studies
Leena Chandran-Wadia...................................................................83
Bhaskar Save, the Gandhi of Natural Farming
Bharat Mansata..................................................................................99
Organic Farming and Food Security: A Model for India
C P S Yadav and Harimohan Gupta............................................121
The Full Value of Organic
K C Raghu........................................................................................135
Organic Farming in an Era of Climate Change
M B Rajegowda, L Nagesh and Pradeep Gopakkali..................141
vii
Biofertiliser Use in Organic Farming: A Practical and

Challenging Approach
P Bhattacharyya...............................................................................157
Integrated Pest Management Strategies in Organic Farming
C T Ashok Kumar and Sanjay Topagi.........................................171
Crop Production and Plant Protection in Organic Farming
S R Sundararaman..........................................................................195
Weed Management in Organic Farming
J P Saini.............................................................................................213
Organic Seed: Traditional Varieties and Technologies
K Vanangamudi..............................................................................225
Safety, Quality and Certification in Organic Agricultural
Produce
Bobby Issac.......................................................................................245
Rapid Growth of Eco-friendly Low Cost Sustainable Organic
Agriculture Production Systems in the World
R Srinivasa Murthy, P Mazumdar, Manisha Rani, Sahina
Tabassum and Krishan Chandra .................................................249
Role of Indigenous Liquid Organic Manures in Organic Crop
Production
N Devakumar, A C Somanatha, S Shubha and B Latha ...........259
Potential Demand for Organic Products/Farming in India and
Abroad: An Overview
S C Panda.........................................................................................273
Organic Farming from Farmers Perspectives
Deepak Suchde, B N Nandish, A P Chandrashekhar and Syed
Ghani Khan .....................................................................................288
viii

Claude Alvares
The story of how Indias organic farming movement started
and grew till its significance became so overpowering that
even the Central Government was forced to get involved has
not really been told. As far as my own personal knowledge
goes, the first meeting about reviewing what we were doing to
our farms and fields was held under the auspices of the newly
formed Association for the Propagation of Indigenous Genetic
Resources (APIGR) at Wardha in 1984, and it focused on genetic
resource depletion in the form of loss of seed varieties a critical
issue with the organic farming movement. APIGR survived for
some years. It called meetings annually during which people
came together over specific issues including conservation of
rice varieties, Indian breeds of cattle, water scarcity and green
revolution, etc. It also published a series of booklets on these
deliberations. APIGR was followed in the mid-1990s with the
arrival of ARISE. The initiative for this came from Bernard
deClercq, one of Indias most insightful organic farmers who
lives and works in Auroville. ARISE was even registered as a
national society, but the exercise eventually faltered.
Then we come to the third avatar of the organic farming
movement in the country, the Organic Farming Association of
India (OFAI) set up in 2002 in Bangalore. A majority of those
attending were organic farmers from across the country. OFAI
was formally registered in 2006, but is actually now ten years
old. This has now remained the main association, with most
organic farmers of all hues and various state level organic
farming associations as a part of its membership. It has biennial
conventions at different places in India which are sort of
university conventions where farmers come to exchange
techniques, participate in seed exchanges and make presentations
on discoveries.
P. K. Shetty, Claude Alvares and Ashok Kumar Yadav (eds). Organic Farming and
Sustainability, ISBN: 9789383566037, National Institute of Advanced Studies,
Bangalore. 2014
So it is confirmed that the organic farming movement was not

initiated by either scientific institutions or the government which
from 1966, in fact became increasingly addicted to a strategy
of agricultural production based on chemical fertilisers and
dangerous poisons called pesticides. Of course, in the 1940s and
1950s, when no chemical fertilisers were yet available with the kind
of power they exercise nowadays, the official establishment in India
symbolised by trained British agricultural expert, Albert Howard
did nothing but good organic farming! The books written by
Howard are still very influential, from An Agricultural Testament
to Soil and Health, the latter released only last year (2013). Both
books are organic farming classics the world over, as well known
as Rachel Carsons Silent Spring or Japanese agricultural scientist,
Masanobu Fukuokas One Straw Revolution.
In the developed countries like the USA and Europe as
well, the organic farming movement was initiated by farmers
and members of civil society organisations. It was their growing
strength which led to the formation of the International Federation
of Organic Farming Movements (IFOAM), the worlds apex
body of organic agriculture. Last year, the Asia-level groups set
up IFOAM-ASIA. OFAI deputed one of its members to the new
organisation which elected him as the first Vice-President of the
new executive board.
The need to pay more attention to farming by organic
methods received a huge stimulus in India with the introduction
of stricter standards for food imported into Europe from the
Indian subcontinent. Export consignments to Europe with
pesticide residues in excess of norms were returned. This is
when the Government of India, under strong pressure from the
export lobby, turned to support organic farming, purely in order
to shore up exports and launched the National Programme on
Organic Production (NPOP) for installation of standards based
quality assurance system during the year 2000 under Ministry of
Commerce and Industry. This explains also why till date the
entire production and export of organic food is in the hands of
the Commerce Ministry, and not the Ministry or Department of
Agriculture! And it has remained there since!
For the purpose of preparing organic farming standards,
the Indian Government as usual called in persons associated
Claude Alvares
with IFOAM and other NGOs in Europe. These standards were

later adopted as the National Standards on Organic Production
(NSOP). APEDA was asked to set up an organic farming section
to administer such exports. Agencies to accredit certification
inspectors were notified. Much later, GOI decided to bring in an
organic certification scheme for the domestic market under the
AGMARK regime. For the purposes of organic production, the
GOI redesignated the National Centre for Biofertilisers into the
National Centre of Organic Farming (NCOF), and their regional
offices as well became regional centres of organic farming
(RCOF). This enabled it to keep the mainstream agricultural
research and extension infrastructure actively linked exclusively
with green revolution technology.
The export-oriented organic certification schemes were
terribly expensive at first, since they relied upon European
inspectors (some still do). Later, these were replaced by Indian
inspectors under accredited Indian agencies. Nevertheless, the
cost of certification remained high. Any extra income the farmer
could get on his organic produce was being eaten up by the
inspectors. Disgusted with the huge costs of certification, the
Govt of India, FAO, and groups like OFAI, sat together in an
unprecedented series of meetings and drew up a new organic
quality assurance guarantee in the form of the Participatory
Guarantee System (PGS) first evolved by the organic farming
community in Brazil, South America. This low-cost scheme has
been entirely successful and it has led to the registration under
the Societies Act of the PGS Organic Council (PGSOC) run purely
by NGOs servicing sustainable agriculture. There is also now an
NCOF-run PGS system. More than 5,000 farmers are presently
registered as successful organic farmers under the private PGS
label.
At the state level, several state governments notably
Karnataka, Kerala, MP, Bihar, Maharashtra, etc., have
announced their own individual organic farming policies
to promote and support conversion of farmers to organic
agriculture. Large amounts have been allocated in some state
government budgets to promote organic agriculture. This brings
us to the consumer side of the organic farming movement which
is not at all well organised. Organic stores which two decades
ago were approximately one or two per city at the most have
now shot up to more than 500 across India, and there are some
superchains as well, including Morarka, Namdharis and 24
Letter Mantra. A few organic food restaurants have also been
started.
Consumers now know what organic food is. But somehow
at the moment, only the very poor and the very rich have access
to it: the poor because they grow it for themselves, the rich
because they can afford the high rates of organic farmers who
grow for the market. The middle class finds organic food more
expensive than conventionally grown food and it does not see
why it should pay the difference in price because it is still to be
health conscious with determination. Why organic food is sold
at a higher cost especially since organic farmers do not use costly
chemical fertilisers or synthetic pesticides or GM seeds, which
cost a bomb because they are fully controlled by multinationals
like Monsanto? But that is a fact of life today. It can only change
when more and more farmers begin to raise crops organically,
and more of it is sold directly to consumers, as is done in some
areas today in the form of green bazaars.
The scientific basis of organic agriculture: Today organic
farming is done under various labels: organic farming is also
natural farming, zero-budget, Low External Input Sustainable
Agriculture (LEISA), biodynamic or ecological agriculture.
Permaculture, another form, is also regaining ground. Local
idioms refer to organic farming as jaivik kheti, or naisargic kheti
or shendriya sheti. The defining feature of all is the absence of
reliance on chemical fertilisers, pesticides and GM seeds (which
are, besides being another form of pesticide, a form of unorganic
or unnatural input into a system that is based almost entirely
on natural principles). Use of GM seed is expressly forbidden in
organic agriculture.
In my view, some basic aspects of Indias agriculture need
to be highlighted first. Historically speaking, there are only three
significant ways in which we human beings have ensured the
supply of food needed for our survival and our other necessities:
a) The first looks at nature as a direct source. Nature is the most
experienced farmer there is, and of course, it follows principles
(example, selection) which have evolved over millions of years.
Nature remains today the largest producer of biomass, fruit
Claude Alvares
and flower, and a host of other things we cannot even begin

to enumerate so we have to concede that we can never match
either the scale, the efficiency, or the energies employed in that
department; b) The second is the way we have learnt recently
under the influence of Western advisers, which is largely to
substitute natural processes with industrial inputs like chemical
fertiliser and pesticides based on a wholly reductionist (NPK)
view of the plant. This system, also called the green revolution
(GR) but now turning increasingly brown is only 5060 years
old in India; it has only a little earlier origin (but not more than
a hundred years) worldwide, notably in those countries which
have by now almost wholly industrialised their agriculture;
c) The third way is one that developed between these two other
ways. It is still subsisting widely today and is often referred to as
indigenous or traditional agriculture, which is based on culture
and natural resources, but in most cases, takes advantage of
natural principles and bases its practices on those.
The implication or assumption in most educated and
scientific circles is that the green revolution system is the result
of science, it is modern, and therefore certainly an advance on
both: farming according to natural principles or indigenous
agriculture. Now this, in my opinion, is what the organic farmers
of the world have refuted to a large extent because of a better
scientific explanation or theory of how plants and soils work.
And this will be the focus of the rest of my presentation here,
because I expect that it will be appreciated by people who work
with and are committed to the idea of scientific agriculture.
Ecological agriculture is a contribution of organic farmers to
human knowledge. It is quite awesome in nature and if we are
intent on using labels we could confidently called it the most
modern practice of farming available in our times.
First and foremost, no form of food production which
emerges as a result of natural biological principles at play can
be labelled either unscientific or not scientific. This is important
to establish at the start, because very often, the move to farm
away from a system based on industrial chemicals is seen not
just as a move away from a more efficient and productive
agriculture, but as a move away from science, rationality, etc.,
and all that goes with the mental baggage associated with those
terms. When the forest produces fruits and we (and birds and
animals) eat that fruit or the honey or the flowers, the produce
we eat is a result of natural biological principles in operation.
They do not come into existence by any process that is against
science or is unscientific or pre-scientific in any way. It would
in fact be an absurd proposition to claim that natural processes
are contrary to science, because science is nothing more than our
understanding of the functioning of nature at various levels and
in various fields.
So anything that grows according to natural principles
cannot be in anyway contrary to science. In fact, since modern
scientific methods are only a few centuries old, and are yet to
scratch the surface in many areas, natural methods that evolved
over millions of years have stood the test of time which is the
most important test there is. We need to keep that in mind. Just
to give you a simple example: with all the scientific knowledge
available to us, we simply cannot regenerate natural forests.
All natural forests emerge by themselves and each is a unique
community. We may even understand them, but we cannot
create or duplicate them. This brings us to indigenous agriculture
or agriculture that has continued to produce food even after the
introduction of the GR. This is also often among the educated
and scientific community seen as a technology of stagnation,
of low productivity, and incapable of meeting the demands of
growing populations.
Again this is untrue, because traditional agriculture, in
contrast with modern agriculture, has kept all cultures alive and
well, in times of peace and war, for several thousands of years.
So it cannot really be that bad or inefficient. It met the needs of
societies at the appropriate time. If it didnt, societies would not
have survived and we all would have long ceased to exist. There
are in fact features of indigenous agriculture that are not so well
known and which one should keep in mind, in addition to the
fact that it was (and is, because much of it still exists) default
organic.
One important feature of traditional agriculture, for
example, is the inherent biodiversity implicated in its cropping
systems which is often as impressive as that found in natural
biodiversity-rich areas. It is well recognised that traditional
systems are biodiversity-based, whereas conventional modern
Claude Alvares
agricultures are principally monocultures. But it is when

we examine the nature of the biodiversity that the scientific
contributions of indigenous cultures appear staggering in their
achievements. Among rices alone, for example, we in India had
at one stage more than 300,000 varieties, all these prior to the
advent of the GR. In fact, the GR reduced that diversity sharply
to a few handfuls of so called successful varieties that can
survive only on chemicals and copious quantities of water. The
CRRI (Central Rice Research Institute) had 60,000 varieties. The
Madhya Pradesh Rice Research Institute (MPRRI) under Dr R H
Richharia when he was alive had 19,000 varieties collected
by him only from that state. So we need to seriously review our
perceptions of non-GR technologies.
Different approaches to plant nutrition: What then is
the difference between traditional/natural agriculture and
conventional agriculture, and how has this difference been
highlighted and exploited by the organic farming movement?
This is a very interesting question, and needs some introduction
to botany fundamentals. Standard texts in botany highlight the
following principal sources for the nutrition of plants. These are
conveniently set out in the table below:
Sources of plant nutrition:

I.
Elements from the atmosphere: These represent 92 to 98%

of a plants dry weight

4 vital elements (all constitutive): carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen
II. Elements from the soil: They represent 25% of a plants

dry weight

12 vital elements of which: 2 are non-constitutive
Potassium and chlorine 10 are constitutive
phosphorous, boron, Calcium, magnesium, sulphur,
iron, manganese, molybdenum, copper and zinc

18 secondary micro-nutrients (of which the function
of some is not fully understood), of which 4 are nonconstitutive lithium, sodium, rubidium and cesium
and 14 are constitutive fluorine, silicon, selenium,
cobalt, iodine, strontium, barium, aluminium,
vanadium, tin, nickel, chromium, beryllium and
bromine
Source: Claude Bourguignon, The Regeneration of the Soil, Other India Press, Goa.
Thus 9597% of the plants nutritional needs or constituents

is met by the atmosphere, and is therefore never sourced from
the soil or the ground through the root system. The root system
is responsible for intake of some mere 35% of the plants
constituents, including some nitrogen, vital minerals, which by
their nature, cannot come from the atmosphere since they come
from rock. It is important to highlight here how the plant draws
these from the soil.
Principally this process is controlled by soil microbes, who
through natural chemical processes, transform the minerals into
forms that can be absorbed by the plants roots. For example,
it is they who do the conversion of sulphur into sulphates or
phosphorus into phosphates. (Some plants like legumes are
masters in fixing atmospheric nitrogen directly in small nodules
on their roots: this is commonly known.) Older agricultures
procured minerals from tank silts or from rivers overflowing
their banks, and microbes from cowdung and composts (adding
to the microbes already found in the soil).
Some of these minerals are non-constitutive elements
of the plant, and include potassium and chlorine, lithium and
sodium, among others: the plant returns them to the soil after
its life. Others constitutive elements like phosphorus, boron,
sulphur, etc., are exported from the soil with the plant when
it is removed (with the harvest). This is how soil deficiencies
progressively occur, because little or no effort is made to replace
the elements that are exported from the soil with the crop. In
other words, we begin mining the soil and since we are dealing
with limited physical quantities, soil micro-nutrient deficiencies
and exhaustion is inevitable, leading to plant disease of all kinds.
Thus our organic farmers found that if they reintroduced soil
microbes in large quantities into the soil through recipes like
panchagavya or jeevamrut and then created conditions for those
microbes to survive and work for example, providing a good
mulch their need for external inputs declined rapidly to such
an extent that on the best organic farms today, almost no external
input, even addition of microbes, is any longer necessary. These
farmers have come very close to how a forest system maintains
itself, with absolutely no inputs from human beings. These
lessons have come from hard-working and intelligent farmers
who found they had to develop these techniques, after close
Claude Alvares
analysis of traditional ways and close observations of forests, to

develop a new agriculture of permanence and sustainability. That
learning took place outside the walls of agricultural universities
and science institutions.
Now this almost natural mimicry is exactly what is
displaced by modern agriculture of the green revolution. NPK are
supplied in soluble form, after being produced in vast industrial
units. Since these salts cannot be absorbed by the plants directly,
they have to be conveyed to the roots through water, demanding
huge dams and irrigation canals. Therefore irrigation is required
not for the plants natural thirst, but as a mechanism to convey
industrial salts to the root system. Since the plants are genetically
not equipped to absorb all the salts, most of these are conveyed
by the same waters to the river, tanks and sea. The efficiency in
uptake of chemical fertiliser is therefore extremely poor.
But more important are the effects of these salts on the
soil flora: termites, earthworms and soil microbes perish or
migrate because they are unable to survive the inhospitable
environment created by these chemicals. The soil becomes sterile
and the dependence on chemicals increases, soon leading to the
law of diminishing returns. This becomes the new ground for
looking for deadlier technologies like genetically modified (GM)
seed which fundamentally speaking cannot improve the yield
potential of a seed (like hybridisation or crossing sometimes
does, because of hybrid vigour) but can only promise to protect
existing crop yields from destruction.
Agriculture at crossroads: Agriculture has always worked
within the seasons and for that reason has remained sustainable.
Sustainability is a measure of how long, whether the practices
of one generation survive or can survive, into the next and then
the next. Traditional agriculture has lasted thousands of years,
which is a great measure of success in evolutionary terms. In
contrast, GR agriculture is undoubtedly already in the throes
of a crisis of monumental proportions. In fact, the failings of
the first GR the use of dangerous, but increasingly ineffective
pesticides which severely compromise the food we eat are now
exploited to further the cause of the so-called second GR, based
on GMOs. One of the primary arguments used to push GMOs
is their purported ability to reduce the use of toxic pesticides.
10
There is really no paradigm shift involved, so calling it a second

GR will not help. The approach heavy or exclusive reliance on
external inputs, each one more expensive than the last is the
same: a methodological approach that departs needlessly from
the natural principles governing plant growth, and which seeks
to use fast-depleting non-renewable resources (petrochemicals)
to provide substitute nutrition for something which can always
be provided by nature free of cost. Thats how our forests run in
any case. Thats how most of our vegetation survives, but not
our agriculture, which operates within an artificial box.
There is one argument continuously made in defence of
industrial agriculture: that earlier we imported food, now we
produce it ourselves. But this does not acknowledge the fact that
we now import the petrochemicals needed to grow that food,
and without that critical industrial input, organised agriculture
would face collapse. In fact, the era of cheap oil is gone. Oil
production has peaked. Now industrial culture has moved into
fracking which has even greater environmental consequences
than the extraction of oil. To carry out agriculture on such a base
is to build a house on sand. This is a completely unsustainable
operation by any definition.
The majority of the organic farming community do not
accept the idea that inputs for farming must come from outside
the farm: getting into that situation, or remaining in that
relationship of dependence, is taken as a measure of defeat. How
directly opposite is this approach to official agriculture which
strongly insists on enhancing dependence on more and more
expensive tools (including GMOs), not just from outside the
farm, but outside the countrys laboratories and oilfields as well!
That thrust, we must concede, is the natural consequence
of permitting the wholesale invasion of agriculture by industrial
elements. Industrial agriculture furthers the interests of those who
supply industrial inputs: fertiliser plants, agricultural research
laboratories, pesticide manufacturers, and now multinational
seed monopolies like Monsanto and Bayer. This means industrial
agriculture begins and extends with continuous dependence on
external inputs into the foreseeable future.
Claude Alvares
11
One important final observation about the organic farming

movement in India needs to be made. In quantitative terms India
is still the largest producer of organic in the world. This is not so
if one goes by official data, but the official data are completely
unintelligent and unreliable in this respect (Table 1).
Table 1: Some strange statistics about organic farming, India and
worldwide
Jackfruit
Jackfruit:
Karnataka alone
Jackfruit: Assam
alone
Ber
Mahua
1.5 million
tonnes per
annum (pa)
2,35,000 tonnes
pa
1,75,000 tonnes
pa
0.9 million
tonnes pa
60 million tonnes
pa
Total export of
certified organic
from India
1,65,262 tonnes
(201213)
Beef export India
1.52 million
tonnes/pa
Beef export
Australia
1.40 million
tonnes/pa
Organic beef
export Australia
17,533 tonnes/
pa (of which,
8,000 tonnes to
Europe)
India organic
production
(official)
Australia organic
production
(official)
No chemicals
used
Locally consumed
Value: INR
Locally consumed
12,718,00,000 / (70% wasted)
Not available
No chemicals
used
No chemicals
used
1155.81 cr
Free range
browsing/
agricultural
residues
Artificial feeds,
antibiotics and
hormones
12 million ha
organically
certified
pastures, which
comprise 97%
of organic
production of
Australia.
Locally consumed
Locally consumed
Locally consumed
Exported
Part of what is
locally consumed
All exported
Small part of
total beef export
780,000 ha
0.43% of total
arable land
400.551 farmers
12 million ha
2.93% of total
arable land
2,129 farmers
12
In India, millions of farmers have been growing organically for

several centuries. But since they do not do it the way the Europeans
do organic farming today, or follow the organic standards laid down
by Europe, we presumably cannot call them certified organic; in fact,
we call them default organic i.e. organic by default. The presumption
is, if the farmers had the cash and the water, they too would have
gladly used chemicals. Since these limiting factors are operating
practically in all dryland areas, with little or no irrigation and where
chemical fertilisers cannot be used, we turn that situation into one
of profit, and sell the produce as default organic. The idea is not to
improve default organic to the status of intended organic, but to take
advantage of the situation. So if you look at world figures of organic
production, you see that Australia is the worlds leading producer of
certified organic. You may then ask what it is that Australia produces.
97% of Australias certified organic produce is pasture grass, which
is not even for the direct consumption of human beings! So, simply
because of nonsensical and arbitrary definitions, Australia leads
India trails. The problem is that such defining exercises do have huge
policy implications which we should critically examine.
Why would one say that India is the largest organic
producer in the world? Well, just take any one food item (say,
jackfruit) at random. All jackfruits grow without fertilisers and
pesticides and irrigation, completely naturally. Production in
volumes is approximately 1.5 million tonnes, which is greater
than the entire organic export of all commodities put together
out of India to the European Union. Take Mahua flowers, for
instance, of which production is some 60 million tonnes or Ber,
which is 0.9 million tonnes. Or wild produce, like rock honey. If
I have to enumerate the number of things that human beings eat
in India and which are not produced with the use of chemicals,
pesticides or irrigation, I would need several pages for a listing.
If we certified all the naturally growing grass our animals eat
from hillsides and plains, Australia with its 12 million ha organic
pastures would be quite far behind. Put the entire organic
production from India together, and it will clearly out total the
organic production of the rest of the world. This is in fact our
strength, but for some convoluted reason, we are determined to
undermine this inherited capacity for ecological agriculture and
chase dangerous chemical fixes based more on industry than
science without a second thought. Its time we help redress these
conceptual and policy grievances, so that we can reclaim our
rightful position as the largest producer of organic in the world.
Future Sustainable Food Security of India through

Organic Farming: Myth or Reality
Ashok Kumar Yadav
During last fifty years, global agricultural production has
witnessed phenomenal growth averaging 2.3 percent per year
and ensured consistent availability of food for the increasing
and wealthier global population. High yielding varieties and
breeds, synthetic inputs, mechanization, better plant protection
and health care systems and good management practices have
boosted crop yields and livestock productivity. Aquaculture
supplies an increasing share of total fish consumption and the
real price of food has declined over the long term.
However, rapid population growth and increased human
activities have resulted in the overexploitation of the environment
and natural resources, and have started to threaten the ability of
the agriculture sector to provide food and income for the people.
Multitude of challenges and problems associated with the
present day agriculture due to exploitation and deterioration of
natural resources include, loss of soil fertility, strong decline of
agro-biodiversity, pollution of water (Badgley et al, 2007; Singh
2000), and health problems associated with the use of synthetic
plant protection products (Pimental 1996). There are increasing
concerns that the agricultural production system during next
four decades may exceed the environments carrying capacity
or the ability to support human activities. The available scientific
evidence suggests that business as usual may lead to a future in
which economic growth will be constrained by natural resource
limits, putting the security of food supplies at risk. Therefore
there is an urgent need to identify good practices and good
policies, to overcome impediments and embracing opportunities
to implement policies that may move food and agriculture on
to a sustainably productivity pathway. First decade of twenty
first century has witnessed introduction of many comprehensive
Bangalore. 2014
13
14
Future Sustainable Food Security of India through Organic Farming
system-oriented approaches which are gaining momentum and

are expected to better address the difficult issues associated with
the complexity of farming systems in different locations and
cultures (IAASTD 2009).
Food security and agricultural productivity: Food
security is generally defined as a condition where all people,
at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient,
safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food
preferences for an active and healthy life. Therefore, ensuring
sustainable food security is not simply a question of producing
enough food to meet the demand; it is influenced by various
factors, including production, trade, policies, prices and support
structures by Governments. Increased food supply does not
automatically mean increased food security for all. Therefore,
in spite of phenomenal growth in agricultural productivity and
country being surplus in food production, food security to all
is still a dream. The conventional wisdom for food security is
that, we need to double food supply and to achieve that we need
to redouble the modern agriculture. Such a strategy has been
successful in the past. But now there are doubts about the capacity
of such systems to reduce food poverty. The great technological
progress in the past half century has not led to major reductions
in hunger and poverty in developing countries.
Arguably the most sustainable choice for agricultural
development and food security is therefore to increase farm
productivity in-situ, in the developing countries including India
that are the most in need for greater food supplies. Therefore
attention needs to be focused on the following: a) The extent to
which farmers can improve food production and raise incomes
with low-cost, locally available technologies and inputs; b)
Whether they can do this without causing further environmental
damage and excessive resource exploitation; c) The extent
of farmers ability to trade and; d) Define policies, strengthen
innovation system and ensure adequate investment to facilitate
level playing field for such practices to happen.
Sustainability in agriculture: Many different expressions
have come to be used to imply greater sustainability in
agricultural systems. These include biodynamic, community
based, eco-agriculture, ecological, environmentally sensitive,
Ashok Kumar Yadav
15
farm-fresh, free range, low input, organic, permaculture etc.

However, highly sustainable agricultural systems can be taken
to mean those that aim to make the best use of environmental
goods and services while not damaging the five assets
namely, natural, social, human, physical and financial. The
key principles to sustainability are: 1) Integrate biological and
ecological processes such as nutrient recycling, nitrogen fixation,
soil regeneration, allellopathy, competition, predation and
parasitism in production processes; 2) Minimize the use of those
non-renewable inputs that cause environmental damage or that
harm the health of farmers and consumers; 3) Make good use of
knowledge and skills of farmers, so improving their self-reliance
and substituting human capital for costly external inputs; 4)
Make productive use of peoples collective capacities to work
together to solve common agricultural and natural resource
problems, such as pests, watershed, and irrigation, forest and
credit management.
If sustainable agricultural systems are those that aim to
make the best use of environmental goods and services while
not damaging the five assets particularly natural, social and
human capital, then an integrated organic farming system can
be considered inherently sustainable. Unlike the conventional
intensive agricultural systems, organic farming represents a
deliberate attempt to make the best use of local natural resources.
The aim of organic farming is to create integrated, humane,
environmentally and economically viable agricultural system
that relies to the greatest extent on: (i) local or on-farm renewable
resources, and (ii) the management of ecological and biological
processes, while use of external inputs, whether inorganic or
organic is reduced as far as possible.
Organic agriculture: The concept of organic agriculture
builds on the idea of the efficient use of locally available
resources as well as the usage of adapted technologies (e.g. soil
fertility management, closing of nutrient cycles as far as possible,
control of pests and diseases through management and natural
antagonists). It is based on a system-oriented approach and can
be a promising option for sustainable agricultural intensification
in the tropics, as it may offer several potential benefits (Kilcher
2007; Valkila 2009; Eyehorn et al, 2007; Mendez et al, 2010) such
as: (i) A greater yield stability, especially in risk-prone tropical
16
ecosystems, (ii) higher yields and incomes in traditional farming

systems, once they are improved and the adapted technologies
are introduced, (iii) an improved soil fertility and long-term
sustainability of farming systems, (iv) a reduced dependence
of farmers on external inputs, (v) the restoration of degraded or
abandoned land, (vi) the access to attractive markets through
certified products, and (vii) new partnerships within the whole
value chain, as well as a strengthened self-confidence and
autonomy of farmers.
There may by differing management approaches for organic
cultivation under different climates, locations and cropping
systems but one thing they all have in common is the desire
to develop a method of production capable of generating safe
and healthy food and fiber, with minimum or no adverse effects
on the environment and resources. Over the years it has been
scientifically proven, beyond doubt, that organic farming systems
are most productive environment-friendly system of growing
crops, promising environmental preservation, protection of
variety and species, protecting the soil, keeping the water clean
and reducing the impact of agriculture on the atmosphere. The
system may not be emphasizing on maximization of yields and
profits from one or two particular crops but ensures that the total
productivity and benefits (including environmental and resource
conservation) from the farm as a whole are far more than the
productivity and economic benefits from one single crop.
Critics contend that organic agriculture is associated with
low labor productivity and high production risks (Trewavas
2002; Nelson et al, 2004), as well as high certification costs for
smallholders (Makita 2012), but, the main criticism reflected in
the scientific literature is the claim that organic agriculture is not
able to meet the worlds growing food demand, as yields are
on average 10% to 25% lower than in conventional agriculture
(de Ponti et al, 2012; Seufert et al, 2012). It should however be
taken into account, that yield deviations among different
crops and regions can be substantial depending on system and
site characteristics. In a meta-analysis by Seufert et al (2012) it
was shown that yields in organic farming systems with good
management practices can nearly match conventional yields,
whereas under less favorable conditions or under simple
nutrient replacement models they cannot. Reganold (2012)
Ashok Kumar Yadav
17
pointed out that while making comparisons productivity is not

the only goal that must be met in order for agriculture to be
considered sustainable: The maintenance or enhancement of soil
fertility and biodiversity, while minimizing detrimental effects
on the environment and the contribution to the well-being of
farmers and their communities are equally important and need
to be given due importance while making such comparisons.
Abstract details of some of the studies published in recent
years, underlining the potential of productivity in production,
profitability and soil health improvement are being described in
following paragraphs.
Organic agriculture and productivity: Since the advent of
organic farming in the recent years there had been concerns on
the production potential of the system. But the results of long
term experiments released during the last 10 years from world
over have eliminated all fears. Under irrigated conditions organic
farming may be yielding 512% less than their conventional
counterparts but under rain-fed and water deficit conditions
organic system yields 7 to 15% more.
Six years experimenting, comparing two models of organic
management with only chemical input and chemical + organic under
4 crop husbandry systems at ICRISAT (Rupela 2006) revealed that
although, maximization of yields can be achieved by the combined
use of chemical fertilizers and organic inputs/practices (integrated
agriculture), but this combination may not be affordable for small
and marginal farmers in rainfed areas (Figures 1 and 2).
Figure 1. Yield (total economic mass) t/ha
18
Figure 2. Net Income (thousand rupees)

LCI and LCII = Organic model I and organic model II, C =
Conventional where only chemical fertilizers were used, C+O =
Integrated application of chemical fertilizers+organic manures
The low cost organic approaches can be an attractive choice,
particularly when their strategic application results in yield
levels at par with conventional system. The two organic models
studied in the experiment yielded comparable results, but were
25% more profitable than conventional system. Pest and disease
management was also effective and low cost with biological
approaches. Soil fertility and soil nutrient balance was certainly
on significantly higher side in organic system and offer longer
sustainability and suitability of the approaches under Indian
conditions, typical of small and marginal farmers.
Reviewing 154 growing seasons worth of data (Halwell
2006) on various crops grown on rain-fed and irrigated land in
the United States, University of California Davis agricultural
scientist Bill Liebhardt found that organic corn yields were 94
percent of conventional yields, organic wheat yields were 97
percent, and organic soybean yields were 94 percent. Organic
tomatoes showed no yield difference. More importantly, in
the worlds poorer nations where most of the worlds hungry
live, the yield gaps completely disappear. University of Essex
researchers Jules Pretty and Rachel Hine looked at over 200
agricultural projects in the developing world that converted
to organic and ecological approaches, and found that for all
the projects involving 9 million farms on nearly 30 million
hectares yields increased an average of 93 percent. A sevenyear study from Maikaal project in Khargone District in central
Ashok Kumar Yadav
19
India (Eyehorn et al, 2009) involving 1,000 farmers, cultivating

3,200 hectares found that average yields for cotton, wheat, chili,
and soybean were as much as 20 percent higher on the organic
farms than on nearby conventionally managed ones. Farmers
and agricultural scientists attributed the higher yields in this dry
region to the emphasis on cover crops, compost, manure, and
other practices that increased organic matter (which helps retain
water) in the soils.
A study from Kenya found that while organic farmers in
high-potential areas (those with above average rainfall and high
soil quality) had lower maize yields than non-organic farmers,
organic farmers in areas with poorer resource endowments
consistently out yielded conventional growers. (In both regions,
organic farmers had higher net profits, return on capital, and
return on labour). The study carried out in the Central Valley
of California (Drinkwater et al, 1995) showed that tomato yields
were quite similar in organic and conventional farms. However,
significant differences were found in soil health indicators such
as nitrogen mineralization potential and microbial abundance
and diversity which were higher in the organic farms. Nitrogen
mineralization potential was three times greater in organic
compared to conventional fields. The organic fields also had 28%
more organic Carbon.
One of the longest running agricultural trials on record
(more than 150 years) are the Broadbalk Experiment at
the Rothamsted Experimental Station in the United Kingdom.
The trials compare a manure based fertilizer farming system (but
not certified organic) to a synthetic chemical fertilizer farming
system. Wheat yields are shown to be on average slightly
higher in the organically fertilized plots (3.45 tonnes/hectare)
than the plots receiving chemical fertilizers (3.40 tonnes/
hectare). More importantly though, soil fertility, measured as
soil organic matter and nitrogen levels, increased by 120%
in the organic plots, compared with only 20% increase in
chemically fertilized plots (Leigh and Johnston, 1997).
Another trials result from Sustainable Agriculture
Farming Systems project (SFAS) at University of California,
Davis (Clark et al, 1999) showed that organic and low-input
systems had yields comparable to the conventional systems in all
20
crops which were tested tomato, safflower, corn and bean, and
in some instances yielding higher than conventional systems.
Initially tomato yields in the organic system were lower in
the first three years, but reached the levels of the conventional
tomatoes in the subsequent years and had a higher yield during
the last year of the experiment (80 t/ha in the organic compared to
68 t/ha in the conventional). In one such study at South Dakota
in Midwestern United States shows the higher average yields
of soybeans (3.5%) and wheat (4.8%) in the organic compared
to conventional farming system (Welsh, 1999). 21 year study
compared plots of cropland grown according to both organic
and conventional methods at Institute of Organic Agriculture
and the Swiss Federal Research Station for Agroecology and
Agriculture found that Organic yields were less by about
20% but Fertilizer, Energy and Pesticide use were less by
34%, 53% and 97% respectively as compared to conventional
(Maeder et al, 2002). Also organic soils housed a larger and
more diverse community of organisms. The study at Iowa State
University assessed (Delate and Cambardella, 2004) the agro
ecosystem performance of farms which found initially the
yield was slightly lower (Organic corn and soybean yield
averaged 91.8% and 99.6% of conventional respectively) in
organic plots but in fourth year organic yield exceeded
conventional for both corn and soybean crops (Delate et al,
2002). 30 Years Farming System Trial (FST) at Rodale Institute
showed organic corn yields 31% higher than conventional in
years of drought (Pimentel et al, 2005). These drought yields
are remarkable when compared to genetically engineered
drought tolerant varieties which saw increases of only 6.7%
to 13.3% over conventional (non-drought resistant) varieties.
Corn and soybean crops in the organic systems tolerated much
higher levels of weed competition than their conventional
counterparts, while producing equivalent yields. This is
especially significant given the rise of herbicide-resistant weeds
in conventional systems, and speaks to the increased health and
productivity of the organic soil (supporting both weeds and crop
yield).
The study conducted by ETC Organic Cotton Programme
in the district of Karimnagar, Andhra Pradesh India showed
organic cotton yielded on par at 232 Kg seed cotton/acre vs.
conventional cotton at 105 Kg/acre. The pest control expenses
Ashok Kumar Yadav
21
was observed about Rs. 220 and Rs. 1624 per acre for organic and
in conventional cotton respectively (Daniel et al, 2005). Study at
Washington State University compared yields, economics, soil
quality, and other factors resulting from apples grown using
organic, conventional, and integrated methods. After combining
all of the sustainability indicators, the organic system ranked
first (Reganold, 2006) in overall sustainability, the integrated
second and conventional at last.
Research findings released from UAS, Dharwad, Karnataka
under Network Project on Organic Farming (ICAR) reported
results from six year long experiment comparing yields and
net returns from organic cultivation, chemical farming and
integrated nutrient management (INM). The results for three
crop combinations are as follows (Table 1):
Table 1: Yields and net returns of three crop combinations
Crop combination
Groundnut-sorghum
Organic
Chemical
INM
Soybean-Wheat
Organic
Chemical
INM
Chilli-Cotton
Organic
Chemical
INM
Yield kg/ha
Groundnut yield
2975
2604
2842
Soybean yield
1769
1521
1733
Chilli yield
447
427
445
Yield kg/ha
Sorghum yield
1166
1043
1155
Wheat yield
1081
933
1062
Cotton yield
662
559
681
Returns Rs/ha
Net returns
48345
40790
46090
21120
16313
19929
19502
14176
19540
(Source: UAS Dharwad, 2011)
Organic agriculture and profitability: Recently a study

was conducted in Maharashtra to study the impact of organic
farming on economics of sugarcane cultivation in Maharashtra
(Kshirsagar, 2007). The study was based on primary data
collected from two districts covering 142 farmers, 72 growing
Organic Sugarcane (OS) and 70 growing Inorganic Sugarcane
(IS). The study finds that organic cultivation enhances human
labour employment by 16.90 per cent and its cost of cultivation
22
was lower by 14.24 per cent than conventional farming.

Although the yield from organic was 6.79 per cent lower than the
conventional crop, it was more than compensated by the lower
cost and price premium received and yield stability observed on
organic farms. The organic farming gives 15.63 per cent higher
profits and profits were also more stable on organic farms than
the conventional farms.
Tej Pratap and Vaidya (2009) in a nationwide survey
of organic farmers suggest that The cost-benefit analysis
indicates favourable economics of organic farming in India.
Farmers in 5 out of 7 states are better placed, so far as organic
farming is concerned. The returns are higher in Himachal
Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Rajasthan.
In Karnataka organic farmers had 435% higher returns than
inorganic farmers. In Kerala the differentials ranged between
437% in favour of inorganic farmers. In Maharashtra the
difference in net profit was more than 100% in case of organic
soybean. Organic cotton farmers were enjoying comfortable
profit margin. The profit differential in Rajasthan ranged from
1259% in favour of organic farmers. In Tamil Nadu organic
farmers were better placed with two crops, while inorganic
farmers were at slight advantage in other two crops.
In another study by Ramesh et al (2010), it has been reported
that on an average, the productivity of crops in organic farming
is although lower by 9.2% compared to conventional farming.
There was a reduction in the average cost of cultivation by
11.7% compared to conventional farming. However, due to the
availability of premium price (2040%) for organic produce in most
cases, the average net profit was 22.0% higher in organic compared
to the conventional farming. In traditional rainfed agriculture
(with low external inputs), organic agriculture has shown the
potential to increase yields and profits. The economics of organic
cotton cultivation over a period of six years indicated that there is a
reduction in cost of cultivation and increased gross and net returns
compared to conventional cotton cultivation in India.
Recently a study by Forster et al (2013) presents agronomic
and economic data from the conversion phase (20072010) of a
farming systems comparison trial on a Vertisol soil in Madhya
Pradesh, central India. A cotton-soybean-wheat crop rotation
Ashok Kumar Yadav
23
under biodynamic, organic and conventional (with and without

Bt cotton) management was investigated. Authors observed a
significant yield gap between organic and conventional farming
systems in the 1st crop cycle (cycle 1: 20072008) for cotton
(29%) and wheat (27%), whereas in the 2nd crop cycle (cycle 2:
20092010) cotton and wheat yields were similar in all farming.
In contrast, organic soybean (a nitrogen fixing leguminous plant)
yields were marginally lower than conventional yields (1% in
cycle 1, 11% in cycle 2). Averaged across all crops, conventional
farming systems achieved significantly higher gross margins
in cycle 1 (+29%), whereas in cycle 2 gross margins in organic
farming systems were significantly higher (+25%) due to lower
variable production costs but similar yields. Soybean gross
margin was significantly higher in the organic system (+11%)
across the four harvest years compared to the conventional
systems.
Organic agriculture and soil health: Organic farming while
relying on use of crop rotations, mixed crops, crop residue and
manures, not only helps in improving nutrient balance in soil
but also accelerates various microbiological processes leading to
continuous improvement in fertility and health index. Long term
experiments comparing productivity and soil health parameters
at ICRISAT have demonstrated that organic practices produced
yields comparable to conventional plots, without receiving
any chemical fertilizer; they actually showed increase in the
concentration of N and P compared with conventional. In years 3
and 4 of adopting organic management this increase was 1134%
in total N and 1116% in total P over conventional plots. Among
different soil biological properties, the soil respiration was more
by 1727% in organic plots then in conventional, microbial
biomass Carbon was 2829% higher, microbial biomass nitrogen
was 2328% more and acid and alkaline phosphates were 513%
higher in organic compared to conventional (Rupela et al 2005,
2006). In another similar study conducted under Network Project
on Organic Farming of ICAR, (Gill and Kamta Prasad 2009)
appreciable improvements in yield levels under organic system
were noted in the initial years with yields attaining comparable
outputs by 4th and 5th years. Improvements of different
magnitudes were also recorded in respect of soil organic carbon,
available-P, available-K, bulk density, and microbial count under
organic systems as compared to chemical farming.
24
In another study by Ramesh et al (2010) it has been reported

that the bulk density of soil is less in organic farms which
indicates better soil aggregation and soil physical conditions.
Improvement in soil organic matter decreased the bulk density
by dilution of the denser fraction of the soil. There was a slight
increase in soil pH and electrical conductivity in organic farms
compared to conventional farms. On an average there was
29.7% increase in organic Carbon of soil in organic farms (1.22%)
compared to the conventional farms (0.94%). Dehydrogenase,
alkaline phosphatase and microbial biomass Carbon were higher
in organic soils by 52.3%, 28.4% and 34.4% respectively compared
to the conventional farms. In general, increase in microbial
biomass Carbon in organic manure amended soils was due to
increased availability of substrate-C that stimulates microbial
growth, but a direct effect from microorganisms added through
the compost is also possible. In organically managed soils, both
macronutrients (N, P and K) and micronutrients (Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn)
were available in larger quantities compared to the conventional
soils. It is well documented that there is a significant positive
correlation between organic matter and micronutrient cation
availability and is best exploited under organic management
strategies.
Epilogue
Organic farming as we see today is not the age old

traditional agriculture, it is a science based intensive cropping
system based on efficient management of resources, soil health,
sun energy harvesting and judicious use of natural resources.
Experiments world over has proved the productivity potential.
Under irrigated and intensive cultivation conditions organic
farming may be 512% less yielder but under rainfed, water
stressed conditions and in marginal land areas it is 715% higher
yielder. Besides productivity the present day organic farming
system not only ensure safe and healthy food, but also promise
sustained soil health, fertility and better profitability. As it is
natural resource based system close to nature it also offers viable
organic solutions for integration into conventional agriculture for
better future and sustained growth of agriculture in the country.
As food security is not only a component of increased
productivity and encompasses other issues of polices, trade,
prices and environmental and resource use optimization, organic
Ashok Kumar Yadav
25
farming provides solution to all the issues. Organic farming in

its modern version, equipped with local resources, strengthened
with modern science and supported with mechanization is ready
to take challenges in the field of environment preservation;
resource optimization, comparable productivity and soil health
build up. Besides, the adoption of organic farming in group
and desire of the organic farmers to enter into direct trade as
entrepreneurs is also contributing to social, physical and financial
capital build up. All these put together indicates that if policies
are made favorable and level playing field is ensured through
comparable financial support, organic agriculture can play its
role in furthering the cause of food security in the country.
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Current Status and Relevance of

Organic Farming in Indian Agriculture
P Ramesh
The impact of Green Revolution on the global food grain
production, especially on Indian agriculture was highly
commendable. This happened mainly due to the introduction of
high yielding varieties (HYVs), extension of irrigated area, use of
high analysis fertilizers and increase in cropping intensity, which
propelled India towards self-sufficiency in food production.
In the process, relative contribution of organic manures as a
source of plant nutrients vis-a-vis chemical fertilizers declined
substantially (NAAS, 2005). With increase in cost of production
inputs, inorganic fertilizers became increasingly more
expensive. Another issue of great concern is the sustainability
of soil productivity as land began to be intensively tilled to
produce higher yields under multiple and intensive cropping
systems. Water logging and secondary salinization have been
banes associated with excess and irrational irrigation. Ground
water table declined sharply as deeper bore wells were drilled.
Recharging of ground water has also been reduced due to severe
deforestation. Indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides to control
various insect pests and diseases over the years has destroyed
many naturally occurring effective biological control agents.
An increase in resistance of insect pests to chemical pesticides
has also been noticed. Health hazards associated with intensive
modern agriculture such as pesticides residues in food products
and ground water contamination are matter of concern. The
occurrence of multi-nutrient deficiencies and overall decline in
the productive capacity of the soil due to non-judicious fertilizer
use has been widely reported. Such concerns and problems
posed by modern-day agriculture gave birth to new concept in
farming, such as organic farming (Ramesh et al, 2005).
Concept of organic farming: Organic farming is one among
the broad spectrum of production methods that are supportive
Bangalore. 2014
29
30
Current Status and Relevance of Organic Farming in Indian Agriculture
of the environment. Organic production systems are based on

specific standards precisely formulated for food production
and aim at achieving agro ecosystems, which are socially and
ecologically sustainable. It is based on minimizing the use of
external inputs through the use of on-farm resources efficiently
compared to conventional agriculture. Thus the use of synthetic
fertilizers and pesticides is avoided. The basic principles and
aims of organic farming are as follows: 1) Organic farming is
a holistic production management system, which promotes
biodiversity and biological activity. It actually promotes and
enhances ecosystem health, while at the same time producing
food. It is based on the low use of external inputs and nonuse of
artificial fertilizers and pesticides. It also takes into account the
fact that regional conditions require locally adapted systems; 2)
Organic farming develops a system that ensures that all forms
of life, from microbes to livestock, are conserved, productively
utilized and are also treated with respect and concern, keeping
in view their health, safety and natural behavioral needs; 3)
Organic farming as far as possible employs farm inputs which
can be reused or recycled, are generated on-site and which cause
minimal pollution in the local external environment. It specially
excludes all products and processes of genetic engineering and
related technologies; 4) Organic farming produces food diversity
that is free from toxins and of high nutritional value and good
shelf life in adequate quantities and of a quality suitable for direct
consumption and small scale processing; 5) Organic farming
protects and promotes all forms of diversity, social, cultural (the
biodiversity knowledge base inclusive of arts, crafts, music etc.)
along with systems of organizational and political governance
especially at local level.
According to Codex Alimentarius Commission (FAO,
1999), a joint body of FAO/WHO, Organic agriculture is defined
as a holistic production management system which promotes
and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity,
biological cycles, and soil biological activity. It emphasises the
use of management practices in preference to the use of offfarm inputs, taking into account that regional conditions require
locally adapted systems. This is accomplished by using, where
possible, agronomic, biological, and mechanical methods,
as opposed to using synthetic materials, to fulfil any specific
function within the system.
P. Ramesh
31
According to National Programme for Organic Production

(NPOP) of Agricultural and Processed Products Export
Development Authority (APEDA) of India (APEDA 2008),
organic farming is defined as a system of farm design and
management to create an eco system, which can achieve
sustainable productivity without the use of artificial external
inputs such as chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Organic
products are grown under a system of agriculture without the
use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides with an environmentally
and socially responsible approach. This is a method of farming
that works at grass root level preserving the reproductive and
regenerative capacity of the soil, good plant nutrition, and sound
soil management, produces nutritious food rich in vitality which
has resistance to diseases.
Current status of organic farming
World scenario: According to the latest FiBLIFOAM

(FiBL and IFOAM, 2013) survey on certified organic agriculture
worldwide (201112), data on organic agriculture are available
from 162 countries. There are 37.2 million hectares of organic
agricultural land (including in-conversion areas). The regions
with the largest areas of organic agricultural land are Oceania
(12.2 million hectares, 33 percent of the worlds organic
agricultural land) and Europe (10.6 million hectares, 29 percent).
Latin America has 6.9 million hectares (18.4 percent) followed
by Asia (3.7 million hectares, 10 percent), North America (2.8
million hectares, 7.5 percent) and Africa (1.1 million hectares,
3 percent). The countries with the most organic agricultural
land are Australia (12 million hectares), Argentina (3.8 million
hectares), and the United States (1.9 million hectares). Currently
0.9 percent of the agricultural land of the countries covered by
the survey is organic. By region, the highest shares of the total
agricultural land are in Oceania (2.9 percent) and in Europe (2.2
percent). In the European Union, 5.4 percent of the farmland
is organic. However, some countries reach far higher shares:
Falkland Islands: 35.9 percent; Liechtenstein: 27.3 percent;
Austria 19.7 percent. In ten countries, more than ten percent of
the agricultural land is organic. There were 1.8 million producers
in 2011. Thirty four percent of the worlds organic producers are
in Asia, followed by Africa (30 percent), and Europe (16 percent).
The countries with the most producers are India (5,47,591),
Uganda (1,88,625 in 2010), and Mexico (1,69,570).
32
In spite of the slowdown in the global economy,

international sales of organic products continue to rise. Organic
Monitor estimates organic food and drink sales reached almost
63 billion US dollars in 2011. The market has expanded by 170
percent since 2002. Demand for organic products is mainly
in North America and Europe; these two regions comprise
more than 90 percent of sales. Although organic farming is
now practiced in every continent, demand is concentrated in
these regions. Production of organic foods in other regions,
especially Asia, Latin America and Africa is mainly exportgeared. The organic food sector in some countries is almost
entirely dependent on exports. In 2011, the countries with the
largest organic markets were the United States, Germany, and
France. The largest single market was the United States. The
highest per capita consumption was in Switzerland, Denmark,
and Luxemburg. The highest market shares were reached in
Denmark, Switzerland and Austria.
Indian scenario: Currently, India ranks 33rd in terms of total
land under organic cultivation and 88th position for agriculture
land under organic crops to total farming area.The cultivated
land under certification is around 4.43 million hectares (2010
11) (APEDA, 2012). The Government of India has implemented
the National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP). The
national programme involves the accreditation programme for
certification bodies, norms for organic production, promotion
of organic farming etc. The NPOP standards for production
and accreditation system have been recognized by European
Commission and Switzerland as equivalent to their country
standards. Similarly, USDA has recognized NPOP conformity
assessment procedures of accreditation as equivalent to that of US.
With these recognitions, Indian organic products duly certified
by the accredited certification bodies of India are accepted by
the importing countries. India produced around 3.88 million
tonnesof certified organic products which includes all varieties
of food products namelyBasmati rice, Pulses, Honey, Tea,
Spices, Coffee, Oil Seeds, Fruits, Processed food, Cereals, Herbal
medicinesand their value added products. The production is
not limited to the edible sector but also produces organic cotton
fiber, garments, cosmetics, functional food products, body care
products, etc.
P. Ramesh
33
India exported86 itemslast year(201011)with the total

volume of69837 MT. The export realization was around157.22
millionUS $registering a33%growth over the previous year.
Organic products are mainly exported to EU, US, Australia,
Canada, Japan, Switzerland, South Africa and Middle East.Oil
Crops (except Sesame) leadsamong the products exported
(17966 MT). The commodity-wise export from India is presented
in Table 1.
Table 1. Commodity-wise Export from India (APEDA, 2013)
Product Category
Oil Crops (except Sesame)
Cotton and Textiles
Processed Food
Basmati Rice
Tea
Sesame
Honey
Rice
Dry Fruits
Cereals
Spices and Condiments
Medicinal and Herbal Plants/Products
Coffee
Vegetables
Aromatic Oils
Export Volume
(million tonnes)
17966
17363
8752
5243
2928
2409
2409
1634
1472
1348
1174
627
320
167
39
Percent Share
25.73
24.86
12.53
7.51
4.19
3.45
3.45
2.34
2.11
1.93
1.68
0.90
0.46
0.24
0.06
Relevance of organic farming in Indian agriculture
Production and Productivity: Conversion to organic

farming affects the crop productivity, and the yields depend upon
the farming situation: 1) In intensive farming systems, organic
agriculture decreases yield, the range depends on the intensity
of external input use before conversion (Stanhill, 1990); 2) In the
green revolution areas (irrigated lands), conversion to organic
farming usually leads to almost identical yields (Rajendran et al,
2000); 3) In traditional rain-fed agriculture (with low external
inputs), organic farming has shown the potential to increase
yields (Huang, 1993).
34
In general, the productivity of crops in organic farming

is lower compared to the conventional chemical farming. This
raises the issue whether India can afford to adopt organic
farming? However, field experiments conducted in the last few
years on the productivity of crops in organic farming (Ramesh
et al, 2006; Ramesh et al, 2007; Ramesh et al, 2008; Ramesh et
al, 2008; Ramesh et al, 2009; Ramesh et al, 2009) and the data
obtained from the survey of certified organic farms in India may
give certain answers in this direction. The results of the longterm experiments at Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh (Ramesh et al,
2009) revealed that the productivity of soybean under organic
manuring is lower (7.8 and 5.3% less) in the initial two years (2004
and 2005) compared to chemical fertilizers, but in the subsequent
years (2006 and 2007), the productivity was improved by 10.6
and 11.1%. Similar results were also reported with reference
to the productivity of crops such as wheat, mustard, chickpea
and isabgol. It is also reported that a suitable combination of
organic manures as nutrient source is better for sustaining crop
productivity under organic nutrition compared to chemical
fertilizer application (Ramesh et al, 2009).
Soil quality and fertility: Long-term application of organic
manures for the production of crops in organic farming is known
to improve the soil quality and fertility. Experiments conducted
at Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh revealed that organic manures
application significantly improved the soil physical, chemical and
biological parameter compared to the chemical fertilizer application
in different cropping systems (Ramesh et al, 2006; Ramesh et al,
2008; Ramesh et al,2008; Ramesh et al, 2009; Ramesh et al, 2010;
Ramesh et al, 2009; Panwar et al, 2010). In a survey conducted on
certified organic farms in India (Ramesh et al, 2010) showed that,
on an average there was 29.7% increase in organic Carbon of soils
in organic farms (1.22%) compared to the conventional farms
(0.94%), which is a good indicator of soil quality as it works as a
sink for all nutrients and known for improving all soil physical
and biological properties of soil. Soil quality indicative enzymes
like dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase and microbial biomass
Carbon were higher in organic soils by 52.3, 28.4 and 34.4%
respectively compared to conventional farms.
Crop/Food quality: There is a growing demand for organic
food driven primarily by the consumers perception of the quality
P. Ramesh
35
and safety of these foods and to the positive environmental

impact of organic agricultural practices. The organic label is
not a health claim, it is a process claim. It has been demonstrated
that organically produced foods have lower levels of pesticides
and veterinary drug residues and in many cases lower nitrate
contents (Woese et al, 1997). No clear trend have, however, been
established in terms of organoleptic quality differences between
organically and conventionally grown foods.
Economics of organic farming: Studies have shown that
the common organic agricultural combination of lower input
costs and favorable price premiums can offset reduced yields
and make organic farms equally and often more profitable
than the conventional farms (Hansen et al , 1997). Studies that
did not include organic price premiums have mixed results on
profitability (Welsh, 1999). A survey on the certified organic
farms in India showed that on an average, there was a reduction
in the cost of cultivation by 11.7% compared to conventional
farming. However, due to the availability of premium price
(2040%) for organic produce in most cases, the average net
profit was 22% higher in organic compared to the conventional
farming (Ramesh et al, 2010).
SWOT analysis of organic farming in India: The SWOT
analysis of organic farming (Table 2) (Kumara et al, 2010; Sikka et
al, n.d.) which reveals that the global competitiveness for organic
food exports from India is marked with number of weaknesses,
whereas lot of opportunities does exist in the domestic and
international market. The major threats are from that of global
warming and competition for which area-specific varieties are to
be developed. Government and other institutions should come
forward to overcome the weaknesses such as infrastructure,
market linkages, information, capacity building etc.
Scope and future prospects of organic farming in India:
Indias long tradition of ecological agriculture, in many different
forms has been rooted in farmers approaches. It is for this
reason that the farmers and the private enterprises took the
lead in understanding the competitive advantages of organic
agriculture. World over, organic farming is rated among the
sunrise industries. Where unlocking the natures capital is the
aim, organic serves the best tool for that. It is only later that when
36
Table 2. SWOT analysis of organic farming prospects in India

Strengths
Wide variety of fruits and
vegetables and other commodities
can be grown organically.
Very less consumption of
chemicals in India as compared to
developed nations. These areas
can be turned into organic.
Organic pockets existing in
different parts of the country.
Differentiation can be easily
created
Farmers as well as Government
interests are rising in organic
Various niches in fruits and
vegetables can be created
Indian corporate investing in
agribusiness especially in organic
farming
Opportunities
Favorable government vision
WTO offering global opportunities
Price -premiums in different
markets
Export opportunities in new
product/market( section )
USA, Europe and Japan are rising
markets
Branding offers new opportunities
for differentiation
Rising demand for organic
products
Big retail stores/chains opening up
New developments in post harvest
technologiesNew products and
technologies ushering in Private
sector keen to join organic chain
value chain.
Weaknesses
Short shelf life varieties
Lack of farmer awareness about
agricultural practices, products
and technologies for organic
farming
Quality not competitive in the
domestic and international market
Price competitiveness
Lack of market information and
intelligence
Global marketing research lacking
Inadequate post harvest
management and related
specialized infrastructure to
support organic food production
R and D base in organic food
production lacking
Unavailability of inputs used in
system
Certification and labeling
No access to international market
Threats
Competition from domestic
industry
Threat from imported products
Non-tariff barriers may be imposed
by developed nations.
High cost of organic food.
Costly and complex organic
certification process
Most of the fields are contiguous
and problem of contamination.
Lack of infrastructure facilities and
certification bodies.
Low awareness about organic
inputs.
P. Ramesh
37
the potential benefits of organic agriculture are becoming clearer,

one for positioning Indian agricultural exports with advantage
and two for bringing benefits to small and marginal farmers,
that the government agencies are participating more actively.
Indications of this trend are seen in several state level initiatives
about promotion of organic agriculture (Export-Import Bank of
India, 2003).
The elements of a successful strategy for India will need to
include a two pronged approach:
i.
To increase the efficiency and sustainability of production:

Organic farming can help to reduce production costs
(especially where labor is cheap compared to input costs)
and to increase or stabilize yields on marginal areas and
small farming communities. This is especially relevant for
small holders in marginal areas where Green Revolution
agriculture has lead to a depletion of soil fertility and to
high debts because of increase in input costs. It can focus on
food security and health and environmental benefits that
are intrinsic to the organic systems.
ii.
To increase product value: In areas where farmers have

access to established organic markets within the country or
abroad, products can achieve a higher price compared to the
conventional market. Especially in the trend of decreasing
prices for agricultural products, this can be an important
way to stabilize or even increase incomes. In order to
boost trade in Indian agricultural products and capture a
significant share of market, it is an imperative that India
becomes home to such organic products which give it a
competitive edge in global market, namely organic cotton,
spices, essential oils and medicinal plants, fresh fruits and
vegetables.
What is seen in India presently are two kinds of strong

undercurrents of organic farming; from limited to rapidly
increasing certified organic farms, mainly producing for a
premium price in the domestic or export market, and the large
number of those non-certified organic farms which produce for
their own households accessing local markets only, if there is
surplus. In India, the Government is promoting organic farming
38
which can be a profitable strategy to raise the income level of

small and medium farmers. Some of its states such as Sikkim
have already declared themselves as completely organic. There
are many areas where the production is by default organic.
Uttaranchal is one such state, where in hilly areas, negligible
amount of chemicals is used. The farmers are also turning to
organic production because of the high premium commanded
by organic products. Some of the organic manufacturers
associations have also emerged in the country. Realizing the
potential existing in organic farming, corporates are also ready
to invest in this area. The domestic market for organic food is yet
to develop as most of the Indian population belongs to the lower
middle class stratum of society, hence cannot afford the highpriced organic products. The only option left for organic food
industry is to target elite domestic customers and large export
markets.
India, being an agriculturally dominated country, has a
vast scope in exports of raw and processed organic food. It has
already established itself as a major agricultural exporter. These
include cereals, fruits and vegetables, spices, herbs, tea etc. There
is very less use of chemicals for farming in India as compared
to the developed nations. The pesticide use is even less in case
of the food items which is imported. Most of the pesticides are
used on cotton. There are few pockets in the country where no
chemicals are used and traditional farming is practiced. The
produce from developing countries including India is preferred
among the global communities for containing fewer chemicals.
So the country has opportunities in exporting the items such as
tea, fruits, vegetables, spices, coffee, etc., the processed organic
forms of these commodities can also be made available in the
global markets.
India can take advantage of the growing opportunities
in the organic farming, making use of its varied agro-climatic
conditions and traditional organic resources and farming
practices. There are certain challenges to be met before India
takes on to the world organic markets. The Indian produce has
to create a competitive niche in global markets. The challenges
in international marketing of organic food are standardization
of products according to the customers tastes and preferences,
certification, consumer education, branding and promotion.
P. Ramesh
39
Production of organic products also face challenges with

regard to availability of right and quality inputs, research
and dissemination of appropriate technologies, processing,
certification, production information and infrastructure support
and also policies of the government need to be revisited to fulfill
its objectives to tap global organic markets.
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Policies, Programs and Institutional Initiatives on

