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Find maximum number of edge disjoint paths between two vertices
Given a directed graph and two vertices in it, source s and destination t, find out the maximum number of edge
disjoint paths from s to t. Two paths are said edge disjoint if they dont share any edge.
There can be maximum two edge disjoint paths from source 0 to destination 7 in the above graph. Two edge disjoint
paths are highlighted below in red and blue colors are 0-2-6-7 and 0-3-6-5-7.
Note that the paths may be different, but the maximum number is same. For example, in the above diagram, another
possible set of paths is 0-1-2-6-7 and 0-3-6-5-7 respectively.
This problem can be solved by reducing it to maximum flow problem. Following are steps.
1) Consider the given source and destination as source and sink in flow network. Assign unit capacity to each edge.
2) Run Ford-Fulkerson algorithm to find the maximum flow from source to sink.
3) The maximum flow is equal to the maximum number of edge-disjoint paths.
When we run Ford-Fulkerson, we reduce the capacity by a unit. Therefore, the edge can not be used again. So the
maximum flow is equal to the maximum number of edge-disjoint paths.
Following is C++ implementation of the above algorithm. Most of the code is taken from here.
// C++ program to find maximum number of edge disjoint paths
#include <iostream>
#include <limits.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <queue>
using namespace std;
// Number of vertices in given graph
#define V 8
/* Returns true if there is a path from source 's' to sink 't' in
residual graph. Also fills parent[] to store the path */

bool bfs(int rGraph[V][V], int s, int t, int parent[])
{
// Create a visited array and mark all vertices as not visited
bool visited[V];
memset(visited, 0, sizeof(visited));
// Create a queue, enqueue source vertex and mark source vertex
// as visited
queue <int> q;
q.push(s);
visited[s] = true;
parent[s] = -1;
// Standard BFS Loop
while (!q.empty())
{
int u = q.front();
q.pop();
for (int v=0; v<V; v++)
{
if (visited[v]==false && rGraph[u][v] > 0)
{
q.push(v);
parent[v] = u;
visited[v] = true;
}
}
}
// If we reached sink in BFS starting from source, then return
// true, else false
return (visited[t] == true);
}
// Returns tne maximum number of edge-disjoint paths from s to t.
// This function is copy of forFulkerson() discussed at http://goo.gl/wtQ4Ks
int findDisjointPaths(int graph[V][V], int s, int t)
{
int u, v;
// Create a residual graph and fill the residual graph with
// given capacities in the original graph as residual capacities
// in residual graph
int rGraph[V][V]; // Residual graph where rGraph[i][j] indicates
// residual capacity of edge from i to j (if there
// is an edge. If rGraph[i][j] is 0, then there is not)
for (u = 0; u < V; u++)
for (v = 0; v < V; v++)
rGraph[u][v] = graph[u][v];
int parent[V];
// This array is filled by BFS and to store path
int max_flow = 0;
// There is no flow initially
// Augment the flow while tere is path from source to sink

while (bfs(rGraph, s, t, parent))
{
// Find minimum residual capacity of the edges along the
// path filled by BFS. Or we can say find the maximum flow
// through the path found.
int path_flow = INT_MAX;
for (v=t; v!=s; v=parent[v])
{
u = parent[v];
path_flow = min(path_flow, rGraph[u][v]);
}
// update residual capacities of the edges and reverse edges
// along the path
for (v=t; v != s; v=parent[v])
{
u = parent[v];
rGraph[u][v] -= path_flow;
rGraph[v][u] += path_flow;
}
// Add path flow to overall flow
max_flow += path_flow;
}
// Return the overall flow (max_flow is equal to maximum
// number of edge-disjoint paths)
return max_flow;
}
// Driver program to test above functions
int main()
{
// Let us create a graph shown in the above example
int graph[V][V] = { {0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0},
{0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0},
{0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0},
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0},
{0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1},
{0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1},
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1},
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0}
};
int s =
int t =
cout <<
<<
0;
7;
"There can be maximum " << findDisjointPaths(graph, s, t)
" edge-disjoint paths from " << s <<" to "<< t ;
return 0;
}
Longest Path in a Directed Acyclic Graph

Given a Weighted Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) and a source vertex s in it, find the longest distances from s to all
other vertices in the given graph.
The longest path problem for a general graph is not as easy as the shortest path problem because the longest path
problem doesnt have optimal substructure property. In fact, the Longest Path problem is NP-Hard for a general graph.
However, the longest path problem has a linear time solution for directed acyclic graphs. The idea is similar to linear
time solution for shortest path in a directed acyclic graph., we use Tological Sorting.
We initialize distances to all vertices as minus infinite and distance to source as 0, then we find atopological sorting of
the graph. Topological Sorting of a graph represents a linear ordering of the graph (See below, figure (b) is a linear
representation of figure (a) ). Once we have topological order (or linear representation), we one by one process all
vertices in topological order. For every vertex being processed, we update distances of its adjacent using distance of
current vertex.
Following figure shows step by step process of finding longest paths.
Following is complete algorithm for finding longest distances.

1) Initialize dist[] = {NINF, NINF, .} and dist[s] = 0 where s is the source vertex. Here NINF means negative infinite.
2) Create a toplogical order of all vertices.
3) Do following for every vertex u in topological order.
..Do following for every adjacent vertex v of u
if (dist[v] < dist[u] + weight(u, v))
dist[v] = dist[u] + weight(u, v)
Following is C++ implementation of the above algorithm.
// A C++ program to find single source longest distances in a DAG
#include <iostream>
#include <list>
#include <stack>
#include <limits.h>
#define NINF INT_MIN
// Graph is represented using adjacency list. Every node of adjacency list

// contains vertex number of the vertex to which edge connects. It also
// contains weight of the edge
class AdjListNode
{
int v;
int weight;
public:
AdjListNode(int _v, int _w) { v = _v; weight = _w;}
int getV()
{ return v; }
int getWeight() { return weight; }
};
// Class to represent a graph using adjacency list representation
class Graph
{
int V;
// No. of vertices
// Pointer to an array containing adjacency lists
list<AdjListNode> *adj;
// A function used by longestPath
void topologicalSortUtil(int v, bool visited[], stack<int> &Stack);
public:
Graph(int V);
// Constructor
// function to add an edge to graph
void addEdge(int u, int v, int weight);
// Finds longest distances from given source vertex
void longestPath(int s);
};
Graph::Graph(int V) // Constructor
{
this->V = V;
adj = new list<AdjListNode>[V];
}
void Graph::addEdge(int u, int v, int weight)
{
AdjListNode node(v, weight);
adj[u].push_back(node); // Add v to us list
}
// A recursive function used by longestPath. See below link for details
// http://www.geeksforgeeks.org/topological-sorting/
void Graph::topologicalSortUtil(int v, bool visited[], stack<int> &Stack)
{
// Mark the current node as visited
visited[v] = true;
// Recur for all the vertices adjacent to this vertex
list<AdjListNode>::iterator i;
for (i = adj[v].begin(); i != adj[v].end(); ++i)
{
AdjListNode node = *i;
if (!visited[node.getV()])
topologicalSortUtil(node.getV(), visited, Stack);
}
// Push current vertex to stack which stores topological sort
Stack.push(v);
}
// The function to find longest distances from a given vertex. It uses
// recursive topologicalSortUtil() to get topological sorting.
void Graph::longestPath(int s)
{
stack<int> Stack;
int dist[V];
// Mark all the vertices as not visited
bool *visited = new bool[V];
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
visited[i] = false;
// Call the recursive helper function to store Topological Sort
// starting from all vertices one by one
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
if (visited[i] == false)
topologicalSortUtil(i, visited, Stack);
// Initialize distances to all vertices as infinite and distance
// to source as 0
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
dist[i] = NINF;
dist[s] = 0;
// Process vertices in topological order
while (Stack.empty() == false)
{
// Get the next vertex from topological order
int u = Stack.top();
Stack.pop();
// Update distances of all adjacent vertices
if (dist[u] != NINF)
{
for (i = adj[u].begin(); i != adj[u].end(); ++i)
if (dist[i->getV()] < dist[u] + i->getWeight())
dist[i->getV()] = dist[u] + i->getWeight();
}
}
// Print the calculated longest distances
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
(dist[i] == NINF)? cout << "INF ": cout << dist[i] << " ";
}
int main()
{
// Create a graph given in the above diagram.
Here vertex numbers are
// 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 with following mappings:

// 0=r, 1=s, 2=t, 3=x, 4=y, 5=z
Graph g(6);
g.addEdge(0, 1, 5);
g.addEdge(0, 2, 3);
g.addEdge(1, 3, 6);
g.addEdge(1, 2, 2);
g.addEdge(2, 4, 4);
g.addEdge(2, 5, 2);
g.addEdge(2, 3, 7);
g.addEdge(3, 5, 1);
g.addEdge(3, 4, -1);
int s = 1;
cout << "Following are longest distances from source vertex " << s <<" \n";
g.longestPath(s);
return 0;
}
Backtracking | Set 6 (Hamiltonian Cycle)

Hamiltonian Path in an undirected graph is a path that visits each vertex exactly once. A Hamiltonian cycle (or
Hamiltonian circuit) is a Hamiltonian Path such that there is an edge (in graph) from the last vertex to the first vertex
of the Hamiltonian Path. Determine whether a given graph contains Hamiltonian Cycle or not. If it contains, then print
the path. Following are the input and output of the required function.
Input:
A 2D array graph[V][V] where V is the number of vertices in graph and graph[V][V] is adjacency matrix representation
of the graph. A value graph[i][j] is 1 if there is a direct edge from i to j, otherwise graph[i][j] is 0.
Output:
An array path[V] that should contain the Hamiltonian Path. path[i] should represent the ith vertex in the Hamiltonian
Path. The code should also return false if there is no Hamiltonian Cycle in the graph.
For example, a Hamiltonian Cycle in the following graph is {0, 1, 2, 4, 3, 0}. There are more Hamiltonian Cycles in the
graph like {0, 3, 4, 2, 1, 0}
(0)--(1)--(2) | / \ | | / \ | | / \ | (3)-------(4)
And the following graph doesnt contain any Hamiltonian Cycle.
(0)--(1)--(2) | / \ | | / \ | | / \ | (3) (4)
Naive Algorithm
Generate all possible configurations of vertices and print a configuration that satisfies the given constraints.
There will be n! (n factorial) configurations.
while there are untried conflagrations { generate the next configuration if ( there are edges between two consecutive
vertices of this configuration and there is an edge from the last vertex to the first ). { print this configuration; break; } }
Backtracking Algorithm
Create an empty path array and add vertex 0 to it. Add other vertices, starting from the vertex 1. Before
adding a vertex, check for whether it is adjacent to the previously added vertex and not already added. If we
find such a vertex, we add the vertex as part of the solution. If we do not find a vertex then we return false.
Implementation of Backtracking solution
Following is C/C++ implementation of the Backtracking solution.
// Program to print Hamiltonian cycle
#include<stdio.h>
// Number of vertices in the graph
#define V 5
void printSolution(int path[]);
/* A utility function to check if the vertex v can be added at index 'pos'
in the Hamiltonian Cycle constructed so far (stored in 'path[]') */
bool isSafe(int v, bool graph[V][V], int path[], int pos)
{
/* Check if this vertex is an adjacent vertex of the previously
added vertex. */
if (graph [ path[pos-1] ][ v ] == 0)
return false;
/* Check if the vertex has already been included.
This step can be optimized by creating an array of size V */
for (int i = 0; i < pos; i++)
if (path[i] == v)
return false;
return true;
}
/* A recursive utility function to solve hamiltonian cycle problem */
bool hamCycleUtil(bool graph[V][V], int path[], int pos)
{
/* base case: If all vertices are included in Hamiltonian Cycle */
if (pos == V)
{
// And if there is an edge from the last included vertex to the
// first vertex
if ( graph[ path[pos-1] ][ path[0] ] == 1 )
return true;
else
return false;
}
// Try different vertices as a next candidate in Hamiltonian Cycle.
// We don't try for 0 as we included 0 as starting point in in hamCycle()
for (int v = 1; v < V; v++)
{
/* Check if this vertex can be added to Hamiltonian Cycle */
if (isSafe(v, graph, path, pos))
{
path[pos] = v;
/* recur to construct rest of the path */
if (hamCycleUtil (graph, path, pos+1) == true)
return true;
/* If adding vertex v doesn't lead to a solution,
then remove it */
path[pos] = -1;
}
}
/* If no vertex can be added to Hamiltonian Cycle constructed so far,
then return false */
return false;
}
/* This function solves the Hamiltonian Cycle problem using Backtracking.
It mainly uses hamCycleUtil() to solve the problem. It returns false
if there is no Hamiltonian Cycle possible, otherwise return true and
prints the path. Please note that there may be more than one solutions,
this function prints one of the feasible solutions. */
bool hamCycle(bool graph[V][V])
{
int *path = new int[V];
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
path[i] = -1;
/* Let us put vertex 0 as the first vertex in the path. If there is
a Hamiltonian Cycle, then the path can be started from any point
of the cycle as the graph is undirected */
path[0] = 0;
if ( hamCycleUtil(graph, path, 1) == false )
{
printf("\nSolution does not exist");
return false;
}
printSolution(path);
return true;
}
/* A utility function to print solution */
void printSolution(int path[])
{
printf ("Solution Exists:"
" Following is one Hamiltonian Cycle \n");
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
printf(" %d ", path[i]);
// Let us print the first vertex again to show the complete cycle
printf(" %d ", path[0]);
printf("\n");
}
// driver program to test above function
int main()
{
/* Let us create the following graph

(0)--(1)--(2)
|
/ \
|
| /
\ |
| /
\ |
(3)-------(4)
*/
bool graph1[V][V] = {{0, 1, 0, 1, 0},
{1, 0, 1, 1, 1},
{0, 1, 0, 0, 1},
{1, 1, 0, 0, 1},
{0, 1, 1, 1, 0},
};
// Print the solution
hamCycle(graph1);
(0)--(1)--(2)
|
/ \
|
| /
\ |
| /
\ |
(3)
(4)
*/
bool graph2[V][V] = {{0, 1, 0, 1, 0},
{1, 0, 1, 1, 1},
{0, 1, 0, 0, 1},
{1, 1, 0, 0, 0},
{0, 1, 1, 0, 0},
};
hamCycle(graph2);
return 0;
}
Dynamic Programming | Set 16 (Floyd Warshall Algorithm)

The Floyd Warshall Algorithm is for solving the All Pairs Shortest Path problem. The problem is to find shortest
distances between every pair of vertices in a given edge weighted directed Graph.
Example:
Input: graph[][] = { {0, 5, INF, 10}, {INF, 0, 3, INF}, {INF, INF, 0, 1}, {INF, INF, INF, 0} } which represents the following
graph 10 (0)------->(3) | /|\ 5 | | | | 1 \|/ | (1)------->(2) 3 Note that the value of graph[i][j] is 0 if i is equal to j And graph[i][j]
is INF (infinite) if there is no edge from vertex i to j. Output: Shortest distance matrix 0 5 8 9 INF 0 3 4 INF INF 0 1
INF INF INF 0
Floyd Warshall Algorithm
We initialize the solution matrix same as the input graph matrix as a first step. Then we update the solution
matrix by considering all vertices as an intermediate vertex. The idea is to one by one pick all vertices and
update all shortest paths which include the picked vertex as an intermediate vertex in the shortest path.
When we pick vertex number k as an intermediate vertex, we already have considered vertices {0, 1, 2, .. k-1}
as intermediate vertices. For every pair (i, j) of source and destination vertices respectively, there are two
possible cases.
1) k is not an intermediate vertex in shortest path from i to j. We keep the value of dist[i][j] as it is.
2) k is an intermediate vertex in shortest path from i to j. We update the value of dist[i][j] as dist[i][k] + dist[k][j].
The following figure is taken from the Cormen book. It shows the above optimal substructure property in the all-pairs
shortest path problem.
Following is C implementation of the Floyd Warshall algorithm.