Organic Farming in India
K Ramakrishnappa
In India health and environmental hazards arising out of
modern agriculture production systems have led to a growing
interest in alternate farming practices that avoid the use of
synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, minimize air, soil and water
pollution and optimize crop biodiversity. Consequently, organic
farming as a means to increase sustainability in agriculture
by maintaining farm diversity and simultaneously enhancing
income opportunities for small and marginal producers has
made credible advancements during the past decade with the
combined efforts of farmers, NGOs, Governmental interventions
and market forces.
The Government of India has initiated a number of steps
to promote organic farming and regulate production and
marketing of organic produce in the country. In March 2000,
under National Program for Organic Production (NPOP), the
country has launched the National Organic Logo India Organic
and announced the NSOP standards comprising the details of
growing crops and the permissible use of natural minerals and
biological pest and disease control measures under organic
farming. The Central Government through APEDA has also
prepared and approved criteria and procedures to accredit
agencies for organic certification, announced inspection and
certification procedures and short listed agencies for certification.
Presently, 24 accredited certification agencies are looking after
the requirement of certification process and the products certified
by them are accepted in many countries including European
Union and USA. The Director General of Foreign Trade has
laid down rules and regulations for export of organic products
from India. To look after promotional and capacity building
activities, a National Project on Organic Farming (NPOF) was
launched under Ministry of Agriculture during 2004, which
Bangalore. 2014
43
44
Policies, Programs and Institutional Initiatives on Organic Farming in India
is being operated by one National Centre of Organic Farming

(NCOF) at Ghaziabad and six Regional Centres (RCOFs) located
at Bangalore, Nagpur, Jabalpur, Panchkula, Bhubaneswar and
Imphal. To address domestic certification issues, requirements
of NPOP were notified under Agriculure Grading and Marking
Rules and a new logo Agmark India Organic was launched
exclusively for domestic market. Recently Minitsry of Agriculture
has also launched a farmer group centric certification system
under PGS-India programme.
Karnataka state policy on organic farming: The
Government of Karnataka, realising the importance of organic
agriculture as early as in 2003 has set up a Mini Mission on
organic farming with a mandate to study the existing agriculture
situation and to recommend strategies for sustainable farming.
The Mission after a series of meetings, visits and consultations,
has submitted the report on the status of agriculture in Karnataka.
The highlights of the paper indicates that like in other states of
India, agriculture productivity in Karnataka is stagnated on
account of heavy soil erosion, loss of soil fertility, salinisation of
soils, declining ground water and genetic erosion of indigenous
species. The other important observations of the mission include:
a) high cost of production (b) young members of the farming
families quitting agriculture in favour of petty jobs at urban
locations (c) agro-chemicals reaching the soil and aquifer and
threatening the very survival of useful micro flora (d) high levels
of pesticide residues in food and water, threatening human and
animal health and (e) high risk of nutrition, quality and safety
of food.
The Mini Mission with the above observations has
recommended to quickly overcome the knowledge gap in the
existing agriculture production system and proposed to promote
organic farming as a potential means to enhance agriculture
production and to protect deteriorating agro-eco system. The
Government of Karnataka has constituted a high level committee
under the Chairmanship of the Development Commissioner cum
Agriculture Production Commissioner to examine the proposal
and on the recommendations of this committee, the Government
announced the Karnataka State Policy on Organic Farming in
March 2004.
K Ramakrishnappa
45
Salient features of the policy: (i) Promoting organic

agriculture as a sustainable, safe and healthy method of farming
independent of special price advantages; (ii) The approach
adopted in promotion of organic farming shall be farmer centered
and the programs shall create conditions for conversion and
efficient use of locally available resources; (iii) Central and State
Governments to provide interventions to instill confidence in
the minds of farmers during conversion and learning phase; (iv)
Resolving often extreme distress in rural farming communities
resulting from high input cost, low returns, increased debt
etc.; (v) Developing land and crop management to compensate
for more adverse and more variable weather conditions; (vi)
Introduce participatory approaches in promotion of organic
farming by involving all stakeholders at all decision making
levels, facilitated largely by the Government.
Strategies: a) Integration of all land based activities like
Agriculture, Horticulture, Animal Husbandry, Sericulture,
Apiculture, Aquaculture, Forestry and other land use activities
in policy making and at implementation levels; b) Reliance on
locally available, affordable and environment friendly inputs to
be produced on farm; c) Promoting self reliance through inclusion
of local seeds, manures and indigenous practices for plant
protection; d) Encouraging mixed farming aimed at household
food security while conserving biodiversity and local cultural
values; e) Preparing farmers for competitive marketing through
value addition, e.g. through partial processing, development of
specialty products, good presentation and maintaining quality
and safety; f) Creating consumer awareness about respectful
natural farming and safe food; g) Empowering people by
establishing organizational structures like Farmers Associations,
PCs etc. and provide institutional support.
Specific activities: a) Production of green manure
seeds in sufficient quantities to be used by every holding and
promotion of multi-purpose tree species on farms; b) Creation
of infrastructures to facilitate grading, processing, packing and
marketing of organic produce locally with transparent pricing
and benefit distribution; c) Documentation of existing sustainable
organic farming practices and to develop packages of practices by
involving Research Organisations/Government Departments/
46
NGOs; d) Creating awareness in the use of organic produce

among consumers, large scale production by small producers
of truthful organic produce certified by local agencies/ NGOs
/Farmers Associations need to be encouraged; e) Creation of
infrastructure for testing organic inputs and outputs (products)
with effective and economic methods, test centers and sampling
mobile labs; f) Supporting organic food processing industries
and encourage good farmer-buyer relationships; g) Creating new
market opportunities in export markets through development of
value added organic products.
Interventions under National Horticulture Mission:
The Government of India in the year 200506 has initiated
National Horticulture Mission, a centrally assisted scheme to
provide holistic approach for development of Horticulture in
the country and organic farming has been given a major thrust
under the program. The focused activities under NHM include:
a) Creating awareness on the ill effects of intensive farming and
to disseminate knowledge on eco-friendly organic farming by
organising awareness and training programs in association with
local organic farmers group; b) Facilitating farmers to produce
required inputs on farm by providing financial support for
creation of low cost infrastructures for production of inputs like
Vermicompost, Jeevamruth, Digester extract etc; c) Supporting
farmers in the initial stages of conversion from chemical/
traditional into organic; d) Encouraging farmers/ Farmers
groups in collection, grading, value addition and marketing
of organic products; e) Facilitating farmers groups involved in
promotion of organic farming to adopt Internal Control System
(ICS) and Participatory Guarantee System in organic production
system to bring in transparency, traceability and accountability;
f) Organising Trade shows and exhibitions in collaboration
with organic farmers associations, to establish linkages between
consumers and producers for marketing of organic products
in domestic and export markets; g) Encouraging Farmers and
farmers organizations involved in scientific validation of local
practices for the benefit of organic community.
Institutional support for organic farming in Karnataka
Organic village program: As per the recommendations of

the state policy on organic farming, organic village programs
were initiated in all the districts of Karnataka since 200405.
K Ramakrishnappa
47
One of the main components of this program was to convert

100 hectares of contiguous area into a model organic site on
a holistic approach involving all land based developmental
sectors like Agriculture, Horticulture, Watershed Development,
Animal husbandry, Sericulture, Forest, besides Universities
of Agricultural Sciences. This program since its inception was
helpful in conversion of more than 1lakh hectares into organic
agriculture in the state.
Biocentre as a resource organization: Biocentre, a certified
organic centre, under the Department of Horticulture in
Karnataka has been serving as a knowledge centre in promotion
of organic farming in Karnataka. The centre organizes regular
training and capacity building programs to farmers, extension
personnel and policy makers, validate scientifically the local
practices, conduct demonstrations on production and utilization
of organic inputs on farm and provide analytical services to
organic farmers for their inputs and outputs. The Biocentre
is the largest producer and distributor of certified organic
seed and planting material, and involved in conservation
and development of local/traditional varieties of vegetables,
medicinal and aromatic plants and heritage horticulture crops
of Karnataka. Some of the important activities of the biocenter
towards holistic and sustainable agriculture are:
a) Conservation, development and GI registration of
heritage crops: One of the priority programs of Biocentre is to
conserve and develop Karnatakas rich horticultural diversities
through identification, characterization, documentation and
registration of Geographical Indications of the genetic resources
under fruits, vegetables, plantation, spices, medicinal and
aromatic and flower crops. Nanjangud Rasabale, Mysore betel
vine, Coorg orange, Mysore Jasmine, Udupi jasmine, Hadagali
mallige are the earlier crops brought under GI Registry in
Karnataka. Later on Kamalapur red banana, Devanahally
pummelo, Bangalore rose onion, Sagar appe midi and Udupi
Mattugulla have been given Tag.
b) Organic seed and planting material: The pace of progress
in organic farming largely depends upon the pace with which
good quality seed and planting material of superior varieties
are multiplied and made available to farmers. In this context,
48
organic seed and planting material of local/traditional varieties

would play a major role in reducing the cost of production
and improving the income of the farmers. The Bio center has
been organizing training and capacity building programs to
farmers and technicians on seed production techniques of
open pollinated vegetable varieties. To create farmers interest,
demonstration plots of screened varieties are being established
at the centre by following different crop combinations, raised
bed cultivation, in situ green manure production and pest and
disease management
c) Bio-digester an innovation for organic farming: Biocentre has taken up scientific validation of farmer traditional
practices and developed different models for sustainable
cultivation of horticulture crops. Bio-digester is one such
innovation of the Biocenter wherein the traditional knowledge
on preparation of manure in pits has been validated scientifically
by seeking interactive ideas from Grape farmers of Athani,
Belgaum District of Karnataka.
Jaivik Krishik Society: Jaivik Krishik Society (JKS) is a
federation of organic farmers and organic farmers groups
established in 2003 under Karnataka Societys Registration Act
of 1960. It was established mainly to cater to the needs of organic
farmers in providing interventions for production, quality
control, group certification and creation of market infrastructure
through promotion of socio-economic, ecological values and
fair trade practices in agriculture production system. The
Society extends services for establishment of organic farmers
associations /groups and to enroll them as its members. It also
provides services in setting up of Internal Control System (ICS)
and Participatory Guarantee System through local associations
and creates model organic outlets at consumer points. While the
farmers have benefited from the trainings, certification support,
processing and value addition support in addition to marketing
support lent by JKS, even for many Karnataka consumers,
JKS has been the main medium for awareness-creation on the
benefits of organic produce, through the many melas and fairs it
has organized and the media outreach it undertook.
Organic farming is a knowledge and labour intensive
agriculture production system rather than capital intensive.
K Ramakrishnappa
49
Organic farming has the potential to produce sufficient food of a

high quality at a low cost on a sustainable basis. Therefore, organic
agriculture is particularly well suited for rural communities that
are facing the problems of low income and high production cost
and breakdown in the sustainable food supply chains. However,
the future of organic farming lies in meeting the challenges such
as maintaining the social structure of the organic farmer groups,
developing sites specific business models, creating required
infrastructures for processing, handling, marketing, quality
control and regulation of organic products. The establishment
of Farmers Producers Company could play a key role in making
organic farming a socially accepted and economically viable
agriculture production system.
Organic Livestock Production in India:

Why, How and Road Ahead
Mahesh Chander
With growing literacy, education, awareness coupled with
rising incomes, consumers are becoming more quality
conscious. Moreover, the food scares like food borne diseases
are alerting people of harmful consequences of consuming
food laced with chemicals and harmful residues of pesticides
and antibiotics. Many chronic diseases which are on the rise
are being attributed to life style including food habits, making
the sustainability of chemical based farming and intensive
livestock production questionable. As an alternative, therefore,
organic agriculture is rapidly growing around the world (37.2
Million ha in 162 countries) with 1.8 million producers including
significant number of organic farmers in developing countries
like India. Considering the growing export demand alongside
potential environmental benefits of organic production and
its compatibility with integrated agricultural approaches to
rural development, organic agriculture is being considered
as a development vehicle for developing countries like India
(Ramesh et al, 2005).
While organic farming is rapidly gaining ground in
developing countries the research and development (R&D)
activities in organic animal husbandry is confined only to EU
and a few other developed countries in North and Australia.
There are opportunities as well as challenges in organic livestock
production which need to be addressed. It is important here to
understand, why organic livestock production is relevant for
India, how it can be done sustainably and what are its implications
for livestock economy of India? This paper attempts to analyse
an Indian perspective to organic livestock production, why it is
important and how sustainability in livestock production can be
achieved through organic principles and practices. The organic
livestock development opportunities in India can be enhanced
Bangalore. 2014
51
52
Organic Livestock Production in India: Why, How and Road Ahead
while harnessing natural advantages with more scientific

research in organic livestock production under local conditions.
Livestock production: the global challenge: The food
systems encompass activities related to the production,
processing, distribution, preparation and consumption of
food; and the outcomes of these activities contributing to food
security. The interactions between and within bio-geo-physical
and human environments influence both the activities and
the outcomes (Figure 1). It is projected that by 2050, the global
demand for animal food products can be met only by raising twice
as many poultry, 78% more small ruminants, 58% more cattle
and 37% more pigs, without further damaging natural resources
(Rivera and Lopez, 2012). Hence, sustainable development
based on balance of ecology, economics, norms and values are
to be considered at various levels of the scale: between food and
farming systems, regions, nations and continents (Zipp, 2003).
Figure 1: Interrelationship of food safety and food security

(Hanning et al., 2012).
This is where the real challenge lies: producing more food
of good quality without further damaging or stressing the
environment. For instance, FAOs (2006) report Livestocks
Long Shadow concluded that directly and indirectly, 18 per
cent of the global Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions could be
linked to animal-based production. Not only GHG but also
there are several factors which are making intensive livestock
production questionable from sustainability standpoint. To deal
with this complex issue of livestock in relation to sustainability
Mahesh Chander
53
vis a vis climate change and food security issues, some of the
options being studied and tried at different levels to reorient
the existing farming systems as per the principles and practices
of
Conservation Agriculture, Climate-smart agriculture,
Sustainable Agriculture, Precision Livestock Farming and
Organic Livestock Farming.
Conservation agriculture: Conservation agriculture is
an approach to manage agro-ecosystem for improved and
sustained productivity, increased profits and food security
while preserving and enhancing the resource base and the
environment. It is characterized by three linked principles viz.
Continuous minimum mechanical soil disturbance, permanent
organic soil cover and diversification of crop species grown in
sequence or associations (FAO, 2012). Mechanized soil tillage
allows higher working depths and speeds and involves the use
of such implements as tractor-drawn ploughs, disk harrows
and rotary cultivators. This initially increases fertility because
it mineralizes soil nutrients and makes it easier for plants to
absorb them through their roots. In the long term, however,
repeated ploughing and mechanical cultivation breaks down
the soil structure and leads to reduced soil organic matter and
loss of soil nutrients. This structural degradation of soil results
in compaction and the formation of crusts, leading to soil
erosion. Farming systems that successfully integrate crop and
livestock enterprises stand to gain many benefitsthat can have
a direct impact on whole farm production. Ruminant animals
are especially desirable due to their ability to convert forages,
browse and crop residues high in cellulose to useful food and
fibre products. Such animals provide for: system diversification;
recycling of nutrients; soil enhancing rotation crops; power
and transportation; and act as biological savings accounts for
farmers duringperiods of stress.
Climate-smart agriculture: Climate-smart agriculture
seeks to increase productivity in an environmentally and socially
sustainable way, strengthen farmers resilience to climate
change, and reduce agricultures contribution to climate change
by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and increasing Carbon
storage on farmland. The climate-smart agriculture includes
proven practical techniques in many areas, especially in water
management but also innovative practices such as better weather
54
forecasting, early warning systems, and risk insurance. It is

about getting existing technologies into the hands of farmers and
developing new technologies such as drought or flood tolerant
crops to meet the demands of a changing climate. Achieving
Climate-Smart agriculture needs an integrated approach,
tackling productivity and food security, risk and resilience, and
low Carbon growth together, but integration and institutional
coordination remains a challenge in many countries (World
Bank, 2011).
Sustainable agriculture: There is a need for rapid and
significant shift from industrial monocultures and factory
farming towards mosaics of sustainable production systems that
are based on the integration of location-specific organic resource
inputs; natural biological processes to enhance soil fertility;
improved water-use efficiency; increased crop and livestock
diversity that is well adapted to local conditions and integrated
livestock and crop farming systems (IAASTD, 2009). Producing
more crops from less land is the single most significant means of
jointly achieving mitigation and food production in agriculture,
assuming that the resulting spared land sequesters more
Carbon or emits fewer GHGs than farm land (Robertson et al,
2000). This land sparing effect of intensification is uneven in
practice and requires policies and price incentives to strengthen
its impacts (Angelsen and Kaimowitz, 2001). More efficient use of
inputs, more sustainable alternatives and breeding for efficiency
will be required to reduce the Carbon intensity (emissions per
unit yield) of products, as well as reduce land areas and inputs
that damage environmental health (Tillman et al, 2002).
Precision livestock farming: Spilke and Fahr (2003) stated
that Precision Farming aims for an ecologically and economically
sustainable production with secured quality, as well as a high
degree of consumer and animal protection with specific emphasis
on technologies for individual animal monitoring. Precision
farming is based on information technology, which enables
the producer to collect information and data for better decision
making. This concept is considered by some as the future of
agriculture and allied sectors. This concept is also called as
spatially prescriptive farming; computer aided farming; farming
by satellite; high-tech sustainable agriculture; soil-specific crop
management; site-specific farming; and precision farming. The
Mahesh Chander
55
main objectives of precision farming are maximizing individual

animal potential, early detection of disease, and minimizing the
use of medication through preventive health measures. Although,
vast research has been conducted on precision agriculture, but
livestock sector has negligible studies on precision farming.
International studies have also shown slow adoption rates of
precision farming (Batte and Arnholt, 2003) due to small farm
size, farmer age, education level, computer illiteracy etc. The
advantages posed by the technology are often not immediately
apparent and they require more management expertise along
with an investment of time and money to realize (Bell, 2002).
Organic livestock farming: Organic animal husbandry has
been defined as a system of livestock production that promotes
the use of organic and biodegradable inputs from the ecosystem
deliberately avoiding the use of synthetic inputs such as drugs,
feed additives and genetically engineered breeding inputs, while
ensuring the welfare of animals (Chander et al, 2011; Chander et
al, 2013; Chander and Subrahmanyeswari, 2013). There are four
principles of organic farming viz; principle of ecology, principle
of health, principle of fairness, and principle of care, which
organic systems must always take into consideration. In order to
achieve the animal welfare, environmental protection, resourceuse sustainability and other objectives, certain key principles
are adhered to under organic livestock production systems.
Subrahamanyeswari and Chander (2008) found that majority of
the livestock production practices of the farmers in Uttarakhand
were in line with what the organic standards recommend, and
thus, are compatible to organic systems. Since, majority of
the animal husbandry practices followed by the farmers were
favourable to or closer to the recommended organic livestock
production standards which is a clear indication of becoming
organically certified by effective interventions. In this context,
public and private organizations have a major role to make
livestock farmers more compatible with the organic standards
and also act as an effective solution for the changing climatic
conditions.
According to the International Federation of Organic
Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), the organic animal husbandry
has multiple objectives, which are: 1) To raise animals in a system
that takes into consideration the wider issues of environmental
56
pollution, human health on consumption of animal products

allowing them to meet their basic behavioral needs and reduce
stress. 2) Diversify in keeping as many types of livestock on the
holding as each furnishes different nutrients at the household
level. For example, special attention should be given to rabbits and
poultry as income generated from this enterprise goes directly
to the disadvantaged segments of the population e.g. women
and children. Their nitrogen rich manure is used to increase
vegetable production in the kitchen gardens, thus, improving
the family diet. Others like donkeys are useful in transport
thus, reducing the consumption of non-renewable sources of
energy e.g. petroleum based fossil fuels. 3) Exploit the natural
behavior of animals in their production systems to reduce stress
e.g. chicken like perching at night and perching rails should be
provided for this purpose. They should also be raised in deep
litter system that allows them to scratch for ants and worms and
dust bathe. Dark secluded nest should be provided as they like
lying in dark secluded places. Goats being browsers in nature
like having their forage suspended high enough so that they can
attain an upright posture. Pigs have rooting tendency, for which
water and mud facilitate their natural rooting behavior. 4) Use of
low external input which lessen the cost of production and allow
for a sustainable system of production since most materials can
be recycled in the farm and also locally available. 5) Bridging
of nutrients gap in soil, crops and animals i.e. animals feed on
crops and cultivated crops by-products. The animals waste in
the form of farmyard manure is composted and taken back to the
soil to replenish the lost soil nutrients through cultivation. This
ensures the completion of nutrient cycle in the ecosystem.
In order to achieve the animal welfare, environmental
protection, resource-use sustainability and other objectives,
certain key principles are adhered to under organic livestock
production systems, which include management of livestock
as land-based systems so that stock numbers are related to
the carrying capacity of the land and not inflated by reliance
on purchased hectares from outside the farm system, thus,
avoiding the potential for nutrient concentration, excess
manure production and pollution. As such, landless animal
husbandry prevalent in India is not ideally suitable for organic
livestock farming; unless, the landless livestock keepers go for
land leasing; reliance on on-farm or locally-derived renewable
Mahesh Chander
57
resources, such as biologically-fixed atmospheric nitrogen and

home-grown livestock feeds, thereby reducing the need for nonrenewable resources as direct inputs or for transport; reliance
on feed sources produced organically, which are suited to the
animals evolutionary adaptations (including restrictions on use
of animal proteins) and which minimize competition for food
suitable for human consumption; maintenance of health through
preventive management and good husbandry in preference to
preventive treatment, thereby reducing the potential for the
development of resistance to therapeutic medicines as well as
contamination of workers, food products and the environment;
use of housing systems which allow natural behaviour patterns
to be followed and which give high priority to animal welfare
considerations, with the emphasis on free-range systems
for poultry; use of breeds and rearing systems suited to the
production systems employed, in terms of disease resistance,
productivity, hardiness, and suitability for ranging.
Animal health and well-being through better living
conditions, improved welfare measures and good feeding
practices are ensured through a set of standards and the
maintenance of written records by organic livestock farmers.
Better management practices and prevention of illness are
emphasized over treatment. Thus, the primary characteristics
of organic livestock production systems are: well-defined
standards and practices which can be verified, greater attention
to animal welfare, no routine use of growth promoters, animal
offal, prophylactic antibiotics or any other additives, at least
80% of the animal feed grown according to organic standards,
without the use of artificial fertilisers or pesticides on crops or
grass. Against the background given above, we have to analyse
strength, weakness, opportunities and threats, pertaining to
organic livestock production in India, so as to understand its
relevance for Indian farmers, consumers and economy on the
whole.
Strengths: Integrated crop-livestock farming system
predominant in India with well diversified livestock population
in terms of species and breeds is ideal for organic livestock
production. Besides, limited external input use including for
animal production and maximum on-farm reliance brings it
further closer to organic systems. The livestock production
58
being largely extensive or semi-intensive, animal welfare too

is not much compromised compared to factory type of animal
production common in Western developed nations. The
Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) and ayurvedic medicines
for health care are effective substitute for allopathic medicines,
giving India an edge over western countries in the matters of
organic livestock production. The concerned agencies under
Government of India are actively pursuing the development
of Indian National standards for organic livestock and poultry
production, to bring it under regulation a welcome move
which might boost organic livestock production.
Weaknesses: Feed and fodder: The inadequate supply of
required organic feed and fodder may be a limiting factor
while promoting organic livestock farming, since under organic
livestock systems, animals are expected to be fed species specific
organic diet in sufficient quantities. Besides, the feed and fodder
requirement has to be met on farm or locally and it has to be
grown following organic crop production methods. The fodder
cultivation area in India has remained more or less static for
many years and it is concentrated mostly in irrigated areas or so
called green revolution belt of the country. Looking at the deficit
in green and dry fodder in country, massive efforts are needed to
ensure feed and fodder to livestock in required quantity, while
considering organic animal husbandry.
Sanitary conditions: Prevention of diseases is paramount
in organic systems, so that the medicine interventions like
antibiotics etc are minimized to the extent possible. To minimize
diseases, sanitation is important, for which the efforts are
needed on massive scale to improve hygiene and sanitary
conditions especially at production, processing and packaging
stages. Looking at the prevailing conditions at production sites,
processing units dealing with, India needs to do a lot so as to be
eligible for organic livestock producing country.
Existence of diseases: Among others, the prevalence of Foot
and Mouth Disease (FMD) in various parts of India is one limiting
factor for export of livestock products, so its control is number one
priority for India. The Disease Free Zones (DFZs) may be created,
where; organic livestock production may be encouraged.
Mahesh Chander
59
Traceability: Unlike in Western countries, milk and meat

is sourced from numerous small farmers in India making
the traceability a difficult option. Nevertheless, appreciably,
Indian government has introduced a web-enabled application
Tracenet system for organic products being exported from
India. Considering the logistic problems, small farms, farmers
educational levels, how far traceability mechanism will be
feasible makes it a bit skeptical in case of animal products.
Table 1. Maximum number of animals per hectare (Draft Indian
standards)
Maximum no.
per hac.
Equines over six months old
2
Calves
5
Other bovine animals less than one year old
5
Male bovine animals from one to less than two years old
4
Female bovine animals from one to less than two years old
4
Male bovine animals two years old or over
2
Dairy Cows
2
Female breeding rabbits
100
Sheep
14
Goats
14
Piglets
74
Breeding Pigs
7
Pigs for fattening
14
Chicken
580
Laying Hens
230
Species/Class
Small farms: In India, livestock production is mainstay of

landless and small scale farmers. However, the landless animal
husbandry is not allowed under the organic systems, unless they
go for land leasing to raise livestock. Contract farming may be
a potential solution where many small farmers may contract
out their farms to companies, which may produce organic food
products on consolidated holdings with required expertise and
resources. Here it would be pertinent to quote the number of
animals which can be raised in 1 ha land, organic livestock
production system as per the prescribed standards making it
nearly impractical for Indian farmers. Even when farmers own
60
land, the number of animals to be maintained per hectare are far

too less (Table 1), considering 80% holdings in India are <1 ha and
per farmer land ownership is going down due to division of land
in the expanding families. This requirement is a serious limiting
factor having potential to hinder the development of organic
animal husbandry in India, unless it is properly negotiated at
international level.
Lack of knowledge, training and certification facilities:
Easily accessible information in local languages, locally available
training and certification facilities at an affordable cost to small
farmers is not available in many parts of the country, restricting
Indian farmers to switch over to organic production especially
when there is weak domestic market and current poor prospects
for exports in case of livestock products.
Opportunities: It is expensive for intensive livestock
producers to convert to organic production, but converting
extensive, pasture-based systems could become economically
more attractive, if price premiums could be captured for organic
meat and livestock products (Scialabba and Hattam, 2002). India
may follow experiences of developing countries like Argentina,
Brazil and Namibia which could export organic livestock
products. India exports certified organic honey, which may
be extended initially to small ruminants, for organic textile/
garments including the materials like hides, leather and wool.
The Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) of farmers may
provide effective option for veterinary care through proper
validation, as also the negligible use of agro-chemicals especially
in drylands and hilly regions, makes favourable environment for
organic livestock production. Grass based extensive production
systems prevalent in parts of India have good potential for
conversion into organic animal husbandry. Moreover, Indian
livestock breeds being less susceptible to diseases and stress,
need less allopathic medicines/antibiotics. With rising literacy
and the consumers awareness and concern about animal welfare
issues and health foods, domestic consumption of organic foods
including of animal origin is likely to get a boost. The organic
agricultural products including of livestock origin are gaining
increasing popularity. The farmers can cash upon this growing
interest in eco-friendly, animal welfare oriented, safe, nutritious
and tastier meat products (as perceived by consumers of organic
Mahesh Chander
61
products). The eggs and meat obtained from such venture can be
promoted as specialty item to restaurants; hotels and ethnic food
jaunts fetching higher returns, better when local/deshi birds are
raised, which can better perform in free range system. Poultry
can utilize the grazing lands/plantation areas (Rubber, coffee,
coconut etc) by feeding on earth worms, small insects, green
grass etc, while fertilizing the land with manure.
The free range poultry systems or pastured poultry is a
sustainable agriculture technique that calls for the raising of
laying chickens, meat chickens (broilers), and/or turkeys on
pasture, as opposed to indoor confinement, inhuman treatment,
the perceived health benefits of pastured poultry, in addition to
superior texture and flavor, are causing an increase in demand
for such products, which are believed to be having medicinal
value, rich in antioxidants and least in chemical, medicinal or
hormonal residues. Therefore, the growing interest in organic
farming and meat and eggs drawn from free range systems
might offer an attractive option in the form of market premiums
for livestock farmers to venture into organic production.
The growing consumer interest in good quality food
products in India signals the need for developing domestic
market for local consumption of organic foods. With rising
literacy, income and awareness on food quality generated by
the mass media like print, radio and TV, people are increasingly
becoming quality conscious. Also, they are increasingly showing
their willingness to pay for good quality products. For example,
people readily pay extra money for unadulterated milk, which
is not necessarily organic milk per se. This trend indicates that
there is good potential for organic livestock products for local
consumption. The enterprising farmers are now ready to
experiment on new ideas on production and marketing, wherein
organic livestock products like milk, meat, poultry and fish
ideally fit. Just like marketing of FMCG and other industrial
products market segmentation can be done by the farmers by
supplying products to different categories of consumers with
varying prices. The growing interest in eating out especially by
visiting ethnic food jaunts, looking out for something unique,
local and something which is natural and healthy while being
environmentally safe offers hope for the production and supply
of organic livestock products for domestic consumers. The
62
domestic market development is the key for the development

of organic animal husbandry and poultry farming in India. The
growing market for organic cereals, vegetables, fruits, spices,
pulses in Indian metros can be successfully extended to organic
livestock and poultry products too.
Educating consumer and producer both is important to
promote organic livestock production. Consumers need to
be told that the safe milk and meat that they are looking for is
the certified organic milk and meat, while farmers need to be
made aware of this demand to be able for them to translate it
into the new market opportunity! Also, there is a small but very
concerned section of the society who does not consume livestock
products owing to issues of animal cruelty, ill-treatment with
them etc. The organic rearing of the farm animals sincerely
addresses these issues and the certifiers approve that the due
care has been taken in the process of production. These standards
ensure that animals are kept free or never tied without specific
purpose, allowed to express their physiological behaviour, fed
with chemical free fodder, are not given hormonal injections
and are reared in a completely stress free atmosphere. The
information gap with respect to organic animal husbandry at the
level of producers and consumers need to be bridged by suitable
extension education interventions and encouraging the farmers,
milk brands, cooperatives to enter this market on one side and
consumers at the other end.
Threats: The international trade in organic livestock
products from the developing world is considered a risky
business due to poor sanitary conditions, existence of diseases,
traceability problems as also the self sufficiency in importing
countries, which might discourage producers in India too. But
rich segments among the Indians might offer market niche for
organic livestock products, which can be tapped.
The producers in India need to overcome the weaknesses
and harness the strengths and opportunities, while developing
their capacity in terms of knowledge, skills, infrastructure,
animal feeding, hygiene, sanitation, disease control and assured
certified supply chain required for organic livestock production.
Large-scale commercial farms usually undertake most organic
livestock production in industrialized countries; whereas, the
Mahesh Chander
63
The Road ahead....
If 0.5% of Indias enormous human population of 1.21

Billion decides to turn organic in next 510 years, it would
have huge implications for the way food is produced and
processed, considering the elaborate requirements and
standards for organic production. Let us assume, roughly only
50% of the Indian population consumes meat, even then the
requirement would be far more than what is being consumed
in industrialized countries with very thin population, where,
organic meat products are currently consumed. Going by the
global trends indicating preference for good quality, health
foods, animal welfare and environmental concerns, it looks
quite likely that growing number of consumers would demand
organic products of animal origin in India too. Already, the
demand for good quality milk and milk products is getting
stronger and the Indian consumers are willing to pay or even
paying upto Rs 80/liter for pure milk and Rs 1200/kg for
ghee, not necessarily organic per se, but unadulterated. This
emerging trend makes it imperative that serious attention is
to be paid not only on production, processing and marketing
sectors but research in organic livestock production too need
attention of the policy planners and other stakeholders like
livestock research institutions.
Organic Animal Husbandry presents a formidable task,
considering the stringent principles, guidelines, practices
and standards of organic livestock production, as well as
the mandatory certification procedures for such production
systems. To benefit from this emerging system of food
production, farmers in India must build their capacity and take
into account their natural advantages.
small scale producers are having limited resources and low risk
bearing ability dominate Indian livestock sector. Nevertheless,
they may cater to domestic consumers, if not exports currently.
The emerging need of the quality conscious high end consumers
in metros is required to be met by producing organic animal
products locally. The local organic milk, meat and egg
production may substitute import (if any) while generating
employment, reducing foreign exchange demand, stimulating
innovation, and making the country self-reliant in critical areas
like food. Organic livestock production may be encouraged
64
initially for domestic consumption, through research and

development efforts including establishment of model organic
livestock farms, processing units, traceability tools, and capacity
building measures, besides consumer awareness on health
foods. The international trade in organic livestock products from
the developing world is considered a risky business due to poor
sanitary conditions, existence of diseases, traceability problems
as also the self sufficiency in importing countries, which
might discourage producers in India too. Organic livestock
and poultry production is an emerging and evolving system,
different agencies and stakeholders have to work hard to make
it sustainable for the reasons of health, environment, economy,
quality of life and animal welfare.
To make organic livestock production relevant to India, the
following issues need urgent attention: The Indian standards for
organic livestock production needs to be developed considering
the local situation and requirements, which can be notified for
local production, Currently, the organic livestock products
like milk and meat are certified as per the other international
standards or the Indian standards developed (NSOP2002) for
exports; India has to make itself free from infectious diseases
like Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD), which restricts trade. The
reduced opportunity for export discourages livestock producers
to go organic; Small farmers find it difficult to comply with
traceability requirements. The locally feasible traceability tools
needs to be developed; sanitary conditions at production site
and processing units need improvement; at the moment, there
is little local demand for organic livestock products per se,
though the quality consciousness was on the rise among the
consumers. The domestic market for organic livestock products
needs to be developed; Grazing land is shrinking due to
reducing community land and also change in land use pattern.
Livestock grazing systems needs to be researched to make them
a sustainable option; Natural sources of essential amino acids
(Methionin for instance) are not available good enough to meet
the requirements of livestock particularly swine and poultry;
Green fodder supply is insufficient to meet the requirement
of the livestock. Animal survive on poor quality roughages;
Housing conditions are often improper, increasing risk of
zoonotic diseases; Research and development investment in the
area of organic animal husbandry is nearly nil; The per animal
Mahesh Chander
65
health cost is almost negligible in traditional livestock keeping

though the trend has been towards intensification where this
cost is likely to go up. The alternative systems of animal health
management may be researched, standardized so as to comply
with organic standards.
Inspite of the favorable situation existing like traditional
animal husbandry, Indigenous Technical Knowledge, low input
and stress resistant breeds, limited or no antibiotic use, limited
chemical fertilizer application, less dependence on market for
inputs in many developing countries like India, the limitations
too as mentioned above are seriously restricting the growth
of organic animal husbandry in these countries especially the
stocking density, feed and fodder scarcity, sanitation, infectious
disease prevalence etc. May be the increasing interest in this
underdeveloped organic sector by inter alia FAO, IFOAM and
Government of India would help give a push to organic animal
husbandry in India in long run.
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Scope and Potential of Organic Farming in

Vegetable Crops
M Prabhakar, S S Hebbar, A K Nair, K S Shivashankara,
P Panneerselvam, R S Rajeshwari and K Bharathi
Nowadays organic farming practices are assuming importance
all over the world in order to make the harvested produce free of
pesticide residues and other harmful chemicals, to minimize soil,
water and environment pollution and sustain soil productivity.
Organic farming is a production system which avoids or excludes
the use of synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, GM
crops and growth regulators. It relies upon crop rotations, crop
residues, animal and green manures, legumes, mechanical
cultivation, biofertilizers and biological pest control to maintain
soil productivity, supply nutrients and control insects, diseases
and weeds. Organic food has evolved from being a fashion cult
to a necessity for healthy living. Global food markets present a
bright situation for the organic food suppliers, as the demand far
outstrips the supply. Entrepreneurs are pumping investments
in the Organic supply-chain, which in turn has made many
farmers to explore the possibilities of switching over to organic
agriculture. Although in common parlance, organic agriculture
is chemical-free cultivation of crops, it is actually not as easy as it
looks, particularly when we start realizing the predominance of
certification requirements to be met while undertaking organic
agriculture. Organic certification is based on Process certification
i.e. it takes into account the entire process of organic farming
adopted by an organic farmer on his farm. This in turn requires
that the entire process of organic farming adopted by each
farmer has to be extremely well documented. Most farmers are
poorly equipped to undertake such an exercise and hence have
to leave the option of undertaking lucrative organic farming
with a heavy heart.
Vegetable farming is generally an intensive but profitable
venture since per hectare yields are comparatively more and the
Bangalore. 2014
69
70
income is large. In order to minimize risks involved in vegetable

production, heavy fertilization as well as pesticide application
is commonly practiced. To make it a sustainable and profitable
system, reducing usage of these harmful chemicals and slowly
changing over to non-chemical farming is the concern of the day.
In this direction for change over or shift from the present heavily
chemical oriented farming practices to environment friendly but
profitable production systems require developing appropriate
package of practices that depend on natural inputs, preferably
sourced within the farm. Vegetable crops require skilled
management to produce a high quality product without use of
chemicals. Organic farming protocols in vegetable crops needs to
be standardized more in crops which are consuming maximum
chemicals and pesticides in their cultivation such as cauliflower,
cabbage, okra, tomato. It is also required for vegetables that are
consumed raw or in fresh form and have high export potential
like rose onion, gherkins, okra, beans, peas etc.
In several countries around the world including India,
consumers demand for organically produced vegetables. In this
direction it is endeavor of all people concerned with organic
vegetable production to develop feasible and economically
viable package of practices based on the information available
and technology developed which will be useful for farmers
interested in organic vegetable farming. The general production
practices for organic vegetable farming are discussed below.
Climate:
Each vegetable crop has specific climatic
requirements and the season selected for the cultivation should
have best crop growth, yields and produce quality.
Some
disease and insect problems are especially prevalent at specific,
predictable times of the year and vegetable crops can be planted
at dates that protect them from these high-risk periods. The
following planting schedules can be generally followed:
Kharif :
Brinjal, Chilli, Okra, Drumstick
Rabi :
Carrot, Cauliflower, Cabbage, Capsicums,
French Beans, Onion,
Peas, Tomato, Gherkins,
Summer : Bottle gourd, Cucumber, Pumpkin, Ridge
gourd, Watermelon
M. Prabhakar et al 71
It is better to avoid tomato cultivation during rainy period

as alternaria, phytophtora foliar and fruit rot diseases are severe.
During winter okra (bhendi) growth is retarded and during
high temperature period virus diseases are severe in okra, chilli,
tomato and beans and in capsicum fruit set is a problem.
Soil: The ideal soils for growing vegetables are well drained,
fairly deep, and relatively high in organic matter with a C:N ratio
between 1520:1. Well-drained loam soils rich in organic Carbon
(about 1%) with gentle slope of 2 to 3 per cent are better for organic
vegetable production. Healthy and productive soil helps crops
to develop good root systems and reduce crop stress caused by
drought or excess rainfall. If drainage is a problem, planting on
raised beds will promote drainage and faster warming of soil.
On the whole most of the vegetable crops grow well in pH range
of 6.5 to 7.0.
Soil fertility management: Any definition of sustainable
or organic agriculture includes a commitment to proper soil
management and organic vegetable production systems are
guided by an overriding philosophy of feed the soil to feed
the plant. This basic precept is implemented through a series
of approved practices designed to increase soil organic matter,
biological activity and nutrient availability. Over time, adding
organic materials such as green manure, crop residues and
composts to cultivated soils build levels of soil organic matter.
As soil organic matter increases, the ability of the soil to
supply nutrients to crops also increases. The ultimate goal is a
healthy, fertile, biologically active soil with improved structure
and enhanced nutrient reserve. Many soil amendments and
fertilizers commonly approved for organic production systems
have appreciable amounts of nutrients, but only a portion of
these nutrients are available to the current crop. Organic soil
fertility programs are designed to maintain adequate levels
of nutrients in the soil nutrient pool and to augment the pool
as needed. Management practices strive to optimize diverse
biological processes in the soil to create a complex environment
that ensures adequate nutrition to the crop.
Role of organic matter and humus: The increase of soil
organic matter to optimum levels is a key aspect of any organic
production system. Native organic matter levels are relatively
72
low in Indian soils, generally less than 1 per cent. Studies have
shown that it is unreasonable for a grower to expect to increase
soil organic matter by more than 1 percent, but a relatively small
increase can dramatically improve the soil fertility environment
in a given field.
Soil organic matter improves cation-exchange capacity
and serves as a reservoir of
nutrients for the growing crop.
Incorporation of organic matter also improves soil aeration,
drainage and water-holding capacity. Green manure crops
are an economical means for elevating soil organic matter and
providing nitrogen for the succeeding crop. They also reduce
soil erosion and may offer benefits related to pest and disease
suppression. The decomposition of organic matter in soils can
provide much of the nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and sulfur
(S) needed for crop nutrition. A portion of the N from many
organic amendments is converted readily into available mineral
forms. Phosphorus from organic amendments reacts quickly, is
bound to soil minerals and moves very little from where it is
placed. Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) are
relatively soluble from plant residues or soil organic matter
fractions and also contribute to the soil pool. Organic matter
is also a valuable balanced source of many minor elements.
Organic matter releases nutrients as it decomposes and provides
slow and constant availability.
Management of soil biological characteristics: A complex
array of soil-dwelling plants and animals decompose organic
matter, mineralize organic forms of nutrients, and fix nitrogen.
These beneficial biological activities enhance the soils ability to
release nutrients needed for plant growth and to break down
plant residues. Tillage practices that aerate the soil enhance
biological activity by providing Oxygen and mixing organic
matter throughout the tilled area. On the other hand, broadspectrum fumigants such as methyl bromide kill beneficial soil
organisms along with soil pests.
Bacteria and other microorganisms: Both ammonium
and nitrate are readily available sources of nitrogen to plants
and soil microorganisms. A variety of soil microorganisms
convert organic nitrogen to ammonium, but only specific
(nitrifying) bacteria convert ammonium to nitrate (nitrification).

Nitrifying bacteria are most effective in well aerated soils at soil
temperatures of 80 to 90 degrees F, when the C:N ratio is low to
medium and soil moisture is adequate for plant growth. High
activity of these bacteria increases N availability, but the nitrates
released by nitrifying bacteria are highly soluble and subject to
leaching. Thus, if not absorbed by crop or covers, nitrate may be
lost from the field. In addition, other soil bacteria (denitrifiers)
reduce nitrates to elemental nitrogen or nitrous oxide which are
lost into the atmosphere as they are volatilized. Denitrification is
most likely to occur in poorly drained soils where Oxygen levels
are low (anaerobic conditions).
Not only do naturally occurring microorganisms play
an essential role in the nitrogen cycle, they have also been
reported to decrease some populations of pathogenic bacteria
and fungi. For example, the fungus Gliocladium virens, which
tends to increase with increased levels of organic matter,
controls damping-off pathogens. G. virens is also available
commercially. Agrobacterium, a naturally occurring soil
microorganism, reportedly restricts growth of Fusarium, a
fungal pathogen causing a number of diseases in vegetable
crops. Beneficial microorganisms in the root zone, particularly
species of Pseudomonas, have been associated with a decrease in
take-all decline of wheat.
Earthworms: Earthworms break up organic matter and
enhance microbial activity. Soils with earthworm populations
or soils containing earthworm castings generally have a greater
ability to hold water and plant nutrients. Cation-exchange
capacity, exchangeable Calcium, magnesium, Potassium,
and available Phosphorus are generally higher in soils with
earthworms. Mechanical soil disturbance also reduces disease
severity and it is possible that the physical mixing of soil by
the worms reduces pathogen severity. When earthworms are
introduced to the soil, they spread rapidly from the inoculation
point up to 36 feet per year. In most soils, if organic matter
increases, earthworm populations will increase rapidly.
Continuous cropping without adding organic matter, copper
fungicides, soil fumigation and frequent tillage usually reduces
earthworm populations.
74
Source of nutrition in organic farming
Cover crops/green manure crops: Cover crops can be

beneficial for intensive organic vegetable production in a number
of ways. If leguminous cover crops are grown, soil Nitrogen can
be increased through Nitrogen fixation. Grasses are particularly
helpful in promoting soil structure and soil aggregate stability
because of their fibrous root systems. Weed suppression for
subsequent crops may be another benefit. Furthermore, cover
crops can provide a favorable environment to attract and sustain
beneficial arthropods. Growing a green manure crop that
includes N fixing legume is the most economical way to provide
Nitrogen to succeeding crop. The green manure contribute
3060 kg N/ha /crop depending upon the crop. Sun hemp and
Dhaincha (Sesbania spp.) could be suitable catch crop in many agro
climatic situations. To realize some economic returns farmers
who have irrigation facility can grow profitable vegetable crop
such as French Beans or Cow pea in place of green manure crops.
Compost: Compost is a relatively cost-effective organic
source of nutrients. These
composts can be prepared by crop
residues and farm wastes. The Carbon to Nitrogen ratio (C:N)
of a compost is one indication of the maturity and N availability
which should be less than 20:1.
Manure: Farm yard manure, bio gas slurry, sheep manure
and other animal manures are the by-products of integrated
farming system, where out put of one enterprise will become the
input of the other activity and recycling is the key. However the
manure used need to be certified by the certification agency.
Vermicompost: Vermi compost production is economically
remunerative due to its low cost of production. The quality
and nutrient content depends upon the raw material used for
production.
Other fertilizers used in organic cultivation: A number of
approved organic fertilizers are available for organic cultivation.
Many of these nutrients are by-products of fish, meat and soybean
processing industries. Other simple fertilizer materials are: rock
phosphate, blood meal, rock or colloidal phosphate, Potassium
sulphate (mined) and green sand (for K). Certain by-products of
the meat processing industry, such as blood and bone meal have
recently come under scrutiny because of food safety concerns
and the potential for disease transmission.
Special purpose fertilizers: Specific approved nutrient
sources of K, Ca and Mg may be useful to an organic grower
when a deficiency is indicated. Materials such as gypsum, lime
and Potassium magnesium sulphate have been in use.
Bio fertilizers: The contribution of rhizobium bacteria as
symbiotic Nitrogen fixer is well established. Azotobacter and
Azospirillum are also used as Nitrogen fixers. The use of bio
fertilizers is also gaining popularity for solubulising phosphorous
and VAM for absorption of nutrients from soil.
Manuring and fertility management: i) Enrichment of FYM
with Trichoderma and Bio-fertilizers: Well decomposed FYM is
thoroughly mixed with Trichoderma harzianum , Azatobacter or
Azospirillum and Phosphate Solubilizing bacteria (PSB) (all @ 1
kg/tonne of FYM), moistened by sprinkling water and covered
with gunny bag/leaf twings/dried coconut fronds and kept to
incubate for 15 days. This enriched FYM should be mixed with
remaining FYM before applying to the field; ii) About 35 to 40
tonnes of fully decomposed FYM, 1.5 tonnes of vermicompost
and 250 kg/ha neem cake having 8 10% oil content is added to
the soil. Ridges for transplanting at recommended row spacing
is prepared after basal manure application; iii) For enhanced
supply of Nitrogen, green manuring crop can be grown and
incorporated in soil at least 3 weeks before transplanting; iv)
Concentrated organic cakes (47% N) like castor, soybean, cotton
etc. can also be used depending on the availability. At 30 days
after planting, vermicompost (1.5 t/ha) and neemcake (250 kg/
ha) application is done followed by earthing up operation; v) As
a source of P, Rock phosphate or Bone meal in combination with
Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria can be used. Both contain about
2022% P2 O5; vi) As a source of K, wood ash (2.5 to 3% K2O) or
Sheep manure (34% K2O) can be used; vii) Spray of panchagavya
can be followed 45 times at 10 days interval to supplement
nutrients and as a plant growth promoter. Vermiwash can also
be sprayed as growth promoter; viii) For legume vegetables,
seeds need to be treated with Rhizobium cultures before sowing.
76
Selection of varieties: For better performance select a

variety which is resistant or showing field tolerant to important
diseases and insects. Also choose varieties according to the
season. For example in tomato for organic cultivation during
kharif the major problem is alternaria leaf spot. Therefore it is
suggested to choose a cultivar known to have field tolerance
to this disease, while for summer season, TLCV resistant
hybrids need to be selected. In cabbage and cauliflower photo
and thermo insensitive hybrids, while in tomato, bacterial wilt
resistant varieties need to be grown. In French beans bacterial
blight and rust resistant varieties need to be selected. Tomato:
Arka Rakshak and Arka Samarat (BW,TLCV and Alternaria
tolerant); NS 501 and Arka Ananya (BW,TLCV tolerant); Okra:
Arka Anamika, Arka Abhay, Parbhani Kranti (YVMV resistant);
Brinjal: Arka Keshav, Arka Neelkant, Arka Anand (BWR);
Cowpea: Arka Garima, Arka Suman (rust resistant); Cluster bean:
Pusa Navbahar and Gouri; Dolichos bean: Arka Jay and Arka
Vijay; French Beans: Arka Komal, Arka Suvidha and Arka Anoop
(rust resistant); Chilli: Arka Suphal, Arka Meghana, Arka Harita
(powdery mildew and CMV, CVMV tolerant); Onion: Arka
Kalyan, Arka Niketan (purple blotch tolerant) are recommended
varieties under organic management.
Organic seedling production: Seedlings can be raised
either by raised bed or protray methods. However, nowadays
protray method is more popular.
Raised-bed nursery raising: Beds of 1015 cm height
providing necessary drainage are prepared. During summer
season following solarization of nursery beds prevent nursery
diseases. FYM, vermicompost and trichoderma powder in the
ratio of 10:1:0.1 is mixed and applied @ 0.3 kg/m2. Neem cake
@ 100 g/m2 is also added to the nursery beds. Seeds are sown
in lines with a spacing of 7.510.0 cm x 2.5 cm and covered by
vermi compost and straw. It is good to protect nursery beds
with 40 or 50 mesh nylon net cover to prevent insect vectors.
The seedlings will be ready in 25 to 45 days depending on the
vegetable crop.
Raising seedlings in plastic pro or flat trays: Each flat or
protray having 98 cells are used for raising seedlings of tomato,
capsicum/chilli, brinjal, cauliflower and cabbage. Cocopeat fully
decomposed by the use of organic manure and enriched with

Phosphorus is the ideal media for filling the trays. Otherwise
vermicompost can be used as growing media. About 11.25
kg cocopeat is required to fill one tray. A small depression in
the centre of the coco peat is made using finger and one seed is
put per cell and covered with cocopeat just enough to cover the
seeds. Such filled and sown trays are stalked and covered with
black polythene mulch one over other till sprouting is observed.
After sprouting, the trays are spread in nethouse and irrigated
daily depending on the weather conditions. The seedlings of 20
25 days old in cabbage, cauliflower, tomato and 3040 days in
chilli, capsicum and brinjal are ideal for transplanting and better
crop establishment.
Transplanting/ Direct sowing: BT (Bacillus thuringiensis)
formulation (1g or ml/litre) is sprayed to the cabbage /
cauliflower seedlings one day before transplanting. At the time of
transplanting root portion of seedlings is dipped in Trichoderma
and Psuedomonas florescence or seedling trays are drenched with
it. Similarly biofertilizers such as Azotobactor or Azospirillum
and Phosphate Solubilizing Bacterial (PSB) slurry (5%) can be
used for root dipping of all vegetable seedlings. When seeds
are used for direct sowing the above biofertilizers can be used
@ 1% for seed coating for non leguminous vegetables while for
leguminous vegetables rhizobium and PSB are recommended.
Irrigation: Irrigation schedules recommended for
commercial vegetable cultivation can be followed with only
caution that foliage wetting to be minimized in order to reduce
foliar disease incidence. Drip irrigation with plastic mulching
helps to maintain better soil moisture regimes and also reduces
pest and disease incidence in addition to saving of irrigation
water through reduced evaporation losses as well by preventing
weed growth.
Weed management: For the production of transplants
from seedbeds, select a land area that does not have a history
of troublesome weeds. Vegetable crops that germinate quickly
and grow rapidly in the first few weeks after planting do well
because they are more competitive with weeds than crops that
initially grow slowly. Hand weeding and inter cultivation
are the most widely practiced method of eliminating weeds.
78
Organic mulches, such as dry grass, straw, bark, banana sheath,

composted sawdust and similar materials, can be used for
weed management. Besides, plastic mulches are now gaining
popularity for weed management which may be adopted for
organic vegetable production. The plastic mulch also provides
a physical barrier between soil and plant surfaces and reduces
the amount of disease inoculums splashed onto foliage, stems
and fruits during rainy periods. Use of reflective plastic mulches
will reduce the activity of vectors and there by reducing the viral
disease incidence.
Organic pest and disease management practices: Organic
disease management provides satisfactory protection from many
vegetable diseases that commonly occur and these practices
are based on non-chemical sanitation, cultural, physical and
biological means, as well as application of organically approved
chemicals. Used in an integrated program, these practices reduce
populations of fungi, bacteria, nematodes, viruses, and other
pathogenic microorganisms that cause vegetable diseases. A
combination of practices is necessary, since no single practice is
effective for all diseases that threaten production of a given crop.
Some organic disease management practices should be carried
out before the crop is planted such as soil solarization and others
later in the season such as collection of debris and burning them.
Some of the plant protection measures that can be followed in
organic farming are: Use of resistant vegetable varieties wherever
available; Clean and diseases free seeds and transplants are
a must in organic vegetable production. Seeds should not be
collected from the disease infected area; Use seedlings grown
under protected environment. Seed treatment with Psuedomonas
fluorescens or Trichoderma harzianum or Trichoderma viride at the
rate of 10 g/kg is beneficial; Planting of healthy and vigorous
seedlings early in the season is an important strategy; In crop
rotation, legumes are plowed early so vegetation (green manure
crop) has time to rot before main crop planting; Use mulch to
keep vegetables away from soil contact and rots; Keep out weeds
which harbor insects and diseases; Irrigate early in the morning;
Remove and dispose of diseased plants; Turn under crop refuse
as soon as harvesting is completed; Grow fodder maize or
sorghum as a barrier crop all round the vegetable planted field
to reduce incidence of virus carrying vector infestation on the
main crop; Nursery beds are to be covered with 40 or 50 mesh
nylon net cover to prevent insect vectors transmitting virus

diseases; Nematodes can be managed by crop rotation with
marigold. Solar heating the soil using large plastic covers reduces
nematodes, soil-borne insects, some weeds and some pathogens.
Summer flooding, where soil type permits, will help control
nematodes and other pests. Application of Trichoderma and other
bioagents through FYM or neem cake or seed treatment also help
in management of nematodes. Application of Neem cake will
also reduce the nematode population.
Bioagents for foliar and fruit diseases and soil borne
organisms: Trichoderma harzianum (10 g/l); Trichoderma viride;
Pseudomonas fluorescens (10 g/l); Bacillus subtilis (10 g/l)
Bioagents and Botanicals for management of insect pests:
Beauveria basiana (10 g/l); Verticillium lecani (10 g/l); Metarhizium
anisopliae (10 g/l); Neem soap (10 g/l); Neem oil (8 ml/l); Neen
Seed Powder Extract (4%); Pongamia oil (8ml/l); Pongamia soap
(10 g/l); NPV; Bacillus thuringiensis, on certain insects such as
cabbage worms.
Protected cultivation of vegetables: Protected cultivation
is an important tool to overcome many biotic and abiotic stresses
in organic cultivation of vegetables. In moderate to heavy
rainfall area, rain shelter is proving effective in overcoming the
problems of foliar diseases of vegetable crops like tomato. In
crop like brinjal, where the control of insects like shoot and fruit
borer is difficult, growing these vegetables under nethouse hold
a bright promise under organic farming.
Harvest and post-harvest management: Schedule harvest
timings during cool hours of the day, i.e. morning or evening
hours. Immediately after harvest shift the produce to sheltered
place and pack them in clean ply wood boxes or plastic crates.
Pick the produce at right stage to retain firmness so the transport
shocks are reduced. For example, in tomato the fruits should
be harvested at breaker stage or when the fruits are turning
from green to light pink colour. The results of organic vegetable
trials conducted at Indian Institute of Horticultural Research,
Bangalore and on farm trials in farmers fields have indicated
that the yield levels of 80 to 85 per cent of conventional farming
can be obtained in cabbage, cauliflower, tomato, brinjal , chillies,
80
onion, drumstick while they are on par or even more in French

Beans.
Marketing: The marketing of organically produced
vegetables presents growers with a number of challenges. Total
supply, consumer demand, pricing, perishable nature of the
product and market structure are the factors that contribute to
a growers ability to sell his/her product. Therefore, production
and market risks both affect the profitability and economic
viability of organically grown vegetables. In all cases, the
risks associated with organic vegetable operations should
be minimized. Growers must harvest, pack, and sell their
products in an expedient manner to receive satisfactory returns.
Therefore, from marketing perspective vegetables carry a greater
risk than such storable commodities as nuts and grains. Some
organic vegetable growers may reduce this risk by planting
crops such as winter squash, onions, garlic and potatoes which
may be stored for longer periods of time. Commodities that are
produced organically can often be sold for a premium price
over conventionally grown products. However, the industry is
extremely competitive and returns to growers are dictated by the
total supply, consumer demand and the available organic outlets.
Market saturation often occurs and growers may be forced to
accept lower returns and/or market their product without the
organic designation at conventional prices.
Future thrust in research and development: Non
availability of suitable Package of Practices on organic farming
of various horticultural crops; Appropriate methods to enhance
the nutrient content of the bulky organic manure; To assess the
nutrient availability pattern of different organic sources during
the cropping periods under different agro-climatic situations;
Developing efficient biopesticides and botanicals and bio
control agents for insect pests and disease management; Poor
marketing access and remunerative prices when grown on large
scale; Determination of quality standards for various organic
inputs; Research on organic horticulture should be on farming
system approach; Simplification of production protocols by the
certifying agencies for the domestic markets; Organic cultivation
under protected environment needs emphasis; Organic seed
production and distribution system need to be encouraged.
M Prabhakar et al 81
Although information on conventional cultivation practices

is available from many sources, comprehensive information on
organic cultivation practices is difficult to find. Organic vegetable
production differs from conventional production primarily in
soil fertility, weed, insect, and disease management. While there
have been varying notions of organic farming over the years, the
growth of the organic farming system and the introduction of
standard and certification have led to a clearer definition in recent
years. The definition describes organic as a viable agriculture,
based on sound farming practices that does not include synthetic
chemicals. Keeping this in view, it is an endeavour of all those
interested in protecting the soil sustainability by adopting
eco-friendly approaches within farm operations as much as
possible and generate appropriate organic vegetable production
technology to supply safe vegetables for human consumption.
Maximising Yields in Organic Farming:

Three Case Studies
Leena Chandran-Wadia
Man has practiced eco-friendly agriculture for approximately
10,000 years. It is only recently, in the last 100 years or so, that
chemical fertilizers and pesticides have been used extensively as
part of the Green Revolution in many countries to increase
wheat production enormously in the 1940s in Mexico, in the
1950s in United States, and to avert famine in India in the 1960s.
The Green revolution in India did not just help avert famine,
it paved the way for India to take its place among the worlds
largest producers of food. According to statistics from the Food
and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)1 India is among the largest
food producers in the world, ranking among the top 5 in several
food categories cereals such as rice and wheat, many fresh
fruits and vegetables, pulses, spices and even cash crops such as
coffee and cotton besides, milk, fish and livestock.
Although Indias food production is high in terms of
quantities, its productivity (yields per hectare) for most crops
is poor relative to many countries. For example India is one of
the largest producers of rice, second only to China in terms of
quantities, but the top five countries in terms of yields are Egypt,
Australia, Syria, Greece and USA in that order2! According
to the Planning Commission, approximately half the people
engaged in agriculture are illiterate and just five percent have
completed Higher Secondary education. The farmers who have
very small land holdings possess the least amount of assets,
skills or education. Therefore it is imperative to look at ways to
educate them, particularly about alternate farming techniques
that are low in input costs (seeds, fertilisers and pesticides).
Chemicals-based farming is knowledge intensive
fertilizers and pesticides cannot be used indiscriminately else
they will destroy the soil and water. Yet very little provision
Bangalore. 2014
83
84
exists to educate farmers on a regular basis and to support them

with soil testing facilities and related knowhow. Market forces
tend to give farmers a skewed picture of the use of chemical
inputs that are detrimental to their own interests and to the
interests of their consumers.
It is also very well known by now that mono-cropping
and the indiscriminate use of chemicals and pesticides have
led to loss of biodiversity, pollution of water resources and
the destruction of the primary productivity of the soil, thereby
threatening the livelihoods of farmers, particularly small and
marginal farmers. Nearly 80 percent of farmers in India fall into
the latter classification: those who own less than one hectare (Ha,
approximately 2.5 acres) are called marginal farmers and those
who own between one and two hectares of land are known as
small farmers. With each succeeding generation the land holding
is being split further and there is now a preponderance of farmers
with extremely small land holdings, typically less than one acre.
In terms of absolute numbers, there are nearly 10 crore farmers
whose total landholding amounts to just 36 percent of the land
under cultivation, all of which is rain fed and supports just one
Kharif crop. More than 2 lakh farmers committed suicide in the
decade between 1997 and 2007. A return to sustainable agriculture
has become a human, as well as an ecological, imperative.
One of the key concerns expressed about organic farming
(farming that is free of chemical fertilizers and pesticides) is
whether it can provide adequate productivity and food security
for densely populated countries such as India. In this paper we
look at the case studies of variants of organic farming practiced
by three well known farmers in India, in order to understand
how they have improved yields considerably, both in large farms
growing single crops as well as in small and marginal farms.
The relevance of their work is the knowledge that if one farmer
produces a record yield of any crop then it should be possible for
others to do the same.
Crop production data by country from the Food and Agriculture organization
http://faostat3.fao.org/faostatgateway/go/to/browse/Q/QC/E
Ibid. Data on Country rank by commodity (Rice, paddy) and Yields per
Hectare from the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) http://faostat.
fao.org/site/339/default.aspx
85
Bhaskar Save six decades of organic farming: Bhaskar