// Program for Floyd Warshall Algorithm
#include<stdio.h>
#define V 4
/* Define Infinite as a large enough value. This value will be used
for vertices not connected to each other */
#define INF 99999
// A function to print the solution matrix
void printSolution(int dist[][V]);
// Solves the all-pairs shortest path problem using Floyd Warshall algorithm
void floydWarshell (int graph[][V])
{
/* dist[][] will be the output matrix that will finally have the shortest
distances between every pair of vertices */
int dist[V][V], i, j, k;
/* Initialize the solution matrix same as input graph matrix. Or
we can say the initial values of shortest distances are based
on shortest paths considering no intermediate vertex. */
for (i = 0; i < V; i++)
for (j = 0; j < V; j++)
dist[i][j] = graph[i][j];
/* Add all vertices one by one to the set of intermediate vertices.
---> Before start of a iteration, we have shortest distances between all
pairs of vertices such that the shortest distances consider only the
vertices in set {0, 1, 2, .. k-1} as intermediate vertices.
----> After the end of a iteration, vertex no. k is added to the set of
intermediate vertices and the set becomes {0, 1, 2, .. k} */
for (k = 0; k < V; k++)
{
// Pick all vertices as source one by one
for (i = 0; i < V; i++)
{
// Pick all vertices as destination for the
// above picked source
for (j
{
//
//
if
= 0; j < V; j++)
If vertex k is on the shortest path from
i to j, then update the value of dist[i][j]
(dist[i][k] + dist[k][j] < dist[i][j])
dist[i][j] = dist[i][k] + dist[k][j];
}
}
}
// Print the shortest distance matrix
printSolution(dist);
}
void printSolution(int dist[][V])
{
printf ("Following matrix shows the shortest distances"
" between every pair of vertices \n");
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
{
for (int j = 0; j < V; j++)
{
if (dist[i][j] == INF)
printf("%7s", "INF");
else
printf ("%7d", dist[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");
}
}
int main()
{
/* Let us create the following weighted graph
10
(0)------->(3)
|
/|\
5 |
|
|
| 1
\|/
|
(1)------->(2)
3
*/
int graph[V][V] = { {0,
5, INF, 10},
{INF, 0,
3, INF},
{INF, INF, 0,
1},
{INF, INF, INF, 0}
};
floydWarshell(graph);
return 0;
}
Find the number of islands

Given a boolean 2D matrix, find the number of islands.
This is an variation of the standard problem: Counting number of connected components in a undirected graph.
Before we go to the problem, let us understand what is a connected component. A connected component of an
undirected graph is a subgraph in which every two vertices are connected to each other by a path(s), and which is
connected to no other vertices outside the subgraph.
For example, the graph shown below has three connected components.
A graph where all vertices are connected with each other, has exactly one connected component, consisting of the
whole graph. Such graph with only one connected component is called as Strongly Connected Graph.
The problem can be easily solved by applying DFS() on each component. In each DFS() call, a component or a subgraph is visited. We will call DFS on the next un-visited component. The number of calls to DFS() gives the number of
connected components. BFS can also be used.
What is an island?
A group of connected 1s forms an island. For example, the below matrix contains 5 islands
{1, 1, 0, 0, 0}, {0, 1, 0, 0, 1}, {1, 0, 0, 1, 1}, {0, 0, 0, 0, 0}, {1, 0, 1, 0, 1}
A cell in 2D matrix can be connected to 8 neighbors. So, unlike standard DFS(), where we recursively call for all
adjacent vertices, here we can recursive call for 8 neighbors only. We keep track of the visited 1s so that they are not
visited again.
// Program to count islands in boolean 2D matrix
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <stdbool.h>
#define ROW 5
#define COL 5
// A function to check if a given cell (row, col) can be included in DFS
int isSafe(int M[][COL], int row, int col, bool visited[][COL])
{
return (row >= 0) && (row < ROW) &&
// row number is in range
(col >= 0) && (col < COL) &&
// column number is in range
(M[row][col] && !visited[row][col]); // value is 1 and not yet visited
}
// A utility function to do DFS for a 2D boolean matrix. It only considers
// the 8 neighbors as adjacent vertices
void DFS(int M[][COL], int row, int col, bool visited[][COL])
{
// These arrays are used to get row and column numbers of 8 neighbors
// of a given cell
static int rowNbr[] = {-1, -1, -1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1};
static int colNbr[] = {-1, 0, 1, -1, 1, -1, 0, 1};
// Mark this cell as visited

visited[row][col] = true;
// Recur for all connected neighbours
for (int k = 0; k < 8; ++k)
if (isSafe(M, row + rowNbr[k], col + colNbr[k], visited) )
DFS(M, row + rowNbr[k], col + colNbr[k], visited);
}
// The main function that returns count of islands in a given boolean
// 2D matrix
int countIslands(int M[][COL])
{
// Make a bool array to mark visited cells.
// Initially all cells are unvisited
bool visited[ROW][COL];
memset(visited, 0, sizeof(visited));
// Initialize count as 0 and travese through the all cells of
// given matrix
int count = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < ROW; ++i)
for (int j = 0; j < COL; ++j)
if (M[i][j] && !visited[i][j]) // If a cell with value 1 is not
{
// visited yet, then new island found
DFS(M, i, j, visited);
// Visit all cells in this island.
++count;
// and increment island count
}
return count;
}
// Driver program
int main()
{
int M[][COL]=
{0, 1, 0,
{1, 0, 0,
{0, 0, 0,
{1, 0, 1,
};
to test above function

{
0,
1,
0,
0,
{1, 1, 0, 0, 0},
1},
1},
0},
1}
printf("Number of islands is: %d\n", countIslands(M));

return 0;
}
Union-Find Algorithm | Set 1 (Detect Cycle in a an Undirected Graph)

A disjoint-set data structure is a data structure that keeps track of a set of elements partitioned into a number of
disjoint (non-overlapping) subsets. A union-find algorithm is an algorithm that performs two useful operations on such
a data structure:
Find: Determine which subset a particular element is in. This can be used for determining if two elements are in the
same subset.
Union: Join two subsets into a single subset.
In this post, we will discuss an application of Disjoint Set Data Structure. The application is to check whether a given
graph contains a cycle or not.
Union-Find Algorithm can be used to check whether an undirected graph contains cycle or not. Note that we have
discussed an algorithm to detect cycle. This is another method based on Union-Find. This method assumes that
graph doesnt contain any self-loops.
We can keeps track of the subsets in a 1D array, lets call it parent[].
Let us consider the following graph:
0 | \ | \ 1-----2
For each edge, make subsets using both the vertices of the edge. If both the vertices are in the same subset, a cycle
is found.
Initially, all slots of parent array are initialized to -1 (means there is only one item in every subset).
0 1 2 -1 -1 -1
Now process all edges one by one.
Edge 0-1: Find the subsets in which vertices 0 and 1 are. Since they are in different subsets, we take the union of
them. For taking the union, either make node 0 as parent of node 1 or vice-versa.
0 1 2 <----- 1 is made parent of 0 (1 is now representative of subset {0, 1}) 1 -1 -1
Edge 1-2: 1 is in subset 1 and 2 is in subset 2. So, take union.
0 1 2 <----- 2 is made parent of 1 (2 is now representative of subset {0, 1, 2}) 1 2 -1
Edge 0-2: 0 is in subset 2 and 2 is also in subset 2. Hence, including this edge forms a cycle.
How subset of 0 is same as 2?
0->1->2 // 1 is parent of 0 and 2 is parent of 1
Based on the above explanation, below is the code:
// A union-find algorithm to detect cycle in a graph
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>
// a structure to represent an edge in graph
struct Edge
{
int src, dest;
};
// a structure to represent a graph

struct Graph
{
// V-> Number of vertices, E-> Number of edges
int V, E;
// graph is represented as an array of edges
struct Edge* edge;
};
// Creates a graph with V vertices and E edges
struct Graph* createGraph(int V, int E)
{
struct Graph* graph = (struct Graph*) malloc( sizeof(struct Graph) );
graph->V = V;
graph->E = E;
graph->edge = (struct Edge*) malloc( graph->E * sizeof( struct Edge ) );
return graph;
}
// A utility function to find the subset of an element i
int find(int parent[], int i)
{
if (parent[i] == -1)
return i;
return find(parent, parent[i]);
}
// A utility function to do union of two subsets
void Union(int parent[], int x, int y)
{
int xset = find(parent, x);
int yset = find(parent, y);
parent[xset] = yset;
}
// The main function to check whether a given graph contains cycle or not
int isCycle( struct Graph* graph )
{
// Allocate memory for creating V subsets
int *parent = (int*) malloc( graph->V * sizeof(int) );
// Initialize all subsets as single element sets
memset(parent, -1, sizeof(int) * graph->V);
// Iterate through all edges of graph, find subset of both
// vertices of every edge, if both subsets are same, then there is
// cycle in graph.
for(int i = 0; i < graph->E; ++i)
{
int x = find(parent, graph->edge[i].src);
int y = find(parent, graph->edge[i].dest);
if (x == y)
return 1;
Union(parent, x, y);
}
return 0;
}
int main()
{
/* Let us create following graph
0
| \
|
\
1-----2 */
struct Graph* graph = createGraph(3, 3);
// add edge 0-1
graph->edge[0].src = 0;
graph->edge[0].dest = 1;
// add edge 1-2
// add edge 0-2
if (isCycle(graph))
printf( "Graph contains cycle" );
else
printf( "Graph doesn't contain cycle" );
return 0;
}
Union-Find Algorithm | Set 2 (Union By Rank and Path Compression)

In the previous post, we introduced union find algorithm and used it to detect cycle in a graph. We used following
union() and find() operations for subsets.
// Naive implementation of find
int find(int parent[], int i)
{
if (parent[i] == -1)
return i;
return find(parent, parent[i]);
}
// Naive implementation of union()

void Union(int parent[], int x, int y)
{
int xset = find(parent, x);
int yset = find(parent, y);
parent[xset] = yset;
}
Run on IDE
The above union() and find() are naive and the worst case time complexity is linear. The trees created to represent
subsets can be skewed and can become like a linked list. Following is an example worst case scenario.
Let there be 4 elements 0, 1, 2, 3 Initially all elements are single element subsets. 0 1 2 3 Do Union(0, 1) 1 2 3 / 0 Do
Union(1, 2) 2 3 / 1 / 0 Do Union(2, 3) 3 / 2 / 1 / 0
The above operations can be optimized to O(Log n) in worst case. The idea is to always attach smaller depth tree
under the root of the deeper tree. This technique is called union by rank. The term rank is preferred instead of height
because if path compression technique (we have discussed it below) is used, then rank is not always equal to height.
Also, size (in place of height) of trees can also be used as rank. Using size as rank also yields worst case time
complexity as O(Logn) (See this for prrof)
Let us see the above example with union by rank Initially all elements are single element subsets. 0 1 2 3 Do Union(0,
1) 1 2 3 / 0 Do Union(1, 2) 1 3 / \ 0 2 Do Union(2, 3) 1 / | \ 0 2 3
The second optimization to naive method is Path Compression. The idea is to flatten the tree when find() is called.
When find() is called for an element x, root of the tree is returned. The find()operation traverses up from x to find root.
The idea of path compression is to make the found root as parent of x so that we dont have to traverse all
intermediate nodes again. If x is root of a subtree, then path (to root) from all nodes under x also compresses.
Let the subset {0, 1, .. 9} be represented as below and find() is called for element 3. 9 / | \ 4 5 6 / \ / \ 0 3 7 8 / \ 1 2
When find() is called for 3, we traverse up and find 9 as representative of this subset. With path compression, we also
make 3 as child of 9 so that when find() is called next time for 1, 2 or 3, the path to root is reduced. 9 / / \ \ 4 5 6 3 / / \
/\07812
The two techniques complement each other. The time complexity of each operations becomes even smaller than
O(Logn). In fact, amortized time complexity effectively becomes small constant.
Following is union by rank and path compression based implementation to find cycle in a graph.
// A union by rank and path compression based program to detect cycle in a graph
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
// a structure to represent an edge in graph
struct Edge
{
int src, dest;
};
// a structure to represent a graph
struct Graph
{
int V, E;
// graph is represented as an array of edges
struct Edge* edge;

};
struct subset
{
int parent;
int rank;
};
{
graph->V = V;
graph->E = E;
return graph;
}
// A utility function to find set of an element i
// (uses path compression technique)
int find(struct subset subsets[], int i)
{
// find root and make root as parent of i (path compression)
if (subsets[i].parent != i)
subsets[i].parent = find(subsets, subsets[i].parent);
return subsets[i].parent;
}
// A function that does union of two sets of x and y
// (uses union by rank)
void Union(struct subset subsets[], int x, int y)
{
int xroot = find(subsets, x);
int yroot = find(subsets, y);
// Attach smaller rank tree under root of high rank tree
// (Union by Rank)
if (subsets[xroot].rank < subsets[yroot].rank)
subsets[xroot].parent = yroot;
else if (subsets[xroot].rank > subsets[yroot].rank)
subsets[yroot].parent = xroot;
// If ranks are same, then make one as root and increment
// its rank by one
else
{
subsets[xroot].rank++;
}
}
// The main function to check whether a given graph contains cycle or not
int isCycle( struct Graph* graph )
{
int V = graph->V;
int E = graph->E;
// Allocate memory for creating V sets
struct subset *subsets =
(struct subset*) malloc( V * sizeof(struct subset) );
for (int v = 0; v < V; ++v)
{
subsets[v].parent = v;
subsets[v].rank = 0;
}
// Iterate through all edges of graph, find sets of both
// vertices of every edge, if sets are same, then there is
// cycle in graph.
for(int e = 0; e < E; ++e)
{
int x = find(subsets, graph->edge[e].src);
int y = find(subsets, graph->edge[e].dest);
if (x == y)
return 1;
Union(subsets, x, y);
}
return 0;
}
int main()
{
/* Let us create following graph
0
| \
|
\
1-----2 */
int V = 3, E = 3;
struct Graph* graph = createGraph(V, E);
// add edge 0-1
// add edge 1-2
// add edge 0-2
if (isCycle(graph))
printf( "Graph contains cycle" );
else
printf( "Graph doesn't contain cycle" );
return 0;
}
Greedy Algorithms | Set 2 (Kruskals Minimum Spanning Tree Algorithm)

What is Minimum Spanning Tree?
Given a connected and undirected graph, a spanning tree of that graph is a subgraph that is a tree and connects all
the vertices together. A single graph can have many different spanning trees. Aminimum spanning tree (MST) or
minimum weight spanning tree for a weighted, connected and undirected graph is a spanning tree with weight less
than or equal to the weight of every other spanning tree. The weight of a spanning tree is the sum of weights given to
each edge of the spanning tree.
How many edges does a minimum spanning tree has?
A minimum spanning tree has (V 1) edges where V is the number of vertices in the given graph.
What are the applications of Minimum Spanning Tree?
See this for applications of MST.
Below are the steps for finding MST using Kruskals algorithm
1. Sort all the edges in non-decreasing order of their weight. 2. Pick the smallest edge. Check if it forms a cycle with
the spanning tree formed so far. If cycle is not formed, include this edge. Else, discard it. 3. Repeat step#2 until there
are (V-1) edges in the spanning tree.
The step#2 uses Union-Find algorithm to detect cycle. So we recommend to read following post as a prerequisite.
Union-Find Algorithm | Set 1 (Detect Cycle in a Graph)
Union-Find Algorithm | Set 2 (Union By Rank and Path Compression)
The algorithm is a Greedy Algorithm. The Greedy Choice is to pick the smallest weight edge that does not cause a
cycle in the MST constructed so far. Let us understand it with an example: Consider the below input graph.
The graph contains 9 vertices and 14 edges. So, the minimum spanning tree formed will be having (9 1) = 8 edges.
After sorting: Weight Src Dest 1 7 6 2 8 2 2 6 5 4 0 1 4 2 5 6 8 6 7 2 3 7 7 8 8 0 7 8 1 2 9 3 4 10 5 4 11 1 7 14 3 5
Now pick all edges one by one from sorted list of edges
1. Pick edge 7-6: No cycle is formed, include it.
6. Pick edge 8-6: Since including this edge results in cycle, discard it.
Since the number of edges included equals (V 1), the algorithm stops here.
// Kruskal's algortihm to find Minimum Spanning Tree of a given connected,
// undirected and weighted graph
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>
// a structure to represent a weighted edge in graph
struct Edge
{
int src, dest, weight;
};
// a structure to represent a connected, undirected and weighted graph
struct Graph
{
int V, E;
// graph is represented as an array of edges. Since the graph is
// undirected, the edge from src to dest is also edge from dest
// to src. Both are counted as 1 edge here.
struct Edge* edge;
};
{
graph->V = V;
graph->E = E;
return graph;
}
// A structure to represent a subset for union-find
struct subset
{
int parent;
int rank;
};
// A utility function to find set of an element i
// (uses path compression technique)
int find(struct subset subsets[], int i)
{
// find root and make root as parent of i (path compression)
if (subsets[i].parent != i)
subsets[i].parent = find(subsets, subsets[i].parent);
return subsets[i].parent;
}
// A function that does union of two sets of x and y
// (uses union by rank)
void Union(struct subset subsets[], int x, int y)
{
int xroot = find(subsets, x);
int yroot = find(subsets, y);
// Attach smaller rank tree under root of high rank tree
// (Union by Rank)
if (subsets[xroot].rank < subsets[yroot].rank)
subsets[xroot].parent = yroot;
else if (subsets[xroot].rank > subsets[yroot].rank)
// If ranks are same, then make one as root and increment
// its rank by one
else
{
subsets[xroot].rank++;
}
}
// Compare two edges according to their weights.
// Used in qsort() for sorting an array of edges
int myComp(const void* a, const void* b)
{
struct Edge* a1 = (struct Edge*)a;
struct Edge* b1 = (struct Edge*)b;
return a1->weight > b1->weight;
}
// The main function to construct MST using Kruskal's algorithm
void KruskalMST(struct Graph* graph)
{
int V = graph->V;
struct Edge result[V]; // Tnis will store the resultant MST
int e = 0; // An index variable, used for result[]
int i = 0;
// An index variable, used for sorted edges
// Step 1: Sort all the edges in non-decreasing order of their weight