Save, a 91 year old veteran of Organic farming, is the recipient
of the One World Lifetime Achievement Award 20103 instituted
by IFOAM (International Federation of Organic Agriculture
Movements). He began his career as a teacher. For about a decade
he practiced farming on his family farm alongside his teaching
duties before giving up teaching completely. In the 1950s Bhaskar
Save practiced chemicals based farming, became a model farmer
in this space and was decorated both by the Gujarat government
and the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, which
gave him the best coconut farmer award. However, he soon
noticed that his input costs were spiralling because he needed
to put in higher quantities of fertilizers and pesticides each year
in order to sustain yields. He therefore transitioned gradually
into organic farming and found that the lower input costs here
helped him post profits quickly, despite lower yields initially. He
was later able to improve yields in organic farming, creating a
platform and trench system for growing trees that produces 400
coconuts per tree per year, as against the normal 80100 coconuts
a year. Notably, this high yield of coconuts is also produced by
expert farmers practicing other variants of organic farming such
as Natueco farming, described elsewhere in this article.
Bhaskar Save practices the no-tilling based Natural
farming technique pioneered by Masanobu Fukuoka of Japan4.
Saveji speaks animatedly5 about how farmers go wrong with the
use of water, about how plants requires moisture, not water, and
how flood irrigation coupled with the excessive use of fertilizers,
by ignorant farmers, have contributed to the destruction of their
lands. He describes how he has planted the humble croton plant
at many locations in his farm so that they can be barometers of
adequate moisture in the soil (their drooping leaves indicate
dryness). He uses leaf litter and farm waste as mulch to
prevent evaporation and keep his soil moist. He has not used
See http://www.oneworldaward.com/2010oneworldaward.html for
details of the award and awardees
4
Fukuokas famous book One Straw Revolution helped inspire many a
farmer to adopt his techniques referred to as Natural farming, which shun
ploughing, weeding, pruning and fertilizers to adopt a minimalist approach
5
Observer Research Foundation Mumbai had prepared a short film to
commemorate the work of Bhaskar Save on the occasion of the presentation
of the One World Lifetime Achievement Award to him.
3
86
any additional water other than the annual rainfall, preserved

though water harvesting, on his 14 Ha farm Kalpavruksh
in Dehri, Gujarat, for many years now. Although Israel as a
country is known for having pioneered and commercialised drip
irrigation, Indias best farmers have always known how to use
water wisely.
Subhash Sharma: self-taught, nature inspired, organic
farming: Subhash Sharma also began his farming career in
1975 with chemicals based farming. As with Bhaskar Save, he
too found his crop yields increasing year on year in the initial
years. In approximately eight years he found the yields of his
crops flatten out and even decline in subsequent years, despite
increasing inputs of ever more expensive chemicals. Of course all
the earthworms, ants, insects, frogs and other living organisms
found normally on farms were gone from his farm by then. Over
the years he and many other farmers had also cut all the trees
on their farms, and along with the trees went the birds too. At
this time he was also using excessive amounts of water because
he had access to electricity and water pumps so the water table
on his 12 Ha farm had also dropped sharply. Since his soil had
become hard, without any pores to drain water, he was losing 15
tonnes of fertile top soil each year.
Worried by these developments and inspired by Masanobu
Fukuoka and Bhaskar Save, he started learning about Natural
farming and began experimenting on his own, beginning in
the 1990s. He describes6 in great detail, and in a completely
quantitative fashion, how he transitioned gradually from high
external inputs based chemical farming into low cost, nature
inspired and sustainable, organic farming. His annual output
which had fallen to 50 tonnes just before he switched to organic
farming returned to 400 tonnes, the same peak level he had seen
in the early years of fertilizer based farming. He touches upon
how he was inspired by nature to replant hundreds of trees to
maintain the temperature of the farm and bring the birds back
and how he used farmyard manure such as cow dung and cow
urine as agents to revive the soil, to bring earthworms and insects
Talk at Roundtable on Problems faced by Maharashtras Farming
Community: The need to Promote Best Practices in Sustainable Agriculture
held at Observer Research Foundation Mumbai in September 2010.
87
back. He talks at length about his successful efforts to harvest rain

water towards regenerating the water table in and around his
farm and also about rotating crops and recycling plant residues
in order to keep his soil healthy and his yields consistently high.
One of the key innovations of Subhash Sharma is the fact
that he has made casual farm labourers into equity participants
in his farm. Describing his different experiments with the use of
labour during the period of high growth in his farm output (he
does not use any implements or tools on his farm, just the labour
of people), he outlines how he devised a win-win situation in
which each casual labourer was able to multiply his / her income
several times, working for fewer numbers of hours, while at the
same time helping him multiply his total output many-fold.
Shripad Dabholkar and the Prayog Pariwar methodology:
We focus now on the method known as Natueco farming
(a method of farming that is consistent with NATURE and
ECOLOGY) that has been practiced in Maharashtra and elsewhere
in the country for over 4 decades now. Natueco farming is a
scientific farming technique pioneered by the visionary, late Prof
Shripad A. Dabholkar, the architect of the famed grape revolution
in Maharashtra starting in the late 1960s. Prof Dabholkar and the
Prayog Pariwar (his team of self-experimenting learners, as he
called all the farmers who worked alongside him) replicated the
early success with grapes with many other crops such as millets,
mango, groundnut, sugarcane, maize, bamboo, and more. Not
just in farms, but also in home gardens and even roof gardens,
the Prayog Pariwar has produced record yields in everything
from lemons and pumpkins to sandalwood and lavender.
In Prof Dabholkars own words, Natueco farming is about
knowing nature better and better through critical scientific
inquiries and experiments. The promise of record, assured,
yields comes through the knowledge of the fertility needs of
plants, their geometry and cycles of growth and their plant
physiology coupled with the key principles of canopy, soil and
water management with no external inputs. In the case of grapes,
their yield climbed steeply from the normal 36 tonnes per acre
to as much as 16 tonnes per acre. Prof Dabholkars solution
for food security is to grow much more food on the same land
mass, using the precise techniques of Natueco farming. There
88
is almost a mathematical precision in the laws of Nature which,

if followed, will provide Plenty for all says Prof. Dabholkar in
his book of the same title (Dabholkar, 1998). He explains in detail
the concept of the Prayog Pariwar, the development of the art
of Natueco farming, and its philosophy and practice. He also
presents other case studies, besides grapes, describing in detail
how to get maximum yields from crops such as mango, banana
and sugarcane.
The prescriptive techniques provided by the Prayog Pariwar
for reproducing their record yields can be shared widely and can
be learnt by farmers all over the country. The medium of sharing
can be the convergence programmes conceived by the Ministry
of Rural Development (MoRD) of the Government of India. Since
MoRD runs the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
(NREGS), they have envisaged cooperation with the Ministry
of Agriculture so that farmers and rural workers can upgrade
their skills in agriculture and allied sectors (MoRD, Guidelines
for Convergence of NREGS with Programmes of the Ministry of
Agriculture for enhancing productivity, 2009).
We look at some of the key principles of Natueco farming
before considering knowledge management and the ways in
which the knowhow and prescriptions can be disseminated.
Like many other variants of organic farming, Natueco farming
is also based on the principle of no-tilling and also on complete
recycling and management of farm-waste. However, unlike
Natural farming which depends on traditional practices of
organic farming in an empirical way and provides no basic
insights into natures processes in programming any crop
production, Natueco farming depends on a critical understanding
of greening and recycling of bio-mass from within, to enrich the
structure and fertility of soil in a calculated way. The three main
principles of Natueco farming (Dabholkar, 1998) are based on
nurturing the soil, the roots and the canopy of plants.
Harvesting the sun through proper canopy management
for efficient photosynthesis: Prof Dabholkar and his team
estimated that plants produce three to four grams of dry weight
(glucose) per square foot of canopy (photosynthesis area) per
sun-day of eight to ten hours of sunlight each day. It is therefore
important to ensure that plants establish their optimum canopy
89
spread of mature leaves, at the earliest time in their lifecycle:

for example, in the fifth month for the banana plant. Since the
growth of the canopy is related to the spread of the feeder roots of
the plant (their extents are approximately equal in size), this can
be done by a combination of maintaining appropriate planting
distances, and root treatment techniques that are described in
his book.
The Prayog Pariwar estimated that of the dry matter
harvested by the plant each day, per square foot canopy area,
approximately one to two grams is used up by the plant for its
own growth and maintenance. The remaining one to two grams
is stored in stems or roots or is carried to the storage organs of
the fruits. Therefore it must be ensured that when optimum
photosynthesis is taking place there is matching growth in the
storage organ (fruit) at the same time. This is done by optimal
pruning techniques as per the physiology of each plant.
Whereas elsewhere in the world the first crop of grapes is
harvested in the third year, Prof Dabholkar describes how he
forced the repeated branching of the grape vine through the
pruning of the top part every fifteen or twenty one days, thus
increasing the canopy to 31 square feet by the end of seventy
five days of its new growth. In the next three to four months
this canopy matures (each leaf takes 3540 days) to produce a
record yield of 400 gm per square feet of canopy developed.
This translates into 16 tons of crop per acre in the very first year,
which is the basis of the now famous scientific grape revolution
of Maharashtra.
Soil enrichment by recycling biomass: Soil is formed by
erosion of rocks and decomposition of biomass. The focus here
is on the process of decomposition of biomass which ensures
the maximum availability of all diverse micro nutrients. This is
primarily ensured through the use of farmyard manure such as
cow dung and cow urine as sources of microbes for decomposition,
with jaggery as the catalyst. Subsequent recharging of the soil is
done by in-situ decomposition of leaf litter and plant residue.
The Prayog Pariwar has perfected the art of making
nursery soil which is extremely high in nutrients, using recycled
biomass, in just 150 days. The exciting thing about this is that
90
now, using this nursery soil as a starting point, even waste land
and land whose productivity has been destroyed by conventional
chemical farming can be rejuvenated successfully, giving farmers
an opportunity to revive their fortunes. The quality of nursery
soil, referred to as Amrut Mitti, produced by the techniques
developed by the Prayog Parivar is extremely high, containing
relatively very high proportions of organic Carbon and many
minerals, as attested by tests done at many laboratories including
those of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)7.
Plants require well over 30 elements for their optimal growth,
but soil testing (chemical, biological, microbiological and
micro-nutrient) facilities do not normally check for all of them.
They usually look for adequate quantities of the three primary
nutrients, Nitrogen (N), Potassium (K) and Phosphorous (P), and
some secondary as well as micro nutrients such as Calcium (Ca),
Magnesium (Mg), Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn), Copper (Cu) and
Zinc (Zn). This data along with measurements of soil microbial
parameters helps decide whether nursery soil needs to be used,
either because the soil is low in essential nutrients or is saline
due to the addition of too much chemical fertilizer in the past.
Soil testing data is also important for crop selection.
Root treatment: The goal here is the development and
maintenance of white feeder root zones for efficient absorption
of nutrients. The presence of large quantities of micro-organisms
in the soil gives essential benefits to the roots of the plants in that
they convert minerals found in nature into absorbable forms.
It is relatively unknown outside the farming communities that
the feeder roots of plants grow essentially in the surface layer
of the soil, remaining just 9 to 12 inches below ground, with
their spread extending as far out as the extent of the canopy. It
is mainly the roots that provide support to the plant penetrate
deeper into the ground.
The Prayog Pariwar used research on different crops
available in different parts of the world to get a detailed
understanding of Nitrogen (N), Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca),
Sulphur (S), Iron (Fe) and all the other nutrients contained in
For instance the content of organic Carbon has been recently established by
ICAR to be as high as 8% at the farm of Shri Deepak Suchde in Bajwada,
Madhya Pradesh.
91
each of the different crop varieties. They took one kilogram of

dry matter of each crop variety and burnt it down completely
to measure the ash content that is left over. This ash is usually
about six to eight percent of the dry weight of the plant and
represents the nutrients that the plant absorbs from the soil.
They chemically analysed the ash to find out the exact number
of nutrients, and their quantities, that will have to be returned to
the soil in order that the next crop of that plant can sustain itself.
For example, research on mango shows that 100 grams of dry
weight of the leaves contains the following nutrients (Dabholkar,
1998):
Nitrogen (N)
Phosphorus (P)
Magnesium (Mg)
Sulphur (S)
Boron (B)
Iron (Fe)
1.88 gm
150 mg
320 mg
740 mg
6 mg
7 mg
Calcium (Ca)
Potassium (K)
Zinc (Zn)
Manganese (Mn)
Copper (Cu)
2.44 gm
950 mg
3 mg
6 mg
1 mg
Similarly 100 gm of fresh mango fruit contains N-0.12 gm,

Ca-90 mg, P-6 mg, K-210 mg, and Mg-50 mg. This is the nutrition
that is taken out of the soil with each fruit and must therefore
be replenished by recycling. It is clear that if the dry leaves of
the mango plant are returned to the soil they will more than
compensate for the nutrients taken out in the previous harvest
of fruits. The Prayog Pariwar then used this learning to develop
various techniques of mulching (recycling of biomass) and insitu nutrition to return appropriate nutrients to the soil and get
record yields at every successive harvest. These techniques also
ensure that the nutritional content of the foods remain consistent
and sustainable.
Another concern often voiced about organic farming has
to do with the use of indigenous seeds. Hybrid seeds that are
promoted as part of modern agriculture are said to be highyielding varieties with higher germination rates and are therefore
preferred. Members of the Prayog Pariwar have used extremely
innovative methods, such as in-situ nutrition, to increase the
germination rates of indigenous seeds which are also well worth
sharing with farmers elsewhere in the country.
92
An innovative social network of farmers: For the farmers

themselves, Prof. Dabholkar rather far-sightedly created the
Prayog Pariwar (PP) using the humble postcard, long before the
days of Facebook, Twitter and other recent social media. As the
name suggests, this is a social network of farmers experimenting
with Natueco farming. The network was created with the aim of
generating a sense of belonging and togetherness among farmers,
and for providing them with a support system from within their
community. He called it a new type of trusteeship where the
motto is that amateurs must be helped and protected. In effect,
this was a means to create, preserve and propagate knowledge
about sustainable farming which has been remarkably successful
and needs to be studied and scaled out further.
Prof. Dabholkar created a communication system on
postcards in which farmers who have common interests and who
are performing similar experiments got connected to each other
so that they could learn from each other. The PP created a set of
standardised postcards to hold different types of communication
(Information cards, Knowledge cards, Original observations
cards, Contribution cards and so on) and an accompanying
directory system to assist in the communication. The mandatory
two-way interactions generated feedback that benefited both
sides namely, the expert and the amateur. Farmers experimented
independently and only communicated when there was a need
to. These connections could in fact be made because there was a
vehicle for group communication available, for informing new
people about the support they could get. In the case of the PP, this
was Prof Dabholkars writings about success stories in a magazine
called Kirloskar. Given that several other broadcast technologies
such as Television and group SMS are available today, this activity
referred to as beaming by the PP will be much easier to carry out.
The PP experiment was successful because it gave farmers
easy to use methods that were flexible and served them well
when they were in difficult situations. In Prof. Dabholkars view,
the Prayog Pariwar approach and methodology of creating selflearning and collaborative knowledge networks, of enabling
spontaneous generation of learning exchanges, is too powerful
a tool to be limited to solving just problems of survival and
subsistence. It has the ability to uncover the hidden potential in
each and every individual in any arena of life.
93
Solutions for marginal and small farmers: The vision of

the Prayog Pariwar, for the needs of small and marginal farmers,
is to overturn the conventional paradigm of growing monocrops to earn an income for purchasing food for the family
around the year. They suggest replacing it with the paradigm
of using the land for growing all the food requirements of the
family (cereals, grains, fruits and vegetables) instead. Indeed it
is difficult to accept that families of farmers need to go hungry
at all. Multi-cropping of different food groups along with
some cash crops for generating surplus income to cover other
needs of the family such as clothing, education and healthcare
can be ensured from even small pieces of land such as 10,000
square feet. In essence this is a return to the sustainable farming
practices of the past that have been long forgotten, in the drive
to serve urban consumers.
10 Guntha model: Prof Dabholkar and the Prayog
Pariwar practitioners have shown that a family of 5 can live
comfortably all year round on just 1000 square meters (1/4 acre
or 10 Guntha). Prof. Dabholkar began work on the 10 Guntha
project at the suggestion of Shri Annasaheb Sahasrabudhe, a coworker of Gandhiji at Wardha, who asked him to find a solution
that would benefit small and marginal farmers. For this reason
the project was always very close to his heart and when Shri
Deepak Suchde joined him, he asked him to focus exclusively
on this model and work out all of the details by experimenting
in as much detail as possible. Shri Deepak Suchde has since
spent almost 20 years perfecting this model and he provides a
detailed calculation of the surplus income from his own farm
in Bajwada, Madhya Pradesh. While incomes will differ for
different choices of crops they will remain largely predictable
barring slight fluctuations.
Many other case studies are now available for the allocation
of land to various crops and other uses under the 10 Guntha
model. One such model allocation is shown in Figure 1. Of the
10 Gunthas, typically only about five or five and a half Gunthas
are available for cultivation. The home, shed or godown, some
recreational space, a pond and a live fence typically consume
four and a half to five Gunthas. The live fence has a very special
role to play: not only does it provide a secure perimeter and
growing space for a cash crop (that acts as Any Time Money
94
to the farmer) but it also helps to regulate temperature and wind

velocity, prevent soil erosion and keep pests away when herbal
medicinal plants are made part of the live fence. The cultivation
area can be allocated to crops as per the farmers choice. The
different groups of crops that can be selected are broadly
indicated in the figure. The farmer makes a selection based on
his own needs, on the requirements of the market, and on the
local climatic conditions (agri-zone). Selecting and planting the
correct set of crops is a key aspect of the design.
Figure 1: Sample layout of 10 Guntha model showing live fence,

home, shed, recreational area, pond and crops for selection.
In order to maintain the 10 Guntha farm a farmer will
require about 1000 litres of water each day. The governments
commitment would therefore be to meet the familys daily
minimum requirement of 1000 litres of water. For the rest, in
Prof Dabholkars words, the waste water generated by the
family will suffice for farming if one knows the rules of nature
and listens to them constantly. Since plant growth requires
only moisture and not water, Natueco farming creates optimally
moist conditions by using mulching to reduce evaporation of
ground water, and canopy management to ensure that as little
sunlight as possible falls on the soil, so that it does not dry in the
95
first place. If in addition, water harvesting can be done during

the monsoon periods in either a pond or a channel around the
land, and recycling techniques are put in place, the farmer is
relieved to a very great extent from dependence on government
water supply.
Figure 2: Layout and sample crop allocation for Gangama Mandal. It

provides year round nutrition for a family of five.
Gangama Mandal: This model was originally proposed by
a poor farmer woman in South India, by the name Gangama, at
a workshop conducted by renowned agriculturist Bill Mollison
of Australia. The challenge that Bill put to the participants was
to come up with a cropping model using minimum land, water,
and energy to create the maximum output. Gangama created
a model for a landholding of just 750 square feet. The original
design of Gangama has been modified and improved slightly by
Shri Suchde and the land usage has now gone up to 1000 square
feet. The Gangama Mandal is essentially a nutritional garden
best suited for eliminating hunger and is not really for creating
supplies of food. One suggested pattern of cultivation is shown
in Figure 2. There are currently hundreds of such nutrition
gardens in existence today, at many locations around the country,
created through the work of the Rural Transformation Unit of
the Reliance Foundation. They report an output of between 3.5
96
Kg to 6 Kg of vegetables and fruits each day8, which is certainly

sufficient to cover the daily food requirements for a family of
five.
Given the potential for increasing yields many-fold, and
the potential to revive the vast tracts of degraded and waste
lands by using nursery soil, we have an opportunity to use the
prescriptions of Natueco farming to bring food security to the
people of India, and indeed the world, in a sustainable fashion.
As discussed in this article, any efficient practice of other
variations of organic farming can also produce the same record
yields that have been established by the expert practitioners
of Natueco and Natural farming. Therefore poor yields within
organic agriculture need not be a worry anymore.
However, there is a serious challenge ahead to trying to
reproduce these kinds of yields in farms all across the country.
It will require sharing of knowhow on an unprecedented
scale, a sharing that is not easy to incentivise and scale out.
The Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) under the ICAR and the
Ministry of Agriculture will be involved in imparting training
to the stakeholders under the convergence programmes of the
MoRD. An initial list of 50 districts has been chosen for the pilot
programme and details of locations as well as the technology
available with the associated KVKs are listed on the website
(MoRD, 2008). We suggest that details regarding Natueco
farming are incorporated into appropriate programmes.
Meanwhile the practitioners of the Prayog Pariwar,
particularly people like Shri Deepak Suchde, are working both
privately, with NGOs, with some State governments (Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh) and with NABARD (National Bank for
Agriculture and Rural Development) to conduct training sessions
ranging in time from just one day to 5-day, 15-day, one-month
and three-month long courses for interested farmers. It remains
to be seen whether the laudable goals of these educational efforts
will bear fruit.
Private conversation. See also http://www.reliancefoundation.orf/rural_

transformation.html
97
References
Dabholkar, S. A. (1998). Plenty for All: Prayog Pariwar Methodology.
Mehta Publishing House.
Ministry of Research and Development (2008). Providing technological
inputs to the schemes of MoRD by ICAR and its field institutions
like KVKs etc. Application in Pilot Districts. Retrieved
November 2010, from http://www.nrega.net/csd/convergenceguidelines/22_34.pdf
Ministry of Research and Development (2009). Guidelines for
Convergence of NREGS with Programmes of the Ministry of
Agriculture for enhancing productivity. http://www.nrega.net/
csd/convergence-guidelines/guideline_conver_MOA.pdf
Ministry of Research and Development (2010). List of Pilot Districts for
Convergence: http://www.nrega.net/csd/pilot-districts

Bharat Mansata
On 27th January, 2014, Bhaskar Save, aka Save-guruji the
acclaimed Gandhi of Natural Farming completed 92 years. He
has inspired and mentored three generations of organic farmers.
Masanobu Fukuoka, the legendary Japanese natural farmer,
visited his farm in 1997, and described it as the best in the world,
even better than my own farm! It is a veritable food forest and a
net supplier of water, energy and fertility to the local eco-system,
rather than a net consumer. Saves way of farming and teachings
are rooted in his deep understanding of the symbiotic relationships
in nature, knowledge of which he is ever happy to share freely
(and still very enthusiastically!) with anyone interested. In 2010,
the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements
(IFOAM) the world-wide umbrella body of organic farmers and
movements honoured Save with the One World Award for
Lifetime Achievement. Its jury declared, He is one of the most
outstanding personalities in the organic world.
Bhaskar Saves 14 acre orchard-farm Kalpavruksha
is located on the coastal highway near village Dehri, district
Valsad, in southernmost coastal Gujarat, a few km north of
the Maharashtra-Gujarat border. The nearest railway station is
Umergam on the Mumbai-Ahmedabad route. About 10 acres of
the farm are under a mixed natural orchard of mainly coconut
and chikoo (sapota) with fewer numbers of other species. About
two acres are under seasonal field crops cultivated organically
in traditional rotation. Another two acres are for a nursery for
raising coconut saplings that are in great demand. The farm
yield in all aspects of total quantity, nutritional quality, taste,
biological diversity, ecological sustainability, water conservation,
energy efficiency, and economic profitability is superior to any
farm using chemicals, while costs (mainly labour for harvesting)
are minimal, and external inputs almost zero.
Bangalore. 2014
99
100
Natural farming and its fruits: Natural farming is holistic

and bio-diverse organic farming in harmony with nature. It is lowintervention, ecological, sustainable and economically rewarding.
In its purest advanced form, it is a do-nothing way of farming,
where nature does everything, or almost everything, and little needs
to be done by the farmer. This can best be achieved in a progressive
manner with tree crops. As Bhaskar Save explains, When a tree
sapling planted by a farmer is still young and tender, it needs
some attention. But as it matures, it can look after itself, and then it
looks after the farmer. With annual or seasonal field crops, more
continuing attention and work by the farmer are needed, but even
here, the work and input needed progressively diminishes as the
soil regains its health and symbiotic biodiversity is re-integrated.
Who planted the great, ancient forests? Who tilled the land?
Who provided seed, manure, irrigation, or protection from pests?
asks Bhaskar Save. In our forests, untended by man, the (human)
food trees like ber (jujube), jambul (jambolan), amba (mango),
umbar (wild fig), mahua (butter tree), imli (tamarind), raini (jungle
sapota) yield so abundantly in their season, that the branches
sag with the weight of the fruit. The annual fruit yield per tree is
commonly over a tonne, year after year, carried away by forest
dwellers, including man. But the earth around each tree remains
whole and undiminished. There is no gaping hole in the ground!
If anything, the soil is richer. From where do the trees including
those on rocky mountains get their water, their nitrogen,
phosphorous, potash? Though stationary, Nature provides their
needs right where they stand. But arrogant modern technology,
with its blinkered, meddling itch, is blind to this.
Our ancient sages understood Natures ways far better
than most modern day technologists. The Upanishads say:
Om Purnamadaha
Purnamidam Purnat Purnamudachyate
Purnasya Purnamadaya Purnamewa Vashishyate
This creation is whole and complete.
From the whole emerge creations, each whole and complete.
Take the whole from the whole
(Respectfully, as many times as you need)
the whole yet remains,
undiminished, complete!
Bharat Mansata
101
Not so long ago, adds Bhaskar Save, the poet and writer,
Bankim Chandra, paid lyrical tribute to our sujalam, sufalam land.
Ours indeed was a remarkably fertile and prosperous country
with rich soils, abundant sunshine and water, thick forests,
wondrous bio-diversity; and gentle, peace-loving people with a
vast store of farming know-how and wisdom. For generations
beyond count, this land sustained one of the highest densities of
population on earth without chemical fertilizers, pesticides,
exotic dwarf varieties of grain, or any of the new, expensive
bio-tech inputs now being promoted. Gandhi believed in
gram swaraj (or village self-governance), says Save. Central
to his vision was complete self-reliance at the village level in
all the basics needed for a healthy life. He had confidence in
the strength of organic farming in this country... but we have
strayed far from this path. Vinoba Bhave too pointed out that
industries merely transform raw materials sourced from
Nature. They cannot create anew. Only Nature is truly creative
and self-regenerating through synergy with the fresh daily
inflow of the suns energy. There is on earth, a constant interplay of the six paribals (key factors) of Nature, interacting with
sunlight. Three are: air, water and soil. Working in tandem with
these, are the three orders of life: vanaspati srushti, the world of
plants; jeev srushti, the realm of insects and micro-organisms; and
prani srushti, the animal kingdom. These six paribals maintain a
dynamic balance. Together, they harmonise Natures grand
symphony mystic grace! Man has no right to disrupt any
of the paribals of Nature. But modern technology, wedded to
commerce rather than compassion has proved disastrous at
all levels. We have despoiled and polluted the soil, water and air.
We have wiped out most of our forests and killed its creatures.
And relentlessly, modern farmers spray deadly poisons on their
fields, massacring Natures jeev srushti, or micro-organisms and
insects the unpretentious, but tireless little fertility workers
that maintain the vital, ventilated quality of the soil, recycling
all life-ebbed biomass into nourishment for plants. The noxious
chemicals also inevitably poison the water, and Natures prani
srushti or animal kingdom, including humans.
Gandhi declared, Where there is soshan, or oppression,
there can be no poshan, or nurture! Vinoba Bhave added,
Science wedded to compassion can bring about a paradise on
earth. But divorced from ahimsa, or non-violence, it can only
102
cause a massive conflagration that swallows us in its flames.

Trying to increase Natures productivity, is the fundamental
blunder that highlights the arrogant ignorance of agricultural
scientists. Nature, unspoiled by man, is already most abundant
in her yield. When a grain of rice can reproduce a thousand-fold
within months, where is the need to increase its productivity!
What is required at most is to help ensure the necessary natural
conditions for optimal, wholesome yield. In all the years a
student spends for a M.Sc., or PhD., in agriculture, the only goal
is short-term and narrowly perceived economic (rather than
nutritional) productivity. For this, the farmer is urged to buy
and do a hundred things, greatly increasing his costs. But not a
thought is spared to what a farmer must never do so that the land
remains unharmed for future generations and other creatures.
A quarter century ago, Poison in your Food a wellresearched, lead feature in India Today, 15th June, 1989 starkly
exposed that Indians are daily eating food laced with some of the
highest amounts of toxic pesticide residues found in the world.
In the process, they are exposed to the risk of heart diseases;
brain, kidney and liver damage; and cancer. Last year, even the
Food Safety and Standards Authority of India, Union Ministry
of Agriculture, reported that the toxic pesticides and chemicals
contained in the foods we commonly buy are hugely in excess
of permissible limits, exposing consumers to unacceptable risk
of myriad diseases. Such poisons are even more dangerous for
pregnant women, the babies they bear, and young children, as
well as the ill and diseased.
The differences between chemical farming and organic
farming: Bhaskar Save lists 17 major points of difference between
chemical farming and organic farming in harmony with nature:
1) Chemical farming fragments the web of life; organic farming
nurtures its wholeness; 2) Chemical farming depends on fossil oil;
organic farming on living soil; 3) Chemical farmers see their land
as a dead medium; organic farmers know theirs is teeming with
life; 4) Chemical farming pollutes the air, water and soil; organic
farming purifies and renews them; 5) Chemical farming uses large
quantities of water and depletes aquifers; organic farming requires
much less irrigation, and recharges groundwater; 6) Chemical
farming is mono-cultural and destroys diversity; organic farming
is poly-cultural and nurtures diversity; 7) Chemical farming
Bharat Mansata
103
produces poisoned food; organic farming yields nourishing,

poison-free food; 8) Chemical farming has a short history and
threatens a dim future; organic farming has a long history and
promises a bright future; 9) Chemical farming is an alien, imported
technology; organic farming has evolved indigenously; 10)
Chemical farming is propagated through schooled, institutional
misinformation; organic farming learns from Nature and
farmers experience; 11) Chemical farming benefits traders and
industrialists; organic farming benefits the farmer, the environment
and society as a whole; 12) Chemical farming robs the self-reliance
(and self-respect) of farmers and villages; organic farming restores
and strengthens it; 13) Chemical farming progressively leads to
bankruptcy and misery; organic farming liberates from debt and
woe; 14) Chemical farming is violent and entropic; organic farming
is non-violent and synergistic; Chemical farming is a hollow
green revolution; organic farming is the true green revolution;
15) Chemical farming is crudely materialistic, with no ideological
mooring; organic farming is rooted in spirituality and abiding
truth; 16) Chemical farming is suicidal, moving from life to death;
organic farming is the road to regeneration; 17) Chemical farming
is the vehicle of commerce and oppression; organic farming is the
path of culture and co-evolution.
Bhaskar Saves plea for Indias agro-ecological resurgence:
On 29th July, 2006, Bhaskar Save addressed a detailed 8 page
Open Letter (along with six annexures) to M.S. Swaminathan,
then chairman of the National Commission on Farmers. This was
at a time of an unrelenting wave of farmer suicides in various
parts of India, particularly Vidarbha and Andhra Pradesh, but
also Punjab, the frontline state of Indias green revolution, now
turned black. Bhaskar Saves Open Letter widely circulated and
translated all over the world (just google and check) presented
a devastating critique of the governments agricultural policies
favouring chemical farming, while making an eloquent plea for
urgent and fundamental reorientation. Save states, I say with
conviction that only by mixed organic farming in harmony with
Nature, can India sustainably provide abundant wholesome food
and meet every basic need of all to live in health, dignity and
peace. Swaminathan wrote back to Save, I have long admired
your work and am grateful to you for the detailed suggestions
valuable comments and recommendations. We shall take them
into consideration in our final report.
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A further independent Open Letter from Bhaskar Save,

dated 1st November, 2006, was sent to the Prime Minister. Save
asks in his letter, In this vast nation, does any government
agricultural department or university have a single farm run on
modern methods, which is a net supplier of water, energy and
fertility to the local eco-system, rather than a net consumer? But
where there is undisturbed synergy of Nature, this is a reality!
By all criteria of ecological audit, my farm has only a positive
contribution to the health of the environment. Economically too, I
get a manifold higher income than modern farmers. The success
demonstrated by Bhaskar Save decreasing and eliminating
external fertility inputs while achieving high productivity is
thus a model for promoting food security; and his method of treecropping integrating short life-span, medium life-span and long
life-span species has been hailed as potentially revolutionary
for wasteland regeneration, while also offering sustainable and
rewarding livelihoods to large numbers of people.
Natural abundance at Kalpavruksha: About twenty steps
inside the gate of Bhaskar Saves farm is a sign that says: Cooperation is the fundamental Law of Nature A simple and
concise introduction to the philosophy and practice of natural
farming! Further inside the farm are numerous other signs
that attract attention with brief, thought-provoking sutras or
aphorisms. These pithy sayings contain all the distilled wisdom on
nature, farming, health, culture and spirituality that Bhaskarbhai
has gathered over the years, apart from his extraordinary harvest
of food! If you ask this farmer where he learnt his way of natural
farming, he might tell you quite humbly My university is my
farm. His farm has now become a sacred university for many, as
every Saturday (Visitors Day) brings numerous people. These
have included farmers from all over India, as also agricultural
scientists, students, senior government officials, city folk, and
occasional travellers from distant lands, who have read or heard
of Bhaskar Saves work. Kalpavruksha compels attention for its
high yield and it easily out-performs any modern farm using
chemicals. This is readily visible at all times. The number of
coconuts per tree is perhaps the highest in the country. A few of
the palms yield over 400 coconuts each year, while the average is
closer to 350. The crop of chikoo (sapota) largely planted more
than forty-five years ago is similarly abundant, providing
about 300 kg of delicious fruit per tree each year.
Bharat Mansata
105
Also growing in the orchard are numerous bananas,

papayas, areca-nuts, and a few trees of date-palm, drumstick,
mango, jackfruit, toddy palm, custard apple, jambul, guava,
pomegranate, lime, pomelo, mahua, tamarind, neem, audumber;
apart from some bamboo and various under-storey shrubs like
kadipatta (curry leaves), crotons, tulsi; and vines like pepper,
betel leaf, passion-fruit, etc. Nawabi Kolam, a tall, delicious and
high-yielding native variety of rice, several kinds of pulses,
winter wheat and some vegetables and tubers too are grown
in seasonal rotation on about two acres of land. These provide
enough for this self-sustained farmers immediate family and
occasional guests. In most years, there is some surplus of rice,
which is gifted to relatives or friends, who appreciate its superior
flavour and quality. The diverse plants in Bhaskar Saves farm
co-exist as a mixed, harmonious community of dense vegetation.
Rarely can one spot even a small patch of bare soil exposed to the
direct impact of the sun, wind or rain. The deeply shaded areas
under the chikoo trees have a spongy carpet of leaf litter covering
the soil, while various weeds spring up wherever some sunlight
penetrates.
The thick ground cover is an excellent moderator of the
soils micro-climate, which Bhaskar Save emphasizes is
of utmost importance in agriculture. On a hot summer day,
the shade from the plants or the mulch (leaf litter) keeps the
surface of the soil cool and slightly damp. During cold winter
nights, the ground cover is like a blanket conserving the
warmth gained during the day. Humidity too is higher under
the canopy of dense vegetation, and evaporation is greatly
reduced. Consequently, irrigation needs are very low. The
many little insect friends and micro-organisms of the soil thrive
under these conditions.
Excluding the two acres under coconut nursery, and
another two acres of paddy field, the remaining ten acres of
orchard have consistently yielded an average food yield of over
15,000 kg per acre per annum! (This has declined in the past 1520 years following pollution from progressive industrialization
of the area.) In nutritional value, this is many times superior to
an equivalent weight of food grown with the intensive use of
toxic chemicals, whether in Punjab, Haryana and many other
parts of India.
106
Natures tillers and fertility builders: It is not without reason

that Charles Darwin declared a century ago: it may be doubted
whether there are many other creatures that have played so
important a part in world history as have the earthworms. Bhaskar
Save confirms, A farmer who aids the natural regeneration of the
earthworms and soil-dwelling organisms on his farm, is firmly
back on the road to prosperity. Earthworms flourish in a dark,
moist, aerated soil-habitat, protected from extremes of heat and
cold, and having an abundance of biomass. These tireless workers
digest organic matter like crumbling leaf litter along with the soil,
while churning out in every cycle of 24 hours, one and a half times
their weight of rich compost, rich in all plant nutrients.
Vermi-compost is a treasure of fertility. In relation to the
surrounding parent soil of the area, the intricately sculpted
worm castings may contain twice as much magnesium, five times
as much nitrogen, seven times as much phosphorous, and eleven
times as much potash. Moreover, the bacterial population in such
castings is nearly a hundred times more than in the surrounding
soil. The earthworms burrowing action efficiently tills the land,
imparting a porous structure to the soil. This increases its capacity
to hold air and moisture, the most important requirements
of plant roots. The worm castings too are well aerated and
absorbent, while allowing excess water to drain away. They
form stable aggregates, whose soil particles hold firmly together,
resisting erosion. Various other soil-dwelling creatures ants,
termites, many species of micro-organisms similarly aid in the
physical conditioning of the soil and in the recycling of plant
nutrients; and there are innumerable such helpful creatures in
every square foot of a natural farm like Kalpavruksha.
In stark contrast, modern agricultural practices have proved
disastrous to the organic life of the soil. Many of the burrowing
creatures are killed by the toxic effect of the chemicals used, or
crushed under the weight of heavy tractors. The consequent soil
compaction, resulting from their death, has reduced soil aeration
and the earths capacity to absorb moisture. Often, this is further
aggravated by soil-surface salinisation, caused by excessive
irrigation and poor drainage.
By ruining the natural fertility of the soil, we actually
create artificial needs for more and more external inputs and
Bharat Mansata
107
unnecessary labour for ourselves, while the results are inferior

and more expensive in every way. The living soil, stresses
Bhaskar Save, is an organic unity, and it is this entire web of
life that must be protected and nurtured. Natural Farming is the
Way.
Weeds as friends: In nature, every humble creature and
plant plays its role in the functioning of the eco-system. Each
is an inseparable part of the food chain. The excrement of one
species is nutrition for another. In death too, every organism,
withered leaf, or dry blade of grass leaves behind its contribution
of fertility for bringing forth new life. Consequently, pleads
Bhaskar Save if we truly seek to regain ecological harmony, the
very first principle we must learn to follow is, Live and let live.
In a country like India, a variety of weeds rapidly cover bare
ground with the first showers of the rainy season. When torrential
downpours follow as the monsoon progresses, the weeds buffer
the hammering force of the raindrops, while their roots bind
the soil against erosion. Such soil erosion could otherwise be
severe in our tropical conditions, particularly on sloping terrain.
Bhaskarbhai thus observes it is our foolish ignorance that we
fail to understand how great a blessing the weeds are!
The roots of the weeds also improve aeration in the passages
they make in the soil. Moisture absorption and retention
are higher. By shading the ground, the weeds moderate the
temperature of the earth, reducing evaporation and maintaining
suitable conditions for soil organisms. And when the weeds
die, the earthworms, ants and decomposer-bacteria that feed
on their dead leaves and roots, return their mineral nutrients
to the soil to help the next generation of plants, and the long
life-span trees. Weeds may additionally perform a variety of
specialised functions. As soil conditions change, there is a natural
progression of different kinds of weeds that inhabit the earth.
Some are excellent pioneers that steadily work to improve the soil
where little else yet grows. Some are leguminous, and provide
nitrogen. Yet others may function as reproduction inhibitors
of the little insects that sit on them, thereby checking the plant
damage that some of these creatures might cause. The variety
of plants in nature is amazing, and there is no end to learning in
the university of the natural farm or forest, says Bhaskar Save. I
have seen at Kalpavruksha hundreds of different kinds of species
108
appear on their own in different years and seasons. Among these

are plants with known medicinal value. For example, a large
number of punarnava (or satodi) plants appeared in 1992. These
are believed to be excellent for health, and punarnava literally
means rejuvenation.
Bhaskarbhai points out that the irrational and violent
prejudice against weeds in modern tree cropping can be traced
back to our colonial past. In colder, temperate conditions, the
bacteria in the soil are fewer and less active. Consequently, the
decomposition of residual plant matter in it is much slower. For
this reason, most Englishmen were not conscious of the vital
importance of weeds and leaf litter in periodically replenishing
the fibrous cushion of organic matter in the soil and also
checking erosion in warm, high rainfall conditions, like ours.
When weed control is needed and how: While weeds, in
general, are friends of a farmer, in certain unnatural conditions,
some species may become stubbornly rampant. Such weeds may
then be a nuisance if they rapidly overgrow the crops planted by
the farmer, blocking off sunlight. However, here too, the weeds
help check and heal a more fundamental problem that of soil
erosion or impoverishment. They persistently signal to the farmer
that s/he is planting a wrong crop in the given circumstances, or
growing it in a wrong way, hurting the earth and her creatures.
The only sensible and lasting root-cure to situations of weed
rampancy among field crops is to adopt mixed planting and crop
rotation, while discontinuing chemicals and deep tillage. Since
the problematic weeds will only phase out gradually as the soil
regains its health, they may still tend to over-shade the food
crops in the interim period of recovery. The way to manage this
is to periodically cut the weeds (before they flower), and mulch
them at least 3-4 inches thick on the soil under the crops. Without
any sunlight falling on the weed seeds buried in the soil, their
fresh germination is effectively checked.
There may thus be some competition between crops and
weeds for sunlight, though not for soil nutrients. If the crops
emerge taller, says Bhaskar Save, their shade will suppress the
weeds, which will then be unable to cause any problem. This
happens naturally in healthy, living, non-acidic soils. Our
ancestors have been farming for many generations. But because
Bharat Mansata
109
their soil was healthy, they never faced any serious problem
from weeds, even as recently as a few decades ago. There is
thus a thumb-rule for seed spacing while planting your crops.
If your soil is poor/weak, increase the quantum of seeds you
plant. In other words, plant closer. By this stratagem, the crops
cast shade on the ground more rapidly, retarding the weeds.
If, however, your soil is fairly healthy, plant fewer seeds, that
is, keep a larger gap between them. When farmers shift back
to organic farming, their soil steadily improves in health each
year. Correspondingly, crop growth gets better, while weed
growth declines. In just 2-3 years, there should be no need for
any weeding at all. Until then, the farmer is better advised to
cut and mulch the weeds. The cutting of weed growth above
the land surface without disturbing the roots and laying
it on the earth as mulch, benefits the soil in numerous ways.
With mulching, there is less erosion of soil by wind or rain, less
compaction, less evaporation, and less need for irrigation. Soil
aeration is higher. So is moisture absorption, and insulation from
heat and cold. The mulch also supplies food for the earthworms
and micro-organisms to provide nutrient-rich compost for the
crops. Moreover, since the roots of the weeds are left in the earth,
these continue to bind the soil, and aid its organic life in a similar
manner as the mulch on the surface. For when the dead roots get
weathered, they too serve as food for the soil-dwelling creatures.
The correct mulching method for weed control: Mulching
is effective in checking the rapid re-emergence of the cut weeds,
only if the mulch layer is thick enough to block off sunlight. For
example, the weeds cut from a plot of 100 sq. feet will never
provide a thick enough layer to fully cover the entire 100 sq.
feet. It may be adequate for 25 sq. ft., or perhaps just 10 sq. ft.,
depending on the density of weed growth. If sunlight penetrates
through a layer of mulch that is too thin (less than 3 inches), the
weeds may grow back vigorously again. Moreover, with light
mulching, the cut weeds will not come in close, direct contact
with the soil, to enable the soil organisms to do their work of
decomposition. In such condition, the weeds will just dry up in
the air, without getting integrated in the soil as humus. Thus, if
25 (or 10) sq. ft. is the area that can be adequately mulched, at
least 3 to 4 inches thick, with the weeds cut from 100 sq. ft., that
is what the farmer should stick to, unless additional biomass
can be obtained from an external source. The fresh weed
110
growth from the balance unmulched land would again need

to be cut and mulched in the selected area. In this manner,
the mulch method of shading out weeds can be successful in 4
or 5 stages. The decomposition of the weeds may take several
months, but the compost formed will be very helpful for the
crop. What was viewed as an enemy, will now serve as friend!
It is also important that the cutting and mulching operations
should be done before the weeds have flowered and pollinated.
If the farmer is too late, and the mulch contains pollinated
weed seeds, a new generation of the same weeds will re-emerge
strongly in the mulched areas.
Weed control through over-shading plants: The Dabhro
weed is considered a menace by most farmers. To control it, one
needs to plant crops that thickly shade the ground, says Bhaskar
Save. No matter how often you remove it, the dabhro comes up
again from its deep reaching roots. You cannot destroy it this
way. Rather, you should plant an over-shading crop like banana
at 4 ft by 4 ft, or 5 ft by 5 ft. When these have grown a little,
provide them a good quantity of dung manure. The leaves that
emerge will span out such that the canopies of adjacent plants
will touch, thickly shading the ground and thereby suppressing
the dabhdo, and gradually destroying it.
Multi-storey, multi-function: Above the ground cover
of weeds that constitute the lowest storey of vegetation in the
orchard area (where any sunlight penetrates to the ground),
there are numerous shrubs like the kadipatta (or curry leaf,
Murraya koenigii) and the homely croton that line the pathways
through the orchard. The latter plant, of various spotted and
striped varieties, is relatively shallow rooted. It serves as a
water meter, indicating by the drooping of its leaves that the
moisture level of the soil is falling! The shrubs of curry leaf
contribute to moderating the population of several species of
crop-feeding insects, while also providing an important edible
herb widely used in Indian cooking. From this minor crop alone,
Bhaskar Save earns an income of at least Rs 2,500 each month,
grown at zero cost. (Even the harvesting and bundling is done
by the purchaser.) Here and there, one might see climbers like
the pepper vine or betel leaf in a spiral garland around a supari
(arecanut) palm, or perhaps a passion fruit vine arching across a
clearing. These provide additional bonus yield.
Bharat Mansata
111
The principles of farming in harmony with nature:

The four fundamental principles of natural farming are quite
simple! declares Bhaskar Save. The first is, all living creatures
have an equal right to live. To respect such right, farming must
be non-violent. The second principle recognizes that everything
in Nature is useful and serves a purpose in the web of life. The
third principle is: farming is a dharma, a sacred path of serving
Nature and fellow creatures; it must not degenerate into a pure
dhandha or money-oriented business. Short-sighted greed to
earn more ignoring Natures laws is the root of the evermounting problems we face. Fourth is the principle of perennial
fertility regeneration. It observes that we humans have a right to
only the fruits and seeds of the crops we grow.
Plant needs What? How much?: Dispelling a common
misunderstanding, Bhaskarbhai clarifies that the organic matter
we add to the soil is not the food of a plant, at least in any direct
sense. Rather, it is food for the innumerable soil-dwelling creatures
and micro-organisms, which function ceaselessly to maintain
the fertility of the land. And there are more micro-organisms in
half a cup of good soil than there are humans on earth! Through
the digestive processes of the soil dwelling creatures, including
earthworms, the organic matter added to the soil gets decomposed
into a progressively more inorganic or mineral form. The mineral
rich excreta of these creatures must then dissolve in moisture,
before being absorbed by the roots of plants.
More serious yet is the misconception about how much
of the minerals or water is needed. Bhaskar Save never tires
to emphasize that plants are actually mitahari, or very small
consumers of the nutrients in the soil. Sunlight and air are
what they need in abundance, while the moisture requirement
of most plants barring aquatic and semi-aquatic species like
mangroves and rice is best met when the soil is just damp
rather than soaked. Since India has no lack of sunlight, it is the
porous, humus-covered soils that absorb and hold more air and
moisture, which are the most productive in giving a sustained,
high yield of biomass. This is ancient knowledge, though less
understood these days.
Scientific analysis confirms that approximately 88% of
the weight of a plant or any organic matter consists of just
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carbon and oxygen, with roughly equal contributions of about

44% each. Much of these two elements is drawn by the plant
from atmospheric carbon dioxide, absorbed through minute
pores or stomata in the underside of leaves. Hydrogen, drawn
from moisture, is third in the list and contributes about 6% of the
plants weight. The moisture also provides some of the oxygen,
as does the air contained in the pores of the soil. These three
main elements carbon, oxygen & hydrogen obtained from
air and moisture, together form about 94% of the entire weight
of a plant! They are combined together into living matter in the
presence of sunlight by a process called photosynthesis.
It is important to understand that though the principal
needs of plants are originally derived from air and moisture, a
considerable part of these may be drawn via the soil and the root
system. Hence, the physical condition and absorptive quality of
the soil is far more vital than its chemical or mineral composition
typically over-emphasized by modern agriculture. Where the
porosity, or internal pore space of the soil is high as in all good,
living soils characterized by a granular, crumb structure this
enables it to hold enormous reserves of both air and moisture.
Such a condition known to local farmers as waafsa where
dampness and air (also warmth) are simultaneously present in
the soil, is ideal for plant growth.
This was recognized by outstanding agricultural scientists
like Sir Albert Howard. His book, An Agricultural Testament
(1940), is hailed as a classic, but its contents were too inconvenient
for the agribusiness interests of his time to acknowledge. While
today, many in western countries look upon Howard as a
pioneer in sustainable, organic farming, he himself confessed
that he learnt it all from the simple, peasant farmers in India.
Continuing with the list of the building-blocks required
by a plant, nitrogen comes a distant fourth, contributing between
1 to 2 per cent of its weight. This element, abundant in the air,
is made available in the soil through the action of billions of
rhizobia the micro-organisms that dwell in the root nodules of
leguminous plants. Nitrogen is also supplied when dead organic
matter is broken down in the soil, under the action of even larger
numbers of decomposer bacteria. Less than 5 per cent of the
weight of a plant originates in the various other mineral nutrients
Bharat Mansata
113
provided by the soil itself. These are elements like phosphorous,

potassium, calcium, silicon, magnesium; and a number of trace
elements or micronutrients required in very minute quantities,
such as iron, copper, zinc, boron, cobalt, manganese, etc.
The earthworm castings in a mixed natural farm or forest
provide an abundant supply of these minerals and trace elements.
Myriad other animals, birds, insects and micro-organisms
(bacteria, fungi, molds etc.) add their contribution in recycling
nutrients to the soil. In fact, every creature in excretion and
in death is an integral part of the continuous fertility cycle of
nature.
Additionally, deep-rooted trees draw up fresh supplies
of minerals dissolved over time from the underlying parent
rock or sub-soil. Thus a farmer, who is mindful of the natural,
biological processes of fertility regeneration, scarcely needs to
bother about the chemical analysis of his soil. The important
thing is to religiously return all crop residues and bio-wastes to
the earth. Any pronounced nutrient deficiency in the topsoil
often caused by cash-cropping monocultures then becomes
largely corrected in a few years by reverting to mixed cropping.
Of course, checking soil erosion and shunning agro-chemicals is
also essential.
Unfortunately, in present times, much of our bio-wastes are
literally wasted, instead of being returned to the farmlands. And
all the plants grown in monocultures year after year, in the
same plot draw the same mineral nutrients from the same level
of the soil, depleting these. Most problems of nutrient or micronutrient deficiency in the soil today, unimaginable in most
parts of the world just a hundred years ago, are a direct result of
these two factors. And we must remember that farmers in India,
China, Japan and Korea have been growing their crops for well
over forty centuries. India, according to some, has a 10,000 year
old history of sustainable agriculture!
In tropical and sub-tropical regions, the rate of decomposition
of organic matter is much faster than in the temperate climates of
Europe or most of USA. In particular, the hot, humid conditions in
the wet tropics cause high bacterial activity in breaking down the
bio-residues that come in contact with the soil. Thus an abundance
of mineral nutrients is recurrently available for the plants.
114
However, during tropical monsoons, the newly recycled nutrients

near the surface of the topsoil are also prone to rapid erosion and
leaching under strong rain or wind. This makes it all the more
imperative to have a protective ground cover of vegetation, and to
constantly replenish the organic matter (leaf litter, crop residues,
etc.) on the surface to bind the soil under a carpet of humus.
In contrast, the problems caused by agro-chemicals are less
severe and show up more slowly in the temperate conditions of
Europe or USA. Not only are there fewer decomposer bacteria
in the soil, the snowfall in winter conserves organic material
underneath, further retarding its break-down into inorganic
minerals. This is why the organic matter status of soils in
temperate countries is much higher. Because of this extra
cushion of carbonaceous material, the soils have a larger capacity
to absorb artificial nitrogen. While chemical inputs hasten the
decomposition process in temperate lands as well, they do not
deplete the soil of its organic content as rapidly as they do in the
tropics and sub-tropics, where the natural rate of decomposition
is already high. Nor are there torrential monsoon downpours,
as in many parts of India. Consequently, both the eroding and
polluting effects of chemical fertilizers are much slower and less
visible in temperate climates. Caution was recommended even
in temperate countries through the combined use of considerable
quantities of organic manure along with the chemicals. The
farmers were moreover taught to exercise precision in the
dosages and ratios of their inputs. Nonetheless, the West
seems to be witnessing a significant turn-around from chemical
methods. The movement towards organic farming is picking up
faster than one would have imagined a few decades ago.
Do nothing?: While the physical work on a natural farm
is much less than on a modern farm, regular mindful attention
is a must. Hence the saying: The footsteps of a farmer are the
best fertilizer to his plants! In the case of trees, this is especially
important in the first few years. Gradually, as they become selfreliant, the work of the farmer is reduced till ultimately, nothing
needs to be done, except harvesting. In the case of coconuts,
Bhaskarbhai has even dispensed with harvesting. He waits for the
coconuts to ripen and fall on their own, and merely collects those
fallen on the ground! For growing field crops like rice, wheat,
pulses, vegetables, etc., some seasonal attention, year after year,
Bharat Mansata
115
is unavoidable. This is why Bhaskarbhai terms his method of

growing field crops organic farming, while a fairly pure form
of do-nothing natural farming is only attained in a mature, tree
crop system. However, even with field crops, any intervention
by the farmer should be kept to the bare minimum, respecting
the superior wisdom of nature, and minimizing violence.
The five concerns of farming: Bhaskar Save summarizes
the key practical aspects of his approach to natural farming with
reference to the five major areas of activity that are commonly
a preoccupation of farmers all over the world. These are tillage,
fertility inputs, weeding, irrigation, and crop protection.
Tillage: Tillage in the case of tree-crops is only permissible
as a one-time intervention to loosen the soil before planting the
saplings or seeds. Post planting, the work of maintaining the
porosity and aeration of the soil should be left entirely to the
organisms, soil-dwelling creatures and plant roots in the earth.
Fertility inputs: The recycling of all crop residues and
biomass on the farm is an imperative for ensuring its continued
fertility. Where farm-derived biomass is scarce, initial external
provision of organic inputs is helpful. However, no chemical
fertilizer whatsoever should be used.
Weeding: Weeding too should be avoided. It is only if the
weeds tend to overgrow the crops, blocking off sunlight, that
they may be controlled by cutting and mulching, rather than by
uprooting for clean cultivation. Herbicides, of course, should
never be used.
Irrigation: Irrigation should be conservative, no more
than what is required for maintaining the dampness of the soil.
Complete vegetative cover preferably multi-storied and
mulching greatly reduce water needs.
Crop protection: Crop protection may be left entirely to
the natural processes of biological control by naturally occurring
predators. Poly-cultures of healthy, organically grown crops in
healthy soil have a high resistance to pest attack. Any damage is
usually minimal, and self-limiting. At most, some non-chemical
measures like the use of neem, diluted desi cow urine, etc., may
116
be resorted to. But this too is ultimately unnecessary. By thus

returning to Nature many of the tasks that were originally hers,
a weighty burden slips off the back of the half-broken, modern
day farmer. And the land begins to regenerate once more.
Why the agro-chemical path is suicidal: As mentioned
earlier, organic matter decomposes much faster into inorganic
minerals in our tropical conditions, compared to temperate lands.
The artificial supply of chemical nutrients is thus not only quite
unnecessary; it is particularly harmful. Adding a nitrogenous
fertilizer like urea further hastens the process of decomposition,
depleting the soils fibrous cushion of organic matter. The loss of
this protective buffer then heightens the susceptibility of the soil
to erosion and the leaching of nutrients, which assume alarming
proportions during torrential downpours of the tropical monsoon.
In any case, the inorganic compounds in synthetic fertilizers
contain just a few of the chemical elements required by plants.
These few are supplied in a concentrated form. Since the plants
cannot immediately absorb all that is provided, the nutrients
are subject to high losses. But far more significantly, the toxic
chemicals harm the organic life of the soil. Pesticides, in particular,
are murderous to the soil micro-fauna, earthworms, etc. As an
inevitable consequence of the loss of the soil conditioning (tillage)
action of these creatures, the porous granular structure of the soil
collapses, expelling all the air from it.
Numerous other problems follow. Artificial tillage and
irrigation needs are increased; pests multiply. With spraying,
they soon develop resistance to the pesticides, leading to the use
of stronger poisons. But the natural predators of the pests get
wiped out. Helpful pollinating agents like the bees are similarly
exterminated. Micronutrient deficiencies and plant diseases
increase in incidence; while toxic residues in the food harvested
reach dangerous levels. Where before, everything worked
smoothly in Nature, mans cleverness now brings upon him
a lot more work and worry. After the British quit India, and the
partition trauma eased somewhat, Indian farming had a 15 year
respite. From the mid sixties, India slipped relentlessly into the
path of monocultural chemical farming.
M.S. Randhawa retired vice president of ICAR, who
himself promoted this method adds, As (this) crop production
Bharat Mansata
117
technology is mainly dependent on progressively larger use

of fertilizers, the gap between the availability and demand
is going to widen. In his first Open Letter to Swaminathan,
Bhaskar Save drew attention to the engineered erosion of crop
diversity, the consequent scarcity of organic matter, and the
progressive degradation of our soils. He states, Our numerous
tall, indigenous varieties of grain adapted over millennia to
local conditions and needs provided more biomass, shaded the
soil from the sun, and protected against its erosion under heavy
monsoon rains. But in the guise of increasing crop production,
exotic dwarf varieties were introduced and promoted. Wendell
Berry, a perceptive thinker, organic farmer and writer states:
When we change the way we grow our food, we change our
food, our values, our society. Natural farming is about healing
our relationships. Bhaskar Save adds: Non-violence, the
essential mark of cultural and spiritual evolution, is only possible
through natural farming.
The mind-boggling cost of soil erosion: Presently in
India, when rivers are in spate as the monsoon intensifies,
many of them turn murky brown or red. This is the colour
imparted by the huge amounts of topsoil bled from higher
catchments of the river valley. Most of such eroded soil
is flushed down to the sea and is irretrievably lost. Only
a small fraction of it gets deposited in deltas. And what
gets deposited on the riverbed reduces its water holding
capacity, increasing the possibility of the river over-spilling
its embankments and aggravating floods during heavy
rains. Already a couple of decades ago, Indias Sixth Plan
document observed that 150 million hectares of land are
seriously affected by soil erosion caused by rain and wind.
The current figure is perhaps closer to 200 million hectares.
The Gaia Atlas of Planet Management estimated in 1984
that Asia as a whole is losing 25 billion tonnes of topsoil
each year! Closer home, the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research reported that in the state of Maharashtra, more
than 70% of the cultivated land has been affected by erosion
in varying degrees, and 32% of the land is so highly eroded
that it is no longer cultivable.
On sloping land, unprotected by vegetation, more than
one hundred tonnes of soil per hectare can be eroded in a single
118
monsoon, especially in high rainfall zones like the Konkan

belt! With acceleration under gravity, there is a rapid buildup of momentum as eroded soil moves down-slope. A mere
doubling of velocity can then multiply sixty-four times the size
of the soil particles that can be dislodged and transported by
the floodwaters. Dr. Murthy and Dr. Hirekerur, directors at the
National Bureau of Soil Survey, ICAR (now retired), lament that
if erosion is permitted to continue at this rate, it is possible that
all future work will be the reclamation of soil, rather than the
conservation and management of soil and water!
According to B.B. Vohra, former Indian Minister of Water
Resources, this nations loss of topsoil, eroded by water run-off
alone, was around 12,000 million tonnes per annum in 1985.
The current figure probably exceeds 15,000 million tonnes. At a
notional token value of just ten paise (or one-fifth of a cent!) per
kg of topsoil though even lifeless sand used for construction
costs much more the consequent loss works out to Rs 150,000
crore every year, making a total mockery of this countrys balance
sheets presented at annual national budgets and Five Year Plans!
Since topsoil loss represents a permanent depletion of a vital
natural resource, a slightly more sensible valuation at Re 1 (or
barely two cents) per kg would indicate that we are losing soil
capital worth a staggering Rs 15 lakh crore or over 350 billion
dollars every year! According to Drs. Murthy and Hirekerur,
the available data on run-off and soil loss under different soil,
climatic and slope conditions clearly indicate that if the land is
left undisturbed under a natural cover, the run-off and soil loss
are the least. But once the vegetation is removed and the land is
ploughed (especially for chemical mono-cropping), the soil loss
may increase a hundred fold (10,000%) under conditions like
sloping terrain receiving heavy rainfall.
Children, reminds Save, have a birth-right to suckle the
sweet, wholesome milk from their mothers bosom! But tragically,
our modern, rapacious way of farming, rampant industrialism
and consumerist culture draw on Mother Earths life-blood
and flesh. How then can we hope to receive her continuing
nourishment? More urgently than ever before, we need to heed
the exhortation of K.M. Munshi, the first Agriculture Minister
of free India. Five decades ago, he repeatedly emphasized that
restoring the soil nutrient cycle and hydrological cycle in every
Bharat Mansata
119
village and bio-region is the paramount challenge we face for

safeguarding the well-being of this land and her inhabitants. By
far the most efficient in conserving and regenerating both our
soils and our groundwater while also mitigating climate change
are our natural forests, and the mixed organic tree-cropping
systems, like those raised by Bhaskar Save and his family.
In conclusion, says Save, Natural farming is blessed by
Annapurna, the mother goddess of abundant food for all that
lives. A residential learning centre on natural farming will start
in a few months at Bhaskar Saves farm.
Organic Farming and Food Security:

A Model for India
C P S Yadav and Harimohan Gupta
Agriculture is life and blood of our countrys economy. It
was highly gratifying that India achieved self-reliance in
food production in the shortest span of time in the world, but
despite everything, our traditional agro system suffered a great
setback, especially owing to the indiscriminate use of fertilizers,
insecticides, fungicides and herbicides. This has also created
the problem of decline in the soil fertility, pollution of water
resources, and chemical contamination of food grain. There is
an urgent need to take a holistic view of this problem to curb
its negative impact. Organic Agriculture is a major pillar for
sustainable Agriculture and an answer to our problem of
environment degradation, unsafe food, polluted water, degraded
land and wide range of illness due to unsustainable Agriculture
practiced in the recent past.
The organic agriculture is not only the need of the hour but
also a timely answer to the problems of environment-degradation,
unsafe food, polluted water, degraded land and a plethora of agromaladies emanating from unsustainable agro-system. It hardly
needs reiteration that organic agriculture can ensure maintenance
of soil health, protection of the environment and sustaining of crop
productivity. Furthermore, organic agriculture in keeping with
the traditional Indian agro-system not only maintains ecological
balance but also ensures sustainability in terms of food production
and safeguarding the human health. From the very beginning,
the agriculture in India was based on natural farming, meaning
thereby that whatever nutrients were drawn from the soil in the
form of agricultural produce were returned to the soil in some
form or other, as a result all nutrients required for production
of crops were always available in the soil in plenty. Thus, the
productivity of the soil was maintained and there was no need to
add any inorganic nutrient into the soil from outside.
Bangalore. 2014
121
122
There may be people who feel that by switching over to

organic farming the production will decrease. Yes, this may
happen in the initial 35 years. The reason for this is that
during past 50 years, we have drawn out most of the nutrients
from the soil by practicing intensive agriculture. Today when
we shift to organic farming, it will not be possible to maintain
the nutritional balance in the very first year but in subsequent
year, the soil fertility status will improve and by 5 years the
production will reach to pre-organic level and may increase
above it in the years to come. Once this situation is reached, it
will remain sustainable year after year. The pest and disease
problems will also be minimized, the number of irrigation will
also come down and most of the living forms like earthworms
will return to the soil to add to the fertility and to improve its
health. This way, the organic farming will cut down the cost on
fertilizers, micronutrients, pesticides and irrigation. As a result
the overall cost of production will be reduced and farmer will
get more economic return with less investment. Besides this, the
organic products do not cause any harm to human health and
the health of domesticated animals like cattle, goat and sheep. If
health improves the expenditure on medicine will be reduced.
Analyzing the economic aspects of organic agriculture, it can be
mentioned that marketing of healthy produce from agriculture
will earn additional revenue to the farmer and will cut down the
cost of inputs needed for such production. Further, there will
be gradual improvement in the fertility status of the soil, which
will yield more produce per unit area. In sum total, there will
be considerable economic benefit on long-term basis and farmer
will get rid of maladies associated with the market purchased
inputs.
On the cost of soil health if we continue to practice intensive
agriculture without making proper nutritional management
through organic process the soil will soon become infertile and
dead. The produce from chemical treated soil and crop will
adversely affect the human health and diseases of different types
will appear. In support of this let us take the example of Punjab
state. In this state plenty of water is available for irrigation.
In greed for taking more yield and benefit, the farmers have
made excessive use of chemical fertilizers. There is no doubt it
increased the production of wheat and paddy but now 25 per
cent of Punjab population is suffering from diabetes. The probe
C.P.S. Yadav and Harimohan Gupta
123
into such happening indicated considerable zinc deficiency in

the diet of Punjab people which may have been one of the factors
responsible for this. The zinc deficiency is mainly attributed
to continuous drain of zinc from soil following excessive use
of fertilizers. Likewise, excessive use of pesticides has been
responsible for diseases like cancer. Forty year ago in the state
only few shops of chemist were there. Today in every village
there is one or more shop. It is a testimony of the fact that because
of excessive use of chemicals in agriculture, the food, water, soil
and air have been polluted to the extent that it has adversely
affected the human health in spite of the fact that food availability
per capita has increased as compared to past 40 years.
In brief it can be concluded that if one shifts from chemical
agriculture to organic agriculture, in the first year there may
be 3040 per cent loss in production which will come down to
1520 per cent in the second year and 510 per cent in the third
year. This loss will be compensated by additional income the
farmer will get by marketing good quality organic produce. In
subsequent years the production will reach the pre-organic level
and may increase further over the years. Some loss will also be
compensated by lower cost of input in organic agriculture. It
first happened in Brazil. And even the internationally acclaimed
agricultural scientist, Novel Laureate Dr. Norman Borlaug, could
not first believe it. To grow a bumper crop of soybean and that
too without chemical fertilizers, it was beyond the imagination
of Dr Borlaug. Prof. Johanna Dobereiner of the Third World
Academy of Sciences persuaded Dr. Borlaug to visit Brazil and
see the miracle in crop cultivation without Nitrogen fertilizer.
Almost the entire soybean crop in Brazil today is grown without
the application of Nitrogen fertilizers. And unlike the soybean
growing tracts of India, which suffer from excessive usage of
fertilizers, the entire soybean growing belt in Brazil is healthy,
shows no sign of degradation and fatigue. In other words,
absence of Nitrogen fertilizers has encouraged sustainable
cultivation of soybean.
Necessity is the mother of invention. With Nitrogen
fertilizers not subsidized in Brazil, and obviously priced beyond
the reach of farmers, soybean growers were left with no choice
but to depend upon organic sources. Agriculture scientists too
were forced to undertake research on increasing the efficiency of
124
organic manures. As result of not applying synthetic Nitrogen,

Brazil is incurring an annual saving of US $3.2 billion. Soybean
is not the only crop that grows without any application of
artificial Nitrogen. Sugarcane too has emerged as a key to high
energy balance with the elimination of Nitrogen fertilizers for
the production of bio-energy. Brazil has transformed its rural
economy by producing ethanol from sugarcane as an alternate
fuel for motor vehicles. The vehicles running on alcohol are
far less damaging to the environment, emitting 57 per cent less
Carbon monoxide, 64 per cent less hydroCarbons and 13 per cent
reduced Nitrogen peroxide than cars running on gasoline. The
ethanol fuel now runs four million cars, saving equivalent of
2,60,000 liters of petrol per day.
Scientists meanwhile succeeded in isolating a soil bacterium
that helped in the increased uptake of plant nutrients from organic
manure. With the result that sugarcane varieties under cultivation
are receiving the highest bacterial Nitrogen fixation, directly from
the atmosphere, among all non-legume crops. When grown with
ample doses of Phosphorus fertilizer and with foliar application
of Molybdenum, the crop takes about 150 kg of Nitrogen directly
from the atmosphere. Selecting the favourable genotypes resulted
in some of the best sugarcane varieties that can produce enough
without the intake of Nitrogen fertilizers. And still, the crop yields
in semi-organically farmed sugarcane in Brazil are much higher
than that of the chemically fertilized crop in India. From 4.2 million
hectare, Brazil harvests on an average 64 tones of sugarcane per
hectare. Between 1971 and 1981, the initial years of the Green
Revolution, excessive intake of chemical fertilizers had led to an
increase in the nitrate content of ground water by two and a half
times. The seriousness of the problem lies in the fact that once
nitrates get into aquifer, it will be decades before the nitrate level
in the water falls below the acceptable limit for drinking. High
levels of nitrates in drinking water are not only unsafe and cause
birth defects but may also lead to nervous breakdown and cancer.
Contamination of soils by heavy metals like cadmium through
phosphatic fertilizers is yet another hidden threat. And more
recently, fertilizers have been found to be playing a significant role
in extending the Ozone hole.
Let us now examine the emerging barriers to crop
sustainability. Punjab has often been hailed as the countrys
125
granary. The land which once produced a rich golden harvest

is now beginning to collapse under its own artificial burden of
intensive cultivation. The warning bells have been sounding for
quite some time and have gone unheeded intensive cultivation
of wheat and rice has already exhausted the nutrient reservoir
of the soil. The indiscriminate marketing of chemical fertilizers,
without the accompanying doses of organic manures, has
drastically reduced the soil fertility. With the organic content of
soil hovering around a pathetically low of >0.2 per cent, Punjab
soils are getting increasingly dependent on chemical fertilizers.
A Government task force in 1979, comprising scientist and
economists, concluded that some farmers actually experienced
no reduction at all when they gave up the use of chemicals. And
those who did, lose some production still made more money
because they didnt have to pay for expensive chemicals. In
another study conducted by the Centre for the Study of Biological
Systems, University of Washington at St. Louis, two groups of
farms with similar soil and environmental conditions, with one
using chemical and the other without it, were evaluated for five
years. The study concluded: A five year average shows that
the organic farms yielded, in dollars per acre, exactly the same
returns. In terms of yield, the organic farms although yielded 10
per cent less but gave similar profits due to savings on cost of
chemical inputs. Now, before any opinion is made, dont forget
that the comparison was between a no chemical farm and an
energy efficient farm the likes of which do not exist in India. In
Indian context, such study would have been clearly in favour of
an organic farm. In any case, it is better to harvest 10 per cent less
from a farm than be faced with a near collapse of the farming
system.
The answer, therefore, lies in following a non-chemical
integrated plant nutrient management system which reinforces
the role of organic matter in soil. Since much of the damage
to the soil structure and fertility, and the contamination of
ground water, is the result of excessive fertilizer usage, the
industry need to be made responsible for the damages and
also accountable for any further destruction of the soil system.
Besides above, for revolutionary change to organic agriculture
establishment of Gobar Gas Plants will be a sustainable option
in Indias context. A model for optimum utilization of available
organic material dove tailing with Livestock development and
126
conservation is given hereunder. In other words in this script

we have advocated for organic farming, through Livestock
Production. For a cluster of 100 Hectares of land, it would
need 400 animals especially indigenous milking cows and 200
cubic meter capacity Gobar Gas Plant on community basis.
These Gobar Gas plants can even be run and maintained by
the panchayats. The Gobar slurry from the plant so obtained
will have twice the value of nutrients and simultaneously make
available Gobar Gas for cooking or even for lighting. Where
there is difficulty in establishing community Gobar Gas Plants,
small individual Gas Plants of 5 to 10 Cubic meter may be
established which will also give same benefits.
In this sustainable model subsidy on all the components
would be a better option than the Nutrient based subsidy. In
nutrient based subsidy the money instead of benefiting the
farmers will go in the coffers of the fertilizer companies. To get
the Micro nutrient analysis of the soil done for every farmers
field it would need around 1,00,000 soil testing laboratories
which is not possible in distant future. In proposed cluster low
cost input alternative in first year simultaneously sow three
different types of legumes in strips, first of 60 days (like moong)
second of 90120 days (cow pea or soyabean) and third of more
than 120 days (red gram) in strips. Nutrient management is done
by using NADAP compost, Vermi compost, PROM compost,
enriched with Azotobacter, PSB, and Rhizobium. Frequent use
of Beejamrut and Panchgavya and soil enrichment formulations
such as Sanjivak, Jivamrut, Amrit-Pani has also been found to be
useful. Pest management is ensured through cultural, mechnical
and Biological alternatives. Use of Biopesticide, Botanical
Pespicide like Neem and its preparations, cow urine, Fermented
curd water, Dasparni extract, Chilli-garlic extract etc can be used
as prophylactics.
Model of food security for India: Government of India is
making all efforts to ensure food security to its people. In doing
so it has provided sizeable state support for keeping fertilizers
affordable to farmers. Quantum of fertilizer subsidy during
last few years is given in Table 1. The pattern of Government
support on every 50 kg fertilizer bag is given in Table 2 (as
mentioned by the then Minister of Fertilizers and Chemicals
during 200809).
127
Table 1. Yearly Quantum of fertilizer subsidy between 2000 and 2012

Year
20002001
20012002
20022003
20032004
20042005
20052006
20062007
20072008
20082009
20092010
20102011
20112012
Amount Rs. (in crores)

13,800
14,170
14,858
15,252
15,779
18,299
25,952
40,338
98,450
52,000
70,012
65, 974
Source: Union Budget 201314, Govt. of India
Table 2. Pattern of Government support provided for each bag of

fertilizer
Fertilizer
DAP
UREA
MOP
NPK
SSP
Govt. support
(per mt in Rs.)
49234.00
28336.00
31108.00
36722.00
8134.00
Each 50Kg bag of Fertilizer (in Rs.)

2468.00 (domestic and imported both)
1460.00 (imported urea)
1550.00 (not produced)
1837.00 (domestic)
407.00 (domestic)
Source: Union Budget 201314, Government of India
If this support is reduced, the cost of food commodities will

go up. On this ground the state support is being justified and
continued and on this logic no one would like to speak against
it as this is likely to put the food security in danger. This has
also been made amply clear by the scientists not only in India
but world over that excessive and continued use of fertilizers
may make soil unproductive and barren if corrective measures
are not taken in time. Under such scenario and no alternative
solution in sight, the food security may again be threatened in
coming 40 to 50 years and how the continued availability of
food grains to feed the 1.50 billion people of the country will be
ensured is not clear.
128
The Government of Indias stand to keep the state support

going on the fertilizer is justified on the ground that the entire 14
crore ha cultivable land can not be brought under organic farming
over night and organic matter in the form of dung urine and
crop residues etc. can not be generated to meet the need of entire
cultivable land. Also there is possibility of 3040% reduction in
yield in the 1st year of shifting to organic farming. As per Govt.
of India estimates of Rs. 2 lakh per ha conversion cost to organic
farming, if we convert Indias 1% cultivable land (1% of 14 crore
ha) i.e. 14 lakh ha. crop area, then Rs 28,000 crore additional state
support will be needed. If 50% of this state support i.e. Rs. 14,000
crores is spent on live stock development and Rs. 25,000 per milch
animals is provided to individual farmer then 14 lakh small and
marginal farmers will get 56 lakh milch animals @ of 4 animal
per ha. In other words milk, dung and urine of four animal per
ha will become available continuously. These farmers on being
converted to organic even if face 3040% reduction in grain yield
will get the following additional produce to compensate the loss.
Milk at the rate of 7.5 liter per day/ animal, will yield 30 liter
milk per day for 8 months. Annually 7200 liter milk @ Rs. 20 will
give an additional income of Rs.1,44,000 per year. On the other
hand expenditure on feed, fodder and labour per day/ animal
will be (Rs.80 per animal per day, for 4 animals Rs. 320 per day,
9600 per month) Rs. 1,15,200 per year. The income from milk per
year (Rs 1,44,000) minus the expenditure of Rs.1,15,200 per year
will give a net profit of Rs. 28,800 with milk alone. Gobar per
animal per day will be 10 kg. From four animals it will be 40 kg
per day and 14,400 kg/ year. With this gobar, desi khad worth
Rs.15, 000 can be produced without any extra cost. From above
khad following nutrients will become available to the farmer for
use in his farm (Table 3).
Table 3. Nutrient availability from desi khad made from
the dung of 4 animals
Nutrients
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potash
Total
Percentage
1.5%
1%
1%
Total nutrients
216 kg.
144kg.
144kg.
504 kg. + micronutrients
129
At the present rate of recommendations per ha/year in Rabi,

(Wheat) and Kharif (Paddy) the state support on fertilizer is
worth Rs. 20,000 per year. In lieu of this the farmer gets 80 quintal
(wheat+paddy), the market value of this produce is Rs. 96,000/
(@ Rs.1200/Qtls approx). If Government stops this support of
Rs. 20,000 on fertilizers to farmers then on the basis of 40% yield
reduction under organic farming, the farmer will get only Rs.
76,000 per year. This reduction in income due to yield loss will be
compensated by additional income the farmer will get from milk
and cow dung etc. which will amount to Rs. 43,800 (28,800 from
milk and 15,000 from cow dung etc.), therefore farmer will earn
additional net income of Rs. 7400 over wheat and paddy if he
would have adopted organic in the first year. Five years fertilizer
subsidy @ 20,000 per year equals Rs. 1 lac. If Govt assistance is
provided to the farmer to purchase 4 milch animals in the very
first year then the related impact will be as shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Yield reduction and return in organic farming
over 10 years period
Year of
organic
Yield
(%)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
40
30
20
10
Nil
+5
+10
+15
+25
+25
Value of reduction/ Additional income

increase in yield
from milk and cow Gain (in Rs.)
(in Rs.)
dung (in Rs.)
38400.00
43800.00
5400.00
28800.00
43800.00
15000.00
19200.00
43800.00
24600.00
9600.00
43800.00
34200.00
43800.00
43800.00
+4800.00
43800.00
49600.00
+9600.00
43800.00
53400.00
+14400.00
43800.00
58200.00
+24000.00
43800.00
67800.00
+24000.00
43800.00
67800.00
As is proposed in the Table 4, if the total subsidy to be

provided on chemical fertilizer over a period of five years is
provided to all the farmers for purchase of good Indian breeds
of cows @ of Rs. 25,000 per milch animal amounting to Rs. 1.00
lakh then by 5th year by making use of the gober (dropping) of
these milk animals, he will prepare compost, NADEP compost,
vermicompost and other bio inputs and the production per ha
will level up in 5 years and in 6th years there will be additional
130
income of Rs. 48,600/ from milk and dung where as by

providing a subsidy of Rs. 20,000/ on fertilizers no additional
profit will accrue, instead the amount of subsidy on fertilizer will
increase over time with concomitant adverse impacts.

In the proposed model the food security is built because
the milk and gobar obtained from the milch animals will
compensate for the yield losses or it may even be more than
that. Milk in itself is a complete food and gobar and urine are
very useful sustainable bio inputs for crops. This model can be
considered as 100% sustainable agriculture model. It has no risk
involved for food security. Simultaneously it is eco-friendly as
well as health friendly. The specialty of this model will be that
Govt. of India will get a permanent relief from fertilizer subsidy
over a period of time. Also the farmer adopting this model will
earn additional income of Rs 66,800/year/ha in 10th year and the
fertility of the field will increase thereby the yield will increase
by 25% hence food security will increase and by 10th years the
number of animal will increase to reach a number of 13 animals.
The increase in animal population has been indicated in Table 5.
Table 5. Increase in number of animals from 5 to 10 years
Year
No. Milk
animal
Milk animal
raised
Additional
income in Rs.
1st year
2nd year
3rd year
4th year
5th year
6th year
7th year
8th year
9th year
10th year
Total :
4
4
4
6
6
6
9
9
9
13
13
4
9
50000
75000
100000
225000
Area brought
under organic
farming in ha.
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.50
1.50
1.50
2.00
2.00
2.00
3.00
3.00
As is evident from Table 5, a farmer who receives a subsidy

of Rs. 1.00 lakh in the 1st year will be owner of 13 milch animals
by the 10th year. With these additional 9 milch animals 2 ha
additional land will be brought under organic farming from
131
non organic chemical intensive farming. If this continues then

in coming 4050 years the entire country can be brought under
organic farming with residue free food, healthy soil and clean
environment.
In an alternative model (Table 6) it is proposed that if a
farmer is provided interest free loan of Rs. 1.00 lakh for purchase
of 4 milch animals then as per proposed model from 5th year to 8th
year at a rate of Rs. 25,000 per year he will repay the entire loan
amount to the Bank. After that he will continue to get additional
income.
Table 6. Alternative model for animal procurement through interest
free loan
Year of
organic
Yield
(%)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Total
40
30
20
10
Nil
+5
+10
+15
+25
+25
Value of
reduced yield
(in Rs.)
38400.00
28800.00
19200.00
9600.00
+4800.00
+9600.00
+14400.00
+24000.00
+24000.00
Additional
income from
milk and cow
dung (in Rs.)
43800.00
43800.00
43800.00
43800.00
43800.00
43800.00
43800.00
43800.00
43800.00
43800.00
Gain
(in Rs.)
5400.00
15000.00
24600.00
34200.00
43800.00
49600.00
53400.00
58200.00
67800.00
67800.00
Repayment
Of interest
free loan
(In Rs.)
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
25000.00
25000.00
25000.00
25000.00
Nil
Nil
100000.00
Now the question will arise that, for 1% cropped area (14
lakh ha) out of 14 crore cropped area of the country, if four milch
animals/ha are to be provided then from where such a large
number of animals i.e. 56 lakh will be managed to implement
the proposed model. Not only this, many other question will
be raised such as, whether the Govt. of India will be able to
earmark a budget of Rs. 14000 crores or farmers will accept the
model or what will be the scenario if milk supply is increased.
Here for this sustainable agriculture model, we only would like
to mention that during past 10 years Govt. of India had spent
Rs. 4,18,220 crore on fertilizer subsidy (Table 1) and additional
132
70,000 crores on waving of the loan amount taken by the farmers

but in spite of all this, there has been an increase of only 311 kg/
ha (Table 7) in food grain yield over this period. If the calculation
of this increase in yield is worked out further then it will come
to barely 31 kg per ha/year which itself rings the danger bell for
food security.
As per proposed model of sustainable agriculture for 14
lakh ha land support of Rs. 14,000 crores for 56 lakh improved
breed of milch cattle to the farmers can eliminate the need for
fertilizer subsidy forever for that land and can ensure food
security and environmental safely.
YEAR
199496
A
Bangladesh 16,22.2
YEAR
2006
Yield increased/
decreased
Kg/ha
Availability/ capita/day
(In gm)
Countries
Population
(x100000)
Table 7. Status of cereal production in some countries
10770 27883 2588 11799 44790 3796 (+)1208 756
Brazil
19,24.02 19099 46818 2451 18424 59159 3210 (+)753 1027
China
1,33,55.3 90106 422930 4693 83725 444055 5303 (+)610 890
India
1,17,63.6 99978 213568 2136 99006 242887 2453 (+)311 564
Japan
12,75.30 2340 14526 6208 2006 11742 5853 ()345 252
Pakistan
16,85.94 12269 24256 1977 12897 32864 2548 (+)571 534
Russia
South
Africa
America
14,19.27 51065 69380 1359 40574 76866 1894 (+)535 1482

49,32.05 5652 12388 2191 3011
9454 3140 (+)943 5626
30,85.74 62862 323073 5440 52875 338513 6402 (+)962 2989
Area(A) 1000 ha Production (P) 1000 MT
Yield (Y)Kg/hac.
Source: 1. Statistics Division FAO 2009 (Area harvested, production and yield),
2. List of countries by populationWikipediaThe Free Encyclopedia
If the Government decides to test the validity of this

sustainable model, then such models can be run in each state
in a cluster of 100 ha for 5 years (the mark of yield to level-up).
133
After this for implementation of this sustainable model subsidy

provision as indicated in the model be made. This model can also
be tested over a small unit of 100 ha in an area where farmers
are using 1 tonne of chemical fertilizer per ha per year and claim
subsidy of more than Rs. 50,000 on fertilizer.

K C Raghu
A man who knows the price of everything and the value of
nothing
Oscar Wilde.
This is how he defined who a cynic is. This would aptly describe
the very spirit of our age. Measurement tools, metrics, parameters
count all the discountable and discredit all that is really countable.
When such an expert system collapses we look askance. We seem
to have great answers for all wrong questions. False dichotomy;
mismatch of cause and effect; right remedy wrong malady; remedy
being worse than malady, play their script and narrative to subdue
and captivate us. We are enthralled. Yet paradoxes, contrasts and
contradictions stare us nakedly. Eating and mating are brass tacks
of life. We seem to have gone wrong on both the count.
Food is so closely connected to everything, be it economics,
health, ecology, sociology but more so with pleasure, art,
community, culture, tradition, rites, rituals, religion and
spiritualism. Taitiriyya upanishad talks of transcending
from material being to a state of eternal bliss and their
interconnectedness. In its own words, it is from Annamaya to
Anandamaya. The origin of culture as many Anthropologists
avert began with cooking. Cooking in a way disconnected
us from nature initiating culture. All the ecological concerns:
sustainability, biodiversity, biological mass extinction, global
warming, ecological foot print, dead zones in the ocean have
strong link with the way we produce, process and consume food.
Sustainability: The way we produce food today is highly
unsustainable. We are spending ten calories to produce one
calorie. This is like burning the house to get rid of a mouse.
Sustainability is defined by Gro Brundtland committee of the
United Nation as meeting our needs without compromising
Bangalore. 2014
135
136
the ability of the future generation to meet their needs. We are

often warned not to be a borrower from future generation. Food
production system today is a energy guzzler. The inputs for
agriculture like fertilizers and pesticides are extremely energy
intensive. The three nutrient mantra of N, P and K (Nitrogen,
Phosphorous and Potassium) and the way they are extracted
and synthesized is proving to be a pyrrhic victory. The world
today uses about 200 million tons of synthetically produced urea
to grow about 2000 million tons of grains. German scientists
Carl Bosch and Fritz Haber mastered the art of making urea by
drawing Nitrogen (N2) and splitting it to combine with hydrogen
from natural gas to make ammonia and then urea from it. They
also made explosive Nitrogenous chemicals for warfare and
for Hitlers gas chambers to exterminate the Jews. They both
won Nobel Prize. The Haber-Bosch process of producing urea
is an energy guzzler. It requires 200400 Pascal of atmospheric
pressure and about 600 degree centigrade temperature to split the
strongly bound dinitrogen (N2) and to combine with hydrogen.
Energy being energy irrespective of the form, what is consumed
to produce one tonne of urea, if converted to food calories, can
feed 35 lakh people a day! As of phosphorous, Nature magazine
warns us that at the current rate of extraction and usage the
phosphorous would be mined out completely in less than 100
years. There wont be any more phosphorous left in the mines.
We can do so if the fate of humanity is restricted to 100 years.
Biodiversity: The more diverse the food system, the stronger
and healthier it is. It is said that all ancient civilization like Incas,
Mayas, Aztec, Harappa was known for diverse dietary habits.
Every year they would consume a minimum of 3000 varieties of
base food materials apart from myriad cuisines evolved according
to culture and season. Dr. Richharia renowned geneticist of
India mentions that the rice itself had more than 30,000 varieties
within the country. This can be termed as a Vavilovian museum.
Today the food varieties we eat can be counted on our finger
tips. This is not just with rice. We have lost precious breeds,
seeds and species. We can list number of cattle breeds, poultry,
sheep and goat that have gone into oblivion. Our food system
is driving more towards homogenization, monoculture and
standardization of menu. Death of diversity is everywhere. We
can see it in languages, culture and cuisine.
K C Raghu
137
Global warming: Even though agriculture is said to

contribute about 20% of global greenhouse gases, it is estimated
by Barbara HarrisWhite that taking the transport and the
food movement and geography it could be around 50%. It can
be simply attributed to intensive input dependant and energy
guzzling agricultural system. Further meatification of our diet
with food to meat conversion ratio being about 5:1 on an average
is also responsible for greenhouse gases and consequent global
warming. Intensive CAFOs (Concentrated Animal Feeding
Operations) have contributed to release of methane which is 72
times more potential in global warming than Carbon dioxide, a
common culprit.
Food security: Whenever organic agriculture is talked
about, the common question one would confront is that we
cant feed the world. In a recent book Feeding Frenzy, Paul
McMahon deconstructs this fallacy. It is now known that the
food grain comprising of cereals, pulses and oil seeds being
produced annually can feed 13 Billion people! About half of it
being fed to animals for annual 100 pound meat consumption in
the developed world per person and nearly 20% either wasted
or lost. Nature magazine published during 2012 presents a
thorough analysis of productivity comparisons between organic
and intensive farming. The broad consensus was that there is
not much difference in yield as far as fruits and vegetables are
concerned, but in cereals, organic yields are 15% lower. With
a healthy eating habit of increased consumption of fruits and
vegetables and decreasing meat, sugar and fat, organic farming
can feed even 10 Billion people that the population expert talk
about the plateau of population. Food security is considered to
be a narrow concept devoid of nutrition security and density.
Organic does weigh over the intensive in this regard.
Nutrition comparison: There are contradicting studies as
of now when it comes to nutrition comparison between organic
and non-organic. Some meta-analysis studies say that there is no
difference. But some show clear difference. All said and done,
comparison itself is confined to 19th century standardize nutrition
table of foods. It doesnt cover large number of phytochemicals
which are otherwise known as antioxidants, flavonoids,
anthocyanins, indoles etc., there could be substantial difference
138
in the farm and function of the nutrients present. If you take

vitamin E as an example, the difference can be found depending
on the form it is present in. Matt Ridley, renowned biologist
in his book Rational Optimist mentions that in high yielding,
short duration varieties carbohydrate will be more sugary with
higher content of amylopectin. Carbohydrate provides more
than 60% of human energy. Among poor people it could be as
high as 90%. For example, South Indian food is often described
as Mountain of rice and rivers of sambar. A sugary starch
can flood your blood with glucose very quickly confusing the
hormone system eventually leading to diabetes a metabolic
disorder. It goes without saying that organic is devoid of pesticide
residues, hormonal traces and pharmaceutical inputs at the farm
level and plethora of additives, colours, preservatives, fumigants
and flavors at the processing level. Philosopher Seneca aptly said
People dont die, they kill themselves with fork and spoon.
Philosophy of science: The current techno fixes and
scientific solutions being offered as panacea to all the ills of
agriculture appears to be misplaced and falsely dichotomized.
Its often a convenient construct of cause and effect relationship
so as to fit a profitable solution at hand. A deft definition on
genetic engineering goes like this DNA makes RNA, RNA
makes Protein, Protein makes Money. If you take pest as a
problem, pesticide falls in as a solution. But pest could be an
emergence of a problem due to water logging, monoculture, and
abuse of pesticide. Then pesticide as a remedy for pest becomes
an epistemic error. Sleeping tablet may be a right solution for
sleep disorders in medical parlance. It is said that we need more
science and technology. But it should think of an intensive
technology that accommodates all threads of complexity. For
example, Nitrogen is a major nutrient of plants. But urea itself
may not be the solution, because Nitrogen is abundant in the
atmosphere to the extent of 80%. It can be fixed easily by soil
microbes and complementary fungi free of cost. All that is
required is polyculture, complementarity between cereals and
pulses. With the advent of genetic engineering, the relevance
of technology and its associated risk or cost benefit analysis
must be more broad based covering tangible and intangible
aspects. Precautionary principle and post normal science as
adopted by European Union appears to be in the right direction.
This principle holds good when there are unknown aspects,
K C Raghu
139
uncertainties galore in the very knowledge of genes and genetics.

We seem to be building a new science at the funeral of the old
science almost every month!
Health care cost: The average income of an American is
about 48000 Dollar and they spend about 4000 dollar for food and
8000 dollar for healthcare! Healthcare cost in India today is about
10 lakh crore compared to 15 lakh crore of food economy. We
seem to be catching up with a wrong model. Gandhi famously
said that speed is irrelevant if you are going in the wrong
direction. Ashish Bose, renowned demographer calls modern
hospitals as paradise of sickness and heavens of diseases. The
need of the hour is to focus on disease prevention rather than
incurable manageable lifestyle diseases.
In conclusion it can be said that organic agriculture
reckons natures myriad functions and features. Health being
an ecosystem function cannot be alienated from its organic link.
The need of the hour is to reduce inputs of fertilizers, pesticides
and hormones to bring about food safety. There is research
happening in this direction but without much emphasis from the
state and policy makers. Perennial crop system, conservation of
diversity, ecological economics deserves much more attention.
To see the world in a grain of sand,
and to see heaven in a wild flower,
hold infinity in the palm of your hands, and
eternity in an hour.
- William Blake

M B Rajegowda, L Nagesh and Pradeep Gopakkali
Global warming: It is an increase in the earths temperature
due to burning of fossil fuels, industry emissions, and other gas
emissions from agricultural processes caused by human, and
natural processes. This is due to 1) An increased emission of
greenhouse gases, 2) Short-wave solar radiation sinks into the
Earths atmosphere and warms its surface and 3) While long wave
infrared radiation emitted by earths surface is absorbed, and
then re-emitted by trace gases. This increased carbon component
withhold more and more heat units causing atmosphere to
become warmer and warmer. The IPCC (2007) projects that the
planet will become warmer by an additional 2.2 to 10F in the next
100 years. GHGs attributed to agriculture by the IPCC include
emissions from soils, enteric fermentation (GHG emissions from
the digestion process of ruminant animals), rice production,
biomass burning and ma
nure management. Other indirect
sources of GHG emissions are from land-use changes, use of
fossil fuels for mechanization, transport and agro-chemical and
fertilizer production. The most significant indirect emissions are
changes in natural vegetation and traditional land use, including
deforestation and soil degradation.
Climatic change: Climate Change leads to extreme
meteorological events, such as spells of high temperature, heavy
storms, droughts etc which disrupt crop production. Frequent
droughts not only reduce water supplies but also increase
the amount of water needed for plant. This modifies rainfall,
evaporation, and runoff and soil moisture storage.
Effect of increased temperature on soil: Increase in
temperatures lead to 1) Reductions in soil organic C; 2) Increased
CO2 release from soils to the atmosphere; 3) Increase in the
Soil compactness (bulk density); 4) Declining Water Holding
Capacity; 5) Quick loss of stored water due to increased
Bangalore. 2014
141
142
evaporation; 6) Higher Runoff due to restricted deep drainage

and soil compactness; 7) Decline in Nutrient holding capacity; 8)
Increased erosion and biodiversity loss; 9) Reduction in quantity
and quality of soil micro flora and fauna and; 10) Increase in
weed population
Impact of altered rainfall distribution on crop production:
Altered rainfall pattern affect crop production by way of 1) Erratic
distribution (un-seasonal, early and delayed); 2) Decreased
number of rainy days reducing the length of growing period;
3) Increase in number of draughts and prolonged dry spells; 4)
Flash floods devastates whole crop; 5) Decreased quantum of
rainfall during cropping season reduces the sowing window
and growing period of the crop; 6) Leading to selection for
short duration and medium duration crop with less production
potential.
Impact of climate change on farming systems: It is widely
known that Climate change is causing radical changes in the
agroecosystems in the world. Global warming not only increases
global mean temperatures, but also increases the frequency of
extreme weather events and the variability of weather in general.
It also causes changes on land vegetation, ocean circulation, sea
surface temperature and global atmosphere composition and
impacts rainfall patterns. These changes will bring new challenges
to farmers. Climate change may reduce the yields of thermal
sensitive crops in the tropics due to enhanced temperature. Many
agricultural systems provide necessary environmental services
that are also vulnerable to the effects of global climate change.
Climate change is likely to affect farmers more in the developing
countries and poorest of the poor becomes more vulnerable
to climate change. The IPCC indicated that rainfall variability
and extreme events are the single most determining factor
endangering agricultural production in developing countries.
Impact of current practice of farming: Before chemical
fertilizers were invented, farming was mainly dependent on
farm yard manure through which organic Carbon used to be
added to the soil. Though crop yields were low, soil health was
maintained. In view of enhancing the food production to meet the
increasing population, higher quantum of Carbon components
in the form of in-organic compounds were added to the soil. This
M B Rajegowda et al 143
gradually increased the bulk density of the soil, decreased the

porosity, increased the runoff and declined the water holding
capacity leading to reduction in the length of crop growing period
and holding greater quantum of heat causing increase in soil
temperature, reduction in cation exchange and so on. Increased
temperature is likely to have a negative effect on C allocation to
the soil, leading to reduction in soil organic C. A study by Link
et al (2006) in a semi-arid steppe, observed that soil warming and
drying led to 32% reduction in soil C over a five year period, a
much more rapid reduction in soil C than reductions that have
been observed due to increased tillage. Experiments conducted
at Dryland project (Anonymous, 2012) Bangalore have indicated
that the crop yield was not uniform in all the 35 years when
crop was grown using in-organic fertilizers. IPCC has indicated
decline in grain production under the changed climate scenario
and likely trend are indicated in Table 1.
Table 1. IPCC estimated the percentage grain production changes
from climate change.
Scenario
No offsetting effects considered
Including CO2 fertilization effect
Including CO2 fertilization and
modest farmer adaptation
Including CO2 fertilization and
more ambitious farmer adaption
11 to 20
1 to 8
Developed
Countries
4 to 24
4 to +11
Developing
Countries
14 to 16
9 to 11
0 to 5
+2 to +11
9 to 13
2 to +1
+4 to +14
6 to 7
World
Rajegowda et al (2008) have indicated that inspite of marginal

increase in annual rainfall in Karnataka, India, the quantum
of monsoon rains are decreasing and pre-monsoon and North
East monsoon rains are increasing. Length of growing period is
decreasing in many parts of the State. The temperature is likely
to be enhanced by 2.0 Degree Celsius by 2035 causing increase in
marginal droughts. The water requirement may also increases
in such climate change scenario (Table 2). The simulation crop
weather models have revealed decline in productivity in many
crops under the changed climate scenario (Rajegowda et al, 2013).
In view of minimising the loss due to the climate change and for
sustainable food security, gradual changes in cultivation from
the vulnerable crops to the potential crops is required.
144
Table 2. Water requirement for the crops to be grown in present and

climate change scenario (2035)
Crops
1
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Finger millet
Red gram
Groundnut
Wheat
Millets
Mango
Rice
Sugarcane
Water required at present

(mm)
300 mm
450 mm
375 mm
325 mm
300 mm
832 mm
1370 mm
1450 mm
Water required during

2035 (mm)
375 mm
550 mm
450 mm
400 mm
375 mm
1050 mm
1500 mm
1950 mm
Assessment of crop yields under mean climate change in

different regions: Rajegowda et al (2013) studied the productivity
of major crops in Karnataka, using the simulation Infocrop model
(Anonymous, 2010) to predict the productivity of Rice, Maize,
Sorghum, Redgram, and Stocheometric Crop weather model
(Muralidhara and Rajegowda, 2002) in the changed climatic
scenario (RCP 4.5) for the year 2035. The current and estimated
productivity and percentage of deviation from the baseline yield
have been listed in Table 3. The simulation analysis indicates that
the productivity of kharif crops such as irrigated rice in the State
is likely to change by 14.4 to 9.5% from its base yield. Majority
of the irrigated rice growing area is projected to lose the yields up
to about 8.2% and smaller non-rice growing districts projected to
gain up to 6.2% indicating the net decline in the irrigated rice.
In case of rainfed rice, the projected change in yield is in the
range of 13.8 to 7.2% with large portion of the region likely to
lose the rice yields up to 9.6%. Since irrigated rice, in general, is
supplied with better amount of fertilizers than the rainfed rice,
it has better opportunity to benefit from CO2 fertilization effects
for production and accumulation of dry matter and hence grain
yield. Both Irrigated and Aerobic rice in smaller area of southwestern Karnataka is also likely to gain. In these areas, current
seasonal minimum and maximum temperatures are relatively
lower (2022oC Tmin; 2728oC Tmax) and projected increase
in maximum temperature is also relatively less in these areas
(11.5oC) as also increase in minimum temperature, which is
projected to be about 1.3oC.
In Western ghats region, climate change is likely to change

yields of maize from 27.6% to 19.3% and sorghum by 17.2% to
18.4 in different districts with respect to baseline yield. These
crops have C4 photosynthetic system and hence do not have
relative advantage at higher CO2 concentrations. Increase in
rainfall in already high rainfall zones is detrimental to the crop
production due to low sunshine. Further, increase in temperature
causes reduction in the crop duration due to increased growth
rates. Reduced crop duration means less opportunity for crop
canopy to accumulate the photosynthates and thus dry matter.
These conditions can cause the reduction in grain yield. Further,
any coincidence of high rainfall with pollination period will
affect the production due to spikelet sterility, especially in cross
pollinated crops such as maize and sorghum.
The estimated 2.1C rise in mean temperature and a 4.5%
increase in mean precipitation would reduce net agricultural
productivity in the state by 1.2%. Agriculture in the Coastal and
Ghat regions is found to be most negatively affected. Small losses
are also indicated for the major food-grain producing regions
of few districts. On the other hand, interior North and South
Karnataka districts have shown benefit in rainfed crops to a small
extent from warming. Although total productivity is likely to be
decreased by about 1.2% in the State, due to the benefit of the raise
in temperature and CO2 level, few districts have indicated gain in
productivity up to 35% (in some crops). By changing over to such
crops in those vulnerable districts, the loss in the productivity can
be compensated and the advantages of the climate change effects
can be absorbed positively. Likely impacts of climate change on
the productivity of four important crops by 2035 vis-a-vis current
levels are presented in Table 3A and Table 3B.
Need for adaptation in the farming system: In view
of counter acting the negative impacts of climate change on
agriculture, farming systems should be well equipped to absorb
the impacts of affecting parameters and provide the sustainable
soil and atmospheric systems for favourable agricultural
productions. Farmers in developing countries need tools to help
them adapt to these new conditions. Adaptation in agriculture
is certainly not new. Changing weather has always concerned
farmers and they have developed methodologies to adjust
146
Table 3A. Yield projection under the climate change scenario (2035
of RCP 4.5 scenario)
Productivity in Rice
Productivity in Maize
Deviation
Deviation
Present 2035
Present 2035
%
%
Bagalakote
3606
3560
1.3
2890
2990
3.5
Bangalore rural
3520
3580
1.7
4327
5543
28.1
Bangalore urban
3951
4552
15.2
3204
4180
30.5
Belgaum
2760
2678
3
2530
2754
8.9
Bellary
4918
4628
5.9
2914
2812
3.5
Bidar
3458
2853
18
1890
2050
8.5
Bijapur
3978
3768
5.3
2261
2459
8.8
Chamarajanagar
4012
3799
5.3
2274
2509
10.3
Chikmagalure
3441
3169
7.9
2540
2108
17
Chitradurga
3262
3435
5.3
1995
2154
8.0
Dakshina Kannada 3487
3051
13
2901
2350
19
Davanagere
4689
4975
6.1
2800
3056
9.1
Dharwar
3209
3273
2
2208
2375
7.6
Gadag
3279
3381
3.1
3293
3587
8.9
Gulbarga
3032
2659
12
2769
2990
8.0
Hassan
3312
3478
5
2887
2750
4.8
Haveri
3012
3181
5.6
2167
2340
8
Kodagu
3394
3986
17.4
4385
3602
17.9
Kolar
2821
3018
7
2561
2720
6.2
Koppal
3282
3653
11.3
2638
2690
2
Mandya
4525
4398
1.9
4301
4550
5.8
Mysore
4303
4421
2.7
3374
3590
6.4
Raichur
3624
4052
11.8
3032
3090
1.9
Shimoga
3982
3597
9.7
2755
2375
13.8
Tumkur
3721
3933
5.7
4012
3873
3.5
Udupi
3802
3346
12
3112
2590
16.8
Uttara Kannada
3940
3507
11
2333
1975
15.3
State
3608
3627
0.2
2902
2943
2.2
Districts
Table 3B. Yield projection under the climate change scenario (2035
of RCP 4.5 scenario)
Productivity in Jowar
Productivity in Redgram
Deviation
Deviation
Present 2035
Present 2035
%
%
Bagalakote
2130
2280
7.0
690
615
10.9
Bangalore rural
1059
1150
8.6
687
767
11.6
Bangalore urban
1059
1190
12.4
471
543
15.3
Belgaum
774
830
7.2
288
280
2.8
Bellary
1293
1486
14.9
460
415
9.8
Bidar
1054
1212
15.0
580
590
1.7
Bijapur
2534
2650
4.6
346
315
9.0
Chamarajanagar
2031
2250
10.8
463
501
8.2
Chikmagalure
1509
1410
6.6
433
501
15.7
Chitradurga
2018
2345
16.2
505
664
31.5
Dakshina Kannada 1021
928
9.1
678
540
20.4
Davanagere
2304
2075
9.9
992
1116
12.5
Dharwar
1982
1802
9.1
553
623
12.7
Gadag
1892
2087
10.3
303
373
23.1
Gulbarga
1302
1502
15.4
475
469
1.3
Hassan
1820
1650
9.3
307
341
11.1
Haveri
2340
2468
5.5
560
632
12.9
Kodagu
986
905
8.2
540
373
30.9
Kolar
1720
1510
12.2
595
698
17.3
Koppal
1892
2109
11.5
302
250
17.2
Mandya
2093
2268
8.4
502
575
14.5
Mysore
2130
2203
3.4
608
681
12.0
Raichur
1502
1480
1.5
346
298
13.9
Shimoga
1618
1386
14.3
502
602
19.9
Tumkur
1520
1423
6.4
581
469
19.3
Udupi
1420
1266
10.8
745
509
31.7
Uttara Kannada
1270
1105
13.0
880
545
38.1
State
1640
1666
1.5
533
529
0.6
Districts
148
the climate change. Due to non- attainment of higher order of

forecast, farmers must be able to increase their farms resilience
to change. Resilience has been described as a systems ability to
maintain normal functions in the face of unexpected conditions.
Applied to agriculture, the concept also includes the farms
dependence on its own resources instead of external inputs and
the farmers ability to experiment with different practices and
learn what works best. As farmers observe conditions and develop
responses to current challenges, they develop necessary skills to
adapt to climate change as well (Ziesemer, 2007 & Borron, 2006).
Farmers in developed countries may include in their response to
climate change increased inputs such as synthetic fertilizers and
pesticides and capital investments in irrigation and greenhouses
to help their crops survive. Farmers in developing countries and
small holders in general have a much smaller set of options and
must rely to the greatest extent possible on resources available
on their farms and within their communities.
Organic agriculture: Carbon and Nitrogen are major
components of soil organic matter. Organic matter is important
for many soil properties, including structure formation and
maintenance. The benefits of the Organic Farming are: 1)
Incorporation of organic matter in to the soil reduces bulk density,
increases water holding capacity, reduces the runoff, increases the
porosity and increases the cation activity; 2) Increases the growing
period due to more water holding capacity and slow release of
water molecule to the crop roots; 3) Regulates the soil heat flux
due to high cation exchange; 4) Affordably captures Carbon
from the air and effectively stores it in the soil in high levels for
long-periods; 5) Integrates trees, hedgerows and pastures into
farming systems to increase Carbon capture and biodiversity; 6)
Reduces greenhouse gas emissions and fossil fuel use through an
appropriate combination of organic fertilizers, cover crops and
less intensive tillage; 7) Puts people at the center of the farming
system to increase resilience, income and food security.
Organic farming to mitigate climate change: With the
right type of agriculture, emissions leading to climate change
can be minimized and the ca
pacity of nature to mitigate
climate change can be harnessed to sequestrate significant
quantities of atmospheric Carbon dioxide especially in the
soil. Organic Agriculture is a production system that sustains
the health of soils, ecosystems and people. It utilizes ecological

processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions,
rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects. It combines
tradition, innovation and science to benefit the shared environ
ment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life
for all involved. Farmers in developing countries need tools
to help them adapt to these new conditions. Adaptation in
agriculture is certainly not new. Changing weather has always
concerned farmers, and they have developed ways to respond.
The phenomenon of global climate change makes the ability to
adapt even more important, as adaptation will need to occur at
a much faster pace. IPCC (2001) defines adaptation to climate
change specifically as adjustment in natural or human systems
in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects,
which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities.
Various types of adaptation can be distinguished, including
anticipatory and reactive adaptation, private and public
adaptation, and autonomous and planned adaptation.
Organic agricultures potential to mitigate climate change:
Organic Agriculture has a role to play in climate change adaptation
and mitigation, including avoided damage and many farming
practices contribute to both processes. Agriculture also has the
potential to avoid climate change through emission reductions
and mitigate climate change through Carbon sequestration.
While individual practices could be implemented on almost any
farm, organic agriculture is unique in creating a whole system
of agriculture based on ecological principles from production
to consumption by privileging closed energy and nutrient
cycles at the farm and by promoting short supply chains. While
agricultures mitigating potential is not nearly enough to prevent
climate change from happening, its potential to reduce climate
change is quite significant. Organic Agriculture is often ignored in
discussions of climate change mitigation, but is worth considering.
Long term studies on response of crops to Organic and
In-organic fertilizers and their integration: A long term (34
years) experiment conducted in UAS, Bangalore (Anonymous,
2012) on fertilizer effect on yields indicated that continuous use
of only inorganic fertilizers has increased the crop productivity
in the initial stages. However, it has declined over the years as a
result of deterioration of soil health. Addition of organic manure
150
helps in maintenance of crop productivity and soil quality. The

fingermillet grain yield data from 1978 to 2011 indicates that the
yield ranged from 54 kg/ha in control (2006) to 4552 kg/ha in
FYM 10 t/ha + 100 per cent NPK (1984). Application of FYM @
10 t/ha + 100 per cent NPK gave 3,573 kg/ha in the first 10 years
and maintained its yield around 3,022 kg/ha in last 10 years with
a mean of 3,227 kg/ha indicating stability in productivity due
to integration of Organic and In-organic fertilizers. Similarly,
the fingermillet grain yield data from 1993 to 2011 under crop
rotation with groundnut showed yield ranging from 4314 kg/ha
in FYM + 100 per cent NPK in the year 2011. The mean grain yield
of fingermillet in the first 5 years and last 5 years recorded higher
grain yield in all the treatments except NPK alone. The higher
mean grain yield of 3884 kg/ha was observed in FYM + 100
per cent NPK which is higher by 20 per cent when compared to
mono-cropping of only fingermillet (Table 4). When fingermillet
crop was rotated with groundnut, the yield of fingermillet has
increased by 145 per cent in FYM @ 10 t/ha + 100 per cent NPK
than the control. This clearly indicates that by adopting crop
rotation along with integrated organic and in-organic fertilizers
yield stability is possible in fingermillet under rainfed situation.
Table 4: Mean grain yield of fingermillet (kg/ha) as influenced by
farmyard manure, fertilizers and their integration under fingermillet
monocropping and rotation with groundnut.
Fingermillet-Groundnut
Rotation
Grain yield of fingermillet
Grain yield of fingermillet (kg/ha)
Treatments
(kg/ha)
First 10 Mid 10 Last 10
First 5
Last 5
Mean
Mean
years
years
years
years
years
197811
199311
197887 198897 200211
199301 200311
T1- Control 1544
644
254
729
766
745
756
T2- FYM @
2528
2507
2324
2426
3162
2973
3068
10 t/ha
T3-FYM @
10 t/ha +
2903
2857
2881
2879
3699
3598
3649
50% NPK
T4-FYM @
10 t/ha +
3573
3271
3022
3227
3971
3797
3884
100% NPK
T5-Only
2942
1894
1734
2077
2496
2538
2517
NPK
Fingermillet - Monocropping
The five years moving average data on fingermillet grain yield

(Figure 1) clearly indicates the effect of continuous use of only
organic, inorganic and their integration on yield of fingermillet.
The grain yield of Fingermillet has decreased both in control as
well as use of only chemical fertilizers (NPK), where as in case
of combination yield levels were stabilised around 3200 kg/
ha. The yield stability and sustainability yield index (SYI) data
for 34 years as shown in table 5 indicated that SYI was highly
sustainable with a SYI value 0.70 in FYM + 100 per cent NPK
followed by FYM + 50 per cent NPK (0.57), only NPK (0.45) and
INM has shown high productivity (35 t/ha) and maintained
productivity level for longer duration when compared to
only NPK, indicating the importance of both organic manures
and inorganic fertilizers for achieving yield stability. The SYI
computed for the targeted yield of 3000, 3500 and 4000 kg/ha
indicates that, FYM +100 per cent NPK is highly sustainable for
all the targeted yields recording higher SYI of 0.75, 0.65 and 0.57
respectively. Very low SYI values were recorded in control and
only NPK (Table 5)
Table 5. Yield stability and sustainability yield index of fingermillet
as influenced by farmyard manure, fertilizers and their integration
(19782011).
Sustainability
Treatments
T1- Control
T2- FYM @ 10
t/ha
T3-FYM @ 10 t/
ha + 50% NPK
T4-FYM @ 10 t/
ha + 100% NPK
T5-Only NPK
SYI
SYI at fixed yield level (kg/ha)
0.07
3000
0.08
3500
0.07
4000
0.06
0.45
0.49
0.42
0.37
0.59
0.64
0.55
0.48
0.70
0.75
0.65
0.57
0.34
0.37
0.32
0.28
Regarding soil chemical and Physical properties (Table 6), in

mono-cropping system, soil pH and EC decreased significantly with
control and NPK alone treatments. The organic Carbon content was
observed to be higher with FYM/INM treatments as compared to
control and NPK alone. The decrease in bulk density was higher
with FYM alone along with crop rotation. The porosity was higher
152
Figure 1: Five years moving average yield of fingermillet (kg/ha)

as influenced by farmyard manure, chemical fertilizers and their
integration (19782011).
with Farm Yard Manure (FYM) application and decreased with
addition of fertilizers mainly due to loss of organic matter.
Table 6: Soil Chemical and Physical properties under fingermillet
mono cropping and fingermilletgroundnut rotation (201011).
EC
OC BD Porosity
EC
OC BD Porosity
pH
(dS/m) (%) (g/cc) (%)
(dS/m) (%) (g/cc) (%)
Groundnut- Finger millet
Finger millet mono cropping
rotation
pH
Treatment
Initial
(1978)
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
S. Em.+
CD @5%
5.0
0.20 0.70
5.00
5.41
5.38
5.73
5.12
0.14
0.55
0.09
0.13
0.14
0.15
0.09
0.005
0.021
0.26
0.41
0.43
0.60
0.34
0.012
0.04
1.5
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.5
0.08
43.4
47.9
45.7
44.1
42.6
5.30
5.61
5.50
5.82
5.12
0.22
2.46 0.89
0.07
0.13
0.11
0.06
0.15
0.02
0.89
0.30
0.51
0.49
0.53
0.33
0.17
0.89
1.49
1.36
1.42
1.45
1.50
43.9
48.7
46.4
45.3
43.4
NS
2.1
Freyera and Birechb (2009) have reported that crop yields in

comparison of organic and farmer practice (nonorganic),
the organic farming has yielded more than the non-organic in
the Kenyan Rift Valley between 2003 and 2006 (Table 7). They
opined that the combination of pre-cropping and intercropping
provides more secure yields even in times of limited rainfall,
because when the investment in soil fertility during the fallows
is low because of limited rainfall, the intercropping Nitrogen

fixing plant integrated in the long rain will add nitrogen.
Table 7: Crop yields in comparison of organic and farmer practice in
the Kenyan Rift Valley between 2003 and 2006
Cropping
system/
management
Maize sole
Maize/
legumes
intercrop
Potatos sole
Wheat sole
Organic trials
Farmer
Difference in
Relation
with legume Practice (FP) yields between between
green ma
(nonorga organic and FP organic and
nure (kg/ha) nic) (kg/ha)
(kg/ha)
FP (%)
3934
1900
2034
207.1
3197/261
2360
836
135.5
16885
3700
11240
2500
5645
1200
150.2
148.0
Increasing water use efficiency: Boki Luske (2009) indicated

that due to climate change and technical interventions like river
dams, water availability in many dryland regions in Africa is
becoming more and more problematic. At the same time and
in the same areas, land degradation takes place at an alarming
rate. Farmers in these regions need to adapt to the changing
circumstances to halt and reverse the loss of soil fertility and to
improve water use efficiency. This case study demonstrates that
the application of compost on degraded soils is an effective mea
sure to adapt to this changing environment.
Performance during extreme events: Lotter et al (2003)
have indicated that, the Organic fields have performed better
during extreme rainfall, absorbing more water and experiencing
less runoff and erosion. Water absorption is necessary for
groundwater recharge, an environmental service that protects
the whole ecosystem. Another study of Central American
smallholder farms after Hurricane Mitch found that those
who used sustainable soil management practices, including
intercropping, composting, and terracing, recovered much more
quickly from the devastation (Tengo and Belfrage, 2004). Both
of these studies indicate that organic management can help
protecting soil and water during extreme weather.
Benefits of organic agriculture in relation to climate change
adaptation. Organic farming practices preserve and restore soil
154
organic matter, soil structure and water holding capacity, and are
therefore able to maintain productivity in the event of drought,
irregular rainfall events, with floods and rising temperatures.
This adaptive quality of organic agriculture is very important for
the agricultural sector. In a study conducted by Kees van Veluwa
(2009) in the Netherlands reported that Organic dairy farming
emits 40% less green house gasses (GHG) per hectare of land
than conventional agriculture. He also pointed out that it can
be further improved by using the Pure Graze system in which
farms are adapted to align with natural animal and plant cycles.
Dairy farming contributes significantly to greenhouse gasses.
They found organic dairy farms emit 40% less greenhouse gas
per hectare of land and 10% less per kilogram milk, compared to
conventional dairy farming (Table 8).
Table 8: Emission of greenhouse gasses on organic and conventional
dairy farms in the Netherlands
Emissions in kilograms per
hectare
Conventional
Organic
CO2
4,25011,630 2,6504,950
N2O
15.337.1
12.418.8
CH4
250520
180300
CO2
10,990
14,47034,160
equivalents
17,010
Gases
Emissions in kilograms per

1,000 kilograms milk
Conventional
Organic
420550
320410
1.51.9
1.52.0
2526
2226
1,4501,650
1,3101,460
Organic agricultural practices increase the nutrient and

water retention capacity of soils through high organic matter
content and soil cover. As a result, nutrients and water are used
more effectively for agricultural production and less water is
needed. Soil fertility and soil structure improve when utilizing
organic agricultural practices. Organic agriculture increases
biodiversity by using trees and diverse crops, intercropping and
crop rotations. Enhanced biodiversity reduces pest outbreaks,
the severity of plant and animal diseases, thereby increasing
the production of high quality agricultural produce. Organic
agriculture decreases soil erosion caused by wind and water as
well as by overgrazing. Organic agriculture is well adapted to
local circumstances as it encourages the use of local and indi
genous farmer knowledge and adaptive learning techniques.
Organic agriculture reduces the financial risk of farm operations,
since farmers are less dependent on external inputs like synthetic

fertilizers, seeds, irrigation equipment etc. They do not have to
borrow money to buy these inputs and are therefore financially
less affected in case of crop failure. In sum, all these positive
contributions of organic agriculture result in higher yields and
thereby have increased food security and better options for
development. Organic Agriculture promotes agroecological
resilience, biodiversity, healthy landscape management and
strong community knowledge processes. Improved soil quality
and efficient water use strengthen agroecosystems. Farmers must
closely observe their agroecosystems and often work with other
farmers to share information and learn. As a whole, Organic
Agriculture thus builds adaptive capacity on farms.
References
Anonymous, (2010). Infocrop model for the prediction of the productivity
of the crops under the climate change situation.
Anonymous. (2012). Annual report, DLAP, UAS, Bangalore
Boki Luske,( 2009). Increasing water use efficiency. Organic Agriculture
Contributes Climate Change Adaptation, IFOAM.
Borron, S. (2006). Building resilience for an unpredictable future: How
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Biofertiliser Use in Organic Farming:

A Practical and Challenging Approach
P Bhattacharyya
India is mainly an agriculture based country as agriculture
plays most important role in Indian economy. Nearly sixty
percent population being involved in agriculture is accounting
for approximately 1820 percent of the nations Gross Domestic
Product (GDP). But unfortunately the present scenario of Indian
agriculture is not encouraging as the population is increasing
at an alarming rate but the cultivable area is not (Bhattacharya
and Tandon, 2012). The net cropped area as stagnated at around
141 m ha is showing a declining trend. There is sharp fall of the
land man ratio from 0.48 ha in 195051 to 0.14 ha at present.
Moreover, fifty seven percent of total land area in India has been
degraded by many ways for which the per capita arable land has
decreased tremendously. The population of India is expected to
reach 1.4 billion by 2025 for which the country needs more than
300 million tonnes (mt) food grain which is a gigantic task.
Importance of soil fertility: Crop productivity and soil
fertility both are complementary to each other. Soil fertility is
a condition of soil having enrichment of most of the micro as
well as macro element which have capacity to give steady flow
of nutrient for the optimum growth of plants. The management
of soil fertility means the total management of physical, chemical
and biological quality of soil which contributes a lot to maintain
soil health and sustain crop productivity. As soil is considered
as a medium for intense crop production, it is very essential to
maintain soil health for ensuring sustainable food production
especially when there is a continuous decline in soil fertility
as soils are being mined of necessary nutrient reserves due to
continuous cropping. Estimated annual depletion of Nitrogen,
Phosphorus and Potassium from Indian soils due to intensive
cropping is 36 mt which is a matter of grave concern. So, Soil
needs either outsourcing of nutrients from external inputs
Bangalore. 2014
157
158
Biofertiliser Use in Organic Farming: A Practical and Challenging Approach
(e.g. fertilizer) or there needs to be an alternative strategy for

improving soil health by exploiting natural and sustainable
resource.
Beginning of chemical fertiliser era: Plant needs nutrient
for its growth and production. Out of 16 essential plant nutrients,
13 are taken up from soil and these are required to be supplied
from external sources which are commonly known as fertilizer.
Apart from Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potash (NPK), fertilisers
form a wide group of materials including secondary elements
and micronutrients and are being promoted with an aim to
enhance soil fertility and crop productivity. Historically, the use of
chemical fertiliser in agriculture was initiated in 18301840 by the
utilization of chilian nitrate deposits. India first produced fertilizer
in 1906 at Tamilnadu. Initially, use of fertilizer was restricted to
plantation crops and growth of fertilizer was slow. Now, in India
total fertilizer consumption nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
(NPK) has gone up from 0.07 mt in195152 to 28.12 mt in 201011
(401 times higher). On the other hand, per ha fertilizer consumption
has increased from 0.5 Kg in 195152 to 141 Kg in 201011 which is
282 times higher (FAI, 2012). The global use of Chemical fertilizer is
around 200 mt with main focus on Nitrogen fertilizer (roughly 100
mt). India is the second largest user of fertilizers, next only to China.
Lesson from chemical fertiliser use: not encouraging:
No doubt, during Green Revolution (196778) and after Green
Revolution, Chemical fertilizer played a crucial role in enhancing
crop productivity and production of food grains increased
five fold from 50.82 mt in 195051 to 255.36 mt in 201213
transforming the country from food deficient to food surplus.
But post green revolution era has witnessed several ill effects
of chemical fertilizer use in agriculture. These are:

Imbalance in nutrient dynamics due to imbalance use of

fertilizers (mainly Nitrogen)
Reduction in organic Carbon levels, leading to loss of
narural nutrient mobilization potential due to declining
microbial load.
Increasing salinity and alkalinity due to high fertilizer and
irrigation water usage.
Emerging secondary and micronutrient deficiencies and
Contamination of surface water bodies and ground water
aquifers.
P Bhattacharyya
159
Besides above distortions other direct and indirect effects

include natural ecological imbalance, loss of Biodiversity,
declining population of soil improving invertebrates, loss of
native strains of agriculturally beneficial microbes in soil and
contamination of soils with heavy metals through fertilizers. The
excessive use of Nitrogen fertilizer also contributed to climate
change through emission of nitrous oxide and green house gases
(Pathak, 2013).
Emergence of organic farming: a crisis saving effort:
Organic farming has emerged as one of the better options
to address the sustainability of agriculture and effective
utilization of natural resources. The concept of Organic
Farming is based on 4Ps like Principle of health, principle of
ecology, principle of fairness and principle of care. It is holistic
production management which promotes and enhances agroeco system health including biodiversity, biological cycles and
soil biological activity.
Currently 162 countries are engaged in organic cultivation
involving 37.2 million ha (Yadav, 2013). Asia covers thirty four
percent of the worlds organic producers where India ranks
33rd in terms of total land under organic cultivation. In fact, in
India, organic agriculture has its roots in traditional agricultural
practices that evolved in countless villages and farming
communities over the millennium. Up to 1950, Indian agriculture
was fully organic and the intensive agriculture is of recent origin.
Looking ill effects of chemical farming, it is farmers who have
taken lead role in promoting organic farming in India. In 2003
04, certified organic areas in the country were mere 45,000 ha
which has now grown to more than 1.08 million ha. Besides this
cultivated area, India also has 4.48 million ha under wild harvest
collection (Table 1).
Table 1. Status of Certified Organic Area
Year
200304
2006 07
201112
Cultivated
0.42
0.53
1.08
India (mha)
Wild Harvest
NA
2.43
4.48
Total
0.42
2.96
5.56
World (mha)
30.0
35.0
37.0
160
Besides, several areas including dry land and hill zones

are by default organic where chemical farming is not followed.
Now, it is known that certified organic farming is market driven
approach. India exported 86 organic items (Basmati rice, pulses,
oilseeds, tea, coffee, spices, horticultural crops, herbal products
etc) and its value is more than Rs. 5000 crore. The hilly State
Sikkim has under taken organic farming in 40% of its farmland
and its entire agriculture set to go organic by 2015. Chattishgarh
Government has launched Organic Farming Mission in districts
of Bastar, Bilashpur and Ambikapur. The State of Karnataka,
Madhya Pradesh, Uttarakhand have formulated specific
program for promoting organic farming. Other states have also
undertaken various programs in respect of organic agriculture.
It has already been mentioned that organic farming
approach is basically farmers choice based on their long
experience in farming system under intensive agriculture
depending on chemicals. Now, several Research Institutes,
internationally and nationally, have taken up R and D works on
feasibility of organic farming and results are encouraging. These
Institutes include The Research Institute of Organic Agriculture
(FiBL), Switzerland, International Crops Research Institute for
Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Hyderabad, Central Research
Institute for Dry Land Agriculture (CRIDA), Hyderabad,
Central Research Institute of Cotton Research (CRICR), Nagpur,
Network Project on Organic Farming (NPOFICAR), PDSFR,
Modipuram etc who have contributed valuable information in
favour of feasibility of organic farming in the country. Some
results indicate that Organic farming is good for soil health.
Based on 22 year study, the Rodale Institute Farming System
Trial (RIFST) report suggests that soil carbon levels in the
organic system are significantly higher than in the conventional
system. By restoring the organic matter content, organic farming
may counteract climate change. Organic farming also helps in
preserving biodiversity, soil improving invertebrates, various
species of birds and producing abundant biomass (Pratap, 2012).
As regard crop yield, there may be recession during initial years,
but yield may start increasing under organic after 56 years
(Bhattacharyya, 2009).
But still many scientists and policy makers are not
convinced with Organic Farming. They are of the view that India
P Bhattacharyya
161
cannot rely on organic food to feed the nation as there is just not
enough organic material available to meet crop plant nutrient
requirements. There is strong view of chemical lobby that
farming in India without use of chemical fertilizers will prove
disastrous for food security in the country. Obviously, there are
challenges of meeting nutrient needs in organic farming (Tiwari
et al, 2005).
Nutrient sources of organic farming: Organic Farming
System, as per Standard, excludes use of synthetic or
manufactured chemical inputs and relies on natural sources like
organic manures, organic recycling, composts, vermicomposts,
crop rotation, inputs of microbial origin etc. The conventional
farming system is based on the concept of Fertilising the crop,
while organic farming aims on Fertilizing the soil. India has
vast resources of organic input, but it is very difficult to assess
its actual estimate as production of dung, residues etc fluctuate
every year and their availability is in declining trend. Burning of
crop residues, inadequate green manure, lack of quality compost
etc are the limiting factors in getting sufficient organic inputs
(Bhattacharyya, 2007). Farmers are using some indigenous
organic inputs which have not been validated scientifically.
Against this backdrop, there needs searching of alternative
viable resources of organic inputs which are abundant in nature,
cost effective and pollution free.
Relevance of biofertiliser and its concept: The National
Standard of Organic Production (NSOP, APEDA) allows
fertilizer of microbial origin i.e. Biofertiliser which is the product
containing carrier based (Solid or Liquid) living microorganisms
which are agriculturally useful in terms of Nitrogen fixation,
Phosphorus solubilisation, or nutrient mobilization, to increase
the productivity of the soil and/or crop.Bio means living and
Fertiliser means a product which provides nutrients in usable
form. Biofertilisers are also known as microbial inoculants or
bio-inoculants (Bhattacharyya, 2013).
The concept of Biofertiliser was initiated in 1834 when
J B Boussingault, a French agricultural chemist, contributed
classical concept of Biological Nitrogen Fixation by legumes. In
1888, Beijerinck, a Dutch Scientist, confirmed that a bacterium
(Now named Rhizobium) is responsible for nitrogen fixation in
162
legumes. The commercial history of Biofertiliser began with the

launch of Rhizobium (Trade name Nitragin) by F Nobbe and
L Hiltner in 1896. First Commercial Production of Biofertiliser
(Rhizobium) in India began in 1956 (Bhattacharya and Tandon,
2012).
are,
Type of biofertilisers: Biofertilisers are of two types which
Nitrogen Biofertiliser (N-BF):

i)
Rhizobium: A symbiotic, aerobic soil bacterium which

fixes atmospheric Nitrogen in symbiotic association with
legumes. Nitrogen fixed by Rhizobium can vary from
25 Kg N to 200 Kg N/ha depending on crop and growth
condition. Nodule is the site of N-fixation.
ii)
Azotobacter: The most common free living rod shaped

pleomorphic Nitrogen fixing bacterium, fixes N @ 1020
mg/g of carbohydrate. It can fix 2040Kg N per ha. Apart
from Nitrogen fixation, it produces vitamins, growth
promoters etc which assures seed germination. It can also
suppress pathogens.
iii) Azospirillum: A spiral shaped associative N-fixing bacteria

which are widely distributed in soils and grass roots. It can
fix 2040 Kg N/ha in association with roots (equivalent
to 2040 mg N/g malate in laboratory). It also produces
growth promoting substances.
iv) Gluconacetobacter: Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus is
an endophytic N-fixing bacteria found in the roots, stems
and leaves of Sugarcane, potential to fix 200 Kg N/ha.
v)
Azolla: A floating water fern, acts as a host for

cyanobacterium (BGA) Anabaena azollae which fixes
atmospheric N in a symbiotic association with azolla. It is
an ideal biofertilizer for rice.
vi) Blue Green Algae (BGA): A prokaryotic, unicellular,

photosynthetic Nitrogen fixing, aerobic organism, fix 2030
Kg N/ha and is an ideal biofertilizer for flooded paddy.
P Bhattacharyya
163
BGA and Azolla can be produced by farmers in their field

and application is simple.
Phosphorous Biofertiliser (P-BF)
i)
Phosphorus Solubilising Biofertiliser (PSB): A group of

heterotrophic microbes, mainly bacteria, which are known to
have the ability to solubilise inorganic P from insoluble sources
by release of a variety of organic acids. Microbes are Bacillus
sp., Pseudomonas sp. etc and these are biofertilisers for all crops.
ii)
Phosphorus Mobilizing Biofertiliser (PMB): A group of

endomycorrhiza (Glomus, Gigaspora etc.) are able to take
up, accumulate and transfer large amount of Phosphorus to
the plant by releasing the nutrients in root cells
Other Biofertilisers
Recently few other biofertilisers are getting demand. These are:
i)
Potash Biofertiliser (K-BF): Faturia aurantia, Bacillus

mucilaginosus etc are capable of mobilizing potash.
ii)
Zinc solubilisers (Z-BF): Few Bacillus sp. are capable of

Zinc Solubilisation. These are important biofertilisers in
Zinc deficient soils.
iii) Compost Developing Biofertilisers (C-BF): Some cellulose

decomposers (Trichoderma sp) are used as compost
accelerating biofertilisers.
iv) Microbial Consortium Biofertiliser (MC-BF): Mixture of
N-fixing BF, Psolubilising BF, Compost accelerating BF
etc, used as Consortium, are found effective
v)
PGPR Biofertiliser (PGPR-BF): The group of beneficial, root

associative bacteria that stimulates the growth of plant is
termed as Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR),
may be used for multipurpose. These are part of MC-BF.
Generally, biofertilisers are available in a solid (Using peat,

lignite, charcoal as carrier), or in liquid base. Biofertilisers may
be prepared from either single or multiple strains.
164
Biofertiliser technology in brief: The microorganisms present

in biofertiliser are available in nature. Initially, these organisms are
isolated from sources (Root nodule for Rhizobium and soil /plant
parts for other BF microbes) and multiplied/developed in specific
media (e.g., Yeast Extract Mannitol media for Rhizobium, Nitrogen
free Jensen Media for Azotobacter, Nitrogen free malate media for
Azospirillum, triCalcium phosphate containing Pikovaskia media
for PSB). After needful growth these organisms are multiplied
in liquid broth either in rotary shaker or in fermentor; when
organisms attain maximum population (108/109 per ml), the broth
containing specific microbe (eg Rhizobium or Azotobacter or PSB) are
mixed with carrier (Peat, lignite etc) or produced in liquid form
maintaining all precautionary measures. For liquid product of
Rhizobium and Azospirillum, different cell protectants like Trehalose,
poly vinyl pyrrolidone, Glycerol, Arabinose etc are being used to
increase shelf life for more than a year (Chandra and Greep, n.d.).
Contamination level is also minimum in liquid form. For liquid
biofertiliser of Azotobacter, encystation process is followed while
for liquid PSB, sporulation process is applied. Generally, there
are 4 methods of biofertiliser application which includes: i) Seed
treatment, ii) Seedling treatment, iii) Sett/Cutting treatment and,
iv) Soil application. Doses vary from crop to crop depending on
soil. Application of liquid biofertiliser follows methodology like
seed treatment, seedling dip, furrow application and foliar spray.
Methodologies are generally mentioned on packet/container/
pouch itself.
Impact of biofertiliser use on different crops: Several
Research Projects are ongoing to assess impact of different
biofertilisers on different crops. From the results of Front Line
Demonstration under All India Network Project on Biofertiliser
conducted (20042007) in the state of Tamilnadu, Maharashtra
and Madhya Pradesh, it was observed that inoculation gave
additional groundnut pod yields of 527% in Tamilnadu, and 15
27% in Maharashtra; additional soybean seed yields of 510% in
Madhya Pradesh and 30% in Maharashtra (Rao, 2007). Under the
umbrella of All India Coordinated Research Projects on pulses,
groundnut, soybean and dry farming, in multi location trials
benefit due to innoculation ranged from 970%, depending on
the crop,location and the season (Venkateswarlu, 2008). Where
P Bhattacharyya
165
success was not achieved, several biotic and abiotic factors

were responsible as they influence the performance of different
biofertilisers. Under National Project on Development and use
of Biofertilisers, 1050 field demonstration were conducted on 53
crops in 25 States/Union Territories. The results of these trials
show that biofertiliser application resulted in an increase of
11.4% in crop yield on an average.
Current status of biofertiliser production and marketing
channels: Biofertiliser use in Indian agriculture is getting
momentum. In 1990, the country produced only 1000 metric
tonne of biofertiliser. During 200910, the total biofertiliser
production was 20,040 metric tonne. Out of this production,
the production of different biofertilisers were: PSB=12,836
metric tonne (64% of total), Azotobacter =3,197 metric tonne
(16% of total), Rhizobium=2,339 metric tonne (12% of total) and
Azospirillum=1,668 metric tonne (8% of total). In 201011, the total
production was 38,000 metric tonne (Bhattacharyya and Tandon,
2012) and current production is more than 40,000 metric tonne.
At present, there are more than 150 biofertiliser production units
in India. Biofertiliser production is basically demand driven.
The product needs more PUSH due to lack of demand PULL.
The marketing/distribution channels include Govt. Institutions,
Agricultural Universities, Agro Industries, Cooperatives, Private
manufactures, Private Dealers, Fertiliser Companies etc. The
price of Carrier based biofertilisers generally range from Rs 40
to Rs 100/Kg and for liquid biofertiliser price is from Rs 150 to
Rs 400/liter.
Quality protocol and regulatory mechanism: Under
Fertilizers Control Order (FCO), the Ministry of Agriculture,
Government of India has notified the specification of 3
Nitrogen biofertilisers (Rhizobium,Azotobacter and Azospirillum),
2 Phosphorus Biofertilisers (PSB and Mycorrhizae), 1 potash
Biofertiliser and 1 Zinc Biofertiliser. The notified specifications
of different biofertilisers are given in Table 2. The centres under
National Centre of Organic Farming or any other notified
laboratory by State Agricultural Departments are permitted to
test the quality of biofertilisers.The Joint Secretary (INM); Krishi
Bhawan is the appellate authority.
166
Table 2. Quality specification of biofertilisers as per FCO

Parameters
1 Base
Rhizo Azoto
Efficiency
test
PSB
KMB
ZSB
Mycorrhiza
Powder/ Powder/ Powder/ Powder/ Powder/ Powder/

Powder
Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid
Viable cell
count
(a)for solid
2
5 x 107
carrier/g
(b)for liquid
1 x 108
carrier/ml
Viable
3
(Propagule/g)
Contamination
4
nil
(at 105)
6.5
5 pH
7.5
Moisture
6
3040
Cont. (%)
Passable
0.15
7 Particle size
0.212
(mm)
8
Azsp
5 x 107 5 x 107 5x107
5x107 5x 107
1 x 108 1 x 108 1x 108 1x 108 1x 108
100
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
6.5
7.5
6.5
7.5
6.5
7.5
6.5
7.5
6.5
7.5
6.5
7.5
3040 3040 3040 3040 3040
812
0.15
0.212
250
0.15
0.212
0.15
0.212
0.15
0.212
0.15
0.212
White >5mm >10mm >10mm 80

+nod- 10mg
pellicle sol
sol
sol infection
ulation Nfix
In NFB zone zone zone
pt.
Note: Rhiz=Rhizobium, Azoto=Azotobacter, Azsp=Azospirillum, PSB=Phosphorus solubilising

biofertiliser, KMB=Potash mobilizing, ZSB =Zinc Solubilising Biofertiliser. Tolerance Limit = 1 x 107
cfu/g or 5 x 107 cfu/ml, or viable propagule 80/g(Mycorrhiza)
Biofertiliser use in organic farming: a practical approach
As per guideline provided by National Standard of Organic

Production (NSOP Standard), biofertilisers as input of microbial
origin may be used in organic farming. It is practical approach.
The reason may be understood from following SWOT analysis:
Strength: a) Production of Chemical fertilizer Nitrogen is oil
dependent and excessive energy budgeted process. The energy
requirement of 1 Kg fertilizer is 80 MJ or 11.2 KWH for Nitrogen,
12 MJ or 1.1 KWH for Phosphorus and 8 MJ or 1 KWH for potash.
On the other hand, the annual biological Nitrogen fixation (BNF)
on land is estimated 140 Teragrams (Tg =Million Metric Tonnes)
and for this, the total energy cost is around 2,744 MJ of glucose
which is equal to 2.5% of primary photosynthesis on land and
P Bhattacharyya
167
for which the energy bill is paid by nature; b) One of the major
disadvantages of organic nutrient resource is that they have very
low nutrient concentration that make them uneconomical and
transport from their sources. A tonne of FYM can be equated to
3.6 Kg of N + P2O5 +K2O in fertilizer nutrient value when used
to grow rice. Transport cost for FYM (Unless subsidy is given) in
this case is a matter of concern. The availability of green manure
is inadequate and use of crop residues has numerous limitations.
Further, indigenous nutrient approach (On which organic
farmers depend more) still needs scientific validation. On the
otherhand, biofertiliser is the preparation of microorganisms
which are natural resources (e.g., soil). Biofertiliser is required
in very low quantity as compared to other organic inputs.
When the recommendation of compost/vermicomposts is 510
tonne costing Rs 20,000Rs 40,000/from outsources, the cost
of biofertiliser on the other hand is restricted to Rs 40/ to Rs
100/ha with the requirement of 12 Kg/ha.This can be managed
easily. Moreover, BGA and Azolla can be produced by farmers
in their own farm which is additional advantage, So, application
of Biofertiliser in Organic Farming is a practical approach.
Weakness: But there are some challenges in respect of
biofertiliser use. These are: a) Biofertiliser is microbe oriented
product and it has shelf-life. Unfortunately, the shelf life of
biofertiliser is not adequate (not more than 6 months). After
the expiry of the product, it cannot be used; b) If proper
storage facility is not maintained, the viable cell number of the
organisms present in the product may decline and in turn, may
be ineffective; c) Many farmers do not know its importance as it
cannot always exhibit visible difference over control; d) Quality
of the product is occasionally referred as substandard which has
eroded the confidence of farmers on its use; e) The application
methodology is time consuming; f) No single nutrient resource
can produce better result. Many times, biofertilisers are used
alone without support of any organic matter; g) Maximum R
and D data on biofertiliser have been obtained from experiments
conducted in intensive farming.
Opportunity: a) Organic farming areas mainly cover dry
land and hill zones. Using biofertilisers in dry land, about 35
million ha under coarse cereals, 23 mha under pulses, 8 mha
under groundnut and 4 mha under soybean can be benefitted by
168
using one or other type of biofertilisers (Venkateswarlu, 2008).

Similarly, North Eastern Hill Zones offer wide potential of high
quantity of biofertilisers; b) Development of liquid biofertilisers
has improved the shelf life of the product; c) Biofertilisers play
an important role in improving soil health (e.g. Inoculation
with BGA in submerged soils is shown to improve soil health
by building up of organic activities, poly saccharide production
and soil aggregation which in turn improves soil fertility); d)
Through various Central Sector Schemes like National Project
on Organic Farming, Rashtriya Krishi Vikash Yojana, National
Horticultural Mission etc, financial and technical assistance are
being provided to promote biofertiliser.
Threat: a) The main threat of biofertiliser is high expectation
on enhancing crop productivity which is not always possible
due to various constraints including biotic and abiotic factors;
b) There is no scope of checking whether genetically modified
organisms are used as source of strains during preparation of the
product; c) Emergence of some Bio-Organic mafia groups who
are selling substandard product.
Microbes are very much powerful and Soil is the main
source of microbes responsible for preparing biofertilisers.The
total bacterial biomass could reach 3599 Kg/ha (Bhattacharyya,
2012) of surface soil. Besides, other organisms like fungi,
actinomycetes etc also contribute in nutrient transformation
in soil, their performance in Nitrogen fixation, Phosphorus
solubilisation, and potash mobilsation, zinc solubilisation etc
make nutrients available to plants. They are also involved in
transformation of sulphur, Calcium, iron. If farmers get high
quality biofertilisers, they may get adequate benefits on the way
to their prosperity (Bhattacharyya, 2013).
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Integrated Pest Management Strategies

in Organic Farming
C T Ashok Kumar and Sanjay Topagi
Pests-arthropods and pathogens had been, are and will continue
to be major constraints to agricultural production throughout
the world. Synthetic chemical pesticides were introduced in the
1940s and used widely on agricultural crops in the hope that they
would control agricultural pests. It is now clear that, their use
has some unfortunate consequences. In some cases, undesirable
environmental impacts of synthetic pesticides have caused
agriculturists to oppose the use of these materials in agriculture
and caused governments to regulate or outlaw their use. Pests
develop resistance to synthetic chemical pesticides. In the recent
years, population of many pests has developed resistance to many
commercially available pesticides (Ramakrishnan et al, 1984 &
Rame Gowda, 1999). In fact, pest resistance currently limits the
efficacy of many insecticides, fungicides and herbicides and there
are some pests for which no effective pesticides are available.
Many synthetic chemical pesticides are broad spectrum, killing
not only arthropod pests but also beneficial organisms that serve
as natural pest-control systems. Without benefit of the natural
control that keep pest populations in check, growers become
increasingly dependent on chemical pesticides to which pests
may eventually develop resistance. Thus, there is an urgent
need for an alternative approach to pest management that can
complement and partially replace current chemical based pest
management practices.
Organic farming and sustainable farming systems are the
best alternative approach to conventional agriculture. It is an
interdisciplinary system, which aims at co-operating rather than
confronting with the nature, has been hailed as the only answer
to bring sustainability to agriculture. Though Green revolution
helped us to overcome domestic food deficits and ushered in an
era of food security, sole reliance on an array of chemicals has
Bangalore. 2014
171
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led to several problems viz., insecticide resistance, resurgence,

residual hazards, lack of bio-diversity and replacement of natural
enemies created imbalance in nature and resulted in outbreak
of pests and diseases. To overcome all these problems, organic
agriculture has emerged as a dynamic Alternate Farming
System. In organic farming system, pest control strategies are
largely preventive rather than reactive. It is not a single approach
but rather variety of techniques which are aimed at reducing
cost, preserving the environment and protecting human health
by eliminating the use of toxic farm chemicals. Historically,
organic wastes of animal origin were most commonly used for
nutrition and plant protection. In addition, herbs processed in
liquid excreta of animals were used for plant protection. Cow
dung manure and liquid manure called Kunapajala were used
universally. In this direction, scientific evaluation of biodynamic
pesticides, botanicals and biorationals including indigenous
technologies are considered very much essential to combat
noxious pests of groundnut in the transitional belt of Karnataka
during rainy season. Use of botanical pesticides for protecting
crops from insect pests has assumed greater importance in recent
years all over the world (Hiremath, 1994).
According to the organic standard, insect pest problems
may be controlled through cultural, mechanical or physical
methods; augmentation or introduction of predators or parasites
of the pest species; development of habitat for natural enemies
of pests; and non-synthetic controls, such as lures, traps, and
repellents. When these practices are insufficient to prevent or
control crop pests, biological and botanical applications come
handy. However, the conditions for using the material must be
documented in the organic system plan. Pest management plans
are site-specific. Farmers should develop their own strategies
based on their knowledge, available time, and capitalthe
resources they can devote to pest management.
Organic pest management: Integrated Pest Management
(IPM) practices are more crucial in organic farming systems as
opposed to other farming systems because producers cannot use
conventional insecticides for a quick fix: i) IPM practices in other
farming systems (not organic), allow the use of IPM compatible
pesticides which are not necessarily organic. In organic farming
systems one must ensure that the product is OMRI listed; ii) IPM
173
compatible insecticides refer to those which are compatible with

other IPM tactics employed; iii) These insecticides are usually
effective but have the least toxic effects on the environment and
non-target organisms.
Overview of IPM practices in organic farming systems:
1) Choose crops that have relatively few pests; 2) Select planting
time that allows crops to avoid the insect all together or at least
avoid peak populations (e.g. plant early or late); 3) As much
as possible, select crop varieties that are resistant to key pests;
4) Practice crop rotation; 5) Avoid staggered planting of the
same crop with successive planting near earlier ones; 6) Think
about position of crops in relation to other crops; 7) Sanitation
destroy old crop residue soon after final harvest; 8) Know when
to give up on a crop; 9) Eliminate weeds before planting and
control while crops are in the field; this helps to keep a number
of insect pests under control including: cutworms; false chinch
bugs; vegetable weevils; spider mites; slugs and crickets.
Mechanical weed control (tilling) has other advantages: i)
Thorough tilling helps control insects that overwinter in the soil
or under crop debris; ii) Tilling also reduces the number of infield fire ant mounds.
The term biopesticides usually refers to all biological
materials and organisms that can be formulated and used as
pesticide to manage obnoxious pests and diseases threatening
the productivity of crops and animals. These include microscopic
organisms like virus, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, nematodes,
antagonistic fungi, bacteria and macroscopic animals like insects
(parasitoids and predators), mites, plants (botanicals) and
semiochemical that alter behavior of insects. The modes of action
of biopesticides involve competition, antagonism/inhibition,
toxication, infection, infestation parasitization and predation.
The major advantages of biopesticides over chemical
pesticides in organic farming are: i) Economical once method
is developed; ii) Selective in action and hence no side effects;
iii) Self propagating and self perpetuating as they are biological
entities; iv) No development of resistance; v) Safe to nontarget organisms; vi) Virtually permanent unless ecosystem
is disturbed; vii) Effective against pests that are not accessible
174
through chemical approaches and vii) Compatible with other

pest management tools except with broad spectrum toxicants.
During the past 100 years of bio-control, parasitoids and
predators have played a key role world wide. Till 1990, more
than 5500 natural enemies had been identified and introduced.
In 1200 of such cases, the natural enemies became established
and led to successful control of insect pests in 420 instances. Of
these successful natural enemies, 340 were species of parasitoids,
74 were predators and 6 were pathogens. It is clear that during
the first era of biological control, parasitoids and predators made
up 99 per cent of the successful cases. The rapid evaluation and
introduction of a number of natural enemies in situations where
chemical control was either insufficient or impossible, has taught
crop protection specialists that biological control within IPM
programmes is a powerful, economical and profitable option.
During the last decade (199495 to 20012002) the government
of India spent nearly Rs. 14,926 million for biocontrol of pests on
different crops, covering an area of 38.5 lakh hectares.
Cultural practices: a) The place to start: Insect pest problems
are influenced by three components of a farming system. Farmers
can manipulate all of these components to suppress pest species.
i) The crop species and cultivar present a set of resources, growth
habits, and structure. ii) Production practices, such as rotation,
timeliness of planting and harvesting, spacing of plants, fertility
and water management, tillage, mulching, sanitation, and
companion planting. iii) Agro-ecosystem structure includes
field borders, natural vegetation, and other crop production
areas that resupply fields with pest insects and beneficial species
when crops are replanted. b) Protecting the crop: Sanitary
measures; healthy planting material, clean seeds, clean tools etc.
Use of Resistant Varieties: Exploiting host resistance. Some of the
varieties of different crops are found to be resistant or tolerant to
particular disease or insect pest. Growing of such variations will
help in getting good yields even if there is a pest attack e.g. DVS3 sorghum varieties resistant to earhead midge; DSV-4 sorghum
varieties resistant to charcoal rot. Monsanto Boll guardresistant
to boll worms due to incorporation of Bt gene in that variety
Cultural measures: a) Higher seed rate: Increased seed rate
will help to retain required plant population even after uprooting
175
and destroying the interested plants by pests like shoot borer and
stem borer. b) Planting distances: High plant density reduces
necrosis of groundnut; low plant density reduces damping off
in nursery and sorghum charcoal rot. Wider row sparing in rice
reduces BPH in rice. Higher seed rate will help to retain required
plant population even after uprooting and destroying the infested
plants by pests like, shoot borer, shoot fly. c) Use of trap crops:
Bhendy/Okra can be used as trap crop in cotton (10:1), which will
help to trap the boll worms and stem weevils of cotton; similarly,
Castor as trap crop against Spodoptera in groundnut and tobacco;
Marigold as trap crop in tomato (16:1) against Helicoverpa will
reduce the incidence. d) Use of fertilizers: Excessive use of fertilizer
will result in succulent and vulnerable conditions for the attack of
insect pests and diseases. Hence excessive use of N fertilizer in
most of the crops will aggravate the pest problem; while use of
organic manures will induce tolerance to pest and diseases.
Mechanical methods
Collection and destruction of insect pests: Root grubs in

adult stage can be collected during summer on the day of first
rain at 7.30 to 9.00 pm with the help of petromax or fire and
destroyed. The grown up caterpillars of Helicoverpa, Spodoptera
etc can be collected by hand picking and subsequently destroyed.
Destruction of stubbles and crop residues: Stubbles of
Sorghum and Maize known to give shelter to stem borer larva
which continue their next generation after summer. Hence,
destruction of such stubless either by burning or by burying in
the soil will kill the stem borer larvae or pupae. The egg masses
and the early larval stages of Spodoptera, Bihar laity caterpillar
soon after hatching can be collected easily on tobacco, soybean,
groundnut and other crops and destroyed to avoid the further
spread of the pest. Similarly, the egg masses of stem borer of
paddy and early shoot borer of sugar cane etc. can be removed by
clipping the tips of the leaf and destroyed. Passing a rope across
the paddy field will help to eliminate the leaf cases along with
case worm larvae which will fall in water and die. Intercropping,
crop rotation (rotation of crops with non host plants) will help to
reduce the incidence of many key pests in different ecosystems.
Pheromones and other attractants: Insects are very small
creatures in a very large world. They evolved many different
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ways of finding each other to mate. Many insects find each other
over long distances by emitting chemical signals or pheromones
to attract individuals of the same species into an area so they
can find each other to mate. Once the individuals get close
together, visual cuessuch as color, shape, and behavior become
more important. Entomologists have determined the chemical
structure of pheromones for many pest species and duplicated
them synthetically. Insects also use other chemical messages.
Chemical cues to the location of food can draw insects into a
particular area where, once they get close enough, visual and
tactile cues lead them to food sources. Pheromones and other
chemical attractants can be used in several different ways: to
monitor pests, disrupt mating, capture a large number of adults
(called mass trapping), distribute an insect pathogen or lure pests
to consume poisoned bait. Any trap baited with an attractant
must be used carefully. Some research has demonstrated that a
trap can bring more pests into an agro ecosystem than it kills.
Overall, by three ways we can use pheromones; To Monitor
Insect Populations, to Disrupt Mating and for Mass Trapping
Biological control using insect pathogens: Insects have
many types of natural enemies. As with other organisms, insects
can become infected with disease-causing organisms called
pathogens. Soil serves as a natural home and reservoir for many
kinds of insect pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, protozoa,
fungi, and nematodes. When micro organisms or their products
(toxins) are employed by man for the management of insects,
animals and weed plants in a particular area it is referred to
as microbial control. The microbes involved in insect control
are referred to as the insect pathogens. So far over 3000 microorganisms are known to cause diseases in insects. Some of them
can be easily mass produced and are reported to be utilized in
the management of insects as microbial insecticides. In all 281
biopesticides involving insect pheromones (38.17%), bacteria
(37%), nematodes (15.7%), fungi (4.7%), viruses (2.85%) and
protozoa (2.14%) are available in the market.
Insect-parasitic nematodes and protozoa: Insect-parasitic
nematodes show promise as biological control agents for soil
pests. Nematodes are microscopic, whitish to transparent,
unsegmented round worms. Nematodes in the families
Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditdae have been studied
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Table 1: Classical biological control agents used in India

Sl. No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Biocontrol agents
Cryptolaemus
montrouzieri
Rodolia cardinolis
Telenomus remus
Eriborus
trochanteratus
Lepatomastix
dactylopii
Curinus coerulus
Cephalonomia
stephanoderis
Imported from
Against
Australia
Mealy bugs
USA
Icerya purchasi in
citrus,
New guinea
Srilanka
West Indies
Thailand
Casurina
Spodoptera litura on
tobacco
Opisina arenosella
Mealy bugs in citrus,
coffee, guava
Subabul psyllid
Coffee berry borer
Cyrtobagous salvinae Argentina
Gaint Water fern

Eichhornia crassiper
Neochaetina bruchi
9
10
11
N. eichhorniae
Orthogalumna
terebrantis
Zygogramma
biocolorata
Dactylopus
tomentosus
Brazil
Water hycinth
Mexico
Parthenium
Srilanka
Pricklypear
extensively as biological control agents for soil-dwelling insects.

The most promising nematode involved in insect control
belongs to the family Steinernematidae. These nematodes are
characterized by their association with bacteria of the Xenorhabdus
genus. The infective juveniles of the nematode carry their
symbiotic bacteria in their intestines. These nematodes occur
naturally in soil and possess a durable and motile infective stage
that can actively seek out and infect a broad range of insects.
When they enter their insect host through natural openings, they
release the bacterial cells that propagate and kill the insect within
48 hours. These nematodes are virulent, kill hosts quickly and are
easily mass produced in vivo and in vitro. The most commonly
and commercially used nematode is Steinernema feltiae. They
do not infect birds or mammals. Because of these attributes, as
well as their ease of mass production and exemption from EPA
178
registration, a number of commercial enterprises produce insectparasitic nematodes as biological insecticides.

Application: Some nematodes that are commercially
available are Steinernema carpocapsae, S. feltiae, S. riobrave,
Heterorhabditis bacteriophora, and H. megidis. Treatment with
these nematodes can be expensive, and they are most commonly
used for managing soil insect pests in high-value crops, such as
turf, nurseries, citrus, cranberries, and mushrooms, as well as in
home lawns and gardens. As production technologies improve,
the cost of using nematodes is falling, and it may be economical
to use them in lower value crops in days to come.
Protozoa: Protozoa are also employed in pest management
programme. Nosema locustae is a moderately virulent protozoan
that infects a wide range of grasshoppers and locusts. The
organism has been registered in USA for use as a microbial
insecticide against grasshoppers and is currently produced and
sold commercially.
Insect-parasitic fungi: Some fungi are used successfully
to protect crops from a variety of insect pests. More than 900
species of entomopathogenic fungi belonging to 100 genera are
recorded and only 10 species have been commercially exploited
of which Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, Nomuraea
rileyi, Lecanicillium lacanii, Hirsutella thompsoni, and Paecilomycis
sp. are popular in India. Most fungi can cause natural outbreaks
when environmental conditions are favorable. Fungi and
nematodes are the only insect pathogens that are capable of
invading insect by penetrating the cuticle. This is the most useful
means of infection. Therefore, those insects that feed by sucking
such as aphids, scales etc. attacked only by fungal pathogens.
This mode of infection means that fungi are very dependent on
environmental conditions, in particular high humidity in order
to achieve infection. Most successes with fungi have been with
Deuteromycetes group which cause epizootic on foliage feeding
insect only in tropical environments. M. anisopliae (Metschnikoff)
can infect more than 300 insect hosts. The potential is proved
beyond doubt in the management of different species of
grasshoppers, termites, root grub, pyrilla of sugarcane, BPH
in paddy, rhinocerous beetle, etc, L. laccanii has been reported
to be highly potent against aphids, thrips, scales, mealy bugs,
179
hoppers, whiteflies, mites etc. This fungus could reduce the

green bug infestation considerably in coffee plantation in South
India. B. bassiana has been exploited to control many pests like
root grubs, caterpillars, BPH, coffee berry borers, Helicoverpa
etc. Several species have been developed as commercial
products because of their ability to be mass produced. Specific
fungal strains in commercial products target thrips, whiteflies,
aphids, caterpillars, weevils, grasshoppers, ants, Colorado
potato beetles, and mealybugs. N. rileyi is an important fungal
pathogen, which causes natural mortality of few lepidopteran
hosts like Spodoptera, Helicoverpa, semiloopers, cutworms, hairy
caterpillars etc., in crop ecosystem under transitional and high
humid climates. These entomopathogens being facultative
can be easily and cheaply mass multiplied on any Carbon rich
substrate especially on broken rice.
Application: The best time to apply fungi is before pest
populations reach their peak, so early application can increase
their effectiveness. Apply fungal inoculum carefully to get
effective coverage; cover all plants thoroughly and also try to
reduce spillover into refuge areas where natural enemies may be
present; do not apply fungal products during the heat of the day
because this will diminish the potency of the spores.
Insect-parasitic viruses: Insect viruses are obligate diseasecausing organisms that can only reproduce within a host insect.
They can provide safe, effective, and sustainable control of
a variety of insect pests, although they are most effective as
part of a diverse IPM program. Some viruses are produced as
commercial products, most notably for fruit pests, but many
others are naturally occurring and can initiate outbreaks without
additional inputs. Most virus-infected insects die attached to
the plant on which they feed. Virus-killed insects break open
and spill virus particles into the environment. These particles
can infect new insect hosts. Because their internal tissues are
destroyed, dead insects often look melted. The contents of
a dead insect can range from milky-white to dark-brown or
black. The best documented example of the classical approach
using a virus is the introduction of a baculovirus to control the
rhinocerous beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros L) in coconut. There are
viruses that have been produced commercially or developed for
large scale inundative use. NPV (Nuclear Polyheadrosis Viruses)
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against H. armigera, S litura, RHHC, DBM, PTM and armyworm

have been found effective. The Department of Biotechnology,
(DBT) GOI, has provided financial support to establish units for
mass production of NPV at SAUs and ICAR institutes. Many
government institutions and private organizations are engaged
in large scale production and supply Ha NPV and Sl NPV.
Application: Apply viruses in the morning or evening or on
cloudy days when degradation from sunlight is reduced. Avoid
applying on rainy days, as rain will wash virus particles off the
leaf surfaces. Use formulations with ultraviolet (UV) light blockers
and sticking agents to increase longevity. Check carefully to make
sure these formulations comply with organic standards.
Insect-pathogenic bacteria: Many insect diseases are
caused by bacteria. The most commonly used bacterial product
available to organic growers is Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). This
bacterium produces an insecticidal protein that provides
effective control for many pest insects and has very little effect
on non target insects and natural enemies. Because Bt products
are applied like insecticides, it will be discussed in the section
on insecticides in this publication. Not all formulations of Bt
are allowed in organic production, so it is important to check
with your certifier before purchasing or using Bt. In most cases
bacteria affect their hosts after they have been ingested along
with food and often by producing toxic metabolites that damage
the gut wall and brings the death. Bt Products represent about
1% of the total agrochemical market (fungicides, herbicides and
insecticides) across the world. The commercial Bt products are
powders containing a mixture of dried spores and toxin crystals.
Biological control using insect natural enemies: One of the
important components of the biological environment is natural
enemies viz., predators and parasitoids that dampen pest insect
populations. Organic farmers often assume that withholding
conventional pesticides will have a beneficial effect on population
levels of species that weaken and kill pest insects. The absence
of conventional pesticides are likely to encourage the natural
enemies of pest insects. But that encouragement may not be
enough to provide substantive control of chronic pests without
additional changes in the agro-ecosystem, which provide habitat
for the pests and their natural enemies.
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Parasitoids and predators: India is blessed with a rich

natural beneficial insect fauna. India is considered one among the
12 mega hot spots of bio-diversities in the world. It accounts for
6.2% of global hymenopteran fauna that includes major parasitoid
groups. It is significant to note that at least 27 natural enemies are
worth billions of rupees; out of 18 species of parasitoids imported
into USA for biological suppression of Helicoverpa, 11species
were from India. This rich biodiversity gives us ample scope
to be potential exporter of natural enemies. From the review of
the world scenario it is evident that at least 120 species of major
insects pests and 27 species of weeds have been controlled by
introducing parasitoids/predators/weed killers from different
regions, including control of cottony cushion scale by Australian
lady beetle, the coconut moth in Fiji by the Tachinid fly from
Java, the coffee mealy bug in Kenya by the Encyrtid parasitoid
from India and prickly pear weed in Australia. In India, aqutic
weeds, viz., water hyacinth, Parthenium and Salvinia molesta
have been successfully controlled by introduced weed killers.
The nymphal and adult parasite of sugarcane pyrilla, Epiricania
melanoleuca has been successfully established in the states of
Karnataka, Rajasthan, West Bengal, Maharashtra and Gujarat.
The parasitoid has adaptability to a wide range of ecological
conditions. A chacid parasitoid, Aphelinus mali which was first
introduced in the Kulu valley and later in Kodainakanal and
Coonoor of the Nilgiri, has become established and caused
7080% mortality in woolly aphids of apple. Very recently a
trivelian pest, sugarcane woolly aphid (SWA) which has caused
turbulence in the sugarcane production in peninsular India
could be controlled by predators like Micromus igorotus, Dipha
aphidivora and syrphids. Massive financial support has been
extended from Government of Karnataka for distribution of
predators for the biological control of this pest.
Similarly, an egg parasitoid, Trichogramma spp., which has
been extensively used world over to suppress lepidopterous
pests in number of cropping systems viz., cotton, vegetables,
fruit tree etc. Effectiveness has been established against
sugarcane borers, stemborers and Helicoverpa armigera in
tomato, brinjal, potato, Lucerne, maize, jowar, paddy (Yadav et
al., 1985 and Sithanatham, 1980). Several countries have taken
lead in establishing insectaries which are managed by private
entrepreneurs, growers, Cooperatives, government agencies,
182
from pilot scale production in developing countries to highly

mechanized way in Russia. Indias first commercial insectary
was established at Bangalore in 1981 by Pest Control India Pvt.
Ltd. (PCIL), The parasitoids and predators of sugarcane borers,
coconut black headed caterpillar, coffee/citrus/grape/mealy
bugs and cotton bolloworms are available. Bracon kirkpatrie,
Chelomus blackburni, Apanteles angleti, Rogos aligerensis, Campoleties
cholridaea, etc., are some of the larval parasitoids which have
greater potentiality in biocontrol programmes on various crops.
Chrysopid predator, Chrysopa spp. also offers great scope in
suppression of sucking pests in cotton. A mass production
technology has been developed for various predators by NBAII
Bangalore, SAUs and other ICAR institutes.
Amongst the lady bird beetles, Chilomenus sexmaculata,
Coccinella spp. Scymnus spp. were found effective against aphids
in crops like groundnut, cotton, cowpea, tobacco etc. Several
species of spiders, bugs, and mirid bugs were also found to
regulate the pest population in many crop ecosystems. In India,
409 bio-control production units are functioning under both
public and private sectors of which 17 biocontrol production and
supply units are working in Karnataka.
N. lugens (BPH)
5075 nymphs/M2
200g 2x10 cfu/g
Cyrtorhinus
levidipennis
M. anisopliae
After noticing the

pest
After noticing the
pest
30,37 and 44 DAT
Once during
AugustSeptember
10001500/ha
pupae 10001500/
ha Larvae /Pupae
Micromus igorotus,
Dipha aphidvora
Sugarcane Woolly
Aphid
50,000/ha release
JuneJuly
1012.5 kgs/ha
Metarhizium
anisopliae
Root grubs
T. japonicum
Before onset of
rainy season
23 egg masses or
57 cocoons in 40
selected spots/ha
Epiricania
melanoleuca
Pyrilla perpusilla
Rice
Yellow stem borer
Scirpophaga
incertalus
10 days interval 8
times at 30 DAT
Frequency of
application
5000/ha release
Dosage/ha
Trichogramma
chilonis
Biotic agent
Borers
Sugarcane
Crop
Remarks
Infested spots by
Knapsack sprayer
Infested spots
Stapling egg card

bits
Place cocoons in
dried leaves
If ratio is 1:4, No
need
Pheromone traps
Detrashing should
be avoided
Pheromone trap
catch data
Increase dosage by
Uniformly spread in
10 times in endemic
40 spots
areas
Mix with 500
Increase dosage to
kg FYM spread
double in endemic
uniformly in the
areas
field
Stapling
Method of
application
Table 2: Release dosage of parasitoids in different crops

183
Ha NPV
H.armigera
250LE/ha
Four times
Spraying
2nd instar grubs
4th week at weekly

interval
50,00/ha or 6/plant
Spraying
5 times at weekly
interval
After noticing the

pest
SI NPV 250 LE/ha
C.carnea
Release adults
Spray with knapsack

sprayer Add jaggery
and UV protectants
Distribute uniformly
in the nursery beds
Spray with Knapsack
sprayer Add jaggery
and UV protectants
Spray during
evening time add
jaggery and UV
protectant
Spraying
After noticing the

pest
50,000/ha per
release
500 LE/ha
Ha NPV
Remarks
Use selective
pesticides
Method of
application
6 times after 40 DAS Stapling egg cards
Frequency of
application
Telenomus remus
50,000/ha per
release
Dosage/ha
T. chilonis
Biotic agent
Aphids
S. litura
Tobacco
E. insulana
H. armigera
Cotton
All Bollworms
Crop
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4x106 conidia/M3
M.anisopliae
Green scale
M.anisopliae
2x108 cfu/ml
1 g/lit
810 beetles/
infested plant
20 or 50 beetles/
plant
10 beetles
Baculovirus
Nephantidis
2:5 ratio
After the blossom
One inoculative
release
Release adult
beetles
Release in the
middle of the field
at night
Mix spores in
Once in rainy season
manure pits
Release after
Release adults
noticing the pest
beetles
Need based for each

Releasing adults
generation
2:5 ratio
Bracon brevicornis
Elasmus
Need based for each

Releasing adults
generation
Need based for each
Releasing adults
generation
810/palm 3000
4000/acre
Bracon brevicornis
Method of
application
Need based for each

Releasing adults
generation
Frequency of
application
810/palm 3000
4000/acre
Dosage/ha
Goniozus
nephantidis
Biotic agent
Arecanut Ischnaspis
Chilocorus nigrita
longirostris
Coffee
Mealy bug
Cryptolaemus
pseeudococcus
mantrouzeri
Oryctes rhinoceros
(Rhinoceros beetle)
Coconut
Opisina arenosella
(coconut black
headed caterpillar)
Crop
Ant suppression
should be adopted
Use knapsack
sprayer for proper
coverage
Wide coverage
better results
Only to infested
trees
Wide coverage
better results
Release when larvae

are noticed in the
field
do
do
Release when larvae

are noticed in the
field
Remarks

185
Verticillium lecanii
Coccus viridis
Cryptolaemus
montrouzieri
Leptomastiz
dactylopii
Planococcus citri
(Mealy bug)
B.t.k
Rodolia cardinailis
Icerya purchasi
Papilio demolius
(citrus butterfly)
T.embryophagum
Chilocorus infernalis
Encarsia perniciosi
Cydia pomenella
Citrus
perniciossus
(Sanjose scale)
Quadraspidiosus
Eriosoma
lanigeruson
Aphelinus mali
Beauveria bassiana
Coffee berry borer
Apple
Biotic agent
Crop
2x105 cfu/ml
Single application
for each generation
Single application
onset of mansoon
Need based
3000 adults/tree
1ml/lit 0.5%ai
After the blossom
Once on noticing
adults
At weekly interval
Once in AprilMay
Once, in spring
Once, as soon as
infestation noticed
120150 days after

blossom setting
Frequency of
application
10 beetles/tree
10 beetles/tree
20 adults or 50
grubs/tree
2000 adults/tree
adults/trees
1000
mummies/trees
1000 adults/
2x108 cfu/ml
Dosage/ha
Remarks
Spray with
knaspsack
Releasing adults
Releasing adults
Releasing adults
Releasing adults or
placing mummies
Releasing adults
Releasing adults or
placing mummies
Releasing adults or
placing mummies
Proper coverage
Spray with knapsack

sprayer
Ant suppression
Ant suppression
Ant suppression
In endemic areas
repeat release
Pheromone catch
In endemic areas
repeat release
Effective in valleys
on aerial population
Use knapsack
Spray the conidia
sprayer for proper
during evening time
coverage
Method of
application
186
Biotic agent
Plutella xylostella
Tetranychus spp.
Cabbage
Vegetables
Beans
Mealy bug
Mango
Chloropulvinaria
psidii (Mealy bug)
Guava
Frequency of
application
10 adults/pl
500g
2x108 conidia/ml
2x108 conidia /ml
Bt
M.anisopliae
Beauveria bassiana
1020 beetles
infested/plant
1020 beetles
infested/plant
Knapsack sprayer
Knapsack sprayer
Knapsack sprayer
Need based or
weekly interval
Need based or
weekly interval
Need based or
weekly interval
Adults Release
Release adults
Release adults
Release adults
Release adults
Method of
application
Once in 30 days
after germination
Once as soon
infestation is
noticed
Once as soon
infestation is
noticed
25003000 beetles/ Once as soon

acre 10 beetle/
infestation is
infested vine
noticed
Single application
5
2x10 cfu/ml
onset of mansoon
Dosage/ha
Phytoseialus
persimilis
C. mantrouzieri
C. mantrouzieri
Verticillium lecanii
Maconellicoccus
Cryptolaemus
hirsutus (Mealy bug) montrouzieri
Grapes
Crop
Evening spray
Evening spray
Evening spray
Release in Brinjal
and straw berry also
Ant suppression
Ant suppression
Proper coverage
Ant suppression
Remarks

187
T. chilonis
Leucinodes rbanalis
Orthogalumna
terebrantis
Neochetina
Eichhornia crassipes eichhorniae,
(Water hyacianth)
N. bruchi
Weeds
(cutworm)
Brinjal
Stenernema
carpocapsae
Agrotis spp.
Potato
10,000 to 50,000
mites/water body
1005000 beetles/
water body
50,00/ha
5 billion infective
juveniles per ha
2x108 conidia /ml
brasiliensis
H.armigera
50,00/ha
N.rileyi
Trichogramma
Tomato
2x108 conidia /ml
250LE/ha
N.rileyi
Dosage/ha
Ha NPV
N.rileyi
Trichoplusia ni
Biotic agent
S.litura
Crop
Releasing adults or
infested weed mats
Releasing adults or
infested weed mats
Release mites in
water bodies at the
onset of mansoon
Staple parasitized
egg card uniformly
Weekly interval 6
times from 25 DAT
Release weevils in
water bodies at the
onset of mansoon
Apply in soil thro

irrigation water
Knapsack sprayer
Knapsack sprayer
Stpling parasitized
egg card uniformly
Knapsack sprayer
Method of
application
On detection of
cutworm larvae
Weekly interval 6
times from 25 DAT
or egg laying period
Thrice during
growth period
Thrice during
growth period
Need based or
weekly interval
Frequency of
application
Take up area wide

operation
Take up area wide

operation
Pheromone trap
catches
Highly susceptible
to descocation
Jaggery, teepol,
boric acid
Jaggery, teepol,
boric acid
Pheromone trap
catches
Evening spray
Remarks
188
10002000 beetles/
During June and July Release adults
ha
Release adults
Zygogramma
bicolorata
hysterophorus
(Subabul)
Parthenium
Twice during July

and October
2025 beetles per

tree
Releasing adults or
infested weed mats
Method of
application
Curinus coeruleus
Frequency of
application
Release weevils in
water bodies at the
onset of mansoon
Leucaena
leucocephala
1005000 beetles/
water body
Dosage/ha
Cyrtobaugous
salviniae
Biotic agent
Salvinia molesta
(Gaint waterfern)
Crop
Inoculate as many
places as possible
Inoculate as many
places as possible
Take up area wide

operation
Remarks

189
190
Predatory birds: Birds (both carnivores and omnivorous)

are predators in various crop ecosystems. The capacity of
the birds to locate the prey from certain distance due to their
keen eyesight and modification of their beaks to catch the prey
made them potential predators. Black drongo, Indian mynas,
king crow, cattle egrets, sparrows etc., are efficient predatory
birds. Attraction of birds to any crop ecosystem is possible by
providing places (perches) for alighting/nesting providing food
and water source. Bird perches can be inanimate like branched
twigs, poles with cross etc., or animate like stray planting of tall
growing cereal crops like maize, sorghum and stiff fiber plants
like Mestha (pundi) and Hibiscus cannabinus etc.,
Insecticides: When nonchemical practices documented in
the Organic System plans are not sufficient to prevent or control
populations of insect pests from rising above a level that is
economically damaging, a biological or botanical material or a
substance included on the national list of synthetic substances
allowed for use in organic crop production may be applied to
prevent, suppress, or control pests. The National List of Allowed
and Prohibited Substances provide information on allowed and
prohibited synthetic and non-synthetic substances for organic
crop and livestock production. A producer must know which
organic pesticides are allowed, what materials are labeled
for their crops, and the efficacy of those materials against the
intended target pests. Pest control materials are classified as
allowed, restricted, or prohibited for use in organic systems. To
avoid the risk of losing organic certification, make certain you
know if and under what circumstances the material that you
are planning to use is allowed. Examples of types of materials
that are currently allowed in organic production include
allowed formulations of insecticidal soap, diatomaceous earth,
Potassium or sodium biCarbonate, spinosad, various microbials,
bentonite and kaolinite particle films, plant extracts and oils, and
pheromones. Some products with allowable active ingredients
may contain unacceptable adjuvants, so it is important to check
the label with your certifying agency before using a material.
Despite the growth of organic agriculture, there has
been a lack of research-based information to address the need
for a greater understanding of the mechanisms operating in
organic systems, including plant-pest interactions. The insect
191
pest management approaches in organic farming systems that

operate in a purely preventative manner to curative methods
generally withheld as a last resort. However, the integration
of methods from various phases is important. Such integration
is apparent in the documentation for all organic standards but
there is a need to better realize such integration in practice. The
underlying principles of insect pest management in organic
systems involve the adoption of ecologically sound practices
specified by international and national organic production
standards. Of highest priority, indirect, preventative measures
should be considered early in the adoption process, followed by
more direct and curative measures as required.
Finally, the volume of pest management research conducted
on organic systems is small compared with the far wider
literature on integrated pest management for conventional crops.
Accordingly, there is a need for more research to be conducted
on certified organic land and investigators may be usefully
informed by mining the IPM literature. Although modern
synthetic pesticides with narrow-spectrum activity and reduced
environmental and human health risks are disallowed in organic
agriculture, other biological and cultural methods developed for
conventional crops may prove useful.
References
Adrien, R., Muriel V. M., Jean, P. S. And Jean, R. E., (2010), Biological
Control of Insect Pests in Agroecosystems: Effects of Crop
Management, Farming Systems, and Seminatural Habitats at the
Landscape Scale: A Review. Advances in Agronomy, 109: 219259.
Feber, R.E., Firbank, L.G., Johnson, P.J. And Macdonald, D.W., (1997),
The effects of organic farming on pest and non-pest butterfly
abundance. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 64: 133139.
Garratt, M. P. D., Wright, D. J. And Leather S.R., (2011), The effects
of farming system and fertilizers on pests And natural enemies:
A synthesis of current research Agriculture, Ecosystems And
Environment, 141: 261 270.
Hiremath, I.G. (1994). Isolation and identification of pesticides from
selected Indian and African plants. Post-Doctoral Res.Doc., Seoul
National University, South Korea. pp. 109
Hokkanen, H. M. T., (1991), Trap Cropping in Pest Management. Annu.
Rev. Entomol., 36: 119138.
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Kajimura, T., Maeoka, Y., Widiarta, I.N., Sudo, T., Hidaka, K. and
Nakasuji, F., (1993), Effects of organic farming of rice plants on
population density of leafhoppers and plant hoppers. I. Population
density and reproductive rate. Jpn. J. Appl. Entomol. Zool., 37: 137
144
Landis, D. A., Wratten, S. D. And. Gurr, G. M., (2000), Habitat
management to conserve natural enemies of arthropod pests in
agriculture. Annu. Rev. Entomol., 45: 175201.
Lewis, W. J., Van Lenteren, J. C., Sharad, C. P. And Tumlinson, J. H.,
(1997), A total system approach to sustainable pest management.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 94: 1224312248.
Mohankumar, S. And Ramasubramanian, T., (2014), Role of Genetically
Modified Insect-Resistant Crops in IPM: Agricultural, Ecological
and Evolutionary Implications. Integrated Pest Management, pp
371399.
Mzough, N., (2011), Farmers adoption of integrated crop protection and
organic farming: Do moral and social concerns matter. Ecological
Economics, 70: 15361545.
Pickett, C. H. And Bugg, R. L., (1998), Enhancing biological control:
Habitat management to promote natural enemies of agricultural
pests. Univ. Calif. Press
Ramakrishnan,N., Saxena,V.S. and Dhingra (1984). Insecticide resistance
in the population of Spidopteralitura (F) in Andhra Pradesh.
Pesticides 18:2327.
Rame Gowda, G. K., (1999), Studies on resistance to insecticides in
Spodoptera litura (F.) on groundnut. M. Sc. (Agri) Thesis, Univ.
Agric. Sci., Dharwad, Karnataka (India).
Rao, A., (2002), Influence of chemical fertilizers and organic manures on
the groundnut pests. Indian Journal of Plant Protection, 34: 3033.
Roger, C. R., Vincent, C. And Arnason, J. T., (2012), Essential Oils in
Insect Control: Low-Risk Products in a High-Stakes World. Annu.
Rev. Entomol., 57: 405424.
Rosaih, R., (2001), Performance of different botanicals against the pests
complex in bhendi. Pestology, 25: 1719.
Samantha M. C., Zeyaur R. K.And John A. P., (2007), The Use of
Push-Pull Strategies in Integrated Pest Management. Annu. Rev.
Entomol., 52: 375400
Schmutterer, H., (1990), Properties and Potential of Natural Pesticides
from the Neem Tree, Azadirachta indica. Annu. Rev. Entomol., 35:
271297
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Shelton, A.M. And Badenes-Perez, F. R., (2005), Concepts and

Applications of Trap Cropping in Pest Management. Annu. Rev.
Entomol., 51: 285308.
Urs, K. C. D., (1987), Prospects of Indigenous plant products as future
alternatives to conventional pesticides. In: Proceedings of
Symposium on Alternative Insecticides, pp. 202.
Wyss, E., Luka, H., Pfiffner, L., Schlatter, C., Uehlinger, G. And Daniel,
C., (2005), Approaches to pest management in organic agriculture:
a case study in European apple orchards. Organic Research, pp.
3336.
Zehnder, G., Gurr, G. M., Kuhne, S., Wade, M. R., Wratten, S. D. And
Wyss, E., (2007), Arthropod pest management in organic crops.
Annu. Rev. Entomol., 52: 5780.
Crop Production and Plant Protection

in Organic Farming
S R Sundararaman
Awareness about organic farming is on the rise. Farmers have
not yet recovered from the ill effects of the green revolution.
Only if farmers stop using pesticides can they as well as others
live a healthy life. How would we be able to eat healthy food
when we inundate our fields with poisons? The ill effects of the
green revolution demonstrated themselves right on our farm.
As a result, we stopped using chemicals long ago and turned to
organic farming. Organic farming brings self-reliance not only to
the farmers who practice it but also to the entire nation.
Self-reliant agriculture: The use of chemicals (fertilizers
and pesticides) has taken over crop production these days. Crops
have lost their natural resistance and stamina due to the use of
chemical fertilizers. Because of this they have become susceptible
to diseases. As a result, farmers have to resort to increased use
of pesticides. Chemical residues from these have hardened the
soil like a rock. To overcome this, farmers are forced to use ever
larger quantities of fertilizers. These factors make for more work
and increase the cost of farming. Organic farming is the only
recourse farmers have to save our health and the health of our
soil. By using organic methods farmers save money. It is possible
to convert ones own farmyard wastes into value-added products
for crop production. We can also avoid poisoning our land. Our
soils keep getting enriched. We would be able to provide healthy
farm produce to our relatives, friends, and neighbours. Our
environment will be saved. Diseases could be averted. We do
not have to depend on others. Our self-reliance is thus protected.
A large portion of our countrys foreign exchange is used to pay
for the import of petroleum products. By going organic we help
our country save on valuable foreign exchange. Our land will
keep giving us returns for extended periods of time. This is in
contrast to the situation with the green revolution where the
Bangalore. 2014
195
196
land stays productive for a short time and then becomes weak.
This will not happen in organic farming. Prof. Dhabolkar, Dr L
Narayana Reddy (Bangalore), and Mr G Balakrishnan (Ilankadu,
Thanjavur) are our chief resource persons and guides. They give
us energy and infuse enthusiasm, which are the driving force for
us to think organically and to make a variety of organic cocktail
preparations.
Raising a variety of crops for enriching the soil: The first
step in enriching the soil organically is the growing of a variety
of crops on our land. Using this method it is possible to enrich
the soil in just two hundred days. Even land that has been
depleted of all nutrients due to chemical farming can be restored
in this manner. By growing the following crops for 5060 days
and then ploughing them in-situ we add balanced nutrients and
micro-nutrients to the land. The soil will become enriched in
two hundred days and micro-nutrient deficiency is eliminated.
Dhabolkar, an organic farming expert in Maharashtra, has proved
the efficacy of this method. This method helps us return to the
soil many times more nutrients than what we take from the same
soil. The following quantity suffices for one acre. Choose four
of each of the following varieties of crops: 1) Grains. Example:
1 kg jowar, 500 gms pearl millet, 250 gms foxtail/Italian millet,
250 gms little millet. 2) Pulses. Example: 1 kg blackgram, 1 kg
greengram, 1 kg pigeon peas, 1 kg bengalgram. 3) Oilseeds.
Example: 500 gms sesame (gingelly), 2 kg peanuts (groundnuts),
2 kg sunflower seeds, 2 kg castor seeds. 4) Green manure seeds.
Example: 2 kg daincha, 2 kg sunhemp, 1 kg horsegram.
Multiplying the nutrient mix of soil: Uproot a green plant,
wash its root to remove all soil and weigh it. Suppose this green
plant weighs one kilogram. Dry this plant well in the sun and
weigh it again. It may now weigh only about 300 grams. Burn
the dry plant and weigh the residual ash. It will be only about
thirty grams. This is because water forms 70% of the total weight
of a green plant, air forms 27%, and only the remaining 3% is
due to the minerals that the plant took from the soil while it was
growing. The water evaporated when we dried the plant in the
sun. When we then burnt it, whatever carbon and nitrogen gases
were there in it evaporated. What are left are the minerals. We
may conclude from this that the plant takes very little from the
soil and a lot more from the air and water, and uses sun light to
S R Sundararaman
197
grow. It is thus apparent that we enrich the soil considerably by

not burning farm wastes and, instead, by giving them back to
the soil. Sowing a variety of seeds in this manner is beneficial
in many ways. The biomass of the soil increases. The physical
and chemical properties of the soil are enhanced. The natural
cycles of growth and decomposition take place unhindered.
We incur very little expense because we minimize the use of
external inputs like fertilizers. The water retaining capacity of
the soil improves, thereby minimizing the need for irrigation.
The leaf area is increased leading to the maximum harvesting of
light energy for photosynthesis. This leads to increased yields.
Addition of biomass is important for improving the organic
carbon content of the soil.
To maintain soil fertility, protect from pests and diseases,
minimize water usage in irrigation, and achieve optimum yield
levels the organic carbon content in the humus is the basis.
Organic carbon ensures that the soil is enriched with 9095%
nitrogen, 1580% phosphorous, and 1520% sulphur. Apart from
this, all kinds of minerals like calcium, magnesium, potassium,
and trace elements are also added to the soil. Organic acids like
humic acid, fulvic acid, ulmic acid, and many other acids that
would normally not be available to the roots are made directly
available. It also maintains soil acidity and alkalinity to a neutral
level. This enhances the physical structure of the soil, thereby
improving water retention and increasing aeration. This helps
earthworms and all kinds of soil flora and fauna to do their job
effectively and efficiently. It prevents rain water runoff and helps
in groundwater recharge.
The humus is able to hold twenty times water by its weight.
This creates an excellent environment for crops to grow. Dr.
Andre Leu, chair, Organic Federation of Australia, did research
regarding humus. According to his research, if 20 cm of topsoil
has 1% organic carbon there will be 24 tonnes of humus per
hectare of land. This will absorb 88 tonnes of atmospheric
carbon, thereby sequestering it. Hence, organic farmers have
scope for receiving carbon credits. So, even without having
to export organic produce, we could earn foreign exchange.
Dr. Leu has also estimated that organic carbon in one hectare
of land absorbs carbon emitted by twenty automobiles in one
year. Dhabolkar advises each farmer to do this on her/his farm
198
according to facilities available on the farm itself. The population

of microbes increases, thus softening the soil. This helps plant
roots sink deeper so that they can draw nutrients that are farther
down from the surface. Finally, we no longer need to depend on
agricultural experts because we are now self-reliant.
Catalysts for growth
Preparation and use of a variety of growth promoters

and catalysts is the second aspect of our self-reliant farming
methodology. Healthy soils support healthy crops that have no
need for growth catalysts. (This is similar to the fact that babies
that are brought up on mothers milk have no need for formula
milk.) But, in parallel to mothers milk, we give babies some
solid food as well. Similarly, by giving our crops some catalysts
like amudham solution, AvUttam, coconut-buttermilk solution,
and buttermilk-arappu solution, we may hasten plant growth.
Amudham solution: Concentrated amudham solution:
Ingredients: 5 liters cattle urine, 1 kg dung, 1 liter juice of any
waste fruit. Preparation: Mix the dung thoroughly in urine and
juice. Set aside the mixture for five days. This helps us avoid the
usage of jaggery, which is an external input. Usage: This can
only be used along with irrigation and not for spraying. Use
2030 liters per acre of this solution. This solution gives excellent
growth. Note: Earlier we used the (ordinary) amudham solution
in irrigation. This solution acts rightaway as a catalyst for growth.
With very little work we can create this solution within twenty
four hours. Ingredients: 1 liter cattle urine, 1 kg dung, 250 grams
jaggery in 10 liters water. Preparation: Mix the dung thoroughly
in water. Add urine and mix well. Powder the jaggery, add to
the above, and mix well. Make sure there are no lumps, cover
the mixture, and set it aside for 24 hours. Usage: Add one liter
of this solution to ten liters water (for a 10% solution) and spray.
You must make sure to dilute the solution or else the leaves will
get scorched. This solution helps growth of leaves directly. It
also repels insects. Instead of using jaggery, you may use waste
fruit in this manner: Tie one kilogram waste fruit into a nylon
bag and immerse this in urine solution. Let it soak for five days.
This helps the fruit ferment well. Add ten times water to this and
spray or add 60100 liters of this in irrigation water for one acre.
But, we need to use 50100 liters per acre. To reduce the quantity
and work we developed this combination. It is essential that
S R Sundararaman
199
farmers thus develop simple processes. This is what Dhabolkar

insists upon.
AvUttam (Panchakavya): This is a solution that has
five products from cattle: milk, curds, ghee, dung, and urine.
This solution helps increase the population of beneficial
microorganisms and acts as a good catalyst for plant growth.
Ingredients: 5 kg dung, 3 liters urine, 2 liters fermented curds, 2
liters milk, 500 ml ghee, 1 kg jaggery, 1 kg fruit, 3 liters tender
coconut, 1012 banana (or similar quantity of other fruit), and 35
liters water. Preparation: Mix dung, jaggery, and ghee that have
been melted and cooled. Knead it well. Cover this mixture with
moist cloth for four days. Knead it once daily. On the fifth day
add the remaining ingredients to this and let it ferment for fifteen
days. (Add sufficient quantity of cattle urine and water). In twenty
days you will find nice-smelling AvUttam. Usage: Mix one liter
of this with 3550 liters water (23% solution) and spray. Or, mix
510 liters per acre with irrigation water. It provides all kinds
of micro-nutrients, enhances plant growth, repels insects, and
helps increase disease resistance in plants. Panchakavya given
in temples is not fermented. Also, it only has the five ingredients
from the cow. It is best to tie the fruit in a nylon mesh and leave it
immersed in the solution. This obviates the need for filtering later.
Also, the contents of the nylon bag could be reused a few times in
subsequent solutions. And there is no need to mash the fruit when
we use this technique.
Coconutbuttermilk solution: This easytomake solution
helps enhance plant growth, repels insects, and increases
resistance to fungal diseases. Also, it enhances flowering in
plants. This solution has the same growth enhancing potential as
that of cytozime/biozyme (These are trade names). Ingredients:
5 liters buttermilk, 1 liter tender coconut, 12 coconuts, 500
ml1 liter juice from waste fruit (or 500 gms 1 kg waste fruit,
if extracting juice is not easy). Preparation: Break the coconuts
and collect the coconut water in a vessel. Add buttermilk to this
and mix well. Grate the coconuts, add to the mixture, and let
it soak. Or, mix grated coconut and fruit (if not in juice form),
put the mixture in a nylon mesh, tie it, and immerse it in the
buttermilk solution. This solution ferments well in seven days.
The contents of the nylon bag could be reused a few times in
subsequent solutions by adding a small quantity of grated
200
coconut everytime. Usage: Mix ten liters water with 300500ml

solution and spray. This can also be used in irrigation at the
rate of 510 liters per acre.
Arappubuttermilk solution: Ingredients: 5 liters buttermilk,
1 liter tender coconut, 12 kg arappu (Albizia amara) leaves (or, 250
500 gms leaf powder), 500 gms waste fruit or 1 liter juice from waste
fruit. Preparation: Mix the buttermilk and tender coconut. Crush
the leaves well. If using waste fruit, add it to the crushed leaves and
put this mixture in a nylon mesh and tie it. Immerse the mesh in
buttermilk tender coconut solution. Let it ferment for seven days.
By using the nylon mesh we avoid the need for filtering the solution
while spraying. If you use arappu leaf powder, use fruit juice instead
of waste fruit. Mix all four ingredients and let it ferment for seven
days. All these years weve been trying to simplify our preparations.
Hence, we no longer use the coconutbuttermilk and arappu
buttermilk solutions. In their place, we use medicinal plant leaves
based on Siddha and Ayurveda principles. We collect tender plant
leaves like neem, Vitex negundo (nochi), Albizia amara (arappu), thulasi,
Aloe vera, custard apple and use these in the buttermilk solution in
the following combination. Ingredients: Five liters buttermilk, one
liter tender coconut, 250ml papaya pulp, 100gms turmeric powder,
20gms asafoetida powder, and 500gms each of any two of the
above leaves (in crushed form). Allow these to ferment for a week
before using. To keep this solution for a longer period we could add
any fruit to it to provide food for the microorganisms. Lactic acid
bacteria and yeast bacteria in the buttermilk solution increases the
medicinal content of the leaves, thereby enhancing biodegradation.
So, by using this combination, were effectively controlling all kinds
of fungal, bacterial, viral diseases and all types of rotting diseases
that occurs in rhizosphere. Many plant parts when they ferment
release a sticky, gumlike liquid. You may add this liquid to the
buttermilk and let it ferment. Hibiscus leaves, kattukkodi (Cocculus
hirsutus) leaves, pasalai klrai (greens), AvArai, tender betel leaves,
and the thick peel (outer skin) of jackfruit are examples. Usage: Mix
ten liters water with one liter solution and spray. This helps plant
growth, repels insects, and adds resistance to fungal diseases. This
solution has the same potential as that of gibberlic acid.
Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR): It is no use
to plants if we simply dump dung and other wastes next to the
plant. We have to process them properly before plants can make
S R Sundararaman
201
use of these. Microorganisms exist precisely to carry out this

task. Bacteria are such microorganisms. These thrive in anaerobic
conditions and are considered to be the earliest microorganisms
that came into being in the course of the evolution of life on
earth. We could reap good harvests if we make use of these
microorganisms in the proper manner. We will have no need to
use chemical fertilizers at all. Preparation: This solution is easy
to make using a simple device invented by Mr. G. Balakrishnan.
Ingredients: 20 kg dung, 200 liters water, 3 kg jaggery, 100 Gms
kadukkai (Terminalia chebula) powder, 10 Gms adhimadhuram
(Glycyrrhiza glabra or Mulethi). Mix dung, jaggery, and water
well in a container. Add kadukkai powder to it and mix well.
Boil the adhimadhuram powder in 250 ml water and let it cool.
Add the cooled adhimadhuram solution to the above solution.
Fill the rest of the container with water so that there will be no air
left inside and close it airtight. Methane will be formed inside
the container. Let the air to escape once in a while by slightly
unscrewing the cap for a moment. The solution will be ready
in ten days. It will be light brown in color. This enhances plant
growth. We could use this to grow blue-green algae. Mr. G.
Balakrishnan, the expert who invented this, has recorded 15
20% increase in the leaf area. Such an increase in area leads to
a corresponding increase in photosynthesis (harvesting of solar
energy) and enhances yield. 200300 liters of this solution is
sufficient for an acre.
Usage: Mix a liter of it with ten liters water to spray. Or,
for use in irrigation, mix 200300 liters per acre of this solution
with one of the following solutions: (a) 3050 liters concentrated
amudham solution, (b) 520 liters AvUttam (Panchkavya), (c)
510 liters coconutbuttermilk / arappubuttermilk / soap nut
buttermilk solution, (d) 3 liters fish extract. To control diseases
which damage the rhizosphere/rhizomes and to control
fussarium wilt, we have to use beneficial fungi like Pseudomonas
fluorescens, Trichoderma viride, Trichoderma harzianum, and Bacillus
subtilis. To control root knot nematodes use Paecilomyces
lilacinus. To control root grubs use Beauveria bassiana and
Metarhizium. We have developed specific solutions for specific
crops and diseases. Farmers should select a subset of the
above ingredients depending on the crop and the disease. Let
the mixture (of the powders and the archaebacterial solution)
ferment for a day before mixing with irrigation water. You may
202
also use each of the above five mixtures one after the other. This
is a very good and simple method of enhancing soil health and
to increase the population of all beneficial organisms in the soil
Fish extract (Fish amino acid): Fish extract helps us give
green manure in the most natural way. This is widely used by
organic farmers in Japan, Korea, etc. Ingredients: 1 kg native
fish, 1 kg jaggery. Preparation: Remove the fish intestines and
chop into fine pieces. (Using intestines is not harmful but it
smells bad.) Powder the jaggery. Add the two to a broad
mouthed glass jar (best) or plastic jar that is just the right size
(not too big), cover the jar with the lid (cap), tighten it, and
mix well by shaking the jar. Dont add water. In ten days this
will have fermented. Filter it using nylon mesh to get 300500
gms solution into honeylike syrup. This is a great nutrient
for the plants. Usage: Add 5 ml of this with one liter water for
spraying. It could also be mixed with irrigation water.
Egg extract (Egg amino acid): Ingredients: 5 eggs, juice of
1015 lemons, and 250 gms jaggery. Preparation: Place the eggs
in a jar and pour lemon juice in it until the eggs are completely
immersed. Keep it for ten days with the lid closed. After ten days
smash the eggs and prepare the solution. Add equal quantity of
thick jaggery syrup to it and set aside for ten days. The solution
will then be ready for spraying. This is a great nutrient for the
plants just like Fish Extract and will boost plant growth. It was
originally conceived by Ms. Veeriachinnammal of Theni district
(TN) as medicine for asthma. Usage: Add one to two ml of this
with one liter water for spraying.
Plant protection: In addition to ensuring that crops grow
well, we must also protect them from insect pests and diseases.
Due to indiscriminate use of pesticides in the past 3035 years,
we not only polluted our land, water, and air, but also brought
ill health to everyone. We have fallen prey to a large number of
diseases. Farmers spent all of their earnings in buying fertilizers
and pesticides. If we farmers have to escape from these poisons,
we must opt for organic ways of controlling pests and diseases.
We must practice prevention rather than wait until the plants are
attacked. Prevention is better than cure.
S R Sundararaman
203
Disease and pest attack: Plants that do not get enough

nutrients are sapped of their strength. That is when they fall prey
to attacks. Pests and diseases attack plants. Diseases attack from
within. On the other hand, if a plant gets too much nutrition
and its leaves are dark green, it attracts pests that cause external
damage. These pests not only feed on the leaves but they also
destroy the entire plant. If we understand this we can easily
prevent disease and pest attack.
Types of insect pests: Based on their food preference, we
may classify insect pests into two groups: (1) vegetarians that only
eat leaves and other parts of the plant and (2) Nonvegetarians
that eat other insects. Of these, it is the vegetarians that harm
our crops. The nonvegetarians help us control the population
of the vegetarians. The population of nonvegetarian insects is
much more than that of vegetarian insects. But, in our misguided
attempts at destroying the vegetarians using chemical pesticides,
we also destroy the helpful nonvegetarian insects. We thus
destroy the natural balance and help increase the population of
vegetarian insects. As a result our crops sustain severe damage.
In organic farming our goal is not to kill insects. Our goal is to
protect our crops from harmful insects and to make sure they
stay away from our crops. So we need not use chemicals that kill.
We can prepare, on our own farms, solutions that help prevent
diseases and repel harmful insects.
Pest repellants: There are some natural solutions for this
purpose and we should understand their basis of operation. If we
do so, we will be able to help our crops withstand any pest attack.
In organic farming we take the view that every life form helps us
in some way. The following leaves help repel insect pests: Leaves
those cattle dont eat. Example:- Adathodai (Adathoda vasica),
nochi (Vitex negundo); Stems that secrete milky sap when broken.
Example:- Erukku (Calotropis gigentia), Umaththai (Datura alba);
Leaves that tastes bitter. Example:- Neem, aloe vera; Leaves that
tastes salty. E.g. kAttAmaNakku (Jatropha gossypifolia); and Seeds
that tastes bitter or salty. Example:- Seeds of neem, custard apple,
etc. Fermented solutions and extracts made with such leaves and
seeds act as excellent pest repellents by creating unpleasant odors.
When sprayed, these solutions prevent pests from feeding on plants.
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In general, worms and pests use their sense of smell to

identify edible plants. When we spray solutions made with the
above plants and with dung/urine, we disrupt the sense of smell
of the worms and insects. So they avoid crops thus sprayed and
either starve to death or, having eaten leaves sprayed with such
repellents, die of stomach problems. This considerably lowers
the number of egglaying survivors. Those eggs that do get laid
and hatched give rise to handicapped offspring that are easily
picked by predator birds. Preparation: Take 2 kg each of leaves/
seeds (as the case maybe) from the five categories mentioned
above. Fermentation method: Add 1215 liters cattle urine to the
above. (Add more if necessary, so the plant material is completely
immersed in cattle urine.) Add 1 kg dung (mixed with cattle urine)
and 100250 gms turmeric powder (if available). Let it ferment for
715 days. Leaves get fermented and the solution is ready for use;
Usage: Mix 5001,000 ml with 10 liters water and spray. Boiling
method: Chop 10kg leaves/seeds and soak in 25 liters water.
Make sure the plant material is fully immersed in water. Boil this
under steady heat. Filter and set apart in a separate container.
Add 25 liters of water to the solid matter that is left over after
filtering. Boil again. Filter it and add the liquid to the second
container (to which the filtered solution was added earlier). Add
100200 gms turmeric powder to this liquid and let ferment for
12 hours. Usage: Add sufficient water for a total of hundred liters
solution and spray.
To control larva (caterpillar), leaf curl worm, leaf roller,
or stem borer: Ingredients: (1) Solution prepared (using the
fermentation method or the boiling method) as above for fungal
disease control, (2) Powder one of the following seeds/fruits
[listed in (a) through (h) below] and add to the solution: (a) neem
(Azadirachta indica), pungum (Pongamia or Karanj), or malai
vEmbu (Melia dubia) (12 kg), (b) kadukkai (Terminalia chebula)
(250500 gms), (c) custard apple (Annona squamos) or thanga
arali (Tecoma stans) (200250 gms), (d) etti (Strychnos nuxvomica)
(100250 gms), (e) suNdaikkAi (Solanum torvum ) (12 kg), (f)
green chillies (5001000 gms), (g) vilvam fruit (Aegle marmelos or
Bael) (510 numbers), or (h) Umaththai fruit (Datura stramonium)
(1020 numbers). Preparation: Prepare the ingredients for the
solution in (a). Powder one of the seeds/fruits listed in (b)
through (e) and add the ingredients to the solution in (a). Let
the entire mixture ferment for 12 hours. We now present another
S R Sundararaman
205
solution for controlling the above insects. Ingredients: (a) 100 gms
custard apple seeds, 1 kg peechchangu (Cleodendron inerme), 500
gms siriyanangai (Andrographis paniculata), 500 gms Adathodai,
1 kg thanga arali, 1 kg nochi or custard apple leaves, 1 kg aloe
vera, (b) 1 kg powdered tobacco, (c) 1 kg tobacco powder, and
(d) soil from a termite hill (take enough soil to make the whole
thing into a paste); Preparation: Grind into paste the ingredients
in (a). Boil it in about 6 liters water. Add tobacco powder and let
ferment for twelve hours. Add tobacco juice and let ferment for
23 days. It will acquire sour taste. Add turmeric powder and
enough soil from a termite hill to bring the entire mixture into
pastelike consistency; Usage: Mix 1 kg paste in 100125 liters
water and spray.
Sucking insects: aphids, thrips, and mites: This problem
normally occurs in chillies, vegetables, and cotton. The pests
attack the tender leaves and branches. They occur in thick
colonies. Cut the heavily affected portions once a week and put
them in the fermented or boiled solution prepared as explained
earlier. This is physical removal and is one of the cultural
practices of integrated pest management techniques. As a
result of this attack the leaves start curling up and wither. The
following concoction helps control this problem. Ingredients:
(a) 23 kg of five of the following leaves: Lantana camara, neem,
nochi, tobacco, siriyanangai, custard apple, peechchangu, Aloe
vera, pirandai (Cissus quadrangularis), or vilvam fruit (510
numbers) or green chillies (23 kg) (b) 100 gms turmeric powder.
Preparation: Chop the leaves into small pieces (if using vilvam
fruit or chillies, crush them). Add turmeric powder. Use the
fermentation method described earlier to make the solution. Let
the mixture ferment for seven days. Usage: Add ten liters water
to one liter solution and spray. Depending on the intensity of the
attack, you may repeat the spray 23 times in 710 days interval.
Solutions for disease prevention Fungal infection and
leaf spot disease: Ingredients: (a) 35 kg aloe vera, (b) Any two
of the following: 35 kg custard apple leaves, 35 kg bougainvilla
leaves, 35 kg lantana camara leaves, 35 kg papaya leaves, (c)
100 gms turmeric powder, (d) 250500 gms Pseudomonas, and
(e) 10 liters archaebacterial solution. Preparation: Pound all
the leaves, add enough water to immerse them, and boil it as
explained above. Prepare 50 liters solution. It will have a dark
206
color. Add turmeric powder to it. Let it ferment for about 12

hours. At the same time, mix the archaebacterial solution and
pseudomonas and set aside for 12 hours. Usage: Mix the above
two solutions, add sufficient water to bring the total to 100
liters, and spray. You will see long eye-shaped spots on leaves
during the early stages of this disease. At the center of each
of these spots are the fungal spores that cause this disease. As
the disease progresses the spots grow larger and eventually all
the spots combine into one. The leaves turn brown/yellow and
ultimately wilt.
Blast, leaf blight diseases: Ingredients: 35 kg aloe vera, 200
gms ginger, 35 kg pudhina (mint), Lantana camara leaves, 100
gms turmeric powder, 5001000 gms Pseudomonas fluorescence,
and 10 liters archaebacterial solution. Preparation: (a) Add
enough water to immerse the above ingredients. Boil it and let
it cool down. Add turmeric powder as explained earlier, (b) In
a separate container take the archae solution, add Pseudomonas
fluorescence, and keep aside for 1224 hours. Usage: Mix the
above two solutions, add sufficient water to bring the total to 100
liters, and spray.
Bacterial diseases: Ingredients: (a) 35 kg aloe vera, (b)
35 kg tender leaves of two of the following: bamboo, pudhina,
savukku (Casuarina), thulasi (Oscimum), or Lantana camara,
(c) 100 gms turmeric powder, (d) 250500 gms Pseudomonas
fluorescence, (e) 10 liters archaebacterial solution. Preparation:
Prepare 50 liters solution using the boiling method. At the same
time, mix the archaebacterial solution and pseudomonas and
set aside for 12 hours. Usage: Mix the above two solutions, add
sufficient water to bring the total to 100 liters, and spray.
Powdery mildew: Ingredients: (a) 35 kg aloe vera, (b) 12
10 kg tender leaves of one of the following: bamboo, savukku,
or Lantana camara, (c) 100200 gms turmeric powder, (d) 250
500 gms Pseudomonas fluorescence, (e) 10 liters archaebacterial
solution. Preparation: Prepare 50 liters solution using the boiling
method. At the same time, mix the archaebacterial solution
and Pseudomonas and set aside for 12 hours. Usage: Mix the
above two solutions, add sufficient water to bring the total to
100 liters, and spray. When we spray the above for prevention,
the abovementioned quantities of Pseudomonas is enough.
S R Sundararaman
207
Under unfavorable climatic conditions fungal diseases, bacterial

diseases, and powdery mildew attack will be severe. In that
case increase the quantity of Pseudomonas to 12 kg to achieve
the knock down effect. It should be sprayed 2 times in 7days
interval; the third spray should be after ten days. This inevitably
raises the cost of cultivation. But, the cost is still much less
compared to the use of chemical pesticides. Besides, this organic
method has no ill effects on our health or on the environment.
Efficient microorganisms (EM): Dr. L. Narayana Reddy
introduced effective microorganisms to us. (These were
discovered by Prof. Teruo Higa of Japan. In India these are
marketed by Maple Orgtech (I) Limited.) Dr. Reddy cautioned
that uncontrolled conditions during production of Effective
Microorganisms by farmers may lead to the inclusion of harmful
organisms because farmers lack the laboratory equipment to check
quality. So, Dr. Reddy recommends that farmers buy effective
microorganism from authentic laboratories. However, Mr. G.
Balakrishnan has perfected a controlled method for preparing a
similar solution that he called Efficient Microorganism solution.
In Tamil we call it thiRa nuNNuyir (thiRami, for short). We will
refer to it hereinafter as thiRami. We use this method in our
laboratory in Madurai to prepare small quantities of thiRami and
supply to trained organic farmers in our association (thamizhaga
uzhavar thozhilnutpak kazhagam). In the past five years we have
used it on a variety of crops under different conditions in twelve
districts in Tamil Nadu and have been getting good results.
Based on this experience, we now describe the preparation and
use of the following solutions.
Extended thiRami (ET): Ingredients: (a) 20 liters potable
water free from chlorine, (b) 1 kg jaggery, (c) 1 liter thiRami
(EM) stock solution. Preparation: Mix these in a plastic drum and
fill twenty oneliter plastic jars with this mixture. Tighten the
bottle caps. Keep for 710 days for multiplication of the various
microorganisms. Methane gas forms in each bottle. On the first or
second day unscrew the cap to release the gas and close it tightly
again. Repeat this as often as necessary. Each unopened bottles
contents may be kept for use in 34 months; Usage: Mix 12 liters
of the ET solution in 100 liters water for spraying. This promotes
growth and controls pests. It may also be used in composting at
the rate of 500ml to 1 liter per 100 liters water to increase the rate
208
of breakdown of crop residues. ET may be used in irrigation at

the rate of 36 liters per acre.
thiRamitreated cow urine (TTCU): Ingredients: (a) 5 liters
cow urine, (b) 250 gms jaggery, (c) 250 ml ET solution, and (d)
250 ml water. Preparation: Mix all and let ferment for 710 days.
Usage: Use within 30 days. For spraying: Mix 12 ml in one liter
water. For irrigation, use 2030 liters per acre. This controls pests
and diseases.
thiRamifermented plant extract (TFPE) for rectifying
micronutrient deficiency: Ingredients: Collect tender leaves
of the following: (a) tamarind or vAdhanArAyaNan (Delonix
elata) (source of zinc), (b) AvArai (Casia auriculata), Hibiscus, or
vallArai (Brahmi) (copper), (c) curry leaf, drumstick leaf, or any
other leafy greens (iron), (d) erukku (Calotropis gigantea ) (boron),
(e) all types of flowers (Molybdenum), (f) thuththi (Abudigan
indicum )(Calcium), (g) gingelly or mustard plants (sulphur), (h)
ladies finger (Okra) plant (iodine), (i) lantana camara, casurina, or
bamboo (Silica), (j) neyveli kAttAmaNakku (Ipomea) (Mercury),
(k) Glyricidia (Nitrogen), (1) thulasi, nochchi, neem, aloe vera
(to build resistance to fungal, bacterial, and powdery mildew
diseases). We have selected the above list based on the Siddha
and Ayurveda systems of medicine. Preparation: (a) Collect 5kg
leaves and plants from the above list. Choose any combination
depending on micronutrient deficiency of the crops. (b) Chop
into small pieces and crush. (c) Add 250 Gms jaggery in ten
liters water. (d) Add 250300 ml ET. (e) Set the mixture aside
for 710 days for fermentation. This provides ten liters solution.
Usage: Use within 90 days. Spray: 25% solution. Irrigation:
1020 liters per acre. Benefits: Using EMFPE with other growth
promoters as prophylactic measures solves all problems for
any crop: (a) Rectifies micronutrient deficiency. (b) Acts as
pest repellent. (c) Prevents pests from feeding and (d) Induces
disease resistance.
Extended thiRami5 (ET5): Since it contains five items, it
is named ET5. Ingredients: (a) 100 ml organic vinegar, (b) 100
ml ET, (c) 100 gms jaggery, (d) 100 ml brandy, (e) 600 ml water,
for a total of one liter. Preparation: Mix all and let ferment for
710 days. Usage: Use within 30 days. Spray: 12 ml per liter of
S R Sundararaman
209
water, along with any of the growth promoters. In case of severe

infection use 5ml per liter of water. Benefits: Controls fungal,
bacterial, and powdery mildew diseases. To prepare organic
vinegar, use one of the following methods (taught to us by Dr.
L. Narayana Reddy): (a) Add 500 Gms jaggery to 1 liter tender
coconut and store in a container for a minimum of 15 days, (b)
Mix 8 numbers rotten banana, 200 gms jaggery, and a small
quantity of water; grind it to a semi-solid form. Add water to
make it two liters. Keep it for a minimum of 15 days. Vinegar
may be kept for a long time. With each passing day the quality
improves due to fermentation. The older it is, the more effective
it will be in ET5 preparation.
Microorganisms enriched mixture (MEM): Ingredients:
Group 1: 60 kg fully digested compost or vermi compost, 20 kg
ash or rice bran ash, and 20 kg saw dust. Group 2: (a) five liters
AvUttam/panchakavya, (b) five liters concentrated amudham
solution, (c) five liters coconutbuttermilk, arappubuttermilk,
or soapnutbuttermilk solution, (d) ten liters ETFPE, (e) five liters
archaebacterial solution. Group 3 (to control root rot, rhizome
rot, and fuzarium wilt):
500 Gms1 kg each of Pseudomonas
fluorescence, Trichoderma viride, Trichoderma harzianum, and
Baccillus subtilis. Group 4 (to control nematode): 12 kg each
of Paeciliomyces. Group 5 (to control root grub, white grub,
rhinoceros beetle and other soildwelling beetles and grubs): 500
gms1 kg Beauveria brongniartii and Metarhizium Preparation: 1)
Mix well the items in Group 1; 2) Mix the solutions mentioned in
Group 2; 3) Mix the powders in Groups 3, 4, and 5 well together;
choose the powders based on your crops condition; 4) Add the
mixtures from steps (a) and (c). On this combination sprinkle the
solutions mixture from (b) and mix thoroughly so the combined
mixture is uniformly moist.
Note: MEM can be used at the rate of 100500 kg per acre.
The ingredients given above are for preparing 100 kg MEM.
To prepare larger quantities increase the quantities in Group
1 accordingly maintaining the same ratio of the ingredients in
that group. This increases the quantity of the mixture. To make
this mixture uniformly moist add sufficient quantity of archae
solution. Do not change the quantity of other items in Groups
2 to 5. Usage: Use within thirty days. When you need to store
it for longer periods, store it in a heap that is about two feet
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broad and nine inches tall; the length could be chosen based
on convenience. Cover it with wet gunny bags, coconut leaves,
or sugarcane leaves. Take care to maintain uniform moisture,
by sprinkling water as often as necessary. This heap should be
in a shed or in the shade of a tree. This can be used as basal
application or as a top dressing, depending on the need. Use it
as a precautionary measure according to the condition of the
crop. If the crop growth is not healthy and you cannot irrigate
the crop because of rain, use the mixture at least twice in fifteen
days interval. If the crop is healthy, use it once in 12 months
during the growth period. For bed crops like vanilla, pepper, and
cardamom, use MEM over the bed and cover it with leaves. In
rainy season, move the mulch away from the stem for effective
drainage and spread MEM over the feeder roots to protect these
roots.
Fruit gaudi (Fermented fruit juices): We prepare and use
fruit gaudi for enriching soil health and improving the population
of microbes and beneficial fungi using fruit gaudi in irrigation.
Ingredients: (a) 1050 kg cattle dung, (b) 520 kg waste fruit, (c)
convenient quantity of all kinds of leaves that decay fast, (d)
intestine wastes from 1 cow or 24 goats, (e) 510 liters AvUttam/
panchakavya, (f) 510 liters any of the buttermilk solutions, (g)
510 liters concentrated amudham solution, (h) 510 liters TTCU,
(i) 510 liters TTFPE, (j) 50100 liters archaebacterial solution.
Preparation: Mix all in 200500 liters water in a tank. Allow it to
ferment for a week. Add the beneficial microorganisms listed in
MEM preparation. Allow it to ferment for a day. Usage: Use in
irrigation for one acre. Use it once in 1530 days.
Intercropping/Mixed cropping: This is a very important
technique in controlling pest and disease attacks. As opposed
to mono-cropping, we grow more than one crop at the same
time. Farmers have seen for themselves that intercropping
helps minimize pest and disease attacks. Here are some
S R Sundararaman
211
examples: a) Growing cowpea and black gram along with

jowar, maize, or pearl millet like our ancestors used to do.
b) Growing castor plants on the boundary ridges of paddy/
vegetable fields. We must plan the sowing such that all
crops get enough sun light. Leguminous plants help fix
atmospheric Nitrogen in their roots. This helps other crops
get sufficient quantities of manure. We must identify the
right mix of crops for intercropping. By doing this we could
enhance yield and increase our income. Since intercropping
is well known and also since it is location-specific, we have
only given an outline of the practice.
Parasites: Insects go through the egg, larval, and pupa
stages before emerging as insects. Helpful parasites exist that
eat harmful insects in one or more of these stages. These are
classified based on their eating habits. Let us now learn about
a few parasites that are grown in labs. We use the parasites
as follows. 1) (Paddy) to control leaf roller and stem borer:
Trichogramma japonicum and T. chilonis at the rate of 2cc
parasites per acre 46 times in 1015 day interval. 2) (Sugarcane)
To control inter-node borer: 2 cc Trichogramma wasps per acre,
eight times from the third or fourth month onwards, in 15day interval. To control the top shoot borer: Use 2cc T. chilonis
per acre, 4-6 times in 15-day interval from the eighth month
onwards. 3) (Vegetable crops, chillies, and cotton) to control
sucking pests: Crysoperla wasps (2000 eggs per acre, two times
in 15-day interval). To control mealy bug: cripolomus (200-300
per acre in two applications in 15-day interval). To control stemor pod-borers and bollworm eggs: 2cc T. japanicum and 2cc T.
chilonis (6-8 times in 15-day interval). To control the larvae of
these pests: praconit wasps (800 insects per acre, two times).
4) (Banana) To control stem-borer: 2cc T. japanicum and 2cc T.
chilonis per acre (four times in 15-day interval from the fifth
month onwards).
212
Appendix: Botanical names of plants whose Tamil names are used in

this article
Tamil word
Botanical Name
Tamil word
AdAthOdai
Adatoda justicia
piraNdai
adhimadhuram
(sweetwood/
liquorice)
Glycyrrhiza
glabra
pudhinA
arappu
Albizzia amara
saNappu
arasu
Ficus religiosa
savukku
AvArai
Cassia auriculata siRiyAnangai
erukku
Etti
kadukkAi
kAttAmaNakku
narippayaRu
nochchi
peechchangu
Calotropis
gigantea
Strychnos nuxvomica
Terminalia
chebula
Jatropha curcas
Vitex negundo
Clereodendron
inermi
suNdaikkAi
thanga araLi
(oleander)
Botanical Name
Vitis
quadrangularis
Mentha spicata
Crotolaria
intermedia
Casurina
Andrographis
paniculata
Solanum torvum
swartz
Neerium odorum
Abudigan
indicum
Umaththai
Datura metel
vAdhanArAyaNan Delonix elata
vilvam
Aegle marmelos
thuththi

J P Saini
Weeds are considered to be a major problem for organic farmers.
Organic farmers struggle with the weeds for developing effective
and economical weed management strategies. Successful organic
farmers continuously adapt their weed management practices
as weed populations shift. Under organic weed management
system the main aim is to reduce the weed competition and
reproduction to an acceptable level rather than to eliminate
them completely. Weed management strategies should reduce
weed crop competition from the present and future weeds
by preventing the production of weed seeds and perennial
propagules. Consistent weed management can reduce the
cost of managing the weeds and contribute to an economical
crop management system. A brief overview of organic weed
management has been described below:
Weed prevention: Many on-farm weed populations exist
because of the natural movement of weed seeds and propagules
from both neighboring and distant populations by wind,
animals, people, and other carriers. Human activity is a major
culprit in the introduction of weeds to a farm or to new areas
on a farm. Paying close attention to sanitation and seed sources
on the farm can help prevent the introduction and movement
of weeds. Weed prevention comprises all measures such as; 1)
Use of weed free crop seeds; 2) Avoid contamination of manure
pits; 3) Prevent movement of weeds with other farm resources;
4) Keep vigilance; 5) Keep non-crop land clean and; 6) Invoke
legal measures
This can be achieved through: i) Inspect seeds and
transplants before planting. Crop seeds, especially grains, may
be contaminated with weed seeds. Transplants may have weed
seeds in the potting medium if it was not sterilized before use.
Buy seeds and transplants from reputed suppliers, and always
Bangalore. 2014
213
214
examine them before planting; ii) Compost animal manures

properly. Animal manures often contain weed seeds, with
the source of the manure affecting the number and species of
viable weed seeds introduced. To kill weeds and other harmful
organisms, compost manures properly before field application.
To kill the majority of weed seeds in cattle manure, compost
materials at a temperature of at least 180F (82C) for no less than
three days (Wiese et al, 1998). This temperature is relatively easy
to reach in most composting systems.
i) Apply mulch and compost that is free of weed seeds.
Straw mulch, for instance, may contain seeds that will later be a
nuisance. To avoid carrying weeds into a field with straw mulch,
wet the straw and allow weeds to germinate. Once weed seeds
have germinated, dry out the straw bale to kill seedlings by
breaking it apart. ii) Limit the amount of off-farm traffic visiting
production areas, either by vehicle or foot. iii) Clean farm
equipment regularly. If machinery and tools are used in more
than one location, they should be thoroughly cleaned before
use in a different field. Cleaning is especially important when
equipment is transferred between farms. These measures deny
the entry and establishment of weeds in new area.
Good crop husbandry methods: For weed control on an
organic farm there is no substitute to good crop husbandry
methods. These methods are also sometimes referred to as
Ecological methods. Good crop husbandry is more than half
the weed control envisaged on any farmland. While directly
it induces a healthy growth of crops, indirectly it maintains a
crop environment that is as detrimental to weeds as possible and
thus, indirectly help in improving the efficacy of other methods
of weed control. Some important crop husbandry practices that
can lead to suppression of weeds are proper crop stand and early
seedling vigour, selective stimulation of crops, crop rotations,
Inter-cropping, stale seedbed preparation, applying mulch,
cover crops, summer fallowing
Proper crop stand and early seedling vigour: Uniform
germination of crop seeds and their development into vigorous
crop seedling leave less space for weeds to grow amongst the
crop plants. A vigorously growing crop aids weed control
by offering competition. Important steps in obtaining good
J P Saini
215
germination, optimum stand and spatial uniformity of crops

are: Selection of most adapted crops and crop varieties: Crop
cultivars vary in their abilities to compete with and adapt to
weeds. Several characteristics can enhance a cultivars ability
to compete with weeds, including its physical structure. Tall
grain crops, for example, are generally more competitive
with weeds because they intercept light. A large leaf area and
high biomass production can also contribute to a cultivars
competitive abilities; The use of high viability seeds; Adequate
seed rates and; Proper planting time and method: For many row
and horticultural crops, rapid growth and early canopy closure
can result in the suppression of weeds. For this reason, using
transplants when possible for horticultural crop production is
advantageous. Use of transplants will increase production costs,
so the economic benefit of using transplants must be weighed
against cost. When it is economically viable, as is the case with
many vegetable crops, use of transplants should be considered.
Research indicates that the planting date, density, and spatial
arrangement of a crop can maximize the space it occupies early
in the season and put competitive pressure on weeds
Selective crop stimulation: Weeds inflict much more
damage to crops than the crops to weeds. This imbalance can
be manipulated by man in favour of crops by suitably modifying
their soil and cropping conditions, leading to selective
stimulation of crop growth. Vigorous crop plants compete with
weeds more effectively and cover the ground quickly. Selective
stimulation can be achieved by: 1) Correction of soil condition to
favour crop growth by the application of soil amendments like
gypsum or lime. This is an important step towards favouring
crop growth; 2) Addition of FYM or any other organic manure
may be useful in improving crop growth over the weeds, when
applied as banded or side dressed; 3) Inoculation of crop seeds
with suitable N-fixing and P-solubilizing cultures; 4) Proper
planting strategies i.e. suitable cultivar, date, density and spatial
arrangement of a crop can maximize the space it occupies early
in the season and put competitive pressure on weeds.
Crop rotation: Organic farmers often use mixed cropping
systems and long rotations to enhance soil fertility and economic
diversity. Crop rotation can also be a cornerstone in a weed
management plan. Through long-term variations of crop species
216
and planting times, rotations create a changing environment and

prevent the dominance of a particular weed species. Researchers
have compared emerged weed densities in test crops grown in
rotation versus continually grown test crops. For most of the crops
studied, weed densities were lower when a crop was grown in
rotation (Liebman and Dyck, 1993). Knowledge of potential weed
problems allows a farmer to select the rotation best suited to a
particular field. When making a crop production plan, a farmer
should design rotations for each field with weed management
and potential weed problems in mind. For example, when a crop
with a dense, closed canopy, such as potatoes, is grown prior to
growing a crop that is less competitive with weeds, the dense
crop reduces the development of weeds. Where late-germinating
weeds are a concern, an early crop can be followed with tillage
and a vigorous, competitive summer annual crop to suppress
these weeds.
Inter-cropping: Intercropping involves growing a smother
crop between rows of the main crop. Intercrops are able to
suppress weeds. However, the use of intercropping as a strategy
for weed control should be approached carefully. The intercrops
can greatly reduce the yields of the main crop if competition for
water or nutrients occurs.
Stale seedbed preparation: This weed management strategy
consists of preparing a fine seedbed, allowing weeds to germinate
(relying on rainfall or irrigation for necessary soil moisture), and
directly removing weed seedlings via light cultivation or flame
weeding. Seeds or transplants can then be planted into the moist
weed-free soil. This technique helps to provide an opportunity for
crop emergence and growth before the next flush of weeds. If time
allows, this can be done twice before planting.
Applying mulch: Applying mulch after planting can
offer some benefits in many cropping systems. Mulches reduce
weed competition by limiting light penetration and altering
soil moisture and temperature cycles. Although black plastic
is commonly used as a mulching material, its environmental
impacts conflict with the goals of regenerative and sustainable
production. Synthesized from petroleum, plastic represents
a significant use of non renewable fossil fuels. In addition, the
disposal of plastic mulch has contributed to current landfill
J P Saini
217
problems throughout the United States. The discussion in this

chapter will be limited to organic and reusable or biodegradable
inorganic mulching materials.
Cover crops: Cover crop residues as mulch: Annual cover
crops may be killed or left to die naturally and used as mulch.
By altering light, soil moisture, and soil temperature, mulches
limit the germination and growth of weed seedlings. Dead cover
crop residues serve as excellent mulch for no-till and reducedtillage systems when left in a field. Cover crop residues may
also be moved from one field to another. There is, however, a
risk of transporting weeds into a field with mulch, including
cover crop residues that are moved from one field to another. If
cover crop residues will be used as mulch for no-till production,
a farmer must consider the market crop that will follow the
cover crop. For instance, if the market crop will be planted in
early spring, it is best to choose a winter annual cover crop
that will die back early, such as a mixture of oats and crimson
clover. If the market crop will be planted in late spring or early
summer, a mixture of longer-lived species, such as rye and hairy
vetch, is preferred. Another key to the successful use of cover
crop residues is effective cover crop kill. Many no-till systems
now used in the midwestern United States rely on chemical
herbicides to kill cover crops. Organic farmers, however, must
kill crops mechanically, which can be a considerable challenge.
Mechanical methods of killing cover crops that will be left on
the soil surface include mowing, rolling, roll-chopping, and
undercutting. The success of these methods depends, in part,
on the species and growth stage of the cover crop. Optimal
mechanical management promotes rapid desiccation and
limits the regrowth of the cover crop species while leaving
residues intact for mulch. Because mowing generates small
pieces of residue that decompose quickly, this may not be the
best method of mechanical kill. Rolling and undercutting cover
crops can create long-lasting surface mulch that can provide
extended weed suppression. Rolling also can be accomplished
at higher speeds, with lower machinery maintenance costs and
reduced fossil fuel consumption compared to mowing. Various
methods have been tried for rolling and rollchopping cover
crops. Depending on conditions, an effective kill can result from
breaking, cutting, crushing, or crimping stems (Creamer and
Dabney, 2002; Creamer et al, 1995).
218
Cover crops as living mulch: Certain cover crops also

may be used as living mulches (this is often referred to as
intercropping). Living mulches can be established before
planting, or they can be seeded with or after the main crop has
been planted. Seeding with or after the main crop is referred to
as interseeding or underseeding. Living mulches may be annual
or perennial cover crops, and they can be used with both annual
and perennial cash crops. Researchers have demonstrated that
living mulches can effectively suppress weeds when grown with
a cash crop. In 51 research trials in which main crops grown
with living mulch were compared to the main crop grown alone,
weed biomass was lower in the living mulch system in 47 cases
(Liebman and Dyck, 1993). In most instances, the researchers
attributed weed suppression to competition from the intercrops,
although it is possible that allelopathy the suppressive effect of
chemicals emitted by one species on another also played a role
in some systems. The most significant challenge a farmer faces in
using living mulch systems for crop production is competition
between the living mulch and the market crop. Many examples
of successful living mulch systems exist for vineyards and fruit
orchards, but many attempts to use living mulches in annual
cropping systems (Miura and Watanabe, 2002; Ateh and Doll,
1996; Mohler, 1995) or early in the establishment of perennial
crops (Paine et al, 1995) have resulted in reduced growth and
yields for the market crops.
Cover crops that are suitable for use as living mulches in
intercropping systems should do the following: 1) Compete
minimally with the market crop for resources, including light,
water, and nutrients; 2) Have characteristics that control weeds;
3) Provide a regular and sufficient source of nitrogen; 4) Have
low maintenance costs. The spatial arrangement, seeding rate,
and planting time of living mulches should also create favorable
conditions for the main crop. For most crops, it is best to confine
the living mulch to between-row spaces.
Summer fallowing: Farmers in India, as in many other
tropical countries, have used for decades hot months of April,
May and June to expose their lands to sun in order to control
many soil-borne pests, including weeds. Roots, rhizomes, and
tubers of shallow rooted perennial weeds like bermudagrass and
nutsedge are desiccated when these are brought to surface by
J P Saini
219
tillage and exposed to air temperatures of 40 to 45oC. However,

to be really effective, summer fallows must be managed
properly. The land should be opened by deep ploughing
immediately after harvesting winter crops and it should be
left in a cloddy condition. A sod mouldboard plough is very
suitable for this purpose. As the soil clods bake in hot sun, the
weed roots and rhizome embodied in them are desiccated. To
expose the vegetative propagules of the weeds hidden beneath
the clods, as well as to break the dry clods and further expose
the contained weed propagules to the hot sun, land should be
ploughed subsequently once or twice at an interval of fortnight,
with a heavy wooden plough or blade harrow. During all this
process of exposure of weeds to soalr energy, one must ensure
that the field under treatment does not get any water, say from
leaking irrigation channels. In the hot sun the weed roots and
rhizomes are killed by desiccation and not by any direct effect of
high temperatures on the cell protoplasm. Summer fallowing for
the control of perennial weeds is unadvisable on light soils for
fear of erosion. Also, such soils cannot be turned into dry clods
required for effective desiccation of the weedy rhizome. Weed
control through summer baking should be followed by cropping
of the land with narrow row crops. If a wide row crop must be
planted, it should be inter cultivated hard. Intensive cropping
with 3 to 4 crops a year which is opposed to summer fallowing,
is prone to heavy infestation with perennial weeds.
Physical methods of weed control: Physical methods utilize
manual energy, animal power or fuel to run the implements that
dig out weeds. The physical methods of weed control are safer
to crop, environment and to the users. The implements used for
the physical control of weeds vary from simple hand tools to
complex, multilined weeding machines run with tractors.
Manual weeding: Many organic farmers do some manual
weeding to clear around vegetable crops and perennial plants
where cultivation and slashing is risky. This is time-consuming
and costly, but is effective and gives you an opportunity to
observe your soil and crops closely a vital aspect of good
organic management.
Mechanical weeding: Mechanical weeders include
cultivating tools such as hoes, harrows, tines and brush weeders,
220
cutting tools like mowers and stimmers, and dual-purpose

implements like thistle-bars. The choice of implement and the
timing and frequency of its use depends on the morphology of
the crop and the weeds. Implements such as fixed harrows are
more suitable for arable crops, whereas inter-row brush weeders
are considered to be more effectivefor horticultural use. The
brush weeder is mainly used for vegetables such as carrots,
beetroot, onions, garlic, cerely and leeks. The optimum timing
for mechanical weed control is influenced by the competitive
ability of the crop and the growth stage of the weeds. Hand
hoes, push hoes and hand-weeding are still used when rouging
of an individual plant or patch of weed is the most effective
way of preventing the weed from spreading. Hand-weeding
may also be used after mechanical inter-row weeding to deal
with weeds left in the crop row. Blind, over-the top cultivation
controls very small weeds, just germinatedor emerged, before
and sometimes after planting. The entire surface of the fields is
worked very shallow using flex-tine cultivators (e.g. Lely weeder
or rotary hoes, Inter-row cultivations with a rotary hoe in pinto
beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) gave adequate weed control without
reducing plant stand or injuring the crop. The hoe-ridger is
specifically designed to achieve intra-row control in sugar beet,
Thistle-bars are simple blades used to undercut perennial weeds
with minimal soil disturbance. The brush weeder, or brush hoe,
is used primarily for inter-row weeding of vegetable crop.
Biological weed control: Little research has been conducted
on using predatory parasitic micro-organisms or insects to
manage weed populations. However, this may prove to be a
useful management tool in the future. Control of an aquatic weed
Salvinia with a Weevil Opuntia sp. pricklypear in Australia and
that of Lantana camara in Hawaii with certain insect bioagent
are the important examples. Zygogramma bicolorata is another
insect bio-agent for the control of Parthenium hysterophorous.
There is also considerable research effort aimed at genetically
engineeringfungi (myco-herbicides) and bacteria so that they
are more effective at controlling specific weeds. Myco-herbicides
are a preparation containing pathogenic spores applied as a
spray with standardherbicide application equipment. Weeds
are subject to disease and insect attacks just as crop are. Most
biological control of weeds occurs in range or non crop areas.
As a result, biological control has little relevance for field crops.
J P Saini
221
Geese have been used for weed control in trees, vine, and certain
row crops. Most types of geese will graze weeds, but Chinese
weeder geese are considered the best for row crops. Chinest
weeder geese are smaller than other types and tend to walk
around delicate crop plants rather than over them. Geese prefer
grass species and rarely eat crops. If confined, geese will even
dig up and eat Johnson grass and Bermuda grass rhizomes. Care
must be taken to avoid placing geese near any grass crops such
as corn, sorghum, or small grains, as this is their preferred food.
Fruiting vegetables, such as tomatoes when they begin to color,
might also be vulnerable, so geese would have to be removed
from tomato fields at certain times. Geese require drinking
water, shade during hot weather, and protection from dogs and
other predators.
Soil solarization: Solarization consists of heating the soil to
kill pest organisms, including fungi, bacteria, and weed seeds. It
also reduces populations of various pathogens and nematodes.
Soil is covered in summer with clear or black polyethylene plastic
and moistened under the plastic, which is left in place for six
to seven weeks or longer. Weed seeds and young seedlings are
killed by the heat and moisture and through direct contact with
the plastic, which causes scorching. Research has demonstrated
that solarization from July to October with clear or black
plastic provides weed control comparable to methyl bromide
fumigation in strawberries without reducing fruit yield (Rieger
et al, 2001). Solarization can also be used to produce weed-free
soil or potting mix for container production in warm climates
(Stapleton et al, 2002), and it has been used in Mediterranean
climates to reduce weed competition and increase yields of fieldgrown cauliflower and fennel.
Tillage: Deep and frequent tillage may be useful for some
reasons, but it serves to (i) bring more of dormant weed seeds
and rhizomes to the soil surface, and (ii) preserve the new
ones deep inside the soil for the future. Both these things are
undesirable. One should aim at keeping the weed seeds as close
to the soil surface as possible so that they germinate in large
numbers at any one time and, thus can be killed with a suitable
herbicide in one operation. In this context, tillage should be
no deeper and more frequent than is absolutely necessary for
growing crops. Zero tillage planting of crops, as practised in
222
some countries like USA and UK, completely avoids burying of

weed seeds and reduces persistence of annual weeds. But it often
induces vigorous growth of perennial weeds. Of late, zero-tillage
has gained popularity in Northern and Western India in wheatrice cropping systems. From the weed dynamics point of view,
the zero tillage cultivation in rice-wheat cropping system has
been of advantage to our farmers in reducing incidence of one
of the most problematic weeds, Phalaris minor, in wheat. Several
research results have reported positive impact in this respect,
particularly in U.P. and Haryana.
Flooding and drainage: Flood kills weeds by excluding
air from their environment. Some weed species are more
susceptible to it than the others. Flooding is a worldwide crop
husbandry method of controlling weeds in rice fields. In some
parts of Madhya Pradesh (India), deep flooding of fallow fields
with rain water is practised continuously for 23 months. After
that the water is let out and the winter grains are planted. The
practice, locally called Havelli, is considered very effective in
controlling weeds, besides conserving moisture. The technique
however, can be used as weed suppression measure only in
limited situations In variance with flooding, drainage is used
for controlling aquatic and semi-aquatic weeds in rice fields,
channels, canals, and ponds. In rice fields, where both terrestrial
and aquatic weeds may be common a judicious combination of
the two can be practiced.
Thermal weed control
Flamers: Flamers are useful for weed control. Thermal weed

control involves the use of flaming equipment to create direct
contact between the flame and the plant. This technique works by
rupturing plant cells when the sap rapidly expands in the cells.
Sometimes thermal control involves the outright burning down
of the weeds. Flaming can be used either before crop emergence
to give the crop a competitive advantage or after the crop has
emerged. However, flaming at this point in the crop production
cycle may damage the crop. Although the initial equipment cost
may be high, flaming for weed control may prove cheaper than
hand weeding. Propane fuelled models of flamers are the most
commonly used. Flaming dose not burn weeds to ashes; rather
the flame rapidly raises the temperature of the weeds to more
J P Saini
223
than 130F. The sudden increase in temperature causes the plants

cell sap to expand, rupturing the cells walls. For greatest flaming
efficiency, weeds must have fewer thantwo true leaves. Grasses
are difficult to impossible to kill by flaming because the growing
point is protected underground. After flaming, weeds that have
been killed rapidly change from a glossy appearance to a duller
appearance. Flame weeders can be used when the soil is too
moist for mechanical weeding and there is no soil disturbance to
stimulate further weed emergence.
Integrated weed management on organic farms requires
extensive planning and management. Crop rotations are the basis
for successful organic farming and are necessary for breaking
weed, insect, and disease cycles. Cultivation must be completed
with properly set equipment under soil conditions that are not
conductive to compaction. Monitoring weed growth stages also
is critical in determining ideal cultivation times. Trial and error
will govern many decisions in the first years of organic farming.
Learning from other organic farmers may assist in the transition.
References
Ateh, C.M. and J.D. Doll, (1996), Spring-planted winter rye (Secale
cereale) as a living mulch to control weeds in soybeans. Weed
Technology. 10(2):347353.
Creamer, N.G., B. Plassman, M.A. Bennett, R.K. Wood, B.R. Stinner, and
J. Cardina, (1995), A method for mechanically killing cover crops
to optimize weed suppression. American Journal of Alternative
Agriculture. 10(4):157162.
Creamer, N.G. and S. Dabney, (2002). Killing cover crops mechanically:
review of recent literature and assessment of new research.
American Journal of Alternative Agriculture. 17(1): 240.
Mohler, C.L, (1995), A living mulch (white clover)/dead mulch
(compost) weed control system for winter squash. Proceedings
of the Annual Meeting of the Northeastern Weed Science Society
of America. 49:510.
Matt Liebman and Elizabeth Dyck, (1993), Crop Rotation and
Intercropping Strategies for Weed Management Ecological
Applications, Vol. 3, No. 1. (Feb., 1993), pp. 92122
Miura, S. and Y. Watanabe, (2002), Growth and yield of sweet corn
with legume living mulches. Japanese Journal of Crop Science
71: 3642.
Paine, L., H. Harrison, and A. Newenhouse, (1995), Establishment of
224
asparagus with living mulch. J. Prod. Agr. 8(1):3540

Rieger M., Krewer G., Lewis P., (2001), Solarization and chemical
alternatives to methyl bromide for preplant soil treatment of
strawberries. HortTechnology 11, 258264.
Stapleton, J.J., T.S. Prather, S.B. Mallek, T.S.Ruiz, and C.L. Elmore,
(2002), High temperature solarization for production of weedfree container soils and potting mixes. Hort. Technology. 12(4):
697700.
Wiese, A.F., J.M. Sweeten, B.W. Bean, C.D. Salisbury, and E.W. Chenault,
(1998), High temperature composting of cattle feedlot manure kills
weed seed. Applied Engineering in Agriculture. 14(4):377380
Organic Seed: Traditional Varieties

and Technologies
K Vanangamudi
Organic farming is not new to Indian farming community.
Several forms of organic farming are being successfully practiced
in diverse climate, particularly in rainfed, tribal, mountains hill
and resource poor areas of the country. It safeguards/improves
quality of resources and environment. It is labour intensive and
provides an opportunity to increase rural employment. For a
product to be called and labelled organic, it should have been
produced from start (seed) to end (the produces, the consumer is
buying) in an organic way. International Federation of Organic
Movement (IFOAM) has clearly laid down the condition that in
order to get organic certification to the produces, the seed used
for sowing should also have been produced organically. To enter
into Organic Agriculture, timely research has been warranted to
study the strategies and efficacies of organic seed production to
fulfill the global organic seed demand. Organic seed production
system involves use of organic seed quality enhancement
treatments, integrated organic nutrient management practices
viz., organic manures, green manures and biofertilizers etc., and
integrated organic plant protection viz., agronomic practices,
crop rotation, growing border/trap crops and use of botanicals,
biopesticides and biocontrol agents apart from encouraging
natural parasites, predators and parasitoids etc.
Traditional varieties: Traditional farmers constantly search
for and promote novel variation in their crops. They acquire
new varieties by exchange, while travelling, through purchase
from markets and natural hybridization. This is actually one of
the key features of traditional farming systems; the interaction
between domesticated varieties and their wild relatives. The
promotion of natural hybridization and introgression has, over
Bangalore. 2014
225
226
time, increased the genetic diversity available to farmers. This

constant experimentation and breeding has created the diversity
of crops upon which we now depend.
Indian farmers rediscover advantages of traditional rice
varieties: During the Green Revolution, the seeds of high yielding
varieties of crops (HYVs) had appeared as a great new hope for the
farmers of the Terai region in Nainital district of Uttar Pradesh. But
in recent years, this hope has been killed to a large extent, especially
in the case of rice cultivation, by an emerging agro-ecological crisis.
While several farmers had started growing the Pant-4 HYV (and some
other HYVs) recommended to them, high demands of irrigation as
well as chemical fertilisers are proving a problem. This problem was
particularly acute in the drought year. As a result of heavy exploitation
of water, nearly half of the artesian wells (the most important sources
of irrigation in the terai) had dried up. In the remaining wells too the
pressure had reduced considerably. Even in rivers, the water level
declined steeply. The water level in the Haripura dam on Bhakhra
river and the Bore dam on Bore river has receded so much that the
farmers could not seek any solace from these structures.
Initially, when water abundance had made this a
particularly good land for growing HYVs of rice traditional
paddy varieties lost the race. However, one far-sighted farmer,
Inder Singh continued to grow and preserve several diverse
traditional varieties having different properties with respect to
disease and pest susceptibility, climate tolerance, yield, flavour,
aroma, etc. As the water level receded and the HYVs ran into
some other problems as well, some farmers started learning for
traditional seeds and happily they could get these from Inder
Singh. His best variety was named Indarasan as a tribute to his
farsightedness in preserving and improving it. Owing to high
productivity and low costs of cultivation (in terms of fertilisers
and water), this variety became popular among farmers. The
small farmers least capable of coping with the high cost of HYVs
especially found Indarasan a very useful variety. In just about six
to seven years nearly half of the land in the district was covered
by Indarasan, and even some big farmers adopted this variety.
During the recent drought season, Indarasan coped much
better than Pant-4. In fact the yield of Indarasan paddy this year
has gone up, reaching a peak of 32 quintals per acre from the
K Vanangamudi
227
earlier average of 25 quintals per acre. On the other hand Pant-4

has stagnated at 20 quintals per acre, and where irrigation could
not be arranged, this HYV has been destroyed almost entirely.
What is more, the Indarasan variety is fetching a better price on
the market its rate of Rs. 208 per quintal in Gandarpur mandi
(market) compares very favourably with the Rs. 175 per quintal
for Pant-4.There is a big rush among farmers to get the Indarasan
seed for next years crop. The Indarasan variety also has good
flavour and scent, and its threshing is much easier. In comparison
the threshing of Pant-4 requires much more effort. In addition
the proportion of unbroken grains is higher in Indarasan. In
terms of flavour Indarasan is vying with popular types of rice
like Basmati and Hansraj for a place of honour. It also yields
more dry fodder for cattle compared to the dwarf HYVs.
Notification of traditional varieties: Under the Seeds
Act, certified seeds can be produced only of notified varieties
and certification is compulsory. Seed Law Enforcement agency
can draw and test samples of seeds of notified varieties. The
morphological characters of notified varieties are documented
by the Central Seed Committee so as to curtail the bio-piracy.
Subsidies are being considered basing on the notification status.
Seed planning/programmes are being undertaken basing on the
notification of statistical data.
Indigenous varieties: Based on the literatures, we
documented 98 farmers varieties (Table 1). For details, refer the
book Organic seed: Traditional varieties and technologies.
Table 1. Number of traditional varieties documented
S.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Crop
Rice
Sorghum
Bajra
Finger millet
Red gram
Green gram
Horse gram
Sesamum
Castor
Number
41
2
2
7
3
2
3
3
5
S.No.
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Crop
Tomato
Bhendi
Chilli
Bottle gourd
Sponge gourd
Pumpkin
Ridge gourd
Cucumber
Beans
Total
Number
2
2
3
5
2
4
2
2
8
98
228
Organic seed production Choice of crop and varieties:

Any crop or variety/hybrid except genetically modified
organisms/ crops which suits to the location shall be grown. Pest
and diseases resistant varieties are mostly preferred
Table 2. Organic Choice of varieties
Permitted
Traditional breeding
Conjugation
Hybridization
Fermentation
In vitro fertilization
Tissue culture
Prohibited
Cell fusion
Micro and Macro encapsulation and
recombinant DNA technology
(including gene deletion, gene doubling,
introduction a foreign gene and changing
the positions of genes when achieved by
recombinant DNA technology)
Organic seed treatment: Size grading and upgrading:

Grading is the conversion of heterogeneous into homogenous
one, through stringent removal of discoloured, off coloured,
shriveled, immature, diseased, insect and fungal damaged,
broken and mechanically damaged seeds. This is an ecofriendly
and low cost technology that can be adopted for all the crops.
Further homogenization can be achieved through size grading
(Cereals, pulses, oilseeds) and specific gravity separation, using
water floatation technique (Brinjal, pulses, cotton). For removal
of ill filled, immature and insect damaged seeds in paddy, egg
floatation technique using common salt (NaCl) solution of 1.03
specific gravity is used. Even in tree species particularly in Pinus,
incubation, drying and separation technique (IDS) is highly
useful for the removal of less vigorous and dead seeds. PREVAC
method can also be used for the removal of mechanically
damaged seeds of Pinus.
Pre-germination technique: This simple eco-friendly
technique is practiced in paddy and groundnut. In this technique,
seeds are soaked in water and then, incubated in between
gunnies for protrusion of radicle. Care should be taken to restrict
the radicle growth only to light visual observation of the radical
and breaking of the seed coat, otherwise the treatments will
have adverse influence and seed management and population
maintenance. This treatment does the dual purpose of selection
germinable seeds and elimination of dead seeds.
K Vanangamudi
229
Dormancy breaking: Simple eco-friendly treatment like

water soaking and drying could be successfully employed to
break the dormancy and to improve the germination of the
seeds. It is useful for hard seeds species.
Pre-sowing treatments: Pre-sowing seed treatment is
simple techniques where in the seeds are soaked/coated in
water/botanical leaf extract or powder for a given period of
time followed by shade drying. This process will modify the
physiological and biochemical nature of seeds, so as to get the
characters that are favourable for drought tolerance (Table 3).
Table 3. Organics, botanicals and biofertilizers used for presowing
treatment of organic seed
Botanicals
Neem leaf
extract
Mint leaf
extract
Sarani leaf
extract
Prosopis leaf
extract
Arappu leaf
powder
Biofertilizers
Azotobacter
Azospirillum
Rhizobium
Cows
product
Biocontrol
agents
Pseudomonas
Panchakavya Coconut milk
spp.
Tender
Trichoderma
Cows milk
coconut
spp.
Curd
Phosphobacteria Cows urine
Others
Vermicompost
Vermiwash
Cowdung
Organopriming: Presently, a new term organopriming is

coined to denote the seed priming using organics. Eventhough the
term is new, the practices are ancient and are essentially identical
in principle to current invigouration techniques. Evenari (1980)
reported that ancient Greak farmers soaked cucumber seeds in
water or milk and honey before sowing to increase germination
rate and emergence.
Rice: Sundaralingam (2005) in rice hybrid ADTRH 1 and
its parental lines, reported that organopriming with 100%
coconut water for 16 h (1:0.5) registered higher germination in
IR 58025 A and ADTRH 1 (Figure 1). Whereas, panchakavya
5% solution recorded higher germination in IR 66 R. Speed of
germination was the highest in panchakavya 4% treatment in all
the genotypes.
230
Figure 1. Influence of orgopriming on seed germination of rice

hybrid ADTRH 1 and its parental lines
Vijayan (2005) stated that soaking in coconut water 75% for 16h
proved to be the best in enhancing germination and vigour of
ADT 43 rice (Figure 2.). Panchakavya 3% and vermiwash 75%
were also effective.
Figure 2. Effect of organic seed treatment on seed germination of

rice cv. ADT 43
Blackgram: For improved germination and seedling vigour,
the seeds of blackgram could be soaked in 4% panchakavya or
2% moringa leaf extract for 4 h (Figure 3)
K Vanangamudi
231
T1 Control; T2 Water soaking; T3 2% Neem leaf extract; T4 4% Panchakavya;