// If we are not allowed to change the given graph, we can create a copy of
// array of edges
qsort(graph->edge, graph->E, sizeof(graph->edge[0]), myComp);
// Allocate memory for creating V ssubsets
struct subset *subsets =
(struct subset*) malloc( V * sizeof(struct subset) );
// Create V subsets with single elements
for (int v = 0; v < V; ++v)
{
subsets[v].parent = v;
subsets[v].rank = 0;
}
// Number of edges to be taken is equal to V-1
while (e < V - 1)
{
// Step 2: Pick the smallest edge. And increment the index
// for next iteration
struct Edge next_edge = graph->edge[i++];
int x = find(subsets, next_edge.src);
int y = find(subsets, next_edge.dest);
// If including this edge does't cause cycle, include it
// in result and increment the index of result for next edge
if (x != y)
{
result[e++] = next_edge;
Union(subsets, x, y);
}
// Else discard the next_edge
}
// print the contents of result[] to display the built MST
printf("Following are the edges in the constructed MST\n");
for (i = 0; i < e; ++i)
printf("%d -- %d == %d\n", result[i].src, result[i].dest,
result[i].weight);
return;
}
int main()
{
/* Let us create following weighted graph
10
0--------1
| \
|
6|
5\
|15
|
\ |
2--------3
4
*/
int V = 4; // Number of vertices in graph
int E = 5; // Number of edges in graph
// add edge 0-1

graph->edge[0].weight = 10;
// add edge 0-2
// add edge 0-3
// add edge 1-3
// add edge 2-3
KruskalMST(graph);
return 0;
}
Greedy Algorithms | Set 5 (Prims Minimum Spanning Tree (MST))

We have discussed Kruskals algorithm for Minimum Spanning Tree. Like Kruskals algorithm, Prims algorithm is also
a Greedy algorithm. It starts with an empty spanning tree. The idea is to maintain two sets of vertices. The first set
contains the vertices already included in the MST, the other set contains the vertices not yet included. At every step,
it considers all the edges that connect the two sets, and picks the minimum weight edge from these edges. After
picking the edge, it moves the other endpoint of the edge to the set containing MST.
A group of edges that connects two set of vertices in a graph is called cut in graph theory. So, at every step of Prims
algorithm, we find a cut (of two sets, one contains the vertices already included in MST and other contains rest of the
verices), pick the minimum weight edge from the cut and include this vertex to MST Set (the set that contains already
included vertices).
How does Prims Algorithm Work? The idea behind Prims algorithm is simple, a spanning tree means all vertices
must be connected. So the two disjoint subsets (discussed above) of vertices must be connected to make a Spanning
Tree. And they must be connected with the minimum weight edge to make it a Minimum Spanning Tree.
Algorithm
1) Create a set mstSet that keeps track of vertices already included in MST.
2) Assign a key value to all vertices in the input graph. Initialize all key values as INFINITE. Assign key value as 0 for
the first vertex so that it is picked first.

3) While mstSet doesnt include all vertices
.a) Pick a vertex u which is not there in mstSet and has minimum key value.
.b) Include u to mstSet.
.c) Update key value of all adjacent vertices of u. To update the key values, iterate through all adjacent vertices.
For every adjacent vertex v, if weight of edge u-v is less than the previous key value of v, update the key value as
weight of u-v
The idea of using key values is to pick the minimum weight edge from cut. The key values are used only for vertices
which are not yet included in MST, the key value for these vertices indicate the minimum weight edges connecting
them to the set of vertices included in MST.
Let us understand with the following example:
The set mstSet is initially empty and keys assigned to vertices are {0, INF, INF, INF, INF, INF, INF, INF} where INF
indicates infinite. Now pick the vertex with minimum key value. The vertex 0 is picked, include it in mstSet. So mstSet
becomes {0}. After including to mstSet, update key values of adjacent vertices. Adjacent vertices of 0 are 1 and 7.
The key values of 1 and 7 are updated as 4 and 8. Following subgraph shows vertices and their key values, only the
vertices with finite key values are shown. The vertices included in MST are shown in green color.
Pick the vertex with minimum key value and not already included in MST (not in mstSET). The vertex 1 is picked and
added to mstSet. So mstSet now becomes {0, 1}. Update the key values of adjacent vertices of 1. The key value of
vertex 2 becomes 8.
Pick the vertex with minimum key value and not already included in MST (not in mstSET). We can either pick vertex 7
or vertex 2, let vertex 7 is picked. So mstSet now becomes {0, 1, 7}. Update the key values of adjacent vertices of 7.
The key value of vertex 6 and 8 becomes finite (7 and 1 respectively).
Pick the vertex with minimum key value and not already included in MST (not in mstSET). Vertex 6 is picked. So
mstSet now becomes {0, 1, 7, 6}. Update the key values of adjacent vertices of 6. The key value of vertex 5 and 8 are
updated.
We repeat the above steps until mstSet includes all vertices of given graph. Finally, we get the following graph.
How to implement the above algorithm?

We use a boolean array mstSet[] to represent the set of vertices included in MST. If a value mstSet[v] is true,
then vertex v is included in MST, otherwise not. Array key[] is used to store key values of all vertices.
Another array parent[] to store indexes of parent nodes in MST. The parent array is the output array which is
used to show the constructed MST.
// A C / C++ program for Prim's Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) algorithm.
// The program is for adjacency matrix representation of the graph
#include <stdio.h>
#include <limits.h>
#define V 5
// A utility function to find the vertex with minimum key value, from
// the set of vertices not yet included in MST
int minKey(int key[], bool mstSet[])
{
// Initialize min value
int min = INT_MAX, min_index;

for (int v = 0; v < V; v++)
if (mstSet[v] == false && key[v] < min)
min = key[v], min_index = v;
return min_index;
}
// A utility function to print the constructed MST stored in parent[]
int printMST(int parent[], int n, int graph[V][V])
{
printf("Edge
Weight\n");
for (int i = 1; i < V; i++)
printf("%d - %d
%d \n", parent[i], i, graph[i][parent[i]]);
}
// Function to construct and print MST for a graph represented using adjacency
// matrix representation
void primMST(int graph[V][V])
{
int parent[V]; // Array to store constructed MST
int key[V];
// Key values used to pick minimum weight edge in cut
bool mstSet[V]; // To represent set of vertices not yet included in MST
// Initialize all keys as INFINITE
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
key[i] = INT_MAX, mstSet[i] = false;
// Always include first 1st vertex in MST.
key[0] = 0;
// Make key 0 so that this vertex is picked as first vertex
parent[0] = -1; // First node is always root of MST
// The MST will have V vertices
for (int count = 0; count < V-1; count++)
{
// Pick thd minimum key vertex from the set of vertices
// not yet included in MST
int u = minKey(key, mstSet);
// Add the picked vertex to the MST Set
mstSet[u] = true;
// Update key value and parent index of the adjacent vertices of
// the picked vertex. Consider only those vertices which are not yet
// included in MST
for (int v = 0; v < V; v++)
// graph[u][v] is non zero only for adjacent vertices of m
// mstSet[v] is false for vertices not yet included in MST
// Update the key only if graph[u][v] is smaller than key[v]
if (graph[u][v] && mstSet[v] == false && graph[u][v] < key[v])
parent[v] = u, key[v] = graph[u][v];
}
// print the constructed MST
printMST(parent, V, graph);
}

int main()
{
2
3
(0)--(1)--(2)
|
/ \
|
6| 8/
\5 |7
| /
\ |
(3)-------(4)
9
*/
int graph[V][V] = {{0, 2, 0, 6, 0},
{2, 0, 3, 8, 5},
{0, 3, 0, 0, 7},
{6, 8, 0, 0, 9},
{0, 5, 7, 9, 0},
};
primMST(graph);
return 0;
}
Run on IDE
Output:
Edge Weight 0 - 1 2 1 - 2 3 0 - 3 6 1 - 4 5
Time Complexity of the above program is O(V^2). If the input graph is represented using adjacency list, then the time
complexity of Prims algorithm can be reduced to O(E log V) with the help of binary heap. We will soon be discussing
O(E Log V) algorithm as a separate post.
Greedy Algorithms | Set 6 (Prims MST for Adjacency List Representation)

We recommend to read following two posts as a prerequisite of this post.
1. Greedy Algorithms | Set 5 (Prims Minimum Spanning Tree (MST))
2. Graph and its representations
We have discussed Prims algorithm and its implementation for adjacency matrix representation of graphs. The time
complexity for the matrix representation is O(V^2). In this post, O(ELogV) algorithm for adjacency list representation
is discussed.
As discussed in the previous post, in Prims algorithm, two sets are maintained, one set contains list of vertices
already included in MST, other set contains vertices not yet included. With adjacency list representation, all vertices
of a graph can be traversed in O(V+E) time using BFS. The idea is to traverse all vertices of graph using BFS and
use a Min Heap to store the vertices not yet included in MST. Min Heap is used as a priority queue to get the
minimum weight edge from the cut. Min Heap is used as time complexity of operations like extracting minimum
element and decreasing key value is O(LogV) in Min Heap.
Following are the detailed steps.
1) Create a Min Heap of size V where V is the number of vertices in the given graph. Every node of min heap
contains vertex number and key value of the vertex.
2) Initialize Min Heap with first vertex as root (the key value assigned to first vertex is 0). The key value assigned to
all other vertices is INF (infinite).
3) While Min Heap is not empty, do following
..a) Extract the min value node from Min Heap. Let the extracted vertex be u.
..b) For every adjacent vertex v of u, check if v is in Min Heap (not yet included in MST). If v is in Min Heap and its
key value is more than weight of u-v, then update the key value of v as weight of u-v.
Let us understand the above algorithm with the following example:
Initially, key value of first vertex is 0 and INF (infinite) for all other vertices. So vertex 0 is extracted from Min Heap
and key values of vertices adjacent to 0 (1 and 7) are updated. Min Heap contains all vertices except vertex 0.
The vertices in green color are the vertices included in MST.
Since key value of vertex 1 is minimum among all nodes in Min Heap, it is extracted from Min Heap and key values of
vertices adjacent to 1 are updated (Key is updated if the a vertex is not in Min Heap and previous key value is greater
than the weight of edge from 1 to the adjacent). Min Heap contains all vertices except vertex 0 and 1.
than the weight of edge from 7 to the adjacent). Min Heap contains all vertices except vertex 0, 1 and 7.
than the weight of edge from 6 to the adjacent). Min Heap contains all vertices except vertex 0, 1, 7 and 6.
The above steps are repeated for rest of the nodes in Min Heap till Min Heap becomes empty
// C / C++ program for Prim's MST for adjacency list representation of graph
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <limits.h>
// A structure to represent a node in adjacency list
struct AdjListNode
{
int dest;
int weight;
struct AdjListNode* next;
};
// A structure to represent an adjacency liat
struct AdjList
{
struct AdjListNode *head; // pointer to head node of list
};
// A structure to represent a graph. A graph is an array of adjacency lists.
// Size of array will be V (number of vertices in graph)
struct Graph
{
int V;
struct AdjList* array;

};
// A utility function to create a new adjacency list node
struct AdjListNode* newAdjListNode(int dest, int weight)
{
struct AdjListNode* newNode =
(struct AdjListNode*) malloc(sizeof(struct AdjListNode));
newNode->dest = dest;
newNode->weight = weight;
newNode->next = NULL;
return newNode;
}
// A utility function that creates a graph of V vertices
struct Graph* createGraph(int V)
{
struct Graph* graph = (struct Graph*) malloc(sizeof(struct Graph));
graph->V = V;
// Create an array of adjacency lists. Size of array will be V
graph->array = (struct AdjList*) malloc(V * sizeof(struct AdjList));
// Initialize each adjacency list as empty by making head as NULL
for (int i = 0; i < V; ++i)
graph->array[i].head = NULL;
return graph;
}
// Adds an edge to an undirected graph
void addEdge(struct Graph* graph, int src, int dest, int weight)
{
// Add an edge from src to dest. A new node is added to the adjacency
// list of src. The node is added at the begining
struct AdjListNode* newNode = newAdjListNode(dest, weight);
newNode->next = graph->array[src].head;
graph->array[src].head = newNode;
// Since graph is undirected, add an edge from dest to src also
newNode = newAdjListNode(src, weight);
newNode->next = graph->array[dest].head;
graph->array[dest].head = newNode;
}
// Structure to represent a min heap node
struct MinHeapNode
{
int v;
int key;
};
// Structure to represent a min heap
struct MinHeap
{
int size;
// Number of heap nodes present currently
int capacity; // Capacity of min heap
int *pos;
// This is needed for decreaseKey()
struct MinHeapNode **array;

};
// A utility function to create a new Min Heap Node
struct MinHeapNode* newMinHeapNode(int v, int key)
{
struct MinHeapNode* minHeapNode =
(struct MinHeapNode*) malloc(sizeof(struct MinHeapNode));
minHeapNode->v = v;
minHeapNode->key = key;
return minHeapNode;
}
// A utilit function to create a Min Heap
struct MinHeap* createMinHeap(int capacity)
{
struct MinHeap* minHeap =
(struct MinHeap*) malloc(sizeof(struct MinHeap));
minHeap->pos = (int *)malloc(capacity * sizeof(int));
minHeap->size = 0;
minHeap->capacity = capacity;
minHeap->array =
(struct MinHeapNode**) malloc(capacity * sizeof(struct MinHeapNode*));
return minHeap;
}
// A utility function to swap two nodes of min heap. Needed for min heapify
void swapMinHeapNode(struct MinHeapNode** a, struct MinHeapNode** b)
{
struct MinHeapNode* t = *a;
*a = *b;
*b = t;
}
// A standard function to heapify at given idx
// This function also updates position of nodes when they are swapped.
// Position is needed for decreaseKey()
void minHeapify(struct MinHeap* minHeap, int idx)
{
int smallest, left, right;
smallest = idx;
left = 2 * idx + 1;
right = 2 * idx + 2;
if (left < minHeap->size &&
minHeap->array[left]->key < minHeap->array[smallest]->key )
smallest = left;
if (right < minHeap->size &&
minHeap->array[right]->key < minHeap->array[smallest]->key )
smallest = right;
if (smallest != idx)
{
// The nodes to be swapped in min heap
MinHeapNode *smallestNode = minHeap->array[smallest];
MinHeapNode *idxNode = minHeap->array[idx];
// Swap positions
minHeap->pos[smallestNode->v] = idx;
minHeap->pos[idxNode->v] = smallest;
// Swap nodes
swapMinHeapNode(&minHeap->array[smallest], &minHeap->array[idx]);
minHeapify(minHeap, smallest);
}
}
// A utility function to check if the given minHeap is ampty or not
int isEmpty(struct MinHeap* minHeap)
{
return minHeap->size == 0;
}
// Standard function to extract minimum node from heap
struct MinHeapNode* extractMin(struct MinHeap* minHeap)
{
if (isEmpty(minHeap))
return NULL;
// Store the root node
struct MinHeapNode* root = minHeap->array[0];
// Replace root node with last node
struct MinHeapNode* lastNode = minHeap->array[minHeap->size - 1];
minHeap->array[0] = lastNode;
// Update position of last node
minHeap->pos[root->v] = minHeap->size-1;
minHeap->pos[lastNode->v] = 0;
// Reduce heap size and heapify root
--minHeap->size;
minHeapify(minHeap, 0);
return root;
}
// Function to decreasy key value of a given vertex v. This function
// uses pos[] of min heap to get the current index of node in min heap
void decreaseKey(struct MinHeap* minHeap, int v, int key)
{
// Get the index of v in heap array
int i = minHeap->pos[v];
// Get the node and update its key value
minHeap->array[i]->key = key;
// Travel up while the complete tree is not hepified.
// This is a O(Logn) loop
while (i && minHeap->array[i]->key < minHeap->array[(i - 1) / 2]->key)
{
// Swap this node with its parent
minHeap->pos[minHeap->array[i]->v] = (i-1)/2;
minHeap->pos[minHeap->array[(i-1)/2]->v] = i;
swapMinHeapNode(&minHeap->array[i], &minHeap->array[(i - 1) / 2]);
// move to parent index

i = (i - 1) / 2;
}
}
// A utility function to check if a given vertex
// 'v' is in min heap or not
bool isInMinHeap(struct MinHeap *minHeap, int v)
{
if (minHeap->pos[v] < minHeap->size)
return true;
return false;
}
// A utility function used to print the constructed MST
void printArr(int arr[], int n)
{
for (int i = 1; i < n; ++i)
printf("%d - %d\n", arr[i], i);
}
// The main function that constructs Minimum Spanning Tree (MST)
// using Prim's algorithm
void PrimMST(struct Graph* graph)
{
int V = graph->V;// Get the number of vertices in graph
int parent[V];
// Array to store constructed MST
int key[V];
// Key values used to pick minimum weight edge in cut
// minHeap represents set E
struct MinHeap* minHeap = createMinHeap(V);
// Initialize min heap with all vertices. Key value of
// all vertices (except 0th vertex) is initially infinite
for (int v = 1; v < V; ++v)
{
parent[v] = -1;
key[v] = INT_MAX;
minHeap->array[v] = newMinHeapNode(v, key[v]);
minHeap->pos[v] = v;
}
// Make key value of 0th vertex as 0 so that it
// is extracted first
key[0] = 0;
minHeap->array[0] = newMinHeapNode(0, key[0]);
minHeap->pos[0]
= 0;
// Initially size of min heap is equal to V
minHeap->size = V;
// In the followin loop, min heap contains all nodes
// not yet added to MST.
while (!isEmpty(minHeap))
{
// Extract the vertex with minimum key value
struct MinHeapNode* minHeapNode = extractMin(minHeap);
int u = minHeapNode->v; // Store the extracted vertex number

// Traverse through all adjacent vertices of u (the extracted
// vertex) and update their key values
struct AdjListNode* pCrawl = graph->array[u].head;
while (pCrawl != NULL)
{
int v = pCrawl->dest;
//
//
//
if
{
If v is not yet included in MST and weight of u-v is

less than key value of v, then update key value and
parent of v
(isInMinHeap(minHeap, v) && pCrawl->weight < key[v])
key[v] = pCrawl->weight;
parent[v] = u;
decreaseKey(minHeap, v, key[v]);
}
pCrawl = pCrawl->next;
}
}
// print edges of MST
printArr(parent, V);
}
int main()
{
// Let us create the graph given in above fugure
int V = 9;
struct Graph* graph = createGraph(V);
addEdge(graph, 0, 1, 4);
PrimMST(graph);
return 0;
}
Run on IDE
Output:
0-15-22-33-46-57-60-72-8
Time Complexity: The time complexity of the above code/algorithm looks O(V^2) as there are two nested while
loops. If we take a closer look, we can observe that the statements in inner loop are executed O(V+E) times (similar
to BFS). The inner loop has decreaseKey() operation which takes O(LogV) time. So overall time complexity is
O(E+V)*O(LogV) which is O((E+V)*LogV) = O(ELogV) (For a connected graph, V = O(E))
Greedy Algorithms | Set 8 (Dijkstras Algorithm for Adjacency List Representation)

We recommend to read following two posts as a prerequisite of this post.
1. Greedy Algorithms | Set 7 (Dijkstras shortest path algorithm)
2. Graph and its representations
We have discussed Dijkstras algorithm and its implementation for adjacency matrix representation of graphs. The
time complexity for the matrix representation is O(V^2). In this post, O(ELogV) algorithm for adjacency list
representation is discussed.
As discussed in the previous post, in Dijkstras algorithm, two sets are maintained, one set contains list of vertices
already included in SPT (Shortest Path Tree), other set contains vertices not yet included. With adjacency list
representation, all vertices of a graph can be traversed in O(V+E) time using BFS. The idea is to traverse all vertices
of graph using BFS and use a Min Heap to store the vertices not yet included in SPT (or the vertices for which
shortest distance is not finalized yet). Min Heap is used as a priority queue to get the minimum distance vertex from
set of not yet included vertices. Time complexity of operations like extract-min and decrease-key value is O(LogV) for
Min Heap.
1) Create a Min Heap of size V where V is the number of vertices in the given graph. Every node of min heap
contains vertex number and distance value of the vertex.
2) Initialize Min Heap with source vertex as root (the distance value assigned to source vertex is 0). The distance
value assigned to all other vertices is INF (infinite).
3) While Min Heap is not empty, do following
..a) Extract the vertex with minimum distance value node from Min Heap. Let the extracted vertex be u.
..b) For every adjacent vertex v of u, check if v is in Min Heap. If v is in Min Heap and distance value is more than
weight of u-v plus distance value of u, then update the distance value of v.
Let us understand with the following example. Let the given source vertex be 0
Initially, distance value of source vertex is 0 and INF (infinite) for all other vertices. So source vertex is extracted from
Min Heap and distance values of vertices adjacent to 0 (1 and 7) are updated. Min Heap contains all vertices except
vertex 0.
The vertices in green color are the vertices for which minimum distances are finalized and are not in Min Heap
Since distance value of vertex 1 is minimum among all nodes in Min Heap, it is extracted from Min Heap and distance
values of vertices adjacent to 1 are updated (distance is updated if the a vertex is not in Min Heap and distance
through 1 is shorter than the previous distance). Min Heap contains all vertices except vertex 0 and 1.
Pick the vertex with minimum distance value from min heap. Vertex 7 is picked. So min heap now contains all
vertices except 0, 1 and 7. Update the distance values of adjacent vertices of 7. The distance value of vertex 6 and 8
becomes finite (15 and 9 respectively).
Pick the vertex with minimum distance from min heap. Vertex 6 is picked. So min heap now contains all vertices
except 0, 1, 7 and 6. Update the distance values of adjacent vertices of 6. The distance value of vertex 5 and 8 are
updated.
Above steps are repeated till min heap doesnt become empty. Finally, we get the following shortest path tree.
// C / C++ program for Dijkstra's shortest path algorithm for adjacency

// list representation of graph
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <limits.h>
// A structure to represent a node in adjacency list
struct AdjListNode
{
int dest;
int weight;
struct AdjListNode* next;
};
// A structure to represent an adjacency liat
struct AdjList
{
struct AdjListNode *head; // pointer to head node of list
};
// A structure to represent a graph. A graph is an array of adjacency lists.
// Size of array will be V (number of vertices in graph)
struct Graph
{
int V;
struct AdjList* array;
};
// A utility function to create a new adjacency list node
struct AdjListNode* newAdjListNode(int dest, int weight)
{
struct AdjListNode* newNode =
(struct AdjListNode*) malloc(sizeof(struct AdjListNode));
newNode->dest = dest;
newNode->weight = weight;
newNode->next = NULL;
return newNode;
}
// A utility function that creates a graph of V vertices
struct Graph* createGraph(int V)
{
struct Graph* graph = (struct Graph*) malloc(sizeof(struct Graph));
graph->V = V;
// Create an array of adjacency lists. Size of array will be V
graph->array = (struct AdjList*) malloc(V * sizeof(struct AdjList));
// Initialize each adjacency list as empty by making head as NULL

for (int i = 0; i < V; ++i)
graph->array[i].head = NULL;
return graph;
}
// Adds an edge to an undirected graph
void addEdge(struct Graph* graph, int src, int dest, int weight)
{
// Add an edge from src to dest. A new node is added to the adjacency
// list of src. The node is added at the begining
struct AdjListNode* newNode = newAdjListNode(dest, weight);
newNode->next = graph->array[src].head;
graph->array[src].head = newNode;
// Since graph is undirected, add an edge from dest to src also
newNode = newAdjListNode(src, weight);
newNode->next = graph->array[dest].head;
graph->array[dest].head = newNode;
}
// Structure to represent a min heap node
struct MinHeapNode
{
int v;
int dist;
};
// Structure to represent a min heap
struct MinHeap
{
int size;
// Number of heap nodes present currently
int capacity; // Capacity of min heap
int *pos;
// This is needed for decreaseKey()
struct MinHeapNode **array;
};
// A utility function to create a new Min Heap Node
struct MinHeapNode* newMinHeapNode(int v, int dist)
{
struct MinHeapNode* minHeapNode =
(struct MinHeapNode*) malloc(sizeof(struct MinHeapNode));
minHeapNode->v = v;
minHeapNode->dist = dist;
return minHeapNode;
}
// A utility function to create a Min Heap
struct MinHeap* createMinHeap(int capacity)
{
struct MinHeap* minHeap =
(struct MinHeap*) malloc(sizeof(struct MinHeap));
minHeap->pos = (int *)malloc(capacity * sizeof(int));
minHeap->size = 0;
minHeap->capacity = capacity;
minHeap->array =
(struct MinHeapNode**) malloc(capacity * sizeof(struct MinHeapNode*));
return minHeap;
}
// A utility function to swap two nodes of min heap. Needed for min heapify
void swapMinHeapNode(struct MinHeapNode** a, struct MinHeapNode** b)
{
struct MinHeapNode* t = *a;
*a = *b;
*b = t;
}
// A standard function to heapify at given idx
// This function also updates position of nodes when they are swapped.
// Position is needed for decreaseKey()
void minHeapify(struct MinHeap* minHeap, int idx)
{
int smallest, left, right;
smallest = idx;
left = 2 * idx + 1;
right = 2 * idx + 2;
if (left < minHeap->size &&
minHeap->array[left]->dist < minHeap->array[smallest]->dist )
smallest = left;
if (right < minHeap->size &&
minHeap->array[right]->dist < minHeap->array[smallest]->dist )
smallest = right;
if (smallest != idx)
{
// The nodes to be swapped in min heap
MinHeapNode *smallestNode = minHeap->array[smallest];
MinHeapNode *idxNode = minHeap->array[idx];
// Swap positions
minHeap->pos[smallestNode->v] = idx;
minHeap->pos[idxNode->v] = smallest;
// Swap nodes
swapMinHeapNode(&minHeap->array[smallest], &minHeap->array[idx]);
minHeapify(minHeap, smallest);
}
}
// A utility function to check if the given minHeap is ampty or not
int isEmpty(struct MinHeap* minHeap)
{
return minHeap->size == 0;
}
// Standard function to extract minimum node from heap
struct MinHeapNode* extractMin(struct MinHeap* minHeap)
{
if (isEmpty(minHeap))
return NULL;
// Store the root node

struct MinHeapNode* root = minHeap->array[0];
// Replace root node with last node
struct MinHeapNode* lastNode = minHeap->array[minHeap->size - 1];
minHeap->array[0] = lastNode;
// Update position of last node
minHeap->pos[root->v] = minHeap->size-1;
minHeap->pos[lastNode->v] = 0;
// Reduce heap size and heapify root
--minHeap->size;
minHeapify(minHeap, 0);
return root;
}
// Function to decreasy dist value of a given vertex v. This function
// uses pos[] of min heap to get the current index of node in min heap
void decreaseKey(struct MinHeap* minHeap, int v, int dist)
{
// Get the index of v in heap array
int i = minHeap->pos[v];
// Get the node and update its dist value
minHeap->array[i]->dist = dist;
// Travel up while the complete tree is not hepified.
// This is a O(Logn) loop
while (i && minHeap->array[i]->dist < minHeap->array[(i - 1) / 2]->dist)
{
// Swap this node with its parent
minHeap->pos[minHeap->array[i]->v] = (i-1)/2;
minHeap->pos[minHeap->array[(i-1)/2]->v] = i;
swapMinHeapNode(&minHeap->array[i], &minHeap->array[(i - 1) / 2]);
// move to parent index
i = (i - 1) / 2;
}
}
// A utility function to check if a given vertex
// 'v' is in min heap or not
bool isInMinHeap(struct MinHeap *minHeap, int v)
{
if (minHeap->pos[v] < minHeap->size)
return true;
return false;
}
// A utility function used to print the solution
void printArr(int dist[], int n)
{
printf("Vertex
Distance from Source\n");
for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i)
printf("%d \t\t %d\n", i, dist[i]);
}
// The main function that calulates distances of shortest paths from src to all
// vertices. It is a O(ELogV) function
void dijkstra(struct Graph* graph, int src)
{
int V = graph->V;// Get the number of vertices in graph
int dist[V];
// dist values used to pick minimum weight edge in cut
// minHeap represents set E
struct MinHeap* minHeap = createMinHeap(V);
// Initialize min heap with all vertices. dist value of all vertices
for (int v = 0; v < V; ++v)
{
dist[v] = INT_MAX;
minHeap->array[v] = newMinHeapNode(v, dist[v]);
minHeap->pos[v] = v;
}
// Make dist value of src vertex as 0 so that it is extracted first
minHeap->array[src] = newMinHeapNode(src, dist[src]);
minHeap->pos[src]
= src;
dist[src] = 0;
decreaseKey(minHeap, src, dist[src]);
// Initially size of min heap is equal to V
minHeap->size = V;
// In the followin loop, min heap contains all nodes
// whose shortest distance is not yet finalized.
while (!isEmpty(minHeap))
{
// Extract the vertex with minimum distance value
struct MinHeapNode* minHeapNode = extractMin(minHeap);
int u = minHeapNode->v; // Store the extracted vertex number
// Traverse through all adjacent vertices of u (the extracted
// vertex) and update their distance values
struct AdjListNode* pCrawl = graph->array[u].head;
while (pCrawl != NULL)
{
int v = pCrawl->dest;
// If shortest distance to v is not finalized yet, and distance to v
// through u is less than its previously calculated distance
if (isInMinHeap(minHeap, v) && dist[u] != INT_MAX &&
pCrawl->weight + dist[u] < dist[v])
{
dist[v] = dist[u] + pCrawl->weight;
// update distance value in min heap also
decreaseKey(minHeap, v, dist[v]);
}
pCrawl = pCrawl->next;
}
}
// print the calculated shortest distances
printArr(dist, V);
}

int main()
{
// create the graph given in above fugure
int V = 9;
struct Graph* graph = createGraph(V);
dijkstra(graph, 0);
return 0;
}
Run on IDE
Output:
Vertex Distance from Source 0 0 1 4 2 12 3 19 4 21 5 11 6 9 7 8 8 14
Time Complexity: The time complexity of the above code/algorithm looks O(V^2) as there are two nested while
loops. If we take a closer look, we can observe that the statements in inner loop are executed O(V+E) times (similar
to BFS). The inner loop has decreaseKey() operation which takes O(LogV) time. So overall time complexity is
O(E+V)*O(LogV) which is O((E+V)*LogV) = O(ELogV)
Note that the above code uses Binary Heap for Priority Queue implementation. Time complexity can be reduced to
O(E + VLogV) using Fibonacci Heap. The reason is, Fibonacci Heap takes O(1) time for decrease-key operation
while Binary Heap takes O(Logn) time.
Notes:
1) The code calculates shortest distance, but doesnt calculate the path information. We can create a parent array,
update the parent array when distance is updated (like prims implementation) and use it show the shortest path from
source to different vertices.
2) The code is for undirected graph, same dijekstra function can be used for directed graphs also.
3) The code finds shortest distances from source to all vertices. If we are interested only in shortest distance from
source to a single target, we can break the for loop when the picked minimum distance vertex is equal to target (Step
3.a of algorithm).
4) Dijkstras algorithm doesnt work for graphs with negative weight edges. For graphs with negative weight edges,
BellmanFord algorithm can be used, we will soon be discussing it as a separate post.
Dynamic Programming | Set 23 (BellmanFord Algorithm)