T5 2% Prosopis leaf extract; T6 2% Arappu leaf extract; T7 2% Moringa leaf extract
Figure 3. Effect of organic seed invigouration on germination and

vigour index in black gram cv. APK1
Table 4. The plants and parts used for botanical treatment
Common
name
Scientific
name
Parts
used
Leaf/
Seed
Scientific
name
Moringa
Drumstick
oleifera
Tamarindus
Tamarind
indica
Bougainvillea Bougainvillea
spp.
Leaf
Basella
Basella ruba
Leaf
Leaf
Beetroot
Beta vulgaris
Leaf
Delonix regia Leaf
Marigold
Tagetus
erectus
Leaf
Leaf
Opuntia
Opuntia spp.
Leaf
Leaf
Garlic
Allium sativum Rhizome
Leaf
Turmeric
Leaf
Vasambu
Leaf
Chilli
Leaf
Sikkai
Leaf
Soapnut
Curcumba
longa
Acorus
calamus
Capsicum
annum
Acacia
concinna
Sapindus
trifoliatus
Syzygium
cuminii
Arappu
Albizia amara Leaf
Pungum
Pongamia
pinnata
Azadirachta
indica
Acacia
nilotica
Prosopis
juliflora
Neem
Karuvel
Prosopis
May
flower
Hariyali
grass
Cyanodon
dactylon
Hibiscus
Hibicus
rosasinensis
Mentha
Mint
spicata
Milk
Calotropis
weed
procea
Mahendi Lowsonia
inermis
Vitex
Notchi
negundo
Sambangi Telosma
minor
Leaf
Common
name
Jamun
Parts
used
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Rhizome
Rhizome
Seed
Seed
Seed
Seed
232
Tomato: In tomato cv PKM 1, Alex Albert (2004) suggested

that, organopriming of seeds with 50% coconut water was the best
in enhancing germination. Organopriming with panchagavya
1%, vermiwash 25% and starter solution 10% were also effective
in enhancing the germination.
Seed pelleting: Seed pelleting is enclosing the seed with
foreign material to obtain a standard size and it has influence
on seedling growth at seed soil interface. It can be done by the
stamping, coating and rolling. The seeds are uniformly coated
with adhesive and then, the filler materials are sprinkled. The
botanicals can be added as a filler material to increase the size,
shape and weight of seeds as well as an active ingredient for
improving the physical, physiological and health qualities of
seed (Table 4).
Parameswari (1999) with tamarind reported that pelleting
with arappu + pungam leaf powders was beneficial in production
of elite seedlings at nursery (Table 5).
Table 5. Effect of seed pelleting with botanicals on germination
and vigour index
Treatment (T)
Control
Pelleting with
Arappu leaf powder
Pungam leaf powder
Prosopis leaf powder
Arappu + Pungam
Arappu + Prosopis
Pungam + Prosopis
CD (P = 0.05)
Germination
(%)
77
88
87
80
93
85
85
1.74
Vigour index
30 Days after
90 Days after
sowing (DAS)
sowing
3829
4178
4771
4607
3996
5125
4386
4360
T
DAS
159.6 164.7
5148
4977
4296
5539
4727
4748
Tx DAS
154.3
Neem seeds pelleted with Albizia amara @ 250 g kg1 of

seed excelled other pelleting treatments and unpelleted seeds in
respect to germination and seedling vigour (Figure 4).
K Vanangamudi
233
Figure 4. Effect of seed pelleting on germination and seedling vigour

of neem
Seed biopriming: a) Biocontrol agents: Kalaivani (2010)
reported that maize hybrid COH (M) 5 seeds bioprimed with
60% T. viride for 12h had higher germination (88%) with an
increase of 7% over nonprimed seed and 6% over hydropriming.
She has also reported that the seeds bioprimed with P. fluorescens
at 80% for 12h showed higher germination and vigour. Karthika
and Vanangamudi (2012) reported that seeds of maize COH (M)
5 hybrid bioprimed using enriched humic acid with T. viride 80%
for 12 h outperformed others by recording an increase of 10.0,
15.6, 8.4, 14.4, 29.5 and 36.4 per cent for germination, root length,
shoot length, drymatter production, vigour index I and vigour
index II, respectively over the nonprimed seeds. Kavitha (2011)
stated that in rice, T. viride 60% bioprimed seed for 18h was found
to increase the speed of germination by 55 per cent, germination
by 12 per cent, root length by 4 per cent, vigour index I (G x SL)
by 15 per cent and vigour index II (G x DMP) by 18 per cent over
nonprimed seed, followed by P. fluorescens 60% for 12h which
showed an increase over the nonprimed seed of 46, 2.4, 9 and 21
per cent for speed of germination, germination, shoot length and
vigour index II (G x DMP), respectively.
Mariselvam (2012) reported that bhendi seeds bioprimed
with T. viride 60% for 12h was found to increase the speed of
germination by 81 per cent, germination by 18 per cent, root length
234
by 13 per cent, shoot length by 13 per cent, vigour index I (G

x SL) by 44 per cent and vigour index II (G x DMP) by 123 per
cent over nonprimed seed. Seed biopriming with P. fluorescens
60% for 12h also showed a higher percentage of increase over
the nonprimed seed and they were 44, 10, 7, 28, 51, 31 and 69
per cent for speed of germination, germination, root length,
shoot length, drymatter production, vigour index I (G x SL) and
vigour index II (G x DMP), respectively. Dhanalaksmi (2013)
concluded that tomato and chilli seeds bioprimed with T. viride
at 60% concentration for 9 and 6h, respectively enhanced the
speed of germination (25 and 27 per cent), germination (35 per cent),
root length ( 41 and 53 per cent), shoot length (106 and 91 per cent),
drymatter production (157 and 167 per cent), vigour index I (G
x SL) (111 and 119 per cent) and vigour index II (G x DMP) (250
and 271 per cent) over nonprimed seed (Figure 5). She has also
reported that both the seeds bioprimed with P. fluorescens at 80%
concentration for 3h, showed a higher percentage of increase
over the nonprimed seed and they were 35 and 33, 24 and 35,
57and 35, 77 and 76, 180, 101 and 80, 235 and 236 per cent for
speed of germination, germination, root length, shoot length,
drymatter production, vigour index I (G x SL) and vigour index
II (G x DMP), respectively.
a. Tomato
b. Chilli
Figure 5. Germination of tomato and chilli seeds bioprimed with
Trichoderma viride
Biofertilizers: Kalaivani (2010) reported that maize
seeds bioprimed with 20% Azospirillum for 12h had higher
germination (95 per cent) with an increase of 20 per cent over
nonprimed seed and 10 per cent over hydropriming. She has
also reported that the seeds bioprimed with phosphobacteria
at 20% concentration for 12h recorded higher germination of 95
K Vanangamudi
235
per cent. Kavitha (2011) found that rice (ADT 43) seed bioprimed
with liquid Azospirillum 20% for 12h expressed high values for
speed of germination and vigour index over nonprimed seed.
Seeds bioprimed with phosphobacteria 15% for 12h was also
found to improve the speed of germination, germination, root
length, drymatter production and vigour index compared to
nonprimed seed.
Mariselvam (2012) reported that bhendi seed bioprimed
with liquid Azospirillum 15% for 12h expressed high values for
speed of germination and germination, which accounted for 61
and 13 per cent increase, respectively over nonprimed seed.
However, hydropriming for 12 h also increased the speed of
germination. With respect to root and shoot length, an increase
of 18 and 16 per cent was noticed in the seed bioprimed with
Azospirillum 15% for 12 h, respectively. The seeds bioprimed with
Azospirillum 20% for 12 h also showed increased vigour index I
(G x SL) and vigour index II (G x DMP), which accounted for 32
and 107 per cent increase over the nonprimed seed, respectively.
Dhanalaksmi (2013) reported that in tomato and chilli, seeds
bioprimed with Azospirillum at 15% concentration for 9 and
6h, respectively excelled others. A significant improvement
in speed of germination (27 and 25% increase, respectively),
germination (22%), root length (30 and 27%), shoot length (73
and 71%), drymatter production (218%), vigour index I (G x SL)
(65 and 51%) and vigour index II (G x DMP) (300%) was noticed
over nonprimed seed. She has also reported that biopriming of
seeds with phosphobacteria at 20% concentration for 6 and 3h
were found to increase the speed of germination (28 and 26%),
germination (17%), root length (54%), shoot length (64 and 50%),
drymatter production (218%), vigour index I (G x SL) (49 and
45%) and vigour index II (G x DMP) (300%), over nonprimed
seed in tomato and chilli.
Muthurani (2013) concluded that biopriming with
Trichoderma viride 80% for 3 h or Pseudomonas fluorescens 80% for
3 h or liquid Azospirillum 20% for 12 h or liquid phosphobacteria
20% for 3 h was found to be the best seed biopriming treatment
to enhance the germination rate, total germination percentage,
seedling growth and vigour.
236
Organic Nutrient Management for seed production: Similar

to organic production, seed production also involves similar
management practices for nutrient management. Organopriming
of seeds in combination with other organic nutrient management
practices have yielded good results. Jayanthi (2008) revealed that
spraying of pulse (cowpea 2%) extract recorded more number of
panicles plant1, panicle length (cm), number of seeds panicle1
and 1000 seed weight (g) (Figure 6).
Figure 6. Effect of foliar spray with pulse sprout extract on yield

attributes and seed yield of rice (R line of CORH 3).
Alex albert (2004) expressed that FYM + vermicompost
combination proved to be the best for tomato seed production
(Table 6).
Table 6. Organic nutrient management in tomato seed production
Treatments
Control (Inorganic source)
Vermicompost + Panchagavya
FYM + Panchagavya
FYM + Vermicompost + Panchagavya
Composted coirpith + Panchagavya
FYM + Herbal leaf extract
Vermicompost + Herbal leaf extract
FYM + Vermicompost + Herbal
leaf extract
Composted coirpith + Herbal leaf extract
Mean
Seed yield ha1 Seed recovery

(kg)
(%)
227.6
0.730
177.4
0.623
174.9
0.630
200.7
0.683
172.4
0.660
166.9
0.620
198.3
0.680
202.7
0.660
198.2
191.0
0.670
0.662
K Vanangamudi
237
When panchagavya spray was tried in potato seed

production to increase seed sized tubers, it evidenced that the
application of panchagavya 3% solution on organically grown
potato by spraying at 15 days interval is advantageous as it
resulted in better performance both in terms of seed as well as
total tuber yield (Figure 7)
<30 g
30 60 g
>60 g
P1 : Seed tuber soaking in panchagavya (3%) + spraying panchagavya (3%) at 8 days interval (12
sprays);P2 : Seed tuber soaking in panchagavya (3%) + spraying panchagavya (3%) at 15 days
interval (6 sprays);P3 : Only spraying panchagavya (3%) at 8 days interval (12 sprays);P4 : Only
spraying panchagavya (3%) at 15 days interval (6 sprays);P5 : Recommended cultural practices
+ spraying panchagavya at 15 days interval(6 sprays);P6 : Recommended cultural practices
(Control) (90:135:90 NPK kg ha1).
Figure 7. Effect of panchagavya foliar spray on potato tuber yield.
According to Karthika (2013), the organic seed yield was the

highest by recording 729.4 and 706.5 kg ha1, respectively during
June 2011 and January 2012 in the treatment involving seed
biopriming with Azospirillum 15% for 12h and recommended
dose of fertilizer which accounted for 12 and 8 per cent increase,
respectively over the control. Among the organic manures, seed
biopriming with Azospirillum and 100% RDF through poultry
manure ranked first in terms of higher yield of organic seed
(550.7 and 545.5 kg ha1, respectively in June 2011 and January
2012) with an increase of 6 and 7 per cent, respectively (Figure
8) and B:C ratio of 1:2.1. However, the seed quality in terms
of germination and vigour index was higher in the resultant
238
organic seed harvested from the plants grown from bioprimed

seed under 100% RDF through poultry manure, followed by
those seed grown under 100% RDF through vermicompost.
S1 RDF; S2 100% RDF through farm yard manure (FYM); S3 100% RDF through poultry manure
(PM); S4 100% RDF through vermicompost (VC); S5 50% FYM + 50% PM; S6 50% FYM + 50%VC;
S7 50%PM + 50%VC
Figure 8. Influence of seed biopriming and organic nutrition on

organic seed yield of bhendi
Organic management of pests and diseases: For

management of aphids and leafhopper, seed biopriming with T.
viride and imidacloprid spray followed by seed biopriming with
T. viride and neem seed kernel extract 5% spray, were found
effective when counts were taken on first, second and seventh
day after first, second and third spray with good residual effect
(Figure 9). However, for management of mites, whitefly and
fruit borer, either imidacloprid 0.5 ml lit1 or neem seed kernel
K Vanangamudi
239
extract 5% or dashparni 10% or brahmastra 5% or cows urine

5% or panchakavya 3% was found effective with good residual
effect (Karthika, 2013).
S1 Imidacloprid @ 0.5ml/lit. of water; S2 Panchakavya 3%; S3 Dashparni extract 10%; S4

Neemastra 10%; S5 Agneyastra 3%; S6 Brahmastra 5%; S7 Cows urine 5%; S8 Neem seed
kernel extract 5%
Figure 9. Effect of seed biopriming with Trichoderma viride and

biopesticides spraying on aphid population in bhendi cv. Arka
Anamika during July 2011 and January 2012 seasons
She also observed that the seeds bioprimed with T.

viride 60% for 12h and neem seed kernel extract 5% spray
protected the natural enemies like syrphid fly, spider and
coccinellid beetle with an increase in population from 124
(syrphid fly in July 2011) to 1300 per cent (coccinellid beetle
in January 2012) when compared to seed biopriming and
imidacloprid spray. The diseases like Bhendi yellow vein
mosaic virus, root rot and powdery mildew were effectively
controlled by biopriming seed treatment with imidacloprid
240
spray, followed by these treatments with neem seed kernel

extract 5% spray. The good control of BYVMV might be due
to effective management of virus transmitting insect vector,
the whitefly (Figure 10).
S1 Imidacloprid @ 0.5ml/lit. of water; S2 Panchagavya 3%; S3 Dashparni extract 10%; S4

kernel extract 5%

biopesticides spraying on Bhendi Yellow Vein Mosaic Virus incidence in
bhendi cv. Arka Anamika during July 2011 and January 2012 seasons
The seed yield was higher in the treatment involving seed

biopriming with T. viride @ 60% 12h and imidacloprid spray @ 0.5 ml/
lit.of water by recording 737.7 and 690.9 kg ha1, respectively during
K Vanangamudi
241
July 2011 and January 2012, which accounted for 29.1 and 22.5 per cent
increase over the second best treatment (Figure 11). The second best
treatment was seed biopriming with T. viride and neem seed kernel
extract 5% spray which showed an yield decrease of 22.5 and 18.3 per
cent, respectively during July 2011 and January 2012 with B:C ratio of
1:2.3 when compared to the best performing treatment.
S1 Imidacloprid @ 0.5ml/lit. of water; S2 Panchagavya 3%; S3 Dashparni extract 10%; S4

kernel extract 5%

biopesticides spraying on organic seed yield ha1 in bhendi cv. Arka
Anamika during July 2011 and January 2012 seasons
242
Seed storage: Kalaivani (2010) stated that storability of

Pseudomonas fluorescens 80% bioprimed seed maize hybrid for 12
h was high and they could be stored well with minimal loss in
vigour and viability upto 6 months of storage in cloth bag under
ambient conditions. Revathi (2013) revealed that seeds bioprimed
with T. viride 80% for 12h could able to store better in 700 gauge
polyethylene bag which registered 73 per cent germination
at 18 months of storage. T. viride survived on bioprimed seed
upto 2 months of storage only. Organic seed treatment for rice,
maize, tomato, chilli, bhendi and marigold indicated that seed
biopriming with biocontrol agent and liquid biofertilizers was
found good. Organic nutrient management of bhendi seed crop
with vermicompost or poultry manure could be recommended.
Organic biopesticide namely NSKE 5% could able to control
major pests and diseases of bhendi on par with imidacloprid.
Organic seed could be stored better with Trichoderma and
Pseudomonas biopriming.
References
Alex Albert, V. (2004). Organic seed production in tomato (Lycopersicon
esculent-tum Mill.). M.Sc. (Ag) thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore.
Bharathi, (1999) Studies on handling, management and storage of
neem seed (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) Ph.D. thesis, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
Dhanalakshmi, G. (2013). Biopriming studies using biocontrol agents
and liquid biofertilizers in tomato and chilli seeds. M.Sc. (Ag.)
Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
Evenari, M. (1980). The history of germination research and the lesson it
contains for today. Isrel J. Bot., 29: 421.
Jayanthi, M. (2008). Organic fortification of seed and seed crop of rice
with pulse sprout extract (Oryza sativa L.). M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
Kalaivani, S. (2010). Seed biopriming studies with biocontrol agents and
liquid biofertilizers in COH(M) 5 maize hybrid. M.Sc. (Ag.) thesis,
Karthika, G. and K. Vanangamudi. (2012). Physiological and biochemical
changes during germination in COH(M) 5 maize hybrid seed
bioprimed using enriched humic acid with biocontrol agents.
Agrobios Res., 1(1): 3545.
K Vanangamudi
243
Karthika , C. (2013). Development of technologies for organic bhendi

(Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench) seed production, Ph.D. thesis,
Kavitha, S. (2011). Biopriming with biocontrol agents and liquid
biofertilizers for rice seed cv. ADT 43. M.Sc. (Ag.) thesis, Tamil
Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
Mariselvam, D. (2012). Performance of bioprimed bhendi (cv. Arka
anamika) seeds with biocontrol agents and liquid biofertilizers
under laboratory and field conditions. M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, Tamil
Manimekalai, C. (2006). Organic seed invigouration in black gram
(Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper) cv. APK 1. M.Sc. (Ag) thesis, Tamil
Muthurani, N. (2013). Biopriming studies in Marigold hybrid seeds.
M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore.
Parameswari (1999). Seed technological studies in Tamarind (Tamarindus
indica) M.Sc. thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore.
Ravichandran. G. (2005). Development of seed potato production
technologies for nilgiris. Ph.D. (Ag) Thesis, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
Revathi R. (2013). Studies on seed biopriming and foliar application
with biocontrol agents and liquid biofertilizers in maize hybrid
COH (M) 5, Ph.D. thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore.
Sundaralingam, K. (2005). Organic seed production in hybrid rice
ADTRH 1. Ph.D., thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore.
Vanangamudi, K. and V. Manonmani (2011). Organic seed Traditional
varieties and technologies Scientific Publishers(India), Jodhpur
Vijayan, R. (2005). Organic seed production in rice cv. ADT 43. Ph.D.
thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
Safety, Quality and Certification in Organic

Agricultural Produce
Bobby Issac
Organic agriculture has been gaining lots of momentum in
the recent years. The market for organic products has also
increased as more consumers engage in organic products
purchases. More and more consumers are becoming aware of
safety in food. Consumers prefer to buy foods that are free from
pesticide residues and harmful chemicals. The need for certified
organic products have increased many folds as it is required
to establish the trust between the consumers and the farmers
who are separated by a distance. With this background Organic
certification becomes important and inevitable. Certified organic
products are grown in most effective environment friendly way
and are verified and confirmed as per the various national and
international standards. Dependence on external inputs for
manuring, pest, disease and weed control are minimized or
even excluded. Thus the cost of cultivation is minimized and the
resultant products are nutritionally rich and have better keeping
quality.
Organic certification addresses a growing worldwide
demand for organic food. It is intended to assure quality and
prevent fraud, and to promote sustainable business. While such
certification was not necessary in the early days of the organic
movement, when small farmers would sell their produce directly
at farmers markets. As organic products have gained popularity,
more and more consumers are purchasing organic food through
traditional channels, such as supermarkets. Hence the consumers
start relying on third-party regulatory certification.
LACON was first officially accredited according to EN45011
for organic inspection and certification in the European Union
in 1992 in Germany for performing inspection and certification
Bangalore. 2014
245
246
Safety, Quality and Certification in Organic Agricultural Produce
activities. LACON is accredited by DAkkS and by the Ministry of

Economy and Employment in Vienna, Austria and also by USDA
based on US-NOP (National Organic Programme). LACON is
one of the leading certification bodies operating in India, which
accredited by the National Accreditation Board having its
secretariat at APEDA. The registered Indian office is in Kerala
and has branch offices in other states of the country to provide
the local services to the farmers. Lacon certifies project across 24
states, including North-Eastern states of India. The brand value
of LACON has helped the farmers to access international market
in addition to the growing domestic market.
The Organic certification efforts of small holder groups
helped the small farmers, especially in India, to participate
in the organic certification and this has impacted upon
thelivelihoods of producers, and on the environment. Third
party certification of small farmers is based on effective
functioning of the internal control system (ICS) which is a
similar verification system practiced internally by the group
members. ICS help individual small farmers to interact and
invoke group dynamics. Thus the group can build on their
strength and opportunities for collective marketing and gain
better price. The Certification body LACON builds the trust
to develop and broaden the external links with major buyers
and or exporters. An efficient supply chain transforming raw
products to value added products will surely increase the
income of farmers. Richness of biodiversity in organic field
will also contribute in enhancing the livelihood of members
in the group. Organic certification thus helps individual
small farmers to empower themselves to adopt strategies to
secure their livelihood. Certification refers to the confirmation
to compliance to respective regulation. This confirmation is
often, but not always, provided by some form of external
review, education, assessment, or inspection.
Organic certification: It is a third party verification check
and confirm the compliance level of the farm or the chain of
activities involved in the production processing and trade with
the respective organic standards. In general, any chain of activity
directly involved in organic food production can be certified,
including agricultural production of individual farms or group
of farms, processing, packing, labeling and transport
Bobby Issac
247
Requirements vary from country to country, and generally

involve a set of production standards for growing, storage,
processing, packaging and transportation that include: 1)
Avoidance of synthetic chemical inputs as per the NPOP
standards (e.g. Soil Conditioners, Plant protection products,
Fertilizers, food additives etc.), genetically modified organisms,
irradiation, and the use of sewage sludge; 2) Use of farmland
that has been free from prohibited synthetic chemicals for a
number of years (often, 23 years); 3) Keeping detailed written
documentation on agricultural production, processing and sales
records (audit trail); 4) Maintaining strict physical separation of
organic products from non-certified products; 5) Undergoing
periodic annual on-site inspections.
For organic producers, certification identifies suppliers of
products approved for use in certified operations. For consumers,
certified organic serves as a product assurance on the food
safety which confirms that there are no harmful substances
or artificial preservatives. Certification is essentially aimed
at regulating and facilitating the sale of organic products to
consumers. Individual certification bodies have their own trade
mark, which can act as branding to consumersbeing a reputed
German brand, LACONs logo has high consumer recognition
value and gives a marketing advantage to the farmers.
For first-time farm certification, the soil must meet basic
requirements of being free from use of prohibited substances
(synthetic chemicals, etc.) for a number of years. A conventional
farm must adhere to organic standards for this period, often
two to three years. This is known as Conversion period in
conversion. In conversion crops are not considered fully
organic. The perennial crops require 3 years of conversion
period, whereas the annual crops require 2 years of conversion
to get the organic status. Certification for operations other than
farms follows a similar process. The focus is on the quality of
ingredients and other inputs, and processing and handling
conditions. A transport company would be required to detail the
use and maintenance of its vehicles, storage facilities, containers
etc.
In addition, shortnotice or surprise inspections can be
made, and specific tests (e.g. soil, water, plant tissue) may be
248
Safety, Quality and Certification in Organic Agricultural Produce
requested. In India, Agricultural and Processed foods Export

Development Authority (APEDA), regulates the certification
of organic products as per National Standards for Organic
Production (NPOP). The NPOP standards for Agricultural
production and accreditation system have been recognized by
European Commission and Switzerland as equivalent to their
country standards. Similarly, USDA has recognized NPOP
conformity assessment procedures of accreditation as equivalent
to that of National Organic Prgramme (NOP) which is the organic
standards of USA. With these recognitions, Indian organic
products duly certified by the accredited certification bodies
of India are accepted by the importing countries, especially
in Europe and USA. Organic food products manufactured
and exported from India are marked with the India Organic
certification mark which is the registered trade mark of Indian
organic products.
Rapid Growth of Eco-friendly Low Cost

Sustainable Organic Agriculture Production
Systems in the World
R Srinivasa Murthy, P Mazumdar, Manisha Rani, Sahina
Tabassum and Krishan Chandra
The term organic was first used in relation to farming by

Nothbourne (1940) in his book Look to the Land. The term
organic farming is referred to a agricultural production
management system which improves soil health, biological
diversity of micro flora, macro fauna and animal husbandry
through the use of organic inputs like composts, vermicompost,
farmyard manure, biofertilizers, green manure, poultry manure,
crop residues, botanical agents for control pest and diseases,
natural energy conservation practices and low cost agronomic
practices. The organic agriculture improves soil production
capacity, soil biological cycles and biological activity which
contribute for sustainable agricultural production (Reganold
et al., 1993; Letourneau and Goldstein, 2001; Mader et al., 2002,
Bhattacharya, 2004; Bhattacharya and Chakraborty, 2005, Suresh
Reddy, 2010; Ram, 2003 Lampkin et al, 1999).
Scenario of global organic production: Organic agriculture
production is emerging as major agricultural sector in the
world. The Research Institute of Organic Agriculture FiBL and
International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements
(IFOAM) carried a survey across the world about organic
production in the year 201213. The data revealed that more
than 162 countries are actively engaged in organic agriculture
production and shares 0.86% agriculture land. The growth of
organic agriculture production land has been raised from 29.0
to 37.2 mh and organic producers have increased from 695 to
1798 thousand from 2005 to 2011. A total of 1.8 million producers
were reported in 2011 where as in 2010 it was 1.6 million. The
Bangalore. 2014
249
250
Rapid Growth of Sustainable Organic Agriculture Production
organic industry has grown from $3.6 billion in 1997 to $31.5

billion in 2011. The global market reaches 62.8 billion US dollars
and 86 countries have an organic legislation. Oceania occupies
1st place with an area of 12.2 million hectares followed by Europe
(10.6 million hectares) and Latin America (6.9 million hectares).
Among the countries, Australia covers highest area of organic
land fallowed by Argentina and United States in the second and
third place respectively (www.fibl.orghttp, www.ifoam.org).
Organic market growth at global level: In a major
survey in seven European Union (EU) countries shift for
organic agriculture is accounted for more than 50% of the
EUs agricultural area. It found that between 0.8 and 3.1% of
farmers in each country were registered as organic. The National
Organic Agricultural Movement of Uganda (NOGAMU) was
established in 2001, started with four exporter companies and it
has 44 export companies in the year 2012 that has accomplished
through change in market promotion and linkages. It is exporting
its produce to Europe, Japan and the Middle East countries.
More than 1.2 million farmers adopted and accepted organic
production systems. The new trends of organic outlets in towns
in central Uganda started to increase the accessibility of organic
products in local markets. Around the world certified organic
food markets were concentrated in North America, Europe and
Japan and covers around more than 95% of the global market.
The organic market is expanding its wings to more than one
hundred countries. The organic produce exporting countries
Turkey, Brazil and China used only to export organic produce
but now a days it is finding local market demands too. Since
People are getting more conscious about quality and value of
organic produce. Organic produce is also getting better access
in specialized health food shops, supermarkets and restaurants.
There are organic restaurants in Nairobi, Rio de Janeiro, Shanghai,
Tehran and New Delhi. The global market for organic food and
drink almost tripled between 2000 and 2011 and is now worth
more than 60 billion USD (Ploeg, 2002; Peter, 2013; Willer, 2013).
Organic farming status of India: As per world statistics,
India may be far behind other countries in total land under
organic and 2nd in Asia after China, but in terms of total cultivated
land, India leads with 1.08 m ha under regular cultivation. The
area under organic agriculture production has increased from
R Srinivasa Murthy et al 251
42,000 to 10, 85,648 ha during the period from 2004 to 2012.

Total area under organic certification process, including wild
harvest collection area has grown from 4551899 ha to 5211141
ha form 200910 to 201213. (http://ncof.dacnet.nic.in), (www.
fibl.org; www.ifoam.org). India produced approximately 2.95
million tons (mt) of certified organic products which includes
all varieties of food items namely Sugarcane, Cotton, Basmati
rice, Pulses, Tea, Spices, Coffee, Oil Seeds, Fruits and their value
added products. The production is not limited to the edible sector
organic cotton fiber, functional food products are also important
commodities. Among states,Madhya Pradesh covered largest
area under organic certification followed by Rajasthan and Uttar
Pradesh. The total organic production increased from 1.7 mt to
2.95 mt during 200910 to 201112.
India exported135 productsin the year201213with the
total volume of165262 MT including4985 MT organic textiles.
The organic agriculture export realization was around374
million US $including160 US $organic textiles registering
4.38%growth over the previous year. Among the different
products exported, Soybean Oil seeds (41%)leadthe tally
followed byCane Sugar (26%), processed food products (14%),
Basmati Rice (5%), other cereals and millets (4%), Tea (2%), Spices
(1%), Dry fruits (1%) and others. Organic products are exported
to EU, US, Switzerland, Canada, South East Asian countries and
South Africa (http://www.ifoam.org/).
Promotion of organic farming in India: To promote
organic agriculture system Government of India launched
National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP) in
the year 2001. NPOP defined the standards, accreditation
procedures and established a credible certification system
which is now well established nationally and internationally.
The standard fallowed and adopted for the assessment and
certification by NPOP for organic agriculture production
system have been recognized and accepted by the European
Commission, Switzerland and United State Department
of Agriculture (USDA). For promotion of organic farming
National Centre of Organic Farming (NCOF) was established
in the year 2004 at Ghaziabad (Headquarter), Uttar Pradesh
with its six regional centres located at Bangalore, Nagpur,
Jabalpur, Bhubaneswar, Panchkula, and Imphal.
252
NCOF is actively engaged in implementing objectives

listed below to facilitate, encourage and promote development
of organic agriculture in the country (http://ncof.dacnet.nic.in).
1) To encourage production of organic inputs like biofertilizers/
biopesticides, Fruit and Vegetable Market Waste compost etc;
2) To act as nodal agency for implementation of quality control
regime for bio-fertilizers and organic fertilizers, as per the
requirement of FCO; 3) To formulate and define standards for
other unregulated organic and biological inputs and bring them
under quality control mechanism, define/upgrade standards
and testing protocols; 4) Develop, maintain, undertake regular
efficacy testing and ensure steady supply of mother cultures
of bio-fertilizer and other beneficial micro-organisms for
nutrient mobilization and plant protection to the biological
input production industry; 5) To run short term certificate
courses on organic system and on-farm resource management;
6) To organize regular trainings and refresher courses for State
Governments quality control analysts/inspectors associated
with implementation of Fertilizer (Control) Order 1985 (FCO);
7) To impart trainers training on certification systems, organic
management, input production and on other related aspects to
certification and inspection agencies, extension agencies, farmers,
industries and organizations engaged in the production, and
promotion of inputs and organic farming; 8) To initiate research
on validation of established indigenous practices, inputs and
technologies leading to development of package of practices;
Publication of training literature, Quarterly Organic Farming
Newsletter, Half yearly Biofertilizer Newsletter and validated
and documented indigenous practices; 9) Technical support to
existing certification systems in terms of standards formulation,
designing
implementation
protocols,
evaluation
and
surveillance. Policy, implementation and surveillance support to
alternative farmers group centric low-cost certification system
such as Participatory Guarantee System; 10) Awareness creation
through seminars/conferences/trade fairs and publicity through
print and electronic media and; 11) Support Central and State
Governments in evaluation, and monitoring of various organic
agriculture schemes.
NCOF is also supporting various financial schemes which
are going to be implemented for promoting organic production
in the country. The details of funds proposed/available for
different activity in the 12th plan are as follows: (Source from

Director, NCOF). 1) Promotion of Organic Inputs on Farmers
field (Manure, liquid Manures, Vermicompost, Biofertilisers,
municipal solid west and agro-west compost, Herbal Extracts
etc.) for increasing soil organic Carbon: Financial assistance
of 50% of cost subject to a limit of Rs. 5000/- per ha and Rs.
10,000 per beneficiary. Propose to cover 1 million ha area; 2)
Setting up of biofertilizer/ bio-pesticide production units with
financial assistance of 100% to State Govt./ Govt. Agencies
upto a maximum limit of Rs. 160.00 lakh /unit and 25% of cost
limited to Rs. 40 lakh/unit for individuals/private agencies
through NABARD as capital investment subsidy for 200 TPA
production capacity; 3) Setting up of Vegetable and fruit market
waste compost production unit with financial assistance of
100% to State Govt./Govt. Agencies upto a maximum limit of
Rs. 190.00 lakh/unit and 33% of cost limited to Rs. 63 lakh/
unit for individuals/private agencies through NABARD as
capital investment subsidy for 3000 TPA production capacity;
4) Adoption of organic farming through cluster approach by
Participatory Guarantee system (PGS) certification, financial
assistance of Rs. 20,000/- per ha subject to maximum of Rs.
40,000/- per beneficiary for 3 year term; 5) Support to PGS
system for On-line data management and residue analysis @ Rs.
200 per farmer subject to maximum of Rs. 5000/- per group/
year restricted to Rs. 1.00 lakh per Regional Council. Upto Rs.
10,000/- per sample for residue testing (Residue analysis to be
done in NABL Labs); 6) Organic Village adoption for manure
management and biological Nitrogen harvesting, financial
aids of Rs. 10 lakhs/village for adoption of integrated manure
management, planting of fertilizer trees on bunds and promotion
of legume intercropping through groups/SHGs etc. (Maximum
10 village per annum/State will be supported)
Organic village: The new models of agriculture that
humanity will need in the immediate future should include
forms of farming that are more ecological, bio-diverse,
local and sustainable and socially just. Therefore, they will
necessarily have to be rooted in the ecological rationale of
traditional small-scale agriculture, which represent longestablished, successful and adaptive forms of agriculture. The
basic attribute of agricultural sustainability is the maintenance
of agro-ecosystem diversity in the form of spatial and
254
temporal arrangements of crops, trees, animals and associated

biota. Increasingly, research suggests that agro-ecosystem
performance and stability is largely dependent on the level of
plant and animal biodiversity. Biodiversity performs a variety
of ecological services beyond the production of food, including
recycling of nutrients, regulation of microclimate and of local
hydrological processes, suppression of undesirable organisms
and detoxification of noxious chemicals. Because biodiversitymediated renewal processes and ecological services are
largely biological, their continued functioning depends upon
the maintenance of biological integrity and diversity in agroecosystems.Therefore, for sustainable agriculture and for
adoption of organic farming, educating farmers about organic
agriculture practices, creating awareness about hazards
of indiscriminate use of synthetic chemical fertilizers and
pesticides and also about other ecological issues and to educate
farmers to go on with the sustainable eco friendly organic
farming methods, educating the farmers about the possibility of
growing different crops suitable to the land and increase their
income, promotion of organic consumer movement so that the
farmers get better returns for their farm produce. Keeping this
philosophy in mind, Ministry of Agriculture under National
Mission on Sustainable Agriculture has proposed to develop
such model organic villages and for setting of such model
organic villages across the country, states shall be supported
with financial assistance for adoption of organic villages for
manure management and biological Nitrogen harvesting.
Mode of selection of villages for adoption: State
Government shall identify farmers who are not covered for
adoption of organic farming under any other scheme of Central/
State Government. Vulnerable mountains and hills, floodplains,
exposed hillsides, arid or semi-arid lands, rainfed area where
more and more people those at lower income levels, are at risk
from the negative impacts of climate variability will be preferred.
The implications for food security could be very profound,
especially for subsistence farmers living in remote and fragile
environments that are likely to produce very low yields. This is
particularly beneficial to small-scale farmers especially women
who have low or no access to credit, also lack capital and access
to fertilizer distribution systems, particularly since the private
sector is unlikely to invest in the most remote areas where
communication routes are poor and where few economies of

scale can be achieved. Suitable efforts may be taken for selection
of Women farmers, SC/ST farmers and PRIs/SFAC may be
involved for selection of such farmers.
Policies towards organic farming: Ministry of Agriculture,
Government of India is making policies to promote rapid growth
of organic farming which is technically sound, economically
viable, environmentally sustainable, and socially acceptable
with major emphasis on use of natural resources. Area
expansion policies aims at increasing crop potential, sustaining
soil fertility, conserving bioresources, strengthening rural
economy and promoting value addition to expand the growth of
organic market and to promote living standards of economically
backward communities. Important features of the policy includes
(http://ncof.dacnet.nic.in): Maintenance of soil fertility by
encouraging and enhancing the biological cycle within farming
systems involving micro-organisms, soil flora and fauna, plants
and animals; Identifications of area and crop suitable for organic
farming; Development of organic package of practices; Setting
up of model organic farms for getting seed material for organic
cultivation; Assurance of production and supply of quality
organic input; Adoption of biological methods for pest and
disease control; Adoption of biological and mechanical methods
for weed management; Harnessing of traditional and indigenous
knowledge relating to organic farming; Creation of awareness
among farmers towards organic agriculture; Development of
Domestic market for organic produce; Improvement of farmers
income through production of quality produce; Generation of
rural employment opportunity; Simplification of certification
system and recognition of adequate certification agencies,
specially for domestic market; Promotion of group certification;
Maintaining a diversity of plant and animal species as a basis
for ecological balance and economic stability; Improvement in
condition of livestock that allow them to perform all aspects of
their innate behaviour; Development of regulatory mechanism
for various organic input and organic produce.
As the basic attribute of agricultural sustainability is
the maintenance of agro-ecosystem diversity in the form of
spatial and temporal arrangements of crops, trees, animals and
associated biota, plant and animal biodiversity. Therefore,
256
Government policies primarily aims at soil health improvement

and organic farming proposed to be effectively implemented
by responsible Institutes at different levels at large scale with
in a time frame. The National Centre of Organic Farming
plays important role in implementing the various national
programmes at different levels. The farmers and entrepreneur
friendly policies will strengthen organic input production and
consumption. Through organic farming economically backward
also play a role in bringing revolution in the organic production
of the country and organic farming system is our future secured
sustainable agricultural production system.
References
Bhattacharya P and G. Chakraborty (2005) Current status of organic
farming in India and other countries Indian Journal of Fertilisers.
Vol. 1 (9). PP.111123
Bhattacharya P (2004) Organic food production in India Status
strategies and scope. Agribios (India) Jodhpur 01284
Krishan Chandra (2005) Organic manures, Regional Director, Regional
Centre of Organic Farming, , Banglaore, Year of Publication
January, 2005
Lampkin, Nicholas, C. Foster, S. Padel and P.Midmore. (1999) The policy
and Regulatory Environment for organic Farming in Europe. In:
Organic Farming in Europe: Economics and Policy. VoL2 Dabbert,
Haring, ZanoHeds).London: Zed Book
Letourneau, D.K. and Goldstein, B. (2001) Pest damage and arthropod
community structure in organic vs conventional tomato production
in California, Journal of Applied Ecology, 38(3):557570.
Mader, P., Fliefback, A., Dubois, D. Gunst, L., Fried, P. And Niggili, U.
(2002) Soil fertility and biodiversity in organic farming. Science,
296(5573): 16941697.
Mader, P., Fliefback, A., Dubois, D. Gunst, L., Fried, P. And Niggili, U
(2002) Soil fertility and biodiversity in organic farming. Science,
296(5573): 16941697
Peter Brul, Eva Mattsson, Nick Parrott, Christopher Stopes Project
leader Karin Hk, Swedish Society for Nature Conservation
Stockholm (2013) A Reprot on Organic food and farming for all
Green Action Week 2013 and 2014 Consumers and farmers for
food security, safe and sustainable food.
Ploeg, J.D. van der, Long, A. and J. Banks. (2002) Living Countrysides:
rural development processes in Europe the state of the art.
Elsevier, Doetinchem (NL).
Ram, B. (2003) Impact of human activities on land use changes in arid

Rajasthan: Retrospect and prospects. In: Human Impact on Desert
Environments, Eds: P. Narain, S. Kathaju, A. Kar, M.P. Singh and
Praveen Kumar, Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur. pp. 4459
Reganold, J.P., Palmer, A.S., Lockhart, J.C. and Macgregor, A.N (1993)
Soil quality and financial performance of biodynamic and
conventional farms in New Zealand. Science, 260(5106):344349
Suresh Reddy (2010) Organic Farming: Status, Issues and Prospects A
Review. B. Agricultural Economics Research Review, Vol. 23 July
December pp 343358
Willer H (2013) The World of Organic Agriculture; Statistics and
Emerging Trends 2013. FiBL/IFOAM, Frick (Switzerland)/ Bonn
Yadav A. K Organic Agriculture (Concept, Scenario, Principals and
Practices publication by National Centre of Organic Farming,
Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of
Agriculture, Govt of India, CGO-II, Kamla Nehru Nagar,
Ghaziabad, 201 001, Uttar Pradesh
www.fibl.org. The World of Organic Agriculture The Results of the
Latest Survey on Organic Agriculture Worldwide Helga Willer
and Julia Lernoud, Research Institute of Organic Agriculture
(FiBL), Frick, Switzerland BioFach Congress 2013, Nrnberg,
Session The World of Organic Agriculture 13.2.2013
Web: http://ncof.dacnet.nic.in,
http://www.apeda.gov.in/,
http://www.fibl.org, http://www.ifoam.org
Role of Indigenous Liquid Organic Manures in

Organic Crop Production
N Devakumar, A C Somanatha, S Shubha and B Latha
Organic farming as a concept has existed in India since ancient
period. It is a method of farming system which primarily aimed
at cultivating the land and raising crops in such a way as to keep
the soil alive and in good health by use of organic ways and other
biological materials along with beneficial microbes to release
nutrients to crops for increased sustainable production in an ecofriendly pollution free environment. Green revolution technologies
involving greater use of synthetic agrochemicals such as fertilizers
and pesticides with adoption of nutrient-responsive, high-yielding
varieties of crops have boosted the production output per hectare in
most cases. However, this increase in production has slowed down
and in some cases there are indications of decline in productivity
and production. Moreover, the success of industrial agriculture and
the green revolution in recent decades has often masked significant
externalities, affecting natural resources and human health as well
as agriculture itself. Nutrient supply in organic farming systems
relies on the management of soil organic matter to enhance the
chemical, biological and physical properties of the soil. One of the
basic principles of soil fertility management in organic systems is
that plant nutrition depends on biologically-derived nutrients
instead of using readily soluble forms of nutrients; less available
forms of nutrients such as those in bulky organic materials are used.
Improved soil biological activity is also known to play a key role in
suppressing weeds, pests and diseases (IFOAM publication, 1998).
Animal wastes such as dung, urine, green manure,
biofertilizers, wastes from agro and food based industries are
some of the potential sources of nutrients in organic farming.
The indigenous people in a given community have developed
various formulations with such resources over time and still
continue to develop (Grolink, 2005). It is based on the experience
often tested over years of use, adapted to a local culture and
Bangalore. 2014
259
260 Role of Indigenous Liquid Organic Manures in Organic Crop Production
environment and as their basis for natural resource management.

In traditional agricultural practices, farmers evolved an efficient
system of crop production through generations of experience
and intimate knowledge of their environment. Indigenous
liquid organic manures such as beejamrutha, jeevamrutha,
panchagavya, Amruthpani, liquid biodigester, biogas slurry
etc., play major role in improving growth and yield of crops.
Besides they also improve soil physical, chemical and biological
properties and also act as growth promoting and yield enhancing
substances.
Preparation and use of liquid organic manures: Among
indigenous technologies used by farmers, Panchagavya,
Jeevamrutha and Beejamrutha are ecofriendly organic
preparations made from cow products. Using of organic liquid
products such as Beejamrutha, Jeevamrutha and Panchagavya
results in higher growth, yield and quality of crops.
Beejamrutha: It is being used for treating seeds in traditional
practice. Beejamrutha is a totally organic product helpful for
plant growth and protects crop from harmful soil-borne and
seed-borne pathogens. Presence of naturally occurring beneficial
microorganisms predominantly bacteria, yeast, actinomycets,
photosynthetic bacteria and certain fungi were detected in cow
dung (Swaminathan, 2005). Beejamrutha is prepared by using
local cow dung, cow urine, water and lime. Take 5 kg of local
cow dung in a cloth and tie it with thread as a small bundle and
hang it for a night (12 hr) in 20 liters of water. In another container
dissolve 50 g of lime in 1 litre of water and keep it for a night.
Next day morning squeeze the cow dung in water add handful
of soil and mix well and to this add 5 liters of desi cow urine
and lime water and stir well. Treat the seeds in beejamrutha, dry
in shade and use for sowing. It protects the crops from harmful
fungus, bacteria and other pathogens of soil borne diseases. It
has hormones, alkaloids, which enhance the germination and
gives protection to seeds and seedlings (Palekar 2005).
Jeevamrutha: Jeevamrutha is a miracle microbial culture and
is not a fertilizer. The useful soil microorganisms, earthworms
are activated when jeevamrutha given with irrigation water.
Desi cow dung is the main base of jeevamrutha. Ingredients for
jeevamrutha:
N Devakumar et al 261
1. Water 200 liters
4. Jaggery 2 kg
2. Desi cow dung 10 kg

3. Desi cow urine 10 l
5. Pulse flour 2 kg
6. Handful of soil from farm/
forest/bund
Take a container/ plastic drum of 50 liters to which add 10

kg cow dung, 10 liters of cow urine and 10 liters of water and mix
it thoroughly. To this add 2 kg pulse floor, 2 kg organic jaggery
and handful of garden soil and add 10 liters of water and stir it
clock wise to form homogenous solution. Transfer this solution
to 200 liters plastic barrel and makeup the volume to 200 liters.
Keep the drum in shade or in room and cover it with wet jute
bag. Stir the solution daily in clockwise direction at morning,
afternoon and evening. Incubate the solution for 9 to 12 days and
use (Palekar 2005 & Devakumar et al, 2010). This solution is rich
source of useful and effective microorganisms. About 200 to 400
liters of jeevamrutha to be used per acre at monthly interval and
apply twice for better results. It can be used through irrigation
water and along with FYM during land preparation or at the
time of sowing. It acts as growth hormone, antifungal and anti
bacterial and prevents many soil borne diseases. Jeevamrutha
can also be used as spray after filtering at 5% concentration.
Panchagavya: Panchagavya, an organic product has the
potential to play the role of promoting growth and providing
immunity in the plant system. In Sanskrit, Panchagavya means
the blend of five products obtained from a cow and they are; cow
dung, cow urine, milk, curd and ghee. When these are suitably
mixed and used in crop production has beneficial effects. Take a
container to which add 7 kg cow dung and 1 kg cow ghee and mix
it thoroughly and incubate for 3 days. After 3 days add 10 liters
of cow urine and 10 liters water to the mixture and incubate for
15 days with regular mixing both in morning and evening hours.
After 15 days add 3 liters of cow milk, 2 liters of cow curd, 3 liters
of tender coconut water, 2 kg jaggery and 12 well ripened bananas
to the mixture and continue mixing both in morning and evening
for about a week. The container should be kept under shade and
covered with wet gunny bag. Panchagavya solution will be ready
in 30 days (Selvaraj et al, 2006). This is to be applied at 3 to 5%
concentration twice a month till maturity of crops. Descriptions
of this holy combination could be traced out in Vedas, the divine
scripts of Indian wisdom. This promotes biological activities in

the soil and makes nutrients available to crops. Panchagavya
may be applied with irrigation water. Panchagavya contain
macro nutrients, essential micro nutrients, many vitamins,
essential amino acids, growth promoting factors like IAA, GA,
and beneficial microorganisms (Natarajan, 2007; Sreenivasa et al.,
2010). Panchagavya is used as a traditional method to safe guard
plants and micro organisms and to increase plant production.
Biodigester: Biodigester is a device to prepare liquid
organic manure in large quantity using animal wastes like
dung, urine, cattle shed wash and other agricultural wastes. Cow
urine and dung are placed over the agriculture based organic
waste materials filled in the tank. The bio-gas slurry can also
be used instead of cattle dung. Besides Agro-based Industrial
organic wastes can be used along with other farm wastes. Fill
the water till the organic wastes get immersed and allow it
for fermenting for 1520 days and ready liquid manure gets
collected in collection pit. The principle behind is that low C: N
ratio materials (legumes, weeds etc.) and wide C:N ratio materials
(fibrous straws etc.) are co-composted and then the nutrients are
quickly released to available form. Biodigester liquid manure
can be used along with irrigation water and after filtration it can
also be given with drip irrigation. It helps in recycling of organic
wastes, improves soil fertility increase soil microbial population,
growth and yield in many crops.
Amruthpani: Amruthpani is heavenly drink it invigorates
the living soil and converts dead soil into living one. It is
prepared by mixing 250 g desi ghee, 500 g honey, 10 kg fresh
desi cow dung in 200 liters of water and keeps it for onetwo
days. This can be used with irrigation water and also use to treat
the seeds and seedlings (Selvaraj et al, 2006).
Analytical studies: Beejamrutha and Jeevamrutha: Maximum
CFUs of bacteria, fungi, actinomycets, N-fixers and P-solubilizers
were observed on the day of preparation of beejamrutha and later on
there is sharp decline in their number as the days elapsed (Table 1).
Maximum CFUs of bacteria (623), fungi (22) actinomycets (2), N-fixers
(71) and P-solublisers (52) were recorded on the day of preparation
and there on it decreased progressively and it was minimum on 7th day
after preparation. Higher colony forming units (CFU) in Jeevamrutha
were recorded between 9th to 12th day after preparation (Table 2) and
higher number of bacterial CFUs viz., Azotobacter sp., Bacillus sp.,
Beijerinckia sp., Chromatium sp., Chromobacterium sp., Pseudomonas sp.,
Rhodomicrobium sp., Serretia sp., Xanthomons sp., were recorded. The
different fungi observed were, Aspergillus sp., Fusarium sp., Penicillium
sp., Trichoderma sp. Isolated P-solubilisers were fungi Aspergillus sp.,
Penicillium sp., Bacteria like Bacillus sp., Pseudomonas sp. and N-fixers
like bacteria Azotobacter sp., A. chroococcum, A.beijerinckia, A. insigins,
Bacillus sp., Beijerinckia sp., Actinomycetes Streptomyces sp. It clearly
indicates that the jeevamrutha is enriched consortia of native soil
micro organisms. It will give best results if it is used between 9th to
12th days after preparation.
Table 1. Microbial population of Beejamrutha between 1 to 7
daysafter preparation
Days After Bacteria
Preparation
(105)
1
623
2
435
3
371
4
259
5
208
6
190
7
171
Microbial populations (CFUs*)

Fungi Actinomycetes N-fixers P-solubilisers
(103)
(103)
(103)
(104)
22
11
11
9
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
71
40
39
39
28
19
15
52
42
34
34
25
20
10
*Colony farming units
Table 2. Microbial population of Jeevamrutha between 1 and 30

days after preparation
Microbial Population
Days after Preparation
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
Bacteria ( 105 ) 213 351 269 271 361 495 692 780 813 855
Fungi ( 104 )
11
2
6
2
1
6
7
31 32 29
Actinomycetes
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
9
12
8
(103)
N-Fixers (103)
34 29 16 46 23 09 20 27 63 69
P-Solubilizers
61 60 12 48 37 53 61 48 50 80
(103)
Microbes
Microbial Population
Days after Preparation
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Bacteria ( 105 ) 843 727 447 526 562 551 402 367 339 292
Fungi ( 104 )
36 17 08 21 18 14 17 06 05 04
Actinomycetes
11 03 03 03 06 01 02 03 02 02
(103)
N-Fixers (103)
67 58 49 34 40 118 90 64 43 30
P-Solubilizers
52 79 67 32 34 131 40 47 48 35
(103)
Microbes
The presence of beneficial microorganisms in these liquid

formulation might be due to their constituents, which are
mainly from cow such has cow dung, cow urine and legume
flour, jaggery, they contain both macro nutrients and essential
micro nutrients, many vitamins, essential amino acids, growth
promoting substances like indole acetic acid (IAA), gibberlic
acid (GA) and beneficial microorganisms (Palekar, 2006;
Sreenivasa et al, 2010; Neelima and Sreenivasa, 2011). For
jeevamrutha a handful of soil from the field for which it has
to be used is also added at the time of preparation. These will
serve as initial inoculums of bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes,
N-fixers and P-solublisers. Hence, the higher beneficial
microorganisms were found in these organic formulations
and it is in confirmity with Papen et al (2002) Sreenivasa et al
(2010).
The nutrient content of beejamrutha, jeevamrutha and
their constituents are presented in Table 3. It was found
that beejamrutha, cow dung and cow urine is alkaline and
jeevamrutha is highly acidic. Hence, these formulations would
serve a long way in supplementing many of the biofertilizers
and biocontrol agents used in crop production in rural areas.
This is also in conformity with Devakumar et al (2011) who
have reported that both jeevamrutha and panchagavya have
enhanced the growth of Nitrogen fixers in locally available
substrates such as FYM, pressmud, compost and digested
biogas slurry.
Table 3. Nutrient composition of beejamrutha, jeevamrutha and

their constituents
Sample
Beejamrutha
Jeevamrutha
Local cowurine
Local cowdung
Pulse flour
pH
8.02
4.92
8.16
8.08
6.70
N
2.38
1.96
1.67
0.70
1.47
P
0.127
0.173
0.112
0.285
0.622
K
0.485
0.280
2.544
0.231
0.910
Mg(ppm)
16
46
6.3
9.33
12.6
Cu(ppm)
36
51
20.00
3.60
12.40
Microbial population in Panchagavya at different days after preparetion

1200
Bacteria
Fungi
1000
Actinomycetes
P -solubilizers
N-fixers
CFUs
800
600
400
200
0
DAYS
Figure 1: Graphical representation of microbial population of

Panchagavya during the fermentation period
Different microorganisms and their number during
fermentation period in panchagavya are depicted in Figure 1.
It was observed that bacterial count was higher during 19th to
22nd days after preparation and later declined. Somasundaram et
al (2003) have found that under higher acidity more number of
beneficial microorganisms was recorded in panchagavya. They
not only enhance microbes in the environment but also act as
catalysts with a synergistic effect to promote all useful microbes
of the environment. These microorganisms secrete proteins,
organic acids and antioxidants in the presence of organic matter
and convert them into energy thus, the soil micro flora and fauna
change from a disease inducing soil to a disease suppressive soil.
Nutrient contents in liquid biodigester manure are presented
in Table 4. The pH is neutral and it contains major nutrients in
lesser quantity and fairly higher micronutrient content.
Table 4: Nutrient content in Liquid Biodigester Manure
Parameters
pH
EC (dSm1)
Av. N (%)
Av.P2O5 (%)
Av.K2O (%)
Ca (mg/litre)
Value (range)
7 7.55
0.20 0.26
0.2 1.05
0.06 0.81
0.05 0.65
42.0 54.1
Parameters
Mg (mg/litre)
S (mg/litre)
Zn (ppm)
Cu (ppm)
Mn (ppm)
Fe (ppm)
Value (range)
10.9 12.6
0.32 0.48
211 214
20.1 22.3
43.8 45.9
22.2 23.0
Performance of Beejamrutha, Jeevamrutha and

Panchagavya on different crops: In an experiment conducted
with different liquid organic manures such as beejamrutha, cow
urine, panchagavya and liquid biofertilizers under palekars
method and organic method, it was observed that these treatment
increase in paddy yields. The increase in yield varied between
5 to 11% by seed treatment with these formulations. Similarly
overall increase in paddy grain yield was higher under organic
cultivation than palekars system (Devakumar et al, 2008).
Application of 9% panchagavya has increased yield of field bean
to an extent of 29%. Similarly, when jeevamrutha was used at
200500 liters per acre has resulted in increased yield of 15 to
40% in field bean (Anon, 2010).
The studies conducted on tomato indicates that use
of beejamrutha, jeevamrutha and panchagavya along with
recommended fertilizers at flowering and crop harvest stage
resulted in increased plant height, root length, dry matter
accumulation, number of fruits per plant and fruit yield per
plant (Nilima Gore and Sreenivasa, 2011). This might be due to
higher microbial load and plant growth promoting substances
present in the liquid formulations which helped in improving
plant growth and metabolic activities. Muthuvelu (2002) has
reported higher bhendi yield with four sprays of panchagavya
(3%) and moringa leaf extract spray at 25 ml/plant. Mamaril and
Lepez (1997) have reported that panchagavya includes tender

coconut water which contains kinetin and it might have helped
to increases the biomass and yields of crops. Beneficial micro
organisms present in beejamrutha produced IAA and GA which
resulted in improvement in seed germination, seedling length
and seedling vigor in soybean (Sreenivasa et al, 2009).
In maize significantly higher number of leaves, plant height,
grain and stover yields were obtained with the application of 3%
panchagavya and 5000 liters/ha of cow urine application at 30th
and 60th days after sowing (Anon 2008). Sathiyamoorthy (1997)
has reported higher leaf area index, nutrient uptake and yield
in maize by application of biodigester liquid, panchagavya and
cow urine spray. Incorporation of green manures and foliar
application of panchagavya twice on the standing crop resulted
in better growth and development of crops which increased
grain yield of maize. Cob length and cob girth were significantly
higher in biodigester, followed by cow urine and panchagavya
liquid manures (Meena and Bheemavat, 2009). Liquid cattle
manure applied to soil did not affect the seed germination
but resulted in significant increase in plant height, number of
green leaves and dry biomass of maize (Masti et al, 2003). Seed
treatment with beejamrutha and panchagavya has enhanced the
yield of maize compared to control. Panchagavya (3%) sprayed
at 30 and 60 DAS has resulted in higher maize grain and stover
yield under different fertility management systems (Anon, 2008).
Muthuvelu (2002) and Devakumar et al (2008) have also reported
increased yield in bhendi, field bean and finger millet crops with
panchagavya.
Plant dry matter accumulation, number of pods per plant,
shelling percentage and pod haulm yield in groundnut were
increased with soil application of 1 liter per m2 to 3 liters per m2.
The increase was progressive with the increase in panchagavya
application (Kumawat et al, 2012). Selvaraj (2003) also
observed 36% increased yield of frenchbean with application
of vermicompost and panchagavya due to restoration of soil
fertility with these sources. Higher dry matter accumulation
(g/plant), pod length number of pods per plant, pod weight
per plant, seed weight per plant and yield of cluster bean were
recorded with foliar application of fermented panchagavya
compare to control during 2006 and 2007 (Kumawat et al, 2011).
Application of vermicompost at 5 tonnes per ha, groundnut cake

at 250 kg per ha along with 4 applications of panchagavya 3%
four times recorded highest plant height, number of branches,
number of fruits per plant, fruit length, fruit girth and dry fruit
yield of hot pepper was comparable and at par with inorganic
fertilizers application (Maheshwari and Haripriya, 2008). This
might be due to supplementation of organic Nitrogen, P and K
along with micro nutrients besides the growth promoters effect
of vermicompost (Jasveer singh et al, 1997).
Soil enzymes such as dehydrogenase activity are one
of the indicators of soil fertility. Naseby and Launch (1997)
considered that, enzymatic determinations are more useful than
microbial measures. The dehydrogenase enzyme is involved
in the respiratory chain of micro organisms and often used as
a parameter to evaluate the overall microbial activity of soil
(Serra-Wittling, 1995). Dehydrogenase activity was found to be
significantly higher with FYM equivalent to RDF + FYM and
control (Recommended dose of fertilizer only) and with liquid
manures it was highest with application of beejamrutha +
Jeevamrutha + Panchagavya. Increased dehydrogenase activity
in liquid manure treatments might be due to presence of naturally
occurring beneficial micro organisms in panchagavya that
improves soil quality (Xu and Xu, 2000). Jeevamrutha contained
higher microbial load which multiplies in the soil and act as a
booster to enhance microbial activity in soil (Palekar, 2006 and
Devakumar et al, 2008). Higher uptake of NPK were observed in
chilli when liquid manures i.e., beejamrutha, jeevamrutha and
panchagavya were used with FYM (Chandrakala. et al, 2007).
Boraiah (2013) has observed increased capsicum yield with
application of jeevamrutha and panchagavya and with increased
FYM levels. Higher availability of nutrients might be due to build
up of soil micro flora resulting in increased enzymatic activity.
Increased nutrient uptake with foliar spray of panchagavya was
ascribed to increased biological efficiency of crop plants and
creating greater source and sink in the plant system (Boomathi
et al, 2005).
In preliminary studies conducted during 200809, (Anon,
2010) there is need for producing liquid organic manures in bulk
to meet the high crop demand. The bio-digester is used to prepare
liquid organic manures in large quantity using animal waste, crop
waste, weed and all other permissible organic nutrient sources.