Given a graph and a source vertex src in graph, find shortest paths from src to all vertices in the given graph. The
graph may contain negative weight edges.
We have discussed Dijkstras algorithm for this problem. Dijksras algorithm is a Greedy algorithm and time
complexity is O(VLogV) (with the use of Fibonacci heap). Dijkstra doesnt work for Graphs with negative weight edges,
Bellman-Ford works for such graphs. Bellman-Ford is also simpler than Dijkstra and suites well for distributed
systems. But time complexity of Bellman-Ford is O(VE), which is more than Dijkstra.
Algorithm
Input: Graph and a source vertex src
Output: Shortest distance to all vertices from src. If there is a negative weight cycle, then shortest distances are not
calculated, negative weight cycle is reported.
1) This step initializes distances from source to all vertices as infinite and distance to source itself as 0. Create an
array dist[] of size |V| with all values as infinite except dist[src] where src is source vertex.
2) This step calculates shortest distances. Do following |V|-1 times where |V| is the number of vertices in given graph.
..a) Do following for each edge u-v
If dist[v] > dist[u] + weight of edge uv, then update dist[v]
.dist[v] = dist[u] + weight of edge uv
3) This step reports if there is a negative weight cycle in graph. Do following for each edge u-v
If dist[v] > dist[u] + weight of edge uv, then Graph contains negative weight cycle
The idea of step 3 is, step 2 guarantees shortest distances if graph doesnt contain negative weight cycle. If we
iterate through all edges one more time and get a shorter path for any vertex, then there is a negative weight cycle
How does this work? Like other Dynamic Programming Problems, the algorithm calculate shortest paths in bottomup manner. It first calculates the shortest distances for the shortest paths which have at-most one edge in the path.
Then, it calculates shortest paths with at-nost 2 edges, and so on. After the ith iteration of outer loop, the shortest
paths with at most i edges are calculated. There can be maximum |V| 1 edges in any simple path, that is why the
outer loop runs |v| 1 times. The idea is, assuming that there is no negative weight cycle, if we have calculated
shortest paths with at most i edges, then an iteration over all edges guarantees to give shortest path with at-most (i+1)
edges (Proof is simple, you can refer this or MIT Video Lecture)
Example
Let us understand the algorithm with following example graph. The images are taken from thissource.
Let the given source vertex be 0. Initialize all distances as infinite, except the distance to source itself. Total number
of vertices in the graph is 5, so all edges must be processed 4 times.
Let all edges are processed in following order: (B,E), (D,B), (B,D), (A,B), (A,C), (D,C), (B,C), (E,D). We get following
distances when all edges are processed first time. The first row in shows initial distances. The second row shows
distances when edges (B,E), (D,B), (B,D) and (A,B) are processed. The third row shows distances when (A,C) is
processed. The fourth row shows when (D,C), (B,C) and (E,D) are processed.
The first iteration guarantees to give all shortest paths which are at most 1 edge long. We get following distances
when all edges are processed second time (The last row shows final values).
The second iteration guarantees to give all shortest paths which are at most 2 edges long. The algorithm processes
all edges 2 more times. The distances are minimized after the second iteration, so third and fourth iterations dont
update the distances.
Implementation:
// A C / C++ program for Bellman-Ford's single source shortest path algorithm.
#include
#include
#include
#include
<stdio.h>
<stdlib.h>
<string.h>
<limits.h>
// a structure to represent a weighted edge in graph

struct Edge
{
int src, dest, weight;
};
// a structure to represent a connected, directed and weighted graph
struct Graph
{
int V, E;
// graph is represented as an array of edges.
struct Edge* edge;
};
{
graph->V = V;
graph->E = E;
return graph;
}
// A utility function used to print the solution
void printArr(int dist[], int n)
{
printf("Vertex
Distance from Source\n");
for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i)
printf("%d \t\t %d\n", i, dist[i]);
}
// The main function that finds shortest distances from src to all other
// vertices using Bellman-Ford algorithm. The function also detects negative
// weight cycle
void BellmanFord(struct Graph* graph, int src)
{
int V = graph->V;
int E = graph->E;
int dist[V];
// Step 1: Initialize distances from src to all other vertices as INFINITE
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
dist[i]
= INT_MAX;
dist[src] = 0;
// Step 2: Relax all edges |V| - 1 times. A simple shortest path from src
// to any other vertex can have at-most |V| - 1 edges
for (int i = 1; i <= V-1; i++)
{
for (int j = 0; j < E; j++)
{
int u = graph->edge[j].src;
int v = graph->edge[j].dest;
int weight = graph->edge[j].weight;
if (dist[u] != INT_MAX && dist[u] + weight < dist[v])
dist[v] = dist[u] + weight;
}
}
// Step 3: check for negative-weight cycles. The above step guarantees
// shortest distances if graph doesn't contain negative weight cycle.
// If we get a shorter path, then there is a cycle.
for (int i = 0; i < E; i++)
{
int u = graph->edge[i].src;
int v = graph->edge[i].dest;
int weight = graph->edge[i].weight;
if (dist[u] != INT_MAX && dist[u] + weight < dist[v])
printf("Graph contains negative weight cycle");
}
printArr(dist, V);
return;
}
int main()
{
/* Let us create the graph given in above example */
int V = 5; // Number of vertices in graph
int E = 8; // Number of edges in graph
// add edge 0-1 (or A-B in above figure)
graph->edge[0].weight = -1;
// add edge 0-2 (or A-C in above figure)
// add edge 1-2 (or B-C in above figure)
// add edge 1-3 (or B-D in above figure)
// add edge 1-4 (or A-E in above figure)
// add edge 3-2 (or D-C in above figure)
// add edge 3-1 (or D-B in above figure)
// add edge 4-3 (or E-D in above figure)
graph->edge[7].weight = -3;
BellmanFord(graph, 0);
return 0;
}
Run on IDE
Output:
Vertex Distance from Source 0 0 1 -1 2 2 3 -2 4 1
Notes
1) Negative weights are found in various applications of graphs. For example, instead of paying cost for a path, we
may get some advantage if we follow the path.
2) Bellman-Ford works better (better than Dijksras) for distributed systems. Unlike Dijksras where we need to find
minimum value of all vertices, in Bellman-Ford, edges are considered one by one.
Exercise
1) The standard Bellman-Ford algorithm reports shortest path only if there is no negative weight cycles. Modify it so
that it reports minimum distances even if there is a negative weight cycle.
2) Can we use Dijksras algorithm for shortest paths for graphs with negative weights one idea can be, calculate the
minimum weight value, add a positive value (equal to absolute value of minimum weight value) to all weights and run
the Dijksras algorithm for the modified graph. Will this algorithm work?
Transitive closure of a graph

Given a directed graph, find out if a vertex j is reachable from another vertex i for all vertex pairs (i, j) in the given
graph. Here reachable mean that there is a path from vertex i to j. The reach-ability matrix is called transitive closure
of a graph.
The graph is given in the form of adjacency matrix say graph[V][V] where graph[i][j] is 1 if there is an edge from
vertex i to vertex j or i is equal to j, otherwise graph[i][j] is 0.
Floyd Warshall Algorithm can be used, we can calculate the distance matrix dist[V][V] using Floyd Warshall, if dist[i][j]
is infinite, then j is not reachable from i, otherwise j is reachable and value of dist[i][j] will be less than V.
Instead of directly using Floyd Warshall, we can optimize it in terms of space and time, for this particular problem.
Following are the optimizations:
1) Instead of integer resultant matrix (dist[V][V] in floyd warshall), we can create a boolean reach-ability matrix
reach[V][V] (we save space). The value reach[i][j] will be 1 if j is reachable from i, otherwise 0.
2) Instead of using arithmetic operations, we can use logical operations. For arithmetic operation +, logical and &&
is used, and for min, logical or || is used. (We save time by a constant factor. Time complexity is same though)
// Program for transitive closure using Floyd Warshall Algorithm
#include<stdio.h>
#define V 4
// A function to print the solution matrix
void printSolution(int reach[][V]);
// Prints transitive closure of graph[][] using Floyd Warshall algorithm
void transitiveClosure(int graph[][V])
{
/* reach[][] will be the output matrix that will finally have the shortest
distances between every pair of vertices */
int reach[V][V], i, j, k;
/* Initialize the solution matrix same as input graph matrix. Or
we can say the initial values of shortest distances are based
on shortest paths considering no intermediate vertex. */
for (i = 0; i < V; i++)
for (j = 0; j < V; j++)
reach[i][j] = graph[i][j];
/* Add all vertices one by one to the set of intermediate vertices.
---> Before start of a iteration, we have reachability values for all
pairs of vertices such that the reachability values consider only the
vertices in set {0, 1, 2, .. k-1} as intermediate vertices.
----> After the end of a iteration, vertex no. k is added to the set of
intermediate vertices and the set becomes {0, 1, 2, .. k} */
for (k = 0; k < V; k++)
{
// Pick all vertices as source one by one
for (i = 0; i < V; i++)
{
// Pick all vertices as destination for the
// above picked source
for (j = 0; j < V; j++)
{
// If vertex k is on a path from i to j,
// then make sure that the value of reach[i][j] is 1
reach[i][j] = reach[i][j] || (reach[i][k] && reach[k][j]);
}
}
}
// Print the shortest distance matrix
printSolution(reach);
}
void printSolution(int reach[][V])
{
printf ("Following matrix is transitive closure of the given graph\n");
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
{
for (int j = 0; j < V; j++)
printf ("%d ", reach[i][j]);

printf("\n");
}
}
int main()
{
/* Let us create the following weighted graph
10
(0)------->(3)
|
/|\
5 |
|
|
| 1
\|/
|
(1)------->(2)
3
*/
int graph[V][V] = { {1, 1, 0, 1},
{0, 1, 1, 0},
{0, 0, 1, 1},
{0, 0, 0, 1}
};
transitiveClosure(graph);
return 0;
}
Run on IDE
Output:
Following matrix is transitive closure of the given graph 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
Time Complexity: O(V^3) where V is number of vertices in the given graph.
Check whether a given graph is Bipartite or not

A Bipartite Graph is a graph whose vertices can be divided into two independent sets, U and V such that every edge
(u, v) either connects a vertex from U to V or a vertex from V to U. In other words, for every edge (u, v), either u
belongs to U and v to V, or u belongs to V and v to U. We can also say that there is no edge that connects vertices of
same set.
A bipartite graph is possible if the graph coloring is possible using two colors such that vertices in a set are colored
with the same color. Note that it is possible to color a cycle graph with even cycle using two colors. For example, see
the following graph.
It is not possible to color a cycle graph with odd cycle using two colors.
Algorithm to check if a graph is Bipartite:

One approach is to check whether the graph is 2-colorable or not using backtracking algorithm m coloring problem.
Following is a simple algorithm to find out whether a given graph is Birpartite or not using Breadth First Search (BFS).
1. Assign RED color to the source vertex (putting into set U).
2. Color all the neighbors with BLUE color (putting into set V).
3. Color all neighbors neighbor with RED color (putting into set U).
4. This way, assign color to all vertices such that it satisfies all the constraints of m way coloring problem where m = 2.
5. While assigning colors, if we find a neighbor which is colored with same color as current vertex, then the graph
cannot be colored with 2 vertices (or graph is not Bipartite)
// C++ program to find out whether a given graph is Bipartite or not
#include <iostream>
#include <queue>
#define V 4
// This function returns true if graph G[V][V] is Bipartite, else false
bool isBipartite(int G[][V], int src)
{
// Create a color array to store colors assigned to all veritces. Vertex
// number is used as index in this array. The value '-1' of colorArr[i]
// is used to indicate that no color is assigned to vertex 'i'. The value
// 1 is used to indicate first color is assigned and value 0 indicates
// second color is assigned.
int colorArr[V];
for (int i = 0; i < V; ++i)
colorArr[i] = -1;
// Assign first color to source
colorArr[src] = 1;
// Create a queue (FIFO) of vertex numbers and enqueue source vertex
// for BFS traversal
queue <int> q;
q.push(src);
// Run while there are vertices in queue (Similar to BFS)
while (!q.empty())
{
// Dequeue a vertex from queue ( Refer http://goo.gl/35oz8 )
int u = q.front();
q.pop();
// Find all non-colored adjacent vertices
for (int v = 0; v < V; ++v)
{
// An edge from u to v exists and destination v is not colored
if (G[u][v] && colorArr[v] == -1)
{
// Assign alternate color to this adjacent v of u
colorArr[v] = 1 - colorArr[u];
q.push(v);
}
// An edge from u to v exists and destination v is colored with
// same color as u
else if (G[u][v] && colorArr[v] == colorArr[u])
return false;
}
}
// If we reach here, then all adjacent vertices can be colored with
// alternate color
return true;
}
// Driver program to test above function
int main()
{
int G[][V] = {{0, 1, 0, 1},
{1, 0, 1, 0},
{0, 1, 0, 1},
{1, 0, 1, 0}
};
isBipartite(G, 0) ? cout << "Yes" : cout << "No";
return 0;
}
Run on IDE
Output:
Yes
Refer this for C implementation of the same.
Time Complexity of the above approach is same as that Breadth First Search. In above implementation is O(V^2)
where V is number of vertices. If graph is represented using adjacency list, then the complexity becomes O(V+E).
Topological Sorting
Topological sorting for Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) is a linear ordering of vertices such that for every directed edge
uv, vertex u comes before v in the ordering. Topological Sorting for a graph is not possible if the graph is not a DAG.
For example, a topological sorting of the following graph is 5 4 2 3 1 0. There can be more than one topological
sorting for a graph. For example, another topological sorting of the following graph is 4 5 2 3 1 0. The first vertex in
topological sorting is always a vertex with in-degree as 0 (a vertex with no in-coming edges).
Topological Sorting vs Depth First Traversal (DFS):

In DFS, we print a vertex and then recursively call DFS for its adjacent vertices. In topological sorting, we need to
print a vertex before its adjacent vertices. For example, in the given graph, the vertex 5 should be printed before
vertex 0, but unlike DFS, the vertex 4 should also be printed before vertex 0. So Topological sorting is different
from DFS. For example, a DFS of the above graph is 5 2 3 1 0 4, but it is not a topological sorting
Algorithm to find Topological Sorting:
We recommend to first see implementation of DFS here. We can modify DFS to find Topological Sorting of a
graph. In DFS, we start from a vertex, we first print it and then recursively call DFS for its adjacent vertices. In
topological sorting, we use a temporary stack. We dont print the vertex immediately, we first recursively call
topological sorting for all its adjacent vertices, then push it to a stack. Finally, print contents of stack. Note that a
vertex is pushed to stack only when all of its adjacent vertices (and their adjacent vertices and so on) are already in
stack.
Following is C++ implementation of topological sorting. Please see the code for Depth First Traversal for a
disconnected Graph and note the differences between the second code given there and the below code.
// A C++ program to print topological sorting of a DAG

#include<iostream>
#include <list>
#include <stack>
// Class to represent a graph
class Graph
{
int V;
// No. of vertices'
// Pointer to an array containing adjacency listsList
list<int> *adj;
// A function used by topologicalSort
public:
Graph(int V);
// Constructor
void addEdge(int v, int w);
// prints a Topological Sort of the complete graph
void topologicalSort();
};
Graph::Graph(int V)
{
this->V = V;
adj = new list<int>[V];
}
void Graph::addEdge(int v, int w)
{
adj[v].push_back(w); // Add w to vs list.
}
// A recursive function used by topologicalSort
{
// Mark the current node as visited.
visited[v] = true;
list<int>::iterator i;
if (!visited[*i])
topologicalSortUtil(*i, visited, Stack);
// Push current vertex to stack which stores result
Stack.push(v);
}
// The function to do Topological Sort. It uses recursive topologicalSortUtil()
void Graph::topologicalSort()
{
stack<int> Stack;

for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
visited[i] = false;
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
// Print contents of stack
{
cout << Stack.top() << " ";
Stack.pop();
}
}
int main()
{
// Create a graph given in the above diagram
Graph g(6);
g.addEdge(5, 2);
g.addEdge(5, 0);
g.addEdge(4, 0);
g.addEdge(4, 1);
g.addEdge(2, 3);
g.addEdge(3, 1);
cout << "Following is a Topological Sort of the given graph \n";
g.topologicalSort();
return 0;
}
Run on IDE
Output:
Following is a Topological Sort of the given graph 5 4 2 3 1 0
Time Complexity: The above algorithm is simply DFS with an extra stack. So time complexity is same as DFS which
is O(V+E).
Applications:
Topological Sorting is mainly used for scheduling jobs from the given dependencies among jobs. In
computer science, applications of this type arise in instruction scheduling, ordering of formula cell
evaluation when recomputing formula values in spreadsheets, logic synthesis, determining the order of
compilation tasks to perform in makefiles, data serialization, and resolving symbol dependencies in linkers
[2].
Shortest Path in Directed Acyclic Graph

Given a Weighted Directed Acyclic Graph and a source vertex in the graph, find the shortest paths from given source
to all other vertices.
For a general weighted graph, we can calculate single source shortest distances in O(VE) time using BellmanFord
Algorithm. For a graph with no negative weights, we can do better and calculate single source shortest distances in
O(E + VLogV) time using Dijkstras algorithm. Can we do even better for Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG)? We can
calculate single source shortest distances in O(V+E) time for DAGs. The idea is to use Topological Sorting.
We initialize distances to all vertices as infinite and distance to source as 0, then we find a topological sorting of the
graph. Topological Sorting of a graph represents a linear ordering of the graph (See below, figure (b) is a linear
representation of figure (a) ). Once we have topological order (or linear representation), we one by one process all
vertices in topological order. For every vertex being processed, we update distances of its adjacent using distance of
current vertex.
Following figure is taken from this source. It shows step by step process of finding shortest paths.
Following is complete algorithm for finding shortest distances.

1) Initialize dist[] = {INF, INF, .} and dist[s] = 0 where s is the source vertex.
2) Create a toplogical order of all vertices.

3) Do following for every vertex u in topological order.
..Do following for every adjacent vertex v of u
if (dist[v] > dist[u] + weight(u, v))
dist[v] = dist[u] + weight(u, v)
// A C++ program to find single source shortest paths for Directed Acyclic Graphs
#include<iostream>
#include <list>
#include <stack>
#include <limits.h>
#define INF INT_MAX
// Graph is represented using adjacency list. Every node of adjacency list
// contains vertex number of the vertex to which edge connects. It also
// contains weight of the edge
class AdjListNode
{
int v;
int weight;
public:
AdjListNode(int _v, int _w) { v = _v; weight = _w;}
int getV()
{ return v; }
int getWeight() { return weight; }
};
// Class to represent a graph using adjacency list representation
class Graph
{
int V;
// No. of vertices'
list<AdjListNode> *adj;
// A function used by shortestPath
public:
Graph(int V);
// Constructor
void addEdge(int u, int v, int weight);
// Finds shortest paths from given source vertex
void shortestPath(int s);
};
Graph::Graph(int V)
{
this->V = V;
adj = new list<AdjListNode>[V];
}
void Graph::addEdge(int u, int v, int weight)
{
AdjListNode node(v, weight);
adj[u].push_back(node); // Add v to u's list
}
// A recursive function used by shortestPath. See below link for details

// http://www.geeksforgeeks.org/topological-sorting/
{
visited[v] = true;
{
AdjListNode node = *i;
if (!visited[node.getV()])
topologicalSortUtil(node.getV(), visited, Stack);
}
// Push current vertex to stack which stores topological sort
Stack.push(v);
}
// The function to find shortest paths from given vertex. It uses recursive
// topologicalSortUtil() to get topological sorting of given graph.
void Graph::shortestPath(int s)
{
stack<int> Stack;
int dist[V];
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
visited[i] = false;
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
// Initialize distances to all vertices as infinite and distance
// to source as 0
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
dist[i] = INF;
dist[s] = 0;
// Process vertices in topological order
{
// Get the next vertex from topological order
int u = Stack.top();
Stack.pop();
// Update distances of all adjacent vertices
if (dist[u] != INF)
{
if (dist[i->getV()] > dist[u] + i->getWeight())
dist[i->getV()] = dist[u] + i->getWeight();

}
}
// Print the calculated shortest distances
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
(dist[i] == INF)? cout << "INF ": cout << dist[i] << " ";
}
int main()
{
// Create a graph given in the above diagram.
// 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 with following mappings:
// 0=r, 1=s, 2=t, 3=x, 4=y, 5=z
Graph g(6);
g.addEdge(0, 1, 5);
g.addEdge(0, 2, 3);
g.addEdge(1, 3, 6);
g.addEdge(1, 2, 2);
g.addEdge(2, 4, 4);
g.addEdge(2, 5, 2);
g.addEdge(2, 3, 7);
Here vertex numbers are
int s = 1;
cout << "Following are shortest distances from source " << s <<" \n";
g.shortestPath(s);
return 0;
}
Strongly Connected Components

A directed graph is strongly connected if there is a path between all pairs of vertices. A strongly connected
component (SCC) of a directed graph is a maximal strongly connected subgraph. For example, there are 3 SCCs in
the following graph.
We can find all strongly connected components in O(V+E) time using Kosarajus algorithm. Following is detailed
Kosarajus algorithm.
1) Create an empty stack S and do DFS traversal of a graph. In DFS traversal, after calling recursive DFS for
adjacent vertices of a vertex, push the vertex to stack.
2) Reverse directions of all arcs to obtain the transpose graph.
3) One by one pop a vertex from S while S is not empty. Let the popped vertex be v. Take v as source and do DFS
(call DFSUtil(v)). The DFS starting from v prints strongly connected component of v.
How does this work?
The above algorithm is DFS based. It does DFS two times. DFS of a graph produces a single tree if all
vertices are reachable from the DFS starting point. Otherwise DFS produces a forest. So DFS of a graph with
only one SCC always produces a tree. The important point to note is DFS may produce a tree or a forest
when there are more than one SCCs depending upon the chosen starting point. For example, in the above
diagram, if we start DFS from vertices 0 or 1 or 2, we get a tree as output. And if we start from 3 or 4, we get a
forest. To find and print all SCCs, we would want to start DFS from vertex 4 (which is a sink vertex), then
move to 3 which is sink in the remaining set (set excluding 4) and finally any of the remaining vertices (0, 1,
2). So how do we find this sequence of picking vertices as starting points of DFS? Unfortunately, there is no
direct way for getting this sequence. However, if we do a DFS of graph and store vertices according to their
finish times, we make sure that the finish time of a vertex that connects to other SCCs (other that its own
SCC), will always be greater than finish time of vertices in the other SCC (See this for proof). For example, in
DFS of above example graph, finish time of 0 is always greater than 3 and 4 (irrespective of the sequence of vertices
considered for DFS). And finish time of 3 is always greater than 4. DFS doesnt guarantee about other vertices, for
example finish times of 1 and 2 may be smaller or greater than 3 and 4 depending upon the sequence of vertices
considered for DFS. So to use this property, we do DFS traversal of complete graph and push every finished vertex
to a stack. In stack, 3 always appears after 4, and 0 appear after both 3 and 4.
In the next step, we reverse the graph. Consider the graph of SCCs. In the reversed graph, the edges that
connect two components are reversed. So the SCC {0, 1, 2} becomes sink and the SCC {4} becomes source.
As discussed above, in stack, we always have 0 before 3 and 4. So if we do a DFS of the reversed graph
using sequence of vertices in stack, we process vertices from sink to source. That is what we wanted to
achieve and that is all needed to print SCCs one by one.
Following is C++ implementation of Kosarajus algorithm.

// Implementation of Kosaraju's algorithm to print all SCCs
#include <iostream>
#include <list>
#include <stack>
class Graph
{
int V;
// No. of vertices
list<int> *adj;
// An array of adjacency lists
// Fills Stack with vertices (in increasing order of finishing times)
// The top element of stack has the maximum finishing time
void fillOrder(int v, bool visited[], stack<int> &Stack);
// A recursive function to print DFS starting from v
void DFSUtil(int v, bool visited[]);
public:
Graph(int V);
// The main function that finds and prints strongly connected components
void printSCCs();
// Function that returns reverse (or transpose) of this graph
Graph getTranspose();
};
Graph::Graph(int V)
{
this->V = V;
}
void Graph::DFSUtil(int v, bool visited[])
{
// Mark the current node as visited and print it
visited[v] = true;
cout << v << " ";

if (!visited[*i])
DFSUtil(*i, visited);
}
Graph Graph::getTranspose()
{
Graph g(V);
for (int v = 0; v < V; v++)
{
for(i = adj[v].begin(); i != adj[v].end(); ++i)
{
g.adj[*i].push_back(v);
}
}
return g;
}
{
}
void Graph::fillOrder(int v, bool visited[], stack<int> &Stack)
{
visited[v] = true;
if(!visited[*i])
fillOrder(*i, visited, Stack);
// All vertices reachable from v are processed by now, push v to Stack
Stack.push(v);
}
// The main function that finds and prints all strongly connected components
void Graph::printSCCs()
{
stack<int> Stack;
// Mark all the vertices as not visited (For first DFS)
for(int i = 0; i < V; i++)
visited[i] = false;
// Fill vertices in stack according to their finishing times
for(int i = 0; i < V; i++)
if(visited[i] == false)
fillOrder(i, visited, Stack);
// Create a reversed graph

Graph gr = getTranspose();
// Mark all the vertices as not visited (For second DFS)
for(int i = 0; i < V; i++)
visited[i] = false;
// Now process all vertices in order defined by Stack
{
// Pop a vertex from stack
int v = Stack.top();
Stack.pop();
// Print Strongly connected component of the popped vertex
if (visited[v] == false)
{
gr.DFSUtil(v, visited);
cout << endl;
}
}
}
int main()
{
Graph g(5);
g.addEdge(1, 0);
g.addEdge(0, 2);
g.addEdge(2, 1);
g.addEdge(0, 3);
g.addEdge(3, 4);
cout << "Following are strongly connected components in given graph \n";
g.printSCCs();
return 0;
}
Run on IDE
Output:
Following are strongly connected components in given graph 0 1 2 3 4
Time Complexity: The above algorithm calls DFS, fins reverse of the graph and again calls DFS. DFS takes O(V+E)
for a graph represented using adjacency list. Reversing a graph also takes O(V+E) time. For reversing the graph, we
simple traverse all adjacency lists.
The above algorithm is asymptotically best algorithm, but there are other algorithms like Tarjans algorithm and pathbased which have same time complexity but find SCCs using single DFS. The Tarjans algorithm is discussed in the
following post.
Articulation Points (or Cut Vertices) in a Graph

A vertex in an undirected connected graph is an articulation point (or cut vertex) iff removing it (and edges through it)
disconnects the graph. Articulation points represent vulnerabilities in a connected network single points whose
failure would split the network into 2 or more disconnected components. They are useful for designing reliable
networks.
For a disconnected undirected graph, an articulation point is a vertex removing which increases number of connected
components.
Following are some example graphs with articulation points encircled with red color.
How to find all articulation points in a given graph?

A simple approach is to one by one remove all vertices and see if removal of a vertex causes disconnected graph.
Following are steps of simple approach for connected graph.
1) For every vertex v, do following
..a) Remove v from graph
..b) See if the graph remains connected (We can either use BFS or DFS)
..c) Add v back to the graph
Time complexity of above method is O(V*(V+E)) for a graph represented using adjacency list. Can we do better?
A O(V+E) algorithm to find all Articulation Points (APs)

The idea is to use DFS (Depth First Search). In DFS, we follow vertices in tree form called DFS tree. In DFS
tree, a vertex u is parent of another vertex v, if v is discovered by u (obviously v is an adjacent of u in graph).
In DFS tree, a vertex u is articulation point if one of the following two conditions is true.
1) u is root of DFS tree and it has at least two children.
2) u is not root of DFS tree and it has a child v such that no vertex in subtree rooted with v has a back edge to one of
the ancestors (in DFS tree) of u.
Following figure shows same points as above with one additional point that a leaf in DFS Tree can never be an
articulation point. (Source Ref 2)
We do DFS traversal of given graph with additional code to find out Articulation Points (APs). In DFS traversal, we
maintain a parent[] array where parent[u] stores parent of vertex u. Among the above mentioned two cases, the first
case is simple to detect. For every vertex, count children. If currently visited vertex u is root (parent[u] is NIL) and has
more than two children, print it.
How to handle second case? The second case is trickier. We maintain an array disc[] to store discovery time of
vertices. For every node u, we need to find out the earliest visited vertex (the vertex with minimum discovery time)
that can be reached from subtree rooted with u. So we maintain an additional array low[] which is defined as follows.
low[u] = min(disc[u], disc[w]) where w is an ancestor of u and there is a back edge from some descendant of u to w.
Following is C++ implementation of Tarjans algorithm for finding articulation points.
// A C++ program to find articulation points in a given undirected graph
#include<iostream>
#include <list>
#define NIL -1
// A class that represents an undirected graph
class Graph
{
int V;
// No. of vertices
list<int> *adj;
// A dynamic array of adjacency lists
void APUtil(int v, bool visited[], int disc[], int low[],
int parent[], bool ap[]);
public:
Graph(int V);
// Constructor
void AP();
// prints articulation points
};
Graph::Graph(int V)
{
this->V = V;
}
{
adj[v].push_back(w);
adj[w].push_back(v); // Note: the graph is undirected
}
// A recursive function that find articulation points using DFS traversal
// u --> The vertex to be visited next
// visited[] --> keeps tract of visited vertices
// disc[] --> Stores discovery times of visited vertices
// parent[] --> Stores parent vertices in DFS tree
// ap[] --> Store articulation points
void Graph::APUtil(int u, bool visited[], int disc[],
int low[], int parent[], bool ap[])
{
// A static variable is used for simplicity, we can avoid use of static
// variable by passing a pointer.
static int time = 0;
// Count of children in DFS Tree
int children = 0;
visited[u] = true;
// Initialize discovery time and low value
disc[u] = low[u] = ++time;
// Go through all vertices aadjacent to this
{
int v = *i; // v is current adjacent of u
// If v is not visited yet, then make it a child of u
// in DFS tree and recur for it
if (!visited[v])
{
children++;
parent[v] = u;
APUtil(v, visited, disc, low, parent, ap);
// Check if the subtree rooted with v has a connection to
// one of the ancestors of u
low[u] = min(low[u], low[v]);
// u is an articulation point in following cases
// (1) u is root of DFS tree and has two or more chilren.
if (parent[u] == NIL && children > 1)
ap[u] = true;
// (2) If u is not root and low value of one of its child is more
// than discovery value of u.
if (parent[u] != NIL && low[v] >= disc[u])
ap[u] = true;
}
// Update low value of u for parent function calls.
else if (v != parent[u])
low[u] = min(low[u], disc[v]);
}
}
// The function to do DFS traversal. It uses recursive function APUtil()
void Graph::AP()
{
int *disc = new int[V];
int *low = new int[V];
int *parent = new int[V];
bool *ap = new bool[V]; // To store articulation points
// Initialize parent and visited, and ap(articulation point) arrays
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
{
parent[i] = NIL;
visited[i] = false;
ap[i] = false;
}
// Call the recursive helper function to find articulation points
// in DFS tree rooted with vertex 'i'
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
APUtil(i, visited, disc, low, parent, ap);
// Now ap[] contains articulation points, print them
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
if (ap[i] == true)
cout << i << " ";
}
int main()
{
// Create graphs given in above diagrams
cout << "\nArticulation points in first graph \n";
Graph g1(5);
g1.addEdge(1, 0);
g1.addEdge(0, 2);
g1.addEdge(2, 1);
g1.addEdge(0, 3);
g1.addEdge(3, 4);
g1.AP();
cout << "\nArticulation points in second graph \n";
Graph g2(4);
g2.addEdge(0, 1);
g2.addEdge(1, 2);
g2.addEdge(2, 3);
g2.AP();
cout << "\nArticulation points in third graph \n";
Graph g3(7);
g3.addEdge(0, 1);
g3.addEdge(1, 2);
g3.addEdge(2, 0);
g3.addEdge(1, 3);
g3.addEdge(1, 4);
g3.addEdge(1, 6);
g3.addEdge(3, 5);
g3.addEdge(4, 5);
g3.AP();
return 0;
}
Bridges in a graph
An edge in an undirected connected graph is a bridge iff removing it disconnects the graph. For a disconnected
undirected graph, definition is similar, a bridge is an edge removing which increases number of connected
components.
Like Articulation Points,bridges represent vulnerabilities in a connected network and are useful for designing reliable
networks. For example, in a wired computer network, an articulation point indicates the critical computers and a
bridge indicates the critical wires or connections.
Following are some example graphs with bridges highlighted with red color.
How to find all bridges in a given graph?

A simple approach is to one by one remove all edges and see if removal of a edge causes disconnected
graph. Following are steps of simple approach for connected graph.
1) For every edge (u, v), do following
..a) Remove (u, v) from graph
..b) See if the graph remains connected (We can either use BFS or DFS)
..c) Add (u, v) back to the graph.
Time complexity of above method is O(E*(V+E)) for a graph represented using adjacency list. Can we do better?
A O(V+E) algorithm to find all Bridges
The idea is similar to O(V+E) algorithm for Articulation Points. We do DFS traversal of the given graph. In DFS tree
an edge (u, v) (u is parent of v in DFS tree) is bridge if there does not exit any other alternative to reach u or an
ancestor of u from subtree rooted with v. As discussed in theprevious post, the value low[v] indicates earliest visited
vertex reachable from subtree rooted with v. The condition for an edge (u, v) to be a bridge is, low[v] > disc[u].
Following is C++ implementation of above approach.
// A C++ program to find bridges in a given undirected graph
#include<iostream>
#include <list>
#define NIL -1
class Graph
{
int V;
// No. of vertices
list<int> *adj;
void bridgeUtil(int v, bool visited[], int disc[], int low[], int parent[]);
public:
Graph(int V);
// Constructor
void bridge();
// prints all bridges
};
Graph::Graph(int V)
{
this->V = V;
}
{
}
// A recursive function that finds and prints bridges using DFS traversal
void Graph::bridgeUtil(int u, bool visited[], int disc[],
int low[], int parent[])
{
visited[u] = true;
{
int v = *i;
// v is current adjacent of u
// If v is not visited yet, then recur for it

if (!visited[v])
{
parent[v] = u;
bridgeUtil(v, visited, disc, low, parent);
// If the lowest vertex reachable from subtree under v is
// below u in DFS tree, then u-v is a bridge
if (low[v] > disc[u])
cout << u <<" " << v << endl;
}
}
}
// DFS based function to find all bridges. It uses recursive function bridgeUtil()
void Graph::bridge()
{
// Initialize parent and visited arrays
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
{
parent[i] = NIL;
visited[i] = false;
}
// Call the recursive helper function to find Bridges
// in DFS tree rooted with vertex 'i'
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
bridgeUtil(i, visited, disc, low, parent);
}
int main()
{
cout << "\nBridges in first graph \n";
Graph g1(5);
g1.addEdge(1, 0);
g1.addEdge(0, 2);
g1.addEdge(2, 1);
g1.addEdge(0, 3);
g1.addEdge(3, 4);
g1.bridge();
cout << "\nBridges in second graph \n";

Graph g2(4);
g2.addEdge(0, 1);
g2.addEdge(1, 2);
g2.addEdge(2, 3);
g2.bridge();
cout << "\nBridges in third graph \n";
Graph g3(7);
g3.addEdge(0, 1);
g3.addEdge(1, 2);
g3.addEdge(2, 0);
g3.addEdge(1, 3);
g3.addEdge(1, 4);
g3.addEdge(1, 6);
g3.addEdge(3, 5);
g3.addEdge(4, 5);
g3.bridge();
return 0;
}
Run on IDE
Output:
Bridges in first graph 3 4 0 3 Bridges in second graph 2 3 1 2 0 1 Bridges in third graph 1 6
Time Complexity: The above function is simple DFS with additional arrays. So time complexity is same as DFS
which is O(V+E) for adjacency list representation of graph.
Biconnected graph
An undirected graph is called Biconnected if there are two vertex-disjoint paths between any two vertices. In a
Biconnected Graph, there is a simple cycle through any two vertices.
By convention, two nodes connected by an edge form a biconnected graph, but this does not verify the above
properties. For a graph with more than two vertices, the above properties must be there for it to be Biconnected.
Following are some examples.
See this for more examples.
How to find if a given graph is Biconnected or not?