Further, studies carried out during 2011 and 2012 revealed that the
bio-digester liquid manure (BDLM) varies in its composition: 0.2
to 1.05 per cent N, 0.06 to 0.81 per cent P2O5, 0.05 to 0.65 per cent
K2O and besides it also contained other nutrients viz., Ca (42 to
54.1 mg/l), Mg (10.9 to 12.6 mg/l), S (0.32 to 0.48 mg/l), Zn (211 to
214 ppm), Cu (20.1 to22.3 ppm), Mn (43.8 to 45.9 ppm) and Fe(22.2
to 23 ppm). Further, at Balajigapade agricultural research station
after enriching bio-digester liquid manure with Pongamia cake,
castor cake and neem cake, nutrient content of bio-digester liquid
manure were raised. It enhanced Nitrogen (0.43%), Phosphorus
(0.28%), Potassium (0.66%), Ca (2.0%), S (0.21%), Mg (0.73%),
Fe (6325 ppm), Mn (522 ppm), Cu (42 ppm) and Zn (68 ppm)
content. Siddaram (2012) reported that application of FYM 12.5
t ha1 along with bio-digester liquid manure equivalent to 125 kg
N ha1 for aerobic rice and FYM 10 t ha1 with bio-digester liquid
manure equivalent to 30 kg N ha1 for fieldbean found to be the
best organic nutrient management practices for getting higher
yields under aerobic rice field bean cropping sequence in low
fertile soils. Sudheendra Saunshi (2012) reported that biodigester
liquid manure contained 0.91 to 1.0 per cent N, 0.24 to 0.53 per cent
P2O5 and 0.53 to 0.60 per cent K2O after enrichment with poultry
manure. Application of FYM 10 t + BDLM enriched with poultry
manure and rock phosphate equivalent to 60 kg N ha1 produced
significantly superior growth and yield parameters and recorded
significantly higher grain yield (3893 kg ha1) and straw yield of
finger millet (7228 kg ha1).
Economics: Manjunatha et al (2009) reported application
of FYM at the rate of 7.5 t ha1 + 100 per cent RDF recorded
highest gross returns (Rs. 35 551 ha1) and it was on par with the
treatment FYM at the rate of 7.5 t ha1 and Jeevamrutha (Rs.34
729 ha1). Prabhu et al. (2010) recorded highest benefit: cost ratio
of 2.71 with application of 2 per cent Panchakavya + 0.20 per cent
Humic acid + 2 per cent moringa leaf extract at 30 and 60 days
after planting in sacred basil. Higher net returns and B: C ratio
was recorded with application of FYM and coir pith compost
along with panchagavya (3 to 6%) spray for capsicum. Similarly,
application of jeevamrutha, cow urine and panchagavya (3 to
6%) spray to capsicum recorded higher net returns and B: C ratio
during kharif 2008 and summer 2009 (Boraiah, 2013).
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Potential Demand for Organic Products/Farming in

India and Abroad: An Overview
S C Panda
Farming is believed to have originated in the river valleys of
the subtropical regions of the world which had access to water
and fertile soil where food could be grown. Over the period,
several agricultural systems developed throughout the world
and productivity of the crops increased manifolds. Green
Revolution in agriculture which brought spectacular increases
in production and productivity in the country during late sixties
started showing symptoms of fatigue from the unwanted side
effects on natural resources like soil, water and biodiversity and
thus human health. As a result the vast areas of soil once fertile
have degraded as a result of soil erosion, salinisation or a general
loss of soil fertility. Water resources have been over exploited
and polluted due to excessive requirement of irrigation water
and intensive use of agro-chemicals for high yielding varieties.
Residues of harmful pesticides in food and drinking water have
endangered both farmers and citizens health and excessive use
of external inputs consumes lot of energy from non-renewable
resources.
Organic farming is a way of conserving the soil, maintaining
its fertility, protecting soil flora and fauna diversity thus
preventing pollution of ground water, lakes and rivers. It does
not utilize non-renewable external inputs and energy. Since,
no chemical pesticides are used for crop production there are
low chances of pesticide residues in food. At the same time the
organic products are believed to be more healthy and better in
quality characteristics like taste, aroma and storage. Thus organic
farming has emerged as a dynamic alternate farming system that
is believed to produce nutritious food of high quality with good
employment opportunities for rural population. The concept of
organic farming is, however, being understood variously. To
Bangalore. 2014
273
274
Potential Demand for Organic Products/Farming
some it simply implies non-application of any chemical inputs,

while a balanced approach suggests identifying inputs based
on necessity, nature and way of production and their effect
on human health and environment. In addition to this, socioeconomic and ethical aspects are also required to be kept into
consideration. In simple terms, it is a form of food production
system where traditional wisdom and ancient knowledge are
amalgamated with modern practices without much dependence
on off farm resources.
Other similar systems: There are a variety of organic
farming systems prevalent worldwide. Biodynamic agriculture
started in 1924 by Rudolf Steiner embraces holistic and spiral
understanding of nature where the farm is a self-contained
evolving organism, which keeps external inputs to a minimum. In
this system, biodynamic preparations are used and requirements
include, among others, harmony of cultivation with cosmic
rhythms, fair trade and promotion of associative economic
relations between producers, processors, traders and consumers.
In this system, energies from cosmos, earth, cow and plants are
systemically and synergistically harnessed.
Homa farming involves agnihotra, which meant crop
husbandry with the help of burning of whole rice grains mixed
with cow-ghee in a copper made pyramid of a specified size,
along with chanting of mantras at sunrise and sunset based on
the local timing. This practice is based on the assumption that,
tremendous energy is gathered in atmosphere with the holy
smoke while chanting mantra and it comes back to the soil and
ensure dramatic benefits to the crop growth and productivity.
Panchgavya consists of five products from cow, i.e., dung,
urine, milk, curd, and ghee mixed together with sugarcane juice,
coconut water, ripe banana and toddy and then incubated for 15
days and stirred daily. The above mixture is diluted in 1:10 ratio
with water and filtered. It is believed to have wonderful effect
on vegetative and reproductive growth of plants. Bill Mollison
developed the concept of Permaculture in 1970s. It is a social
design system that works to conserve energy on-farm promising
to generate more energy than it consumes for agriculture.
Nature farming introduced by Mokichi Okada in 1936
rests on the belief in universal life-giving powers that the
S C Panda
275
elements of fire, water, and earth confer on the soil. Utilizing

the inherent power of the soil is the underlying principle of
this farming. Ecological Farming is a labour intensive system
based on techniques of crop cultivation, involving promotion
of renewable source of energy (draught animal, power and
electrical energy through garbage and biogas from organic
waste). It also involves water use efficiency through conjunctive
use of rain, tank and underground well and river water. IPNM
and IPM are the essential components of ecological farming.
Finally there is the Traditional agriculture. Owing to its nature,
the traditional system does not use synthetic agricultural inputs.
Many, though not all traditional systems, meet the production
standards for organic agriculture. However, many of these
systems though reported to be useful in organic crop production
by many individuals and organizations are yet to be adequately
researched to establish their quantitative and qualitative effects
on production crops and environment.
Global initiatives: In spite of being an age-old practice,
systematic efforts to develop organic farming are only three and
a half decade old. In 1972 the International Federation of Organic
Agriculture Movement (IFOAM) was started by bringing together
all the global organizations involved in organic production,
certification and promotion. The concept of organic farming
took off with increased consumer interest in countries like USA,
Canada, Australia and Japan. Their strong concern and interest
to be supplied with wholesome, environment friendly products
has been largely responsible for the growth of the sector in
the West. In 1998, IFOAM basic standards for organic farming
and processing were formulated which summarize methods of
production and processing of organic products. The IFOAM
also set up a European Union regional group for undertaking
constant dialogue with the European Commission on this issue.
In 1999, Codex Alimentarius Commission of FAO formulated
and adopted Guidelines for the Production, Processing, Labeling
and Marketing of Organically Produced Foods. These guidelines
set out the principles of organic production from the farming
stage through the preparation, storage and transport, labeling
and marketing of crop products. They are intended to enable
member countries (including India) to draw up their own rules,
on the basis of these principles, while taking account of specific
276
national features. The same year it also embarked on an organic

farming work programme, mainly concerned with promoting
organic farming in the developing countries. India is a beneficiary
of this programme, while Switzerland, USA, and Germany
can be considered as pioneers in organic farming. In 2003, an
International Task Force on Harmonization and Equivalence
in Agriculture was launched in Nuremburg, Germany. This is
a joint initiative of FAO, UNCTAD, and IFOAM. In 2005, EUs
revised draft was circulated to member countries.
Indian initiatives: In traditional India the entire agriculture
was practiced using organic techniques. Even presently much of
the forest produce of economic importance like herbs, medicinal
plants, etc., by default come under this category. However, there
has been consistent increase in the number of certified farmers
in the country every year. Many Organic Farmers Association,
have taken the lead in adopting and spreading technology.
Institutional support for organic production was created by
launching a National Programme for Organic Production
(NPOP) by Agriculture and Processed Food Export Development
Authority (APEDA), Ministry of Commerce. The NPOP
supports promotional initiatives, accreditation of inspection
and certification agencies, and offers support to agri-business
enterprises to facilitate export. APEDA has been interacting with
European Union (EU), United States Department of Agriculture
(USDA), Japan and IFOAM for recognition of equivalence of
Indian quality assurance system. While the country follows
IFOAM basic standards, it has been provided equivalence
recognition by EU.
In 2004, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India,
launched a nationwide initiative, National Project on Organic
Farming (NPOF) with a budget allocation of Rs. 57 crores with the
objective to promote organic farming in India. The project aims at
promoting organic farming through facilitating access to organic
inputs, streamlining production, facilitating certification and
developing domestic markets for organic commodities. In 2004
05 a National Centre for Organic Farming was established under
the Ministry of Agriculture at Ghaziabad to provide institutional
support and to facilitate farmers to move into organic crop
production, by providing suitable logistics of knowledge and
materials inputs like bio-fertilizers. The National Horticulture
S C Panda
277
Mission launched by DOAC in 2005 offers assistance for taking

up organic farming of horticultural crops.
Organic farming is catching up fast with the Indian farmers
and entrepreneurs, especially in low productive rainfed regions,
with the increasing realization that there are no diminishing
returns to the continued use of production inputs under organic
regime. Organic farming could also be easily adopted in agro-eco
regions like rainfed zones, hilly areas and North eastern states
where fertilizer consumption is less than 25 kg/ha/year. Most
of these areas are characterized with low productivity. Green
manuring is practiced rarely due to farmers unwillingness to
sacrifice crops. Conversion of farms into organic production
system in such areas is a real challenge worth attending.
Eleven states of India have drafted policies and programme on
Organic Farming. While, Uttarakhand made organic a thrust
area for improving mountain agriculture based farm economy
and livelihood. Mizoram and Sikkim declared the intentions to
move forwards total organic farming, even without necessary
infrastructure, human resources and programmes. Karnataka
formulated organic policy and Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and
Kerala supported public private partnership for promoting
organic farming. From the view point of commodities, India
today produces range of organic products from fruits and
vegetables, spices to food grains, pulses, milk and organic
cotton. In addition Indian produce also includes wild harvest
of medicinal, aromatic and dye plants. Some of these are
organically cultivated and exported. While data for export
commodities is available the data on domestic availability of
organic commodities still relies on best guesses of stakeholders.
Organic foods are definitely emerging, with organic retail stores,
super markets and packaged deliveries visible in big cities and
small towns.
Potential crops and products: Most of the area under
organic farms in the world is under fresh fruits, vegetables and
plantation crops. Commodities produced organically and traded
worldwide are avocado, banana, pineapple, walnut, cashew-nut,
vegetables, spices and most plantation crops e.g., Tea, coffee and
cocoa. Among other produce, rice, cotton, sugarcane, sesame
seeds, horticultural products like dried fruits, herbs, aromatic
plants like vanilla and honey are also important. From a recent
278
study conducted by Agriculture Department Western Australia

various commodities identified as having excellent potential
for organic production were carrots, wine, beef, wheat, sugar
and canola. Other products with strong opportunities included:
apples, dairy products, eggs, herbs, oranges, oats, poultry, rice,
and safflower. These were followed by asparagus, banana,
broccoli, fish, sunflower, grape, honey, nectarines, pear, onion,
palm, and potato.
Input management: The major inputs in organic farming
required to be addressed are nutrient management, insect pest
management and disease management. Soil is the most important
organic crop production factor. A healthy soil contains millions
of organism the most important being earthworm, bacteria,
fungus, algae and protozoa. These main macro and micro
organisms help to decompose organic material and build up
humus. Earthworms dig tunnels which encourage deep rooting
of the plants and good aeration of the soil. Micro-organisms
act as bio-fertilizers and bring the insoluble and bound forms
of nutrients into soluble forms. Some microbes also control
pests and disease organisms affecting the roots of crops. It is
important that soils are harnessed properly to maintain proper
yield and quality of produce under organic system. Farmers can
improve the fertility of soil by various management practices
which include soil cultivation and tillage, use of green manure
and cover crops, mulching, crop rotation and mixed cropping,
appropriate tillage, sound nutrient management strategies and
protection of soil micro-organisms etc.
One of the major ingredients of nutrition in organic
farming is compost which is the result of bioconversion of
heterogeneous organic substrates under controlled conditions.
It offers several advantages such as improved soil texture and
fertility, biodiversity, higher productivity and safe environment.
A wide range of composting technology is available; the choice
of composting methods depends on the substrates. Traditional
methods are based on passive composting approach, which
involve stacking the material in pits or heap to decompose and
take longer time (12 years) for the final product. The rapid
composting involves pulverization, addition of water, mechanical
stirring, aeration and use of microbial inoculants. The prepared
compost should have no particles of the original residue present.
S C Panda
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The organic matter content of the compost should be at least 80%

(on oven dried basis), moisture content between 3035%, water
holding capacity of (150200%), and a pH 5.5 to 6.5. The nutrient
content would vary depending upon the raw material used for
composting, however, 1.0 to 2.5% N, 1.0 to 1.5% P2 O5 and 1.0 to
1.5% K2O is ideal composition of the compost.
Phosphate rich organic manure (PROM) is prepared by
using indigenously available rock phosphate, cattle dung and
farm waste etc. A range of diverse types of substrates viz.,
paddy/wheat straw, farm wastes from sugar or fruit juice
industry, FYM, oil cake, green manure, distillery waste etc. are
used for preparing PROM. Vermi-composting refers to ex-situ
conversion of degradable organic residues into nutrient rich
composted material for external application by the activity of
selected species of earthworm. This technology allows quick
transformation of substrate/organic residues/waste into
mineral-rich compost (vermin compost) that could readily
be used in the field. Vermi-compost is highly mineralized
organic manure based on off-soil earthworm action. Then there
are biodynamic preparations. Cow dung forms the basis of
various biodynamic preparations. The following biodynamic
preparations are used for nutrient management which includes
Cow Pat Pit, Biodynamic Composts, Liquid Manures, BD 500,
BD 501 and Vedic Preparations. In addition several bio-fertilizer
preparations are now available which can effectively reduce the
requirement of fertilizer as well as to some extent, the pesticides
by inducing plants tolerance to certain diseases and pests.
Safety and quality of produce: There is a growing
demand for organic foods primarily driven by the consumers
perceptions of the quality and safety of these foods and to the
positive environmental impact of organic agriculture practices.
However, the organic label should not be considered as a health
claim as it is only a process claim. It has been demonstrated
that organically produced foods have lower levels of pesticides
and veterinary drug residues and in many cases lower nitrate
contents. No differences have, however, been established in terms
of organoleptic quality between organically and conventionally
grown foods. Reviews of organic vs conventional product
sensory analysis studies have reported results that do not clearly
substantiate claims of superior organic product tastiness. There is,
280
therefore, scope to generate reliable information on the quality of

produce generated on organic farms in future studies. There are,
however, claims that food produced by organic methods contains
a better balance of vitamins and minerals than conventionally
grown food. However, there is no clear scientific evidence. Even
quality after storage has been reported to be better in organic
products relative to conventional products. To reap the desired
economic gains from organic farming in the global market strict
phytosanitary measures have to be followed. To achieve this,
weak links in the certification system have to be identified and
removed. These are also needed for proper grading, packaging,
and storage of organic produce before marketing. There is thus
need to set up laboratories to monitor the quality of organic
produce so as to prevent the sale of sub-standard material to
promote confidence in organic produce.
Marketing opportunities: Since mid1990s, the market
for organic foods has been expanding rapidly and retail
sales have been increasing. However, to create the domestic
market not only steady supply of organic produce is missing
but there is also lack of awareness among consumers. Organic
producers are looking for the market to get good price and
quick sales but are only partially successful. The organic
retailers are looking for constant supplies, especially of
fruits, vegetables, and food grains, which they do not know
from where to get, and the prospective organic consumer
does not have an easy access to organic products so far. In
Asia, while most sales take place in Japan, other countries
are witnessing a rapid expansion of their organic market.
These countries include China, India, the Republic of Korea
and Singapore. The main markets of organic produce or
products are the United States, followed by Germany, the
United Kingdom, Italy, France, Switzerland and Japan. The
fruit and vegetables rank first in total organic sales and offers
opportunities for developing counties.
Organic farming and biodiversity: Organic farming
increases biodiversity at every level of the food chain all the
way from lowly bacteria to mammals. This is the conclusion of
a review of studies from around the world comparing organic
and conventional agriculture. The study reviewed data from
Europe, Canada, New Zealand and the US. According to the
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281
researchers, organic farming aids biodiversity by using fewer

pesticides and inorganic fertilizers, and by adopting wildlifefriendly management of habitats where there are no crops,
including strategies such as not weeding close to hedge, and by
mixing arable and livestock farming. Mixed farming particularly
benefits some bird species. One of the reviewed studies from the
UK also points to benefits for bats.
Organic agriculture in context to Indian farming: A lot
of debate has been going on about various aspects of organic
farming in India at various forums. The total arable land in
India is about 144 million hectares. Out of this only 35% land
is irrigated and remaining 65% is mainly rainfed. In the rainfed
regions, fertilizer use is very low and in most of the areas
negligible amount of fertilizers is used or organic manures are
used as source of nutrients. Similarly in north and north-eastern
region of country where low quantity of fertilizers and pesticides
are used, there is scope and opportunity for continuing organic
farming for improved production and quality through suitable
interventions. About 18 million hectare of land is estimated in
North-East for exploitation under organic production. There is
thus ample scope in India to produce organic produce through
a cluster approach in the above mentioned areas of the country
without loss in productivity.
Since organic farming relies on the inputs produced at
farm, it cuts down the cost of inputs. Further, the expenditure on
pesticides is reduced as pest management is addressed through
preventive and botanical and microbial pesticides which are
cheaper. Some times higher input costs due to the purchase of
compost and other organic manures have also been reported.
The production or yield in most of the cases is at par with the
conventional system after the few initial years while the price
premium is related with organic farming. Organic agriculture
thus offers comparative advantages in areas with less rainfall
and soil fertility levels. The products are sold at a premium over
the conventionally grown products.
Benefits of organic farming: The various benefits of organic
farming all over the world and small farmers in India (http://
www.organicfacts.net) are:
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High premium: Organic food is normally priced 2030%

higher than conventional food. The premium is very important
for a small farmer whose income is just sufficient to feed his/her
family with one meal.
Low investment: Organic farming normally does not
involve capital investment as high as that required in chemical
farming. Further, since organic fertilizers and pesticides can be
produced locally, the yearly costs incurred by the farmer are also
low. It should also be noted that while shifting from chemical
farming to organic farming, the transition might be costlier.
Traditional knowledge: Small farmers have abundance of
traditional knowledge with them and within their community.
Most of this traditional knowledge cannot be used for chemical
farming. However, when it comes to organic farming, the
farmers can make use of the traditional knowledge. Further, in
organic farming, small farmers are not dependent on those who
provide chemical know-how. In India, more than 80% of the
farmers are small and marginal farmers and many small farmers
are practicing organic farming, however, since they are unaware
of the market opportunities they are not able to reap the benetits
of organic farming mentioned above. Hence, necessary steps
need to be taken to address this issue.
Limitations of organic farming: Though there are several
benefits in adapting the organic farming, certain barriers hinder
the adoption at farmers level. Although the land resources can
move freely from organic farming, they do not move freely in the
reverse direction. Initial crop loss is one of the major constraints
while transforming the land from chemical to organic agriculture.
The bio-control agents may take 3 to 4 years to build up in a
crop eco-system. Moreover, their rate of success is in general,
more in horticultural ecosystem but, in annual ecosystem their
establishment is always questionable. Above all, farmers may be
afraid to adopt the organic agriculture without adequate support
from the government and premium price for their produce.
Thus, organic agriculture has its own limitations.
The limitations were studied by the Office of Evaluation
and Studies, International Fund for Agriculture Development.
Organic farming is labour intensive. Hence, it is beneficial for
S C Panda
283
a small farmer who has abundant labour in his/her family;

Organic farming may also turn out to be expensive, given the
situation when a small farmer has to carry out the transition,
modify the soil structure drastically or get a certification; Though
a farmer can use a good deal of traditional knowledge in organic
farming, since the practice is not as common as chemical farming,
it is difficult for good scientific organic farming practices to be
propagated to the small farmers; Since organic produce is not
traded in many markets, marketing the organic produce may be
difficult for a small farmer; In organic farming, soil fertility needs
to be replenished with application of organic fertilizers regularly.
If the organic fertilizers are not produced locally, it might be
difficult for the small farmer, who would purchase the fertilizers
in small quantities to obtain them from elsewhere. Further due
to low economics of scale, there might be a huge transportation
cost associated with the organic fertilizers obtained from long
distances. It has also been observed that organic food prices
are not stable and keep fluctuating from time to time. In such a
scenario a low price might affect a small farmer drastically. Since
the volume of organic food production is low (about 12% of
total food production), it is difficult to implement social security
measures such as minimum support price, and certification is also
an important aspect of organic farming. In many cases, providing
education related to necessary certifications and the guidelines
that need to be followed for obtaining the certifications may be
difficult. Since certification cost is exorbitantly high and inorganic
input use is prohibited in the nearby areas, organic farming may
not be so easy to practice by the small and marginal farmers who
constitute about 80% of the Indian farming community (Fertilizer
Association of India, 2004)
A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity,
stability and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when
it does otherwise. Conservation is a state of harmony between
men and land.
Aldo Leopold
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Organic Farming from Farmers

Perspectives
288
Deepak Suchde
Farming communities have been under pressure to meet the
ever expanding needs of a modern society. Modern methods of
farming across the world are relying increasingly on the use of
chemicals, robust machines, mono crop methods, genetically
modified seeds, industrial farming, soil-less farming, etc. While
all such methods have delivered increased gains over the short
run, they have created (and continue to create) irreversible
damage and/or adverse effects on farm and human life itself for
whose benefits these methods were generated.
A few examples of such adverse effects are: toxic food
production, a severe loss of soil fertility, contamination of water
resources, disturbances in the natural cycles and biodiversity
of farms, dependence of farmers on commercial organizations
for seeds, fertilizers, pesticides etc. These effects have surfaced
after a considerably prolonged use of many farming innovations.
All these effects have paralyzed the farmer and his farm today
in more than one way. Based on these growing concerns in
modern agriculture, the agricultural institutes are now shifting
their methods to more natural ways of farming.
Among all the methods of farming available today
(traditional/conventional/contemporary etc), the only method
which ensures holistic success (as mentioned in the following
paragraphs) for a farmer, his farm and for the consumers of the
produce is the Natueco farming method. The word Natueco
is born from a combination of two words: Natural and
Ecological! The Natueco method of farming is, in fact, a culture
of farming based on imitating and collaborating with Nature
through critical scientific methods to strengthen the produce and
the ecology of a farm.
Natueco has been conceived as a holistic way to meet the
needs of farming and food today. It addresses typical issues
in farming like how to work in synergy with Nature without
burdening it, how to reduce a farms dependency on external
Bangalore. 2014
Deepak Suchde
289
inputs, how to work scientifically and within the local resources

available in the surroundings of a farm, how to farm without
harming its ecology and, at the same time, gaining the highest
benefits from it, etc. The features of Natueco culture distinguish
it from Natural Farming and/or Organic Farming.
Natueco is Beyond Organic: In natural or organic farming,
farming is done trusting Nature through the empirical wisdom
of the ages. In Natueco Farming, on the other hand, farming is
done by knowing Nature (more and more and better and better!)
through critical scientific inquiries and experiments. It is an
ever growing, novel, unique, participatory tryst between man
and Nature! Natueco culture and Critical Scientific Agriculture
became synonymous words. The major features of scientific
farming were also the basic features of Natueco Culture! Sri
S.A.Dabholkar. (Plenty for all section 5.1)
When we talk about the success of a farming method, let us
first understand what success means to a farmer? The parameters
of a farmers success can be put forward as: (a) Generating
maximum farm output from minimum input; (b) Harvesting
maximum sun light per square foot area of earth; (c) Self-reliance
on resources within their local availability; (d) Independence
from external resources; (e) Minimum use of energy (per unit
of produce) in farming; (f) Creating abundance in the ecology of
a farm throughout the farms life cycle; (g) Working to become
self sufficient in terms of knowledge, resources and approach;
(h) Working for the highest good of the farmer community; (i)
Enjoying the five Ls of the farming occupation: Learning, Living,
Livelihood, Love and Laughter; and (j) Living a rich life with
grace and dignity.
Such holistic success would be achieved by a farmer by
performing his/her duties in the following order: 1) Protecting
the delicate balance of Mother Earth and her environment; 2)
Taking care of the wellbeing of his/her family; 3) Offering the
harvest of his/her labor to the world; and 4) Creating a model
farm which is self-sustainable in all the above aspects.
Success of Natueco in terms of productivity of a farm:
The productivity of a farm (also called visible productivity) is
a combined effect of primary productivity and secondary
290
productivity. It is measured in terms of dry-mass per hectare.

The primary productivity of a farm is the key factor in
determining the quality of the visible productivity (yield). Soil
with good primary productivity helps in harvesting optimum
sunlight. This helps in efficient photosynthesis in a plant. Hence
the plant gives better yield with quality nutrients available in
the crop. With these fundamental scientific requirements of a
plant in focus, Natueco teaches us how to create our own soil
which is called Amrut Mitti. Soil so created helps a farmer to
do quality farming irrespective of the quality of the original soil
naturally available on his farm. Thus Natueco farming enhances
the primary productivity of the soil and establishes a firm
correlation with use of energy and water as a resource.
Natueco vis--vis conventional farming in terms of farm
productivity: With conventional methods of farming, our
efforts have been to increase the visible productivity of a farm.
The Green Revolution was introduced as a consequence of this
mindset. The fundamental approach of the Green Revolution
was to enhance the visible productivity of a farm through its
secondary productivity. This is apparently a sensible thing
to do. However, over a long period of time, by considering the
visible productivity of a farm as its only measure of success
(and hence rigorously enhancing its secondary productivity),
we neglected and gradually forgot about the farms primary
productivity. We derived a false sense of pride from the
enhanced visible productivity of a farm without realizing the
silent degradation of the soils primary productivity! In the
beginning, with conventional farming, visible productivity
can be easily increased by external inputs. However, over a long
period of time, this impairs a farms primary productivity.
We start seeing a gradual decline in visible productivity, even
though external inputs remained the same or even increased.
Natueco science focuses completely on enhancing the
primary productivity of a farm. It concentrates on enriching
the Carbon value of soil, and also enhancing the quantum and
diversity of varieties of microbial life found therein. In other
words, it works to increase the output of dry mass per hectare
per kiloliter of water consumed. In our initial understanding,
working to increase the output of dry mass might appear to be
a very subtle factor in farming. However, this is an extremely
important variable because the energy of the Sun can only be
Deepak Suchde
291
harvested optimally if the output of dry mass from a farm is

maximized.
If land is harvested at its most optimal levels of Primary
Productivity, it will give a maximum yield per hectare (for
ever) with the least input cost! Thus such farming becomes
financially viable. With an increase in the Primary Productivity
of the farm, farmers dependence on external resources reduces
gradually. It empowers the farmer to create a knowledge base
and data base of experience on his own, and even create his/
her own seed bank. Such farming, thus, becomes sustainable for
a longer period of time. Todays markets of the supplements
for conventional farming unfortunately do not offer anything to
enhance the Primary Productivity of a farm.
Natueco farming emphasizes Neighborhood Resource
Enrichment by Additive Regeneration rather than through
dependence on external and/or commercial inputs. It addresses
the four main determinants of crop yield: 1) Soil: Creating soil
with the best primary productivity, by recycling biomass and by
establishing a proper energy chain; 2) Roots: Focusing on the
development and maintenance of feeder root zones of the plant
for efficient absorption of the nutrients in the soil; 3) Canopy:
Focusing on harvesting sunlight by proper management and
cultivation of the plant canopy for efficient photosynthesis; and
4) Minimizing External Resources: Focusing on minimizing
the use of external resources including water; and reducing
dependency on the secondary productivity of the soil.
Natueco Farming maximizes farm output with a minimum
input of energy. Its goal is to maximize organic Carbon or
biomass of the soil (factors of Primary productivity). Certain
points of focus in the Natueco system are: (a) The mother (soil),
and not the child (plant); (b) Long term and strategic thinking,
rather than short cut/short term actions; (c) Developing
holistic and positive values in farming as an occupation; (d)
Uniting the community of farmers; (e) Self-sustenance and selflearning; (f) The creation of a localized prosumer society (i.e.,
a closed society of producers and consumers); and (g) Enriching
biodiversity. Important components of a Natueco farm are the
creation of Amrut Mitti, and a Knowledge/Data base; seed
treatment; enhancing biodiversity and live fencing.
292
Prosperity with equity: Today, the sharing of equity in

agriculture has been reduced to the practice of a few land owners
giving their farm land on contract to farmers (for one or more
seasons) and getting returns in the form of a certain percentage
of the production. The wealth and prosperity that abound in
society today are the outcome of the progress of modern science.
But till today, the benefits of the best of modern science have
failed to reach to the last person. It is always essential to hand
over the essence of science to people at the grass roots. With this
self-earned knowledge, they can build their own techniracies
(technical literacy) to create their desired Plenty and Prosperity
within their local neighborhood. Their dependence on the
Government and other institutions will reduce this way.
Prosperity with equity would gain its true meaning then. Prof.
Sripad Dabholkar, the founder of Natueco Science, had said
that true prosperity can self-sustain itself, only if it is inclusive
and equitable in nature. An equitable farm reduces poverty
and inequality by ensuring a systematic re-distribution of the
economic benefits of development. Prof Dabholkar suggested
every farmer to bear a childs curiosity towards his/her farm.
Each one of us as a child is gifted by nature. We grow up with
learning through why/how questions on every observation of
ours. The same curiosity should be re-inculcated in a farmer. As
a childs constant prattle on Why, How, How much, Why
not this way etc. gets him/her well acquainted with things,
a farmer too should get acquainted with his/her farm and its
surroundings through continued curiosity. The spirit of sharing
the equity, sharing knowledge, sharing database is generated
from this curiosity.
The success of a Natueco farm can also be assessed in terms
of the quality and quantity of the farm produce.
Quantity/yield: Some notable examples include rice (40
quintals/acre, without flooding the field!), wheat (30 quintals/
acre), soyabean (20 quintals/acre), groundnut (24 quintals/acre),
tomato (120 tons/acre), sugarcane (100 tons/acre), coconut (400
fruits/tree/annum on maturity), grapes (16 tons/acre), banana
(45 kg/plant), papaya (180 kg/tree/annum), potatoes (40 tons/
acre), etc. All these yields start accruing from the very first year
of operation.
Deepak Suchde
293
Quality of Natueco soil: This was analyzed by ICRISAT

and it was found that the organic Carbon percentage of this soil
was at least 3 times more than normal soils. For the presence of
micronutrients in available form, in Natueco soil the following
was noticed: boron and sulphur 3 times; iron 1.5 times and
zinc 6 times more than the normal farm soil. In addition to
these elements microbial biomass C, microbial biomass N and
dehydrogenase were present in higher percentages indicating
the presence of very good total population of microorganisms in
the Natueco soil.
Quality in terms of the nutritional value of food from
Natueco farms: Bottle gourds from a Natueco farm and from the
general market were analyzed for nutritional value. In addition
to the presence of 5 times more protein and 20% more Calcium,
the presence of magnesium, iron and vitamin B12 was noticed in
the bottle gourd sample produced on the Natueco farm. Natueco
culture teaches us that agriculture is not only a cultivation of
flora and fauna but it is also a cultivation of prosperous culture,
sharing of knowledge, labour, resources, etc. Every individual
farm contributes to the Nations prosperity providing a modern
lifestyle with five Ls and leading consciously to a scientific and
holistic life forever. Going beyond mere short term commercial
gains on farms to wholesome success (all-round success, in all
relevant dimensions of farming over the short and long run),
Natueco farming is a success story awaiting its rapid adaptation
worldwide. It has the potential to bring about deep changes in
society and the well-being of the human race and the nature
together.
References
Amrut Krushi Science Deepak Suchde, Published with support from

NABARD
Natueco Science Deepak Suchde. Under publication
Plenty for all Prof. Sripad A.Dabholkar, ISBN NO: 8177662449
294
B N Nandish
In 1998 I started farming in a conventional way; my only aim
was to get more yields using machinery and chemicals. But by
the year 2000 I was fed up with lots of regular unnecessary work,
labour problems and inputs. I was looking for easier and simpler
ways to cut man power and inputs. I came across an article on
natural farming about the Japanese farmer Masanobu Fukuoka.
I felt Fukuokas way was the truthful, easier and beautiful way
to seek permanent solutions and to overcome the problems of
labour, input, energy and time. Health benefits, environmental
concerns, premium price for organic products, organic farmer
badge, all followed later.
A to Z of sustainable farming practices: Sustainable farming
is expected to be ecologically sound, economically profitable, and
socially just and humane. Each and every practice is based on
useful knowledge of the way things work. Nothing is superior,
fine and final; they can be used according to ones likes, needs
and resources. Some farming practices where sustainability
is a primary goal are listed below: Agrobiodiversity;
alternative farming; biodynamic farming; Biointensive farming;
conservation tillage; ecological farming; farmland preservation;
holistic resource management; integrated farming systems; low
external input sustainable agriculture; nature farming; organic
farming; permaculture; regenerative agriculture; whole farm
planning; zero tillage.
Legume culture: Over a hundred green manures are being
used along with, before and after the crops on my farm. For all
my crop demands and agricultural problems, I found and will
seek solutions only through green manures. Mine is green culture
instead of the usual clean culture. This is legume culture for
sustainable agriculture.
Legume-logic: Nitrogen is the first, necessary, nutrient
required in a large quantity by plants. The atmosphere contains
Bangalore. 2014
B N Nandish
295
78% of Nitrogen, so using leguminous plants to fix free of cost

biological Nitrogen is the logic. There are over 550 genera, 12,000
species of legumes in the world. There are plants for all seasons
and zone conditions in them some are annuals, bi-annuals and
perennials. Apart from fixing biological free Nitrogen, these
herbs, shrubs, twines, creepers, bushes, and trees, they provide
food, fodder, timber, fuel wood, natural dyes, medicines, wind
breakers, live fences, pest repellents, trap plants; highly toxic,
fire resistant, biomass; oil seeds; slightly toxic, nematicidal
properties, fibres, erosion control, gum, and make possible
alkaline land reclamation.
Green manuring cover crops: In nature where there is
no human interference we can see monocot and dicot weeds
in 2:1 ratio. The diversity and biomass are the index of the soil;
there the soil works for itself. Clean culture destroys diversity
and results in hardy perennial grasses. One or two varieties of
monocot weeds or grasses do not enrich the soil faster or increase
the crop yield. Destroying weeds is impossible; it is a nonsensical
job and is also positively harmful.
Roots till the soil: Roots are the vegetal macro organisms
of the soil. They play more important role than animal macro
organisms of the soil like earthworms and termites. Some tree
roots go as deep as the tree grows above the ground. They
penetrate hardened layers deeper and with more volume than
the aerial part of the tree. Tap roots pump up the nutrients from
subsoil, dead roots leaves organic matter and root passages helps
flow of air and water. Tubers make large holes and field mice dig
tunnels in a roller coaster way like no man-made machines can
do. Cultivation is to remove the weeds and to aerate the soil, but
cover crops will do for the same purpose.
Diversity feeds all the creatures: Apart from biological
Nitrogen fixation through legumes, gini grasses host VAM
fungus. Niger, cockscomb are potash rich, eupatorium carries
boron. Likewise each and every plant carries different nutrients
and has medicinal properties. Diversity of plants becomes host
for a variety of microbes, macro organisms, bees, birds and all
other creatures. Diversity develops the food chain, creates ideal
micro climate, variety of food for emerging insects and fungus.
Plants require less irrigation due to development of humus in
the soil.
296
During November and February, seeds are available along

road sides, wastelands, river-pool sides and forests. Seeds
brought by insects, birds, animals have very good germination
and vigour in growth in comparison with our broadcast seed.
So if we provide some food to these creatures, they bring back a
lot of things to our farm. Plants like Castor, Hibiscus, Sunhemp,
Lablab, Velvet beans, Indigo, Lantana, Sorghum, Cassias, just to
list a few, have trap-catch-host ability, control-repels pests and
some have nematicidal properties. Fast growing shrubs can be
sown in the alleys, between the rows, as a wind breaker and to
prevent the sun scorching the plants.
Climbing creepers produce profuse biomass and act as
a first floor for live mulching. Leaves yielding milky sap and
having a disgusting and bitter taste, serve as a live repellent
for cattle and wild animals. Some are slightly toxic so animals
will not eat them. A few others are highly toxic and can kill
sheep in a few hours and cattle in days. Fast growing shrubs,
trees and thorny species can be used for live fencing. Plants like
Stylo scabra can be used along forest borders as a fire retardant.
Every plant has its own characteristics and we must make use
of them according to our need. In live mulching, roots till the
soil, enhance aeration, and act as catch plants, host microbes, fix
biological Nitrogen. These are added benefits when compared
with straw (dead) mulching. Fertiliser, insects, fungus, weeds,
cultivation, water, aeration, food, micro climate, humus, erosion,
fencing, fire, wind, sun scorching, snails, alkalinity, rats/crabs
and more were all my questions and I got solutions for them all.
Now you dream; green will deliver. Cover crops always should
feed our homes, provide food for birds and animals. Income
from these must meet the expenses of the farm. Green mulches
minimise maintenance, labour and time.
In green language, on entering into an ideal farm, we
should always feel air conditioned atmosphere, soil, aroma,
smell of flowers and fruits; colourful creatures; varieties of
seeds, vegetables, and fruits to taste; the noise of bees, pests,
birds, animals as in the forest: tak tak zeakh... zeakh........ In one
sentence, You should feel all your senses alive and fed.
Yield factors: Growing crops according to our agro climatic
conditions and seasons is important. Varietal selection, the
B N Nandish
297
sowing period, practices, layout, soil, spacing, alignment, seed

rate, seedling age, sowing-planting depth, seedling numbers,
aeration measures, water management, and finally manuring
aspects, these are the priorities to look for. The average yield
of our surrounding villages is to be targeted, not of other areas.
The final output tonne or yield of the end product is the yield
statement rather than the number of bags or weight of the
produce we grow. For example, in the improved variety of paddy
with high polished rice, we get 55 kgs of rice yield and 72 kgs of
total output per quintal of paddy, whereas we get upto 82 kgs of
rice in the case of an unpolished traditional paddy variety. The
difference is 50%, more yield is just one factor. Dals, vegetable
oils, essential oils, murmure, poova, likewise every crops end
product yield is more important. Yield is not based on one factor
alone as an indicator of how much we grow.
Profit: First, we have to draw up a list of expenses we have
made on the crop. Then we have to look for the alternates of
everything in the list and whether they are necessary and the
returns. Each and every step needs correction all the time and
it helps in minimising inputs, low external input is the key to
sustainability. Local varieties always give assured average
yield. Their uniqueness of size, shape, colour, aroma and taste,
medicinal and other aspects has to be encashed by marketing it
in finished end products. Cash returns may delay for a season
but the major profit lies here instead of growing the same crops
more times a year. Organic label enables a premium price for
the product. The unique, peculiar, rare, fanciful, wild, natural,
medicinal and other qualities of the product get several times
more price than the normal market. Finally, money left in our
pocket is more important than what we receive from the sale.
These factors help us to get profits several times more than the
habitual way of doing things. In trade, commerce, industry they
look for profits in percentages whereas here, several times in field
crops, the profit comes in just in one season. Agriculture is the
most profitable job if we take to it and look at it in an intelligent
manner.
Climate change: It is the order of the day; nature is balancing
of its own. It is correcting our mistakes but we need patience
to understand what is happening. Science can produce no good
without evil; science can be used to understand nature, not to
298
go alone apart from it. When we move with nature we get more
answers in the place of just one. Latest example of mine in this
year is this: we transplanted IR-64 improved variety of paddy in
9 acres and two other traditional varieties of paddy in 4 acres.
Due to the infamous Phailin cyclones low pressure effect, it
rained on my farm on 22nd October from 2 to 2:30 PM and on 23rd
October 2013 from 11:30 to 12 AM. All the three varieties were
at the stage where 65% upper part of the panicle had crossed
flowering and remaining 35% below was yet to be pollinated.
Rain and foliar sprays while flowering during 9 am3 pm
disturb pollination, resulting in empty grains. We lost yield of flat
35% in IR-64 variety and 1015% in traditional varieties. Paddy
flowers open in the sunlight by 9 am and close by 3 pm. The
improved variety developed by crossing. These varieties may be
unable to close down in cloudy weather but local or traditional ones
can sense cloud or rain and close down the flowers. This is called
genotype-environment interaction. Whatsoever the reason the result
is this. Climate change is the biggest challenge that we need to
seriously look at. Sunlight, temperature, humidity, atmospheric
pressure, snow, mist, fog, cool air, rain, lightening, thunder bolts
and seasons any slight changes disturb the entire system. Do
we have any technology to establish control over on this and is
there any wealth bigger than the seasons?
Observation-application-documentation: History of our
place, talks with elders, interaction with professionals of different
fields in a village, reading, walking around in nature, helps in
lateral thinking and in visualising the things to adopt. An organic
farmer deals with all living beings, he needs to move along with
nature so he needs a lot of common sense to understand more
than others in other fields. Many other fields deal with single
subjects or with man-made dead objects. On every occasion, we
need to shape up the things, apply our thoughts, then observe and
monitor the things. In this process, curiosity is generated and by
unknowingly will involve deeper insights, which leads to open
all our senses to perception. Daily documentation of weather,
work, expenses, observations, stories, notes, summaries helps us
to know better, to recall, to coin side, to compare, to assume the
things for fine tuning. Observation-application-documentation
helps us to move further by knowing the things in depth or else
one will follow copy and paste methods.
B N Nandish
299
Food security and nutritional quality: We have forgotten

that food acts as a medicine. Fresh, seasonal and local foods are
missing on our plates. Actual size, texture, shape, colour, taste,
aroma are all forgotten by everybody. The demand for white,
clean, clear, glossy looks changed all other things. Refined,
deodorised, bleached, polished plays a major role in removing
nutritional quality and in consuming more quantity which leads
to insecurity. Nowadays more and more chemicals are added
at the time of processing than at the time of production. This is
more dangerous to our health and environment. Agriculture is
playing a major role in polluting our ecosystem. How we use the
product is important than how to grow or how much we grow.
These changes in food are the root cause of serious disorders
in the health of the people. Now, some have started recalling
traditional foods, with traditional methods of preparation. Nonagriculture sector people who live even in metros have started
growing in windows, terrace, balconies, in empty sites, replacing
lawns with fruits and vegetables. Uncultivated fruits, weeds
as leafy vegetables, wild vegetables, and tubers are in great
demand. Today millets have arrived in the rich mans plate. The
diet, quantity, quality, all will get changed in the near future. The
whole scenario that we are looking at will change and demand
for some few cereals, pulses, vegetables will in fact decrease,
which is the thumb rule of gauging food insecurity.
Adoptability and economic feasibility: Somewhere the
hunger should start or we need to create. First government
subsidies needs to be removed to change the pattern. There
are many options for going into eco friendly practices. Mind
preparation is more important than man-power, money
and machines if one wants to switch over to organic. We can
get average yield on our farms even during the first year of
conversion into organic, results lies on how much we understand
the subject. Its not the failure of the practice. My inputs rose to
three times but income rose over ten times in the last ten years of
paddy cultivation. Organic farming is an opportunity to be with
all living beings and to feel with all our senses.
300
A P Chandrashekhar
It is very difficult or impossible to quantify success in organic
farming. And it is not useful either, if I cannot define success as
well as organic farming. It is natural that everyone may have
different definitions for these words (concepts) according to
their taste, space and time. It cannot fit into a single exclusive
frame as the modern so-called scientific temperament expects.
Science tries to look at the truth in repeatability, but natures
truth is changeability, diversity and decentralization. Therefore,
if anyone tries to derive a package of practice for organic
farming, it will be a total waste of time and a failure. Similarly,
if anyone tries to measure success in terms of money, it will be
totally unnatural and it becomes unsuccessful.
The success lies in contentment and satisfaction. Content
lies in meeting our needs and demands. If our demand is limited
to our needs, content can be achieved easily, hence also success.
In nature, money is not the demand. Work is the demand. Matter
is the demand. Only work can produce matter, not money.
Money is also matter, which requires a lot of work to earn and
that leads to waste of matter. If we become intelligent enough
to convert work into matter, without mediums like money or
master or scientist, it is always better. Money is the indirect,
lengthy, laborious process to acquire our needs. Nature and even
science and economics do not expect this. Reduce; reuse and
recycle are the truths everywhere. Hence, producing our needs
by direct work is the definition of organic.
There is a lot of difference between the needs of the body and
the needs of the mind. We can satisfy our bodily hunger easily
but the hunger of the mind is unlimited. It can accommodate
any amount of comforts and commodities. The stomach vomits
if there is excess of food. Recognising and becoming less
consumeristic is organic.
Let us take the example of a coconut orchard. People do
not grow coconuts for their need. How much coconut is needed
Bangalore. 2014
A P Chandrashekhar
301
for a family for cooking? How many cooking processes have

they learnt and are practising in this modern hotel and bakery
managed lifestyle? I look to organic in strengthening our kitchen.
By using coconut alone or in combination with other foodstuffs,
one can make hundreds of dishes, either raw or cooked. Sabji,
sambar, dosa, idli, roti, biscuit, chocolate, payasam, ice cream, tea
and coffee are some of the result of the basics of cooking and we
can extend this to any length. People know the usage of tender
coconut, raw coconut and copra. But usage of sprouted coconut
in bun and budded coconut tree in bread also has enormous
taste value, food value, health value and even monetary benefits.
Along with this, coconut has many curative properties. Even
the dry, hard coconut shell can be used for cooking as well as
in medicine. We can extract antifungal agents from the coconut
shell. The shell Carbon can cure acidity and toothache. Low value,
small and mite diseased coconuts can be grown into large plants
and can be used for fodder and manure. This small knowledge
adds high value not only to our coconut but also to us. But as
farmers are non organic, they cannot be exposed to these truths.
Organic is the capacity to see nature through bare eyes removing
the goggles. Money, prestige and laziness are distorting goggles.
People think that by so many techniques, operations and
applications (either chemical or organic), they can increase coconut
yield and by selling them they can accumulate good money and
purchase all their needs and comforts. But farmers fail to observe
the fact that with increase in coconut yield, the input demand of
the garden increases and also the comfort demands of the farmer.
As already explained, the increase in coconut yields decreases the
demand and obviously the market falls.
To understand and satisfy ourselves with the laws and
limits of nature is organic and not merely applying organic
manure. Ploughing and manuring are some of the practices of
maintaining the coconut orchards by which, people think, the
yield increases. But this is not true. Huge amount of money
is wasted in ploughing which also leads to soil erosion. Let
innumerable numbers of wild, local plants come on their own.
Appreciating and observing the natural process of an area
becoming a forest is one of the ways to become organic. Please
observe the forest wherein there is no need for ploughing,
manuring, sowing, watering, nurturing and medication for
302
the growth of plants. But all this happens automatically. This

happens because of plant intensity and diversity. I really wonder
why people panic so much because of growth of weeds!
Weeds are one thing the use of which is unknown. But no
doubt, all weeds have one or the other use. They are designed
with a purpose or atleast we have to appreciate their capacity
to photosynthesize by which they convert solar energy into
matter, adding fertility to soils, preventing erosion of soil and
so on. Our success and organicity lies in our understanding and
utilization of weeds. A farm can be called a farm, if and only if, it
is like a forest. On the contrary now, our modern farms are like
playgrounds.
We have more than 2500 plant species in our 13 acres of
land near Mysore where the average rainfall is only 25 inches.
But nature has the capacity to form a forest everywhere. It is the
characteristic of nature to become an adult by forming a forest.
Hence now our farm is like a forest. We have big and small
trees, bushes, herbs, shrubs, weeds, tubers, creepers, crawlers
in various dimensions. They have increased the beauty of our
land and have decreased our water and electricity demand. We
do not add manure at all. Our farm is rich with about 300 leafy
vegetables, about 50 root vegetables, about 200 fruit varieties,
hundreds of vegetables and we have thousands of cooking
techniques with us. We produce more than thousands of value
added products like juice, jam, dry fruits, soaps, oils, powders,
spices, medicines which add value to our life as well as money.
According to my understanding, organic is the process of
proper utilization of our organs and also the organs of nature.
All the animals and plants are the organs of nature. We humans
are also one among them. It is clear that increasing plant intensity
and diversity is organic. More and more utilization of animals in
farming is organic. To understand that we humans are also animals
and there is nothing special is organic. If at all there is something
special with us, it is highly flexible legs, work efficient hands and
analytical mind. Proper utilization of our legs, hands and mind is
the crown to organic. But the pitiful thing is that we lost all these
special capacities and degenerated as slaves to life-less money and
machines. Hence there is monotony and melancholy everywhere.
Syed Ghani Khan

Agriculture is something more than a livelihood for our family.
I started my life in agriculture when I was studying in the third
standard, growing vegetables at home for consumption. My
ancestors also belong to agriculture families. In 1991, when
I was studying in the tenth standard, my father suffered a
paralysis attack. I assumed some of the responsibility for the
family agriculture because of that. Finally, when I enrolled for
my Bachelors degree, he suffered a severe brain haemorrhage. I
had to discontinue my education because I was the eldest son in
the family. Nonetheless, my aim was to get my degree. I joined
night college but could not study because during day time I had
to work in the field and in the evening had to travel to college
in Mysore from our village. I finally managed to complete my
Bachelors degree in History, Urdu, Archaeology and Museology
from Maharaja College in the year 2001.
Meanwhile, our garden was full of mango trees which had
been planted by our ancestors. There are nearly 120 varieties
which are different from the improved varieties we have today.
We have mangoes which taste like mousambi (citrus fruits); or
look like apples; some have very little sweetness (good for sugar
patients) and there are other different types as well. Each one is
different from the other.
My paddy journey started with conventional farming
with hybrids and improved varieties. In 1998, I started the
conservation of paddy with 40 grains which were unknown
to me. I came to know the names of the paddy in 2001. Since
then I have continued my paddy collection by visiting different
places throughout Karnataka and India with the help of Sahaja
Samrudha and Save Our Rice campaign. Now, I am conserving
more than 700 varieties of paddy from India and abroad. I have
varieties from Thailand, Myanmar, Pakistan, Malaysia and we
are conserving paddy varieties which are suitable for dry land
and deepwater conditions; varieties because seeds are the future
of our next generation, especially the traditional varieties which
Bangalore. 2014
303
304
are best suited for our climate. No genetically modified varieties

and hybrids can sustain in our climatic conditions.
My aim is to give away the best of what we are conserving
in our field. We are distributing these traditional best quality
seeds to the farmers. Till today we have distributed seeds to
more than 5,000 farmers. My aim is to give away these good
quality traditional seeds. Since I have studied Archaeology and
Museology, I wish to turn our garden into a museum. I have
accordingly started Indias first traditional paddy museum on
the first floor of our house. I have also started a trust to save the
traditional varieties of seeds.
Contributors
Ashok Kumar Yadav, Former Director, National Centre of
Organic Farming, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India,
Hapur Road, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh. Email: akyadav52@
yahoo.com
C T Ashok Kumar, Department of Entomology, College
of Agriculture, UAS GKVK, Bangalore 560 065. Email:
ashokkunabev@gmail.com
Bharat Mansata, Co-Founder, Earthcare Books, Kolkata. Email:
bharatmansata@yahoo.com
K Bharathi, Division of Vegetable Crops, Indian Institute of
Horticultural Research, Hessaraghatta Lake P.O., Bangalore
560 089
P Bhattacharyya, Former Director, National Centre of Organic
Farming/National Biofertiliser Development Centre, Ministry of
Agriculture, Government of India. Email: paritoshb.21@gmail.
com
Bobby Issac, Director, Lacon Quality Certification Pvt. Ltd,
Thiruvalla, Pathanamthitta (District), Kerala 689 101. Email:
bobby@laconindia.com
A P Chandrashekhar, Organic Farmer, Village: Kalawadi,
Uddur, Mysore 570008. Email: abhiapc@gmail.com
Claude Alvares, founder member, APIGR and ARISE; Head,
Central Secretariat, Organic Farming Association of India
(OFAI); Director, Goa Foundation, Goa. Email: ofaigoa@gmail.
com
Deepak Suchde, Organic Farmer, Malpani Trust, Bajwada,
Nemawar, Khategaon, Dewas 455339, Madhya Pradesh. Email:
deepaksuchde@gmail.com
N Devakumar, Professor of Agronomy, Co-ordinator and Nodal
Officer, Research Institute on Organic Farming, University
305
of Agriculture Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore 65. Email:

ndevakumar@yahoo.com
Harimohan Gupta, Secretary, Society for Organic Agriculture
Movement (SOAM), 26 Gayatri Nagar-B, Maharani Farm
Durgapura, Jaipur 302015, Rajasthan. Email: soam026@gmail.
com
S S Hebbar, Division of Vegetable Crops, Indian Institute of
560 089. Email: hebbar@iihr.ernet.in
Krishan Chandra, Director, National Centre of Organic Farming,
Hapur Road, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh
B Latha, Research Staff, Research Institute on Organic Farming,
UAS, GKVK, Bangalore 65
Leena Chandran-Wadia, Senior Fellow, Observer Research
Foundation, Mumbai. Email: leena.wadia@orfonline.org
Mahesh Chander, Principal Scientist & Head, Division of
Extension Education Indian Veterinary Research Institute,
Izatnagar 243 122, Uttar Pradesh. Email: drmahesh.chander@
gmail.com
Manisha Rani, National Centre of Organic Farming, Ghaziabad,
Uttar Pradesh
P Mazumdar, National Centre of Organic Farming, Ghaziabad,
Uttar Pradesh
L Nagesh, Department of Agrometeorology, University of
Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore
A K Nair, Division of Vegetable Crops, Indian Institute of
560 089. Email: nairak@iihr.ernet.in
B N Nandish, Organic Farmer, Churchigundi, Shikaripura taluk,
Shimoga, Karnataka 577 214. Email: legumelogic@gmail.com
306
S C Panda, Consultant, World Bank, Sutra Consulting, Former

Emeritus Scientist (ICAR), and Dean, College of Agriculture,
OUAT, Bhubaneswar (Odisha). Email: dr.scpanda@gmail.com
P Panneerselvam, Division of Vegetable Crops, Indian Institute
of Horticultural Research, Hessaraghatta Lake P.O. , Bangalore
560 089
M Prabhakar, Division of Vegetable Crops, Indian Institute of
560 089. Email: prabhakar_19@yahoo.com
Pradeep Gopakkali, Department of Agrometeorology,
University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore
K C Raghu, Editor, Food and Nutrition magazine, Managing
Director of Pristine Organics, 44/2A, National Highway 7,
Sahakara Nagar, Bangalore, Karnataka 560092. Email: raghu@
pristineorganics.com
M B Rajegowda, Professor, Department of Agrometeorology,
University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore, Email:
mbraj2001@yahoo.com
R S Rajeshwari, Division of Vegetable Crops, Indian Institute
of Horticultural Research, Hessaraghatta Lake P.O., Bangalore
560 089
K Ramakrishnappa, Additional Director of Horticulture and
Honorary president, Jaivik Krishik Society, Lalbagh, Bangalore.
Email: edkshda@gmail.com
P Ramesh, National Academy of Agricultural Research
Management (NAARM), Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030.
Email: rameshp@naarm.ernet.in
Sahina Tabassum, National Centre of Organic Farming,
Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh
J P Saini, Prof. & Head Department of Organic Agriculture,
COA CSKHPKV, Palampur 176062. Himachal Pradesh. Email:
drjpsaini@gmail.com
307
Sanjay Topagi, Department of Entomology, College of

Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore 560 065
K S Shivashankara, Division of Vegetable Crops, Indian Institute
of Horticultural Research, Hessaraghatta Lake P.O., Bangalore
560 089
S Shubha, Assistant Professor, Department of Agriculture.
Microbiology, UAS, Raichur.
A C Somanatha, Research Staff, Research Institute on Organic
Farming, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore 65
R Srinivasa Murthy , National Centre of Organic Farming,
Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh. Email: srinivas.ncof@gmail.com
Sundara Raman, Organic Farmer, Sathyamangalam, Tamil
Nadu. Email: sundararamsty@gmail.com
Syed Ghani Khan, Organic farmer, Malavalli, Mandya district,
Karnataka. Email: muhinuha786@gmail.com
K Vanangamudi, Former Dean (Agriculture) TNAU, Dean
APAC Kalavai; Professor & Head of Seed Science & Technology,
8A 3rd Street Gokulam colony P N Pudur Coimbatore 641 041
Tamil Nadu. Email: vanangamudi.tnau@gmail.com
C P S Yadav, Chief Advisor, Society for Organic Agriculture
Movement (SOAM), Former Vice Chancellor, R.A.U. Bikaner
and Director, General U.P. Council of Agriculture Research,
Lucknow. Email: soam026@gmail.com
308
Dr. P K SHETTY
Dr. P K Shetty is a Professor and Former Dean at the National Institute of Advanced
Studies, Bangalore. He received his PhD from Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
New Delhi. Earlier, he was Head of the Environmental Studies Unit and served as Dean
(School of Natural Sciences and Engineering) and the Dean (Administration) at the
National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bangalore. He was also the Vice-President of
the Society of Pesticide Science, India. He is a committed educationist and policy
analyst and has carried out research and in-depth analysis in multidisciplinary areas.
He has published seven books, contributed to numerous book chapters, highly cited peer reviewed
research papers, reports and articles. He has successfully completed several research projects of societal
significance both at regional and national levels. He also conducts regular farmers' field visits and training in
Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and other Indian states. He has visited a number of countries as part of his
professional work and is a frequently invited speaker at various professional forums in India and abroad. He
has received several awards in recognition of his work including the prestigious Karnataka State Rajyostava
Award (2007) from Government of Karnataka and the Kempe Gowda Award (2011) from the Bruhat
Bangalore Mahanagara Palike, Government of Karnataka.
Dr. CLAUDE ALVARES

Dr. Claude Alvares did his Ph.D. at the University of Eindhoven, Holland in 1976. He has
been involved in the promotion of organic agriculture since the mideighties. He was a
founder member of APIGR then ARISE. He now heads the central secretariat of the
Organic Farming Association of India (OFAI). He is the author of several books on
organic farming including The Organic Farming Sourcebook, The Organic Farming
Reader. He edits The Living Field on behalf of the association. He is also the Director of
the Goa Foundation.
Dr. ASHOK KUMAR YADAV

Dr. A K Yadav, M.Sc. Ph.D. from Rajasthan University started his careeer as
microbiologist and over the years was known as Biofertilizer expert and contributed to
the development of biofertilizers technology, instrumentation, industrial fermenters
designing and formulation development. During his association with Biofertilizers he
served State Government of Rajasthan, NAFED and then Government of India as
Regional Director of Regional Biofertilizer Centres at Bhubaneshwar, Imphal and
Nagpur. With the launching of National Programme on Promotion of Organic Farming,
he became an organic farming enthusiast and contributed to the development and promotion of organic
farming in the country, first as Regional Director at Nagpur and then as Director at National Centre of
Organic Farming. As Director, NCOF he was member to various policy planning committees of central and
state Governments. Launching of farmer groups centric certification system known as PGS-India is one of
the notable policy initiative of Dr. Yadav. After his superannuation from Government he is associated with
many organizations and is contributing to the growth of organic farming in the country. He has written more
than 12 books and several papers on biofertilizers and organic farming. Currently he is also the President of
International Competence Centre for Organic Agriculture, a known organic agriculture promoting agency in
the country.

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SP5-2014

Organic Farming and

Indian Institute of Science Campus, Bangalore-560012

National Institute of Advanced Studies 2014

Disclaimer: The responsibility for opinions and factual matter as

Typeset & Printed by

the second largest producer of organic agriculture commodities

Biofertiliser Use in Organic Farming: A Practical and

Indias Organic Farming Movement

Indias Organic Farming Movement

So it is confirmed that the organic farming movement was not

with IFOAM and other NGOs in Europe. These standards were

Indias Organic Farming Movement

and flower, and a host of other things we cannot even begin

Indias Organic Farming Movement

agricultures are principally monocultures. But it is when

Sources of plant nutrition:

Elements from the atmosphere: These represent 92 to 98%

II. Elements from the soil: They represent 25% of a plants

Indias Organic Farming Movement

Thus 9597% of the plants nutritional needs or constituents

analysis of traditional ways and close observations of forests, to

Indias Organic Farming Movement

There is really no paradigm shift involved, so calling it a second

One important final observation about the organic farming

Beef export India

Indias Organic Farming Movement

In India, millions of farmers have been growing organically for

Future Sustainable Food Security of India through

Future Sustainable Food Security of India through Organic Farming

system-oriented approaches which are gaining momentum and

Ashok Kumar Yadav

farm-fresh, free range, low input, organic, permaculture etc.

Future Sustainable Food Security of India through Organic Farming

ecosystems, (ii) higher yields and incomes in traditional farming

Ashok Kumar Yadav

pointed out that while making comparisons productivity is not

Figure 1. Yield (total economic mass) t/ha

Future Sustainable Food Security of India through Organic Farming

Figure 2. Net Income (thousand rupees)

Ashok Kumar Yadav

India (Eyehorn et al, 2009) involving 1,000 farmers, cultivating

Future Sustainable Food Security of India through Organic Farming

Ashok Kumar Yadav

(Source: UAS Dharwad, 2011)

Organic agriculture and profitability: Recently a study

Future Sustainable Food Security of India through Organic Farming

was lower by 14.24 per cent than conventional farming.

Ashok Kumar Yadav

under biodynamic, organic and conventional (with and without

Future Sustainable Food Security of India through Organic Farming

In another study by Ramesh et al (2010) it has been reported

Organic farming as we see today is not the age old

Ashok Kumar Yadav

farming provides solution to all the issues. Organic farming in

Future Sustainable Food Security of India through Organic Farming

Eyhorn F, Paul Mder, Mahesh Ramakrishnan (2009), The Impact of

Ashok Kumar Yadav

Science of the Total Environment 188: 8698. Doi: 10.1016/0048