A connected graph is Biconnected if it is connected and doesnt have any Articulation Point. We mainly need to
check two things in a graph.
1) The graph is connected.
2) There is not articulation point in graph.
We start from any vertex and do DFS traversal. In DFS traversal, we check if there is any articulation point. If we
dont find any articulation point, then the graph is Biconnected. Finally, we need to check whether all vertices were
reachable in DFS or not. If all vertices were not reachable, then the graph is not even connected.
// A C++ program to find articulation points in a given undirected graph
#include<iostream>
#include <list>
#define NIL -1
class Graph
{
int V;
// No. of vertices
list<int> *adj;
bool isBCUtil(int v, bool visited[], int disc[], int low[],int parent[]);

public:
Graph(int V);
// Constructor
bool isBC();
// returns true if graph is Biconnected, else returns false
};
Graph::Graph(int V)
{
this->V = V;
}
{
}
// A recursive function that returns true if there is an articulation
// point in given graph, otherwise returns false.
// This function is almost same as isAPUtil() here ( http://goo.gl/Me9Fw )
bool Graph::isBCUtil(int u, bool visited[], int disc[],int low[],int parent[])
{
// Count of children in DFS Tree
int children = 0;
visited[u] = true;
{
int v = *i; // v is current adjacent of u
// If v is not visited yet, then make it a child of u
// in DFS tree and recur for it
if (!visited[v])
{
children++;
parent[v] = u;
// check if subgraph rooted with v has an articulation point
if (isBCUtil(v, visited, disc, low, parent))
return true;

// u is an articulation point in following cases
// (1) u is root of DFS tree and has two or more chilren.
if (parent[u] == NIL && children > 1)
return true;
// (2) If u is not root and low value of one of its child is
// more than discovery value of u.
if (parent[u] != NIL && low[v] >= disc[u])
return true;
}
}
return false;
}
// The main function that returns true if graph is Biconnected, otherwise false.
// It uses recursive function isBCUtil()
bool Graph::isBC()
{
// Initialize parent and visited, and ap(articulation point) arrays
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
{
parent[i] = NIL;
visited[i] = false;
}
// Call the recursive helper function to find if there is an articulation
// point in given graph. We do DFS traversal starring from vertex 0
if (isBCUtil(0, visited, disc, low, parent) == true)
return false;
// Now check whether the given graph is connected or not. An undirected
// graph is connected if all vertices are reachable from any starting
// point (we have taken 0 as starting point)
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
return false;
return true;
}
int main()
{

Graph g1(2);
g1.addEdge(0, 1);
g1.isBC()? cout << "Yes\n" : cout << "No\n";
Graph g2(5);
g2.addEdge(1, 0);
g2.addEdge(0, 2);
g2.addEdge(2, 1);
g2.addEdge(0, 3);
g2.addEdge(3, 4);
g2.addEdge(2, 4);
Graph g3(3);
g3.addEdge(0, 1);
g3.addEdge(1, 2);
Graph g4(5);
g4.addEdge(1, 0);
g4.addEdge(0, 2);
g4.addEdge(2, 1);
g4.addEdge(0, 3);
g4.addEdge(3, 4);
Graph g5(3);
g5.addEdge(0, 1);
g5.addEdge(1, 2);
g5.addEdge(2, 0);
return 0;
}
Run on IDE
Time Complexity: The above function is a simple DFS with additional arrays. So time complexity is same as DFS
which is O(V+E) for adjacency list representation of graph.
Connectivity in a directed graph

Given a directed graph, find out whether the graph is strongly connected or not. A directed graph is strongly
connected if there is a path between any two pair of vertices. For example, following is a strongly connected graph.
It is easy for undirected graph, we can just do a BFS and DFS starting from any vertex. If BFS or DFS visits all
vertices, then the given undirected graph is connected. This approach wont work for a directed graph. For example,
consider the following graph which is not strongly connected. If we start DFS (or BFS) from vertex 0, we can reach all
vertices, but if we start from any other vertex, we cannot reach all vertices.
How to do for directed graph?

A simple idea is to use a all pair shortest path algorithm like Floyd Warshall or find Transitive Closure of
graph. Time complexity of this method would be O(v3).
We can also do DFS V times starting from every vertex. If any DFS, doesnt visit all vertices, then graph is not
strongly connected. This algorithm takes O(V*(V+E)) time which can be same as transitive closure for a dense graph.
A better idea can be Strongly Connected Components (SCC) algorithm. We can find all SCCs in O(V+E) time. If
number of SCCs is one, then graph is strongly connected. The algorithm for SCC does extra work as it finds all SCCs.
Following is Kosarajus DFS based simple algorithm that does two DFS traversals of graph:
1) Initialize all vertices as not visited.
2) Do a DFS traversal of graph starting from any arbitrary vertex v. If DFS traversal doesnt visit all vertices, then
return false.
3) Reverse all arcs (or find transpose or reverse of graph)
4) Mark all vertices as not-visited in reversed graph.
5) Do a DFS traversal of reversed graph starting from same vertex v (Same as step 2). If DFS traversal doesnt visit
all vertices, then return false. Otherwise return true.
The idea is, if every node can be reached from a vertex v, and every node can reach v, then the graph is strongly
connected. In step 2, we check if all vertices are reachable from v. In step 4, we check if all vertices can reach v (In
reversed graph, if all vertices are reachable from v, then all vertices can reach v in original graph).
Following is C++ implementation of above algorithm.
// Program to check if a given directed graph is strongly connected or not
#include <iostream>
#include <list>
#include <stack>

class Graph
{
int V;
// No. of vertices
list<int> *adj;
// An array of adjacency lists
public:
// Constructor and Destructor
Graph(int V) { this->V = V; adj = new list<int>[V];}
~Graph() { delete [] adj; }
// Method to add an edge
// The main function that returns true if the graph is strongly
// connected, otherwise false
bool isSC();
};
{
visited[v] = true;
if (!visited[*i])
}
{
Graph g(V);
for (int v = 0; v < V; v++)
{
{
}
}
return g;
}
{
}
// The main function that returns true if graph is strongly connected

bool Graph::isSC()
{
// St1p 1: Mark all the vertices as not visited (For first DFS)
bool visited[V];
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
visited[i] = false;
// Step 2: Do DFS traversal starting from first vertex.
DFSUtil(0, visited);
// If DFS traversal doesnt visit all vertices, then return false.
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
return false;
// Step 3: Create a reversed graph
// Step 4: Mark all the vertices as not visited (For second DFS)
for(int i = 0; i < V; i++)
visited[i] = false;
// Step 5: Do DFS for reversed graph starting from first vertex.
// Staring Vertex must be same starting point of first DFS
gr.DFSUtil(0, visited);
// If all vertices are not visited in second DFS, then
// return false
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
return false;
return true;
}
int main()
{
// Create graphs given in the above diagrams
Graph g1(5);
g1.addEdge(0, 1);
g1.addEdge(1, 2);
g1.addEdge(2, 3);
g1.addEdge(3, 0);
g1.addEdge(2, 4);
g1.addEdge(4, 2);
g1.isSC()? cout << "Yes\n" : cout << "No\n";
Graph g2(4);
g2.addEdge(0, 1);
g2.addEdge(1, 2);
g2.addEdge(2, 3);
g2.isSC()? cout << "Yes\n" : cout << "No\n";
return 0;
}
Eulerian path and circuit for undirected graph

Eulerian Path is a path in graph that visits every edge exactly once. Eulerian Circuit is an Eulerian Path which starts
and ends on the same vertex.
How to find whether a given graph is Eulerian or not?

The problem is same as following question. Is it possible to draw a given graph without lifting pencil from
the paper and without tracing any of the edges more than once.
A graph is called Eulerian if it has an Eulerian Cycle and called Semi-Eulerian if it has an Eulerian Path. The problem
seems similar to Hamiltonian Path which is NP complete problem for a general graph. Fortunately, we can find
whether a given graph has a Eulerian Path or not in polynomial time. In fact, we can find it in O(V+E) time.
Following are some interesting properties of undirected graphs with an Eulerian path and cycle. We can use these
properties to find whether a graph is Eulerian or not.
Eulerian Cycle
An undirected graph has Eulerian cycle if following two conditions are true.
.a) All vertices with non-zero degree are connected. We dont care about vertices with zero degree because
they dont belong to Eulerian Cycle or Path (we only consider all edges).
.b) All vertices have even degree.
Eulerian Path
An undirected graph has Eulerian Path if following two conditions are true.
.a) Same as condition (a) for Eulerian Cycle
.b) If zero or two vertices have odd degree and all other vertices have even degree. Note that only one
vertex with odd degree is not possible in an undirected graph (sum of all degrees is always even in an
undirected graph)
Note that a graph with no edges is considered Eulerian because there are no edges to traverse.
How does this work?
In Eulerian path, each time we visit a vertex v, we walk through two unvisited edges with one end point as v.
Therefore, all middle vertices in Eulerian Path must have even degree. For Eulerian Cycle, any vertex can be
middle vertex, therefore all vertices must have even degree.
// A C++ program to check if a given graph is Eulerian or not
#include<iostream>
#include <list>
class Graph
{
int V;
// No. of vertices
list<int> *adj;
public:
// Constructor and destructor
Graph(int V)
{this->V = V; adj = new list<int>[V]; }
~Graph() { delete [] adj; } // To avoid memory leak
// Method to check if this graph is Eulerian or not
int isEulerian();
// Method to check if all non-zero degree vertices are connected
bool isConnected();
// Function to do DFS starting from v. Used in isConnected();
};
{
}

{
visited[v] = true;
if (!visited[*i])
}
// Method to check if all non-zero degree vertices are connected.
// It mainly does DFS traversal starting from
bool Graph::isConnected()
{
bool visited[V];
int i;
for (i = 0; i < V; i++)
visited[i] = false;
// Find a vertex with non-zero degree
for (i = 0; i < V; i++)
if (adj[i].size() != 0)
break;
// If there are no edges in the graph, return true
if (i == V)
return true;
// Start DFS traversal from a vertex with non-zero degree
DFSUtil(i, visited);
// Check if all non-zero degree vertices are visited
for (i = 0; i < V; i++)
if (visited[i] == false && adj[i].size() > 0)
return false;
return true;
}
/* The function returns one of the following values
0 --> If grpah is not Eulerian
1 --> If graph has an Euler path (Semi-Eulerian)
2 --> If graph has an Euler Circuit (Eulerian) */
int Graph::isEulerian()
{
// Check if all non-zero degree vertices are connected
if (isConnected() == false)
return 0;
// Count vertices with odd degree
int odd = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
if (adj[i].size() & 1)
odd++;
// If count is more than 2, then graph is not Eulerian

if (odd > 2)
return 0;
// If odd count is 2, then semi-eulerian.
// If odd count is 0, then eulerian
// Note that odd count can never be 1 for undirected graph
return (odd)? 1 : 2;
}
// Function to run test cases
void test(Graph &g)
{
int res = g.isEulerian();
if (res == 0)
cout << "Graph is not Eulerian\n";
else if (res == 1)
cout << "Graph has a Euler path\n";
else
cout << "Graph has a Euler cycle\n";
}
int main()
{
// Let us create and test graphs shown in above figures
Graph g1(5);
g1.addEdge(1, 0);
g1.addEdge(0, 2);
g1.addEdge(2, 1);
g1.addEdge(0, 3);
g1.addEdge(3, 4);
test(g1);
Graph g2(5);
g2.addEdge(1,
g2.addEdge(0,
g2.addEdge(2,
g2.addEdge(0,
g2.addEdge(3,
g2.addEdge(4,
test(g2);
0);
2);
1);
3);
4);
0);
Graph g3(5);
g3.addEdge(1,
g3.addEdge(0,
g3.addEdge(2,
g3.addEdge(0,
g3.addEdge(3,
g3.addEdge(1,
test(g3);
0);
2);
1);
3);
4);
3);
// Let us create a graph with 3 vertices

// connected in the form of cycle
Graph g4(3);
g4.addEdge(0, 1);
g4.addEdge(1, 2);
g4.addEdge(2, 0);
test(g4);
// Let us create a graph with all veritces

// with zero degree
Graph g5(3);
test(g5);
return 0;
}
Run on IDE
Output:
Graph has a Euler path Graph has a Euler cycle Graph is not Eulerian Graph has a Euler cycle Graph has a Euler
cycle
Time Complexity: O(V+E)
We will soon be covering following topics on Eulerian Path and Circuit
1) Eulerian Path and Circuit for a Directed Graphs.
2) How to print a Eulerian Path or Circuit?
Shortest path with exactly k edges in a directed and weighted graph

Given a directed and two vertices u and v in it, find shortest path from u to v with exactly k edges on the path.
The graph is given as adjacency matrix representation where value of graph[i][j] indicates the weight of an edge from
vertex i to vertex j and a value INF(infinite) indicates no edge from i to j.
For example consider the following graph. Let source u be vertex 0, destination v be 3 and k be 2. There are two
walks of length 2, the walks are {0, 2, 3} and {0, 1, 3}. The shortest among the two is {0, 2, 3} and weight of path is
3+6 = 9.
The idea is to browse through all paths of length k from u to v using the approach discussed in theprevious post and
return weight of the shortest path. A simple solution is to start from u, go to all adjacent vertices and recur for
adjacent vertices with k as k-1, source as adjacent vertex and destination as v. Following is C++ implementation of
this simple solution.
// C++ program to find shortest path with exactly k edges
#include <iostream>
#include <climits>
// Define number of vertices in the graph and inifinite value
#define V 4
#define INF INT_MAX
// A naive recursive function to count walks from u to v with k edges
int shortestPath(int graph[][V], int u, int v, int k)
{
// Base cases
if (k == 0 && u == v)
return 0;
if (k == 1 && graph[u][v] != INF) return graph[u][v];
if (k <= 0)
return INF;
// Initialize result
int res = INF;
// Go to all adjacents of u and recur
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
{
if (graph[u][i] != INF && u != i && v != i)
{
int rec_res = shortestPath(graph, i, v, k-1);
if (rec_res != INF)
res = min(res, graph[u][i] + rec_res);
}
}
return res;
}
int main()
{
/* Let us create the graph shown in above diagram*/
int graph[V][V] = { {0, 10, 3, 2},
{INF, 0, INF, 7},
{INF, INF, 0, 6},
{INF, INF, INF, 0}
};
int u = 0, v = 3, k = 2;
cout << "Weight of the shortest path is " <<
shortestPath(graph, u, v, k);
return 0;
}
Run on IDE
Output:
Weight of the shortest path is 9
The worst case time complexity of the above function is O(Vk) where V is the number of vertices in the given graph.
We can simply analyze the time complexity by drawing recursion tree. The worst occurs for a complete graph. In
worst case, every internal node of recursion tree would have exactly V children.
We can optimize the above solution using Dynamic Programming. The idea is to build a 3D table where first
dimension is source, second dimension is destination, third dimension is number of edges from source to destination,
and the value is count of walks. Like other Dynamic Programming problems, we fill the 3D table in bottom up manner.
// Dynamic Programming based C++ program to find shortest path with
// exactly k edges
#include <iostream>
#include <climits>
// Define number of vertices in the graph and inifinite value
#define V 4
#define INF INT_MAX
// A Dynamic programming based function to find the shortest path from
// u to v with exactly k edges.
int shortestPath(int graph[][V], int u, int v, int k)
{
// Table to be filled up using DP. The value sp[i][j][e] will store
// weight of the shortest path from i to j with exactly k edges
int sp[V][V][k+1];
// Loop for number of edges from 0 to k
for (int e = 0; e <= k; e++)
{
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++) // for source
{
for (int j = 0; j < V; j++) // for destination
{
// initialize value
sp[i][j][e] = INF;
// from base cases
if (e == 0 && i == j)
sp[i][j][e] = 0;
if (e == 1 && graph[i][j] != INF)
sp[i][j][e] = graph[i][j];
//go to adjacent only when number of edges is more than 1
if (e > 1)
{
for (int a = 0; a < V; a++)
{
// There should be an edge from i to a and a
// should not be same as either i or j
if (graph[i][a] != INF && i != a &&
j!= a && sp[a][j][e-1] != INF)
sp[i][j][e] = min(sp[i][j][e], graph[i][a] +
sp[a][j][e-1]);
}
}
}
}
}
return sp[u][v][k];
}
int main()
{
/* Let us create the graph shown in above diagram*/
int graph[V][V] = { {0, 10, 3, 2},
{INF, 0, INF, 7},
{INF, INF, 0, 6},
{INF, INF, INF, 0}
};
int u = 0, v = 3, k = 2;
cout << shortestPath(graph, u, v, k);
return 0;
}
Run on IDE
Output:
Weight of the shortest path is 9
Time complexity of the above DP based solution is O(V 3K) which is much better than the naive solution.
Euler Circuit in a Directed Graph

Eulerian Path is a path in graph that visits every edge exactly once. Eulerian Circuit is an Eulerian Path which starts
and ends on the same vertex.
A graph is said to be eulerian if it has eulerian cycle. We have discussed eulerian circuit for an undirected graph. In
this post, same is discussed for a directed graph.
For example, the following graph has eulerian cycle as {1, 0, 3, 4, 0, 2, 1}
How to check if a directed graph is eulerian?

A directed graph has an eulerian cycle if following conditions are true (Source: Wiki)
1) All vertices with nonzero degree belong to a single strongly connected component.
2) In degree and out degree of every vertex is same.
We can detect singly connected component using Kosarajus DFS based simple algorithm.
To compare in degree and out degree, we need to store in degree an out degree of every vertex. Out degree can be
obtained by size of adjacency list. In degree can be stored by creating an array of size equal to number of vertices.
// A C++ program to check if a given directed graph is Eulerian or not
#include<iostream>
#include <list>
#define CHARS 26
class Graph
{
int V;
// No. of vertices
list<int> *adj;
int *in;
public:
// Constructor and destructor
Graph(int V);
~Graph()
{ delete [] adj; delete [] in; }
void addEdge(int v, int w) { adj[v].push_back(w);
(in[w])++; }
// Method to check if this graph is Eulerian or not

bool isEulerianCycle();
// Method to check if all non-zero degree vertices are connected
bool isSC();
// Function to do DFS starting from v. Used in isConnected();
};
Graph::Graph(int V)
{
this->V = V;
in = new int[V];
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
in[i] = 0;
}
/* This function returns true if the directed graph has an eulerian
cycle, otherwise returns false */
bool Graph::isEulerianCycle()
{
// Check if all non-zero degree vertices are connected
if (isSC() == false)
return false;
// Check if in degree and out degree of every vertex is same
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
if (adj[i].size() != in[i])
return false;
return true;
}
// A recursive function to do DFS starting from v
{

visited[v] = true;
if (!visited[*i])
}
// This function is needed in isSC()
{
Graph g(V);
for (int v = 0; v < V; v++)
{
{
(g.in[v])++;
}
}
return g;
}
// This function returns true if all non-zero degree vertices of
// graph are strongly connected (Please refer
// http://www.geeksforgeeks.org/connectivity-in-a-directed-graph/ )
bool Graph::isSC()
{
// Mark all the vertices as not visited (For first DFS)
bool visited[V];
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
visited[i] = false;
// Find the first vertex with non-zero degree
int n;
for (n = 0; n < V; n++)
if (adj[n].size() > 0)
break;
// Do DFS traversal starting from first non zero degree vertex.
DFSUtil(n, visited);
// If DFS traversal doesnt visit all vertices, then return false.
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
if (adj[i].size() > 0 && visited[i] == false)
return false;
// Create a reversed graph
// Mark all the vertices as not visited (For second DFS)
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
visited[i] = false;
// Do DFS for reversed graph starting from first vertex.

// Staring Vertex must be same starting point of first DFS
gr.DFSUtil(n, visited);
// If all vertices are not visited in second DFS, then
// return false
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
if (adj[i].size() > 0 && visited[i] == false)
return false;
return true;
}
int main()
{
Graph g(5);
g.addEdge(1, 0);
g.addEdge(0, 2);
g.addEdge(2, 1);
g.addEdge(0, 3);
g.addEdge(3, 4);
g.addEdge(4, 0);
if (g.isEulerianCycle())
cout << "Given directed graph is eulerian \n";
else
cout << "Given directed graph is NOT eulerian \n";
return 0;
}
Given a sorted dictionary of an alien language, find order of characters

Given a sorted dictionary (array of words) of an alien language, find order of characters in the language.
Examples:
Input: words[] = {"baa", "abcd", "abca", "cab", "cad"} Output: Order of characters is 'b', 'd', 'a', 'c' Note that words are
sorted and in the given language "baa" comes before "abcd", therefore 'b' is before 'a' in output. Similarly we can find
other orders. Input: words[] = {"caa", "aaa", "aab"} Output: Order of characters is 'c', 'a', 'b'
We strongly recommend to minimize the browser and try this yourself first.
The idea is to create a graph of characters and then find topological sorting of the created graph. Following are the
detailed steps.
1) Create a graph g with number of vertices equal to the size of alphabet in the given alien language. For example, if
the alphabet size is 5, then there can be 5 characters in words. Initially there are no edges in graph.
2) Do following for every pair of adjacent words in given sorted array.
..a) Let the current pair of words be word1 and word2. One by one compare characters of both words and find the
first mismatching characters.

..b) Create an edge in g from mismatching character of word1 to that of word2.
3) Print topological sorting of the above created graph.
Following is C++ implementation of the above algorithm.
// A C++ program to order of characters in an alien language
#include<iostream>
#include <list>
#include <stack>
#include <cstring>
// Class to represent a graph
class Graph
{
int V;
// No. of vertices'
// Pointer to an array containing adjacency listsList
list<int> *adj;
// A function used by topologicalSort
public:
Graph(int V);
// Constructor
// prints a Topological Sort of the complete graph
void topologicalSort();
};
Graph::Graph(int V)
{
this->V = V;
}
{
}
// A recursive function used by topologicalSort
{
// Mark the current node as visited.
visited[v] = true;
if (!visited[*i])
topologicalSortUtil(*i, visited, Stack);
// Push current vertex to stack which stores result
Stack.push(v);
}
// The function to do Topological Sort. It uses recursive topologicalSortUtil()
void Graph::topologicalSort()
{
stack<int> Stack;
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
visited[i] = false;
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
// Print contents of stack
{
cout << (char) ('a' + Stack.top()) << " ";
Stack.pop();
}
}
int min(int x, int y)
{
return (x < y)? x : y;
}
// This function fidns and prints order of characer from a sorted
// array of words. n is size of words[]. alpha is set of possible
// alphabets.
// For simplicity, this function is written in a way that only
// first 'alpha' characters can be there in words array. For
// example if alpha is 7, then words[] should have only 'a', 'b',
// 'c' 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g'
void printOrder(string words[], int n, int alpha)
{
// Create a graph with 'aplha' edges
Graph g(alpha);
// Process all adjacent pairs of words and create a graph
for (int i = 0; i < n-1; i++)
{
// Take the current two words and find the first mismatching
// character
string word1 = words[i], word2 = words[i+1];
for (int j = 0; j < min(word1.length(), word2.length()); j++)
{
// If we find a mismatching character, then add an edge
// from character of word1 to that of word2
if (word1[j] != word2[j])
{
g.addEdge(word1[j]-'a', word2[j]-'a');
break;
}
}
}
// Print topological sort of the above created graph
g.topologicalSort();
}
int main()
{
string words[] = {"caa", "aaa", "aab"};
printOrder(words, 3, 3);
return 0;
}
Run on IDE
Output:
cab
Time Complexity: The first step to create a graph takes O(n + alhpa) time where n is number of given words and
alpha is number of characters in given alphabet. The second step is also topological sorting. Note that there would be
alpha vertices and at-most (n-1) edges in the graph. The time complexity of topological sorting is O(V+E) which is O(n
+ aplha) here. So overall time complexity is O(n + aplha) + O(n + aplha) which is O(n + aplha).
Exercise:
Channel Assignment Problem

There are M transmitter and N receiver stations. Given a matrix that keeps track of the number of packets to be
transmitted from a given transmitter to a receiver. If the (i; j)-th entry of the matrix is k, it means at that time the station
i has k packets for transmission to station j.
During a time slot, a transmitter can send only one packet and a receiver can receive only one packet. Find the
channel assignments so that maximum number of packets are transferred from transmitters to receivers during the
next time slot.
Example:
020301240
The above is the input format. We call the above matrix M. Each value M[i; j] represents the number of packets
Transmitter i has to send to Receiver j. The output should be:
The number of maximum packets sent in the time slot is 3 T1 -> R2 T2 -> R3 T3 -> R1
Note that the maximum number of packets that can be transferred in any slot is min(M, N).
Algorithm:
The channel assignment problem between sender and receiver can be easily transformed into Maximum
Bipartite Matching(MBP) problem that can be solved by converting it into a flow network.
Step 1: Build a Flow Network
There must be a source and sink in a flow network. So we add a dummy source and add edges from source
to all senders. Similarly, add edges from all receivers to dummy sink. The capacity of all added edges is
marked as 1 unit.
Step 2: Find the maximum flow.

We use Ford-Fulkerson algorithm to find the maximum flow in the flow network built in step 1. The maximum flow is
actually the maximum number of packets that can be transmitted without bandwidth interference in a time slot.
Implementation:
Let us first define input and output forms. Input is in the form of Edmonds matrix which is a 2D array
table[M][N] with M rows (for M senders) and N columns (for N receivers). The value table[i][j] is the number
of packets that has to be sent from transmitter i to receiver j. Output is the maximum number of packets
that can be transmitted without bandwidth interference in a time slot.
A simple way to implement this is to create a matrix that represents adjacency matrix representation of a
directed graph with M+N+2 vertices. Call the fordFulkerson() for the matrix. This implementation requires
O((M+N)*(M+N)) extra space.
Extra space can be reduced and code can be simplified using the fact that the graph is bipartite. The idea is
to use DFS traversal to find a receiver for a transmitter (similar to augmenting path in Ford-Fulkerson). We
call bpm() for every applicant, bpm() is the DFS based function that tries all possibilities to assign a receiver
to the sender. In bpm(), we one by one try all receivers that a sender u is interested in until we find a
receiver, or all receivers are tried without luck.
For every receiver we try, we do following:
If a receiver is not assigned to anybody, we simply assign it to the sender and return true. If a receiver is
assigned to somebody else say x, then we recursively check whether x can be assigned some other receiver.
To make sure that x doesnt get the same receiver again, we mark the receiver v as seen before we make
recursive call for x. If x can get other receiver, we change the sender for receiver v and return true. We use
an array maxR[0..N-1] that stores the senders assigned to different receivers.
If bmp() returns true, then it means that there is an augmenting path in flow network and 1 unit of flow is
added to the result in maxBPM().
Time and space complexity analysis:
In case of bipartite matching problem, F ? |V| since there can be only |V| possible edges coming out from
source node. So the total running time is O(mn) = O((m + n)n). The space complexity is also substantially
reduces from O ((M+N)*(M+N)) to just a single dimensional array of size M thus storing the mapping between
M and N.
#include <iostream>
#include <string.h>
#include <vector>
#define M 3
#define N 4
// A Depth First Search based recursive function that returns true
// if a matching for vertex u is possible
bool bpm(int table[M][N], int u, bool seen[], int matchR[])
{
// Try every receiver one by one
for (int v = 0; v < N; v++)
{
// If sender u has packets to send to receiver v and
// receiver v is not already mapped to any other sender
// just check if the number of packets is greater than '0'
// because only one packet can be sent in a time frame anyways
if (table[u][v]>0 && !seen[v])
{
seen[v] = true; // Mark v as visited
// If receiver 'v' is not assigned to any sender OR
// previously assigned sender for receiver v (which is
// matchR[v]) has an alternate receiver available. Since
// v is marked as visited in the above line, matchR[v] in

// the following recursive call will not get receiver 'v' again
if (matchR[v] < 0 || bpm(table, matchR[v], seen, matchR))
{
matchR[v] = u;
return true;
}
}
}
return false;
}
// Returns maximum number of packets
// time slot from sender to receiver
int maxBPM(int table[M][N])
{
// An array to keep track of the
// The value of matchR[i] is the
// the value -1 indicates nobody
int matchR[N];
that can be sent parallely in 1
receivers assigned to the senders.

sender ID assigned to receiver i.
is assigned.
// Initially all receivers are not mapped to any senders

memset(matchR, -1, sizeof(matchR));
int result = 0; // Count of receivers assigned to senders
for (int u = 0; u < M; u++)
{
// Mark all receivers as not seen for next sender
bool seen[N];
memset(seen, 0, sizeof(seen));
// Find if the sender 'u' can be assigned to the receiver
if (bpm(table, u, seen, matchR))
result++;
}
cout << "The number of maximum packets sent in the time slot is "
<< result << "\n";
for (int x=0; x<N; x++)
if (matchR[x]+1!=0)
cout << "T" << matchR[x]+1 << "-> R" << x+1 << "\n";
return result;
}
int main()
{
int table[M][N] = {{0, 2, 0}, {3, 0, 1}, {2, 4, 0}};
int max_flow = maxBPM(table);
return 0;
}
Run on IDE
Output:
The number of maximum packets sent in the time slot is 3 T3-> R1 T1-> R2 T2-> R3
Find the minimum cost to reach destination using a train

There are N stations on route of a train. The train goes from station 0 to N-1. The ticket cost for all pair of stations (i, j)
is given where j is greater than i. Find the minimum cost to reach the destination.
Consider the following example:
Input: cost[N][N] = { {0, 15, 80, 90}, {INF, 0, 40, 50}, {INF, INF, 0, 70}, {INF, INF, INF, 0} }; There are 4 stations and
cost[i][j] indicates cost to reach j from i. The entries where j < i are meaningless. Output: The minimum cost is 65 The
minimum cost can be obtained by first going to station 1 from 0. Then from station 1 to station 3.
We strongly recommend to minimize your browser and try this yourself first.
The minimum cost to reach N-1 from 0 can be recursively written as following:
minCost(0, N-1) = MIN { cost[0][n-1], cost[0][1] + minCost(1, N-1), minCost(0, 2) + minCost(2, N-1), ........, minCost(0,
N-2) + cost[N-2][n-1] }
The following is C++ implementation of above recursive formula.
// A naive recursive solution to find min cost path from station 0
// to station N-1
#include<iostream>
#include<climits>
// infinite value
#define INF INT_MAX
// Number of stations
#define N 4
// A recursive function to find the shortest path from
// source 's' to destination 'd'.
int minCostRec(int cost[][N], int s, int d)
{
// If source is same as destination
// or destination is next to source
if (s == d || s+1 == d)
return cost[s][d];
// Initialize min cost as direct ticket from
// source 's' to destination 'd'.
int min = cost[s][d];
// Try every intermediate vertex to find minimum
for (int i = s+1; i<d; i++)
{
int c = minCostRec(cost, s, i) +
minCostRec(cost, i, d);
if (c < min)
min = c;
}
return min;
}
// This function returns the smallest possible cost to
// reach station N-1 from station 0. This function mainly
// uses minCostRec().
int minCost(int cost[][N])
{
return minCostRec(cost, 0, N-1);
}
int main()
{
int cost[N][N] = { {0, 15, 80, 90},
{INF, 0, 40, 50},
{INF, INF, 0, 70},
{INF, INF, INF, 0}
};
cout << "The Minimum cost to reach station "
<< N << " is " << minCost(cost);
return 0;
}
Run on IDE
Output:
The Minimum cost to reach station 4 is 65
Time complexity of the above implementation is exponential as it tries every possible path from 0 to N-1. The above
solution solves same subrpoblems multiple times (it can be seen by drawing recursion tree for minCostPathRec(0, 5).
Since this problem has both properties of dynamic programming problems ((see this and this). Like other typical
Dynamic Programming(DP) problems, re-computations of same subproblems can be avoided by storing the solutions
to subproblems and solving problems in bottom up manner.
One dynamic programming solution is to create a 2D table and fill the table using above given recursive formula. The
extra space required in this solution would be O(N 2) and time complexity would be O(N3)
We can solve this problem using O(N) extra space and O(N 2) time. The idea is based on the fact that given input
matrix is a Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG). The shortest path in DAG can be calculated using the approach discussed
in below post.
Shortest Path in Directed Acyclic Graph
We need to do less work here compared to above mentioned post as we know topological sortingof the graph. The
topological sorting of vertices here is 0, 1, ..., N-1. Following is the idea once topological sorting is known.
The idea in below code is to first calculate min cost for station 1, then for station 2, and so on. These costs are stored
in an array dist[0...N-1].
1) The min cost for station 0 is 0, i.e., dist[0] = 0
2) The min cost for station 1 is cost[0][1], i.e., dist[1] = cost[0][1]
3) The min cost for station 2 is minimum of following two.
a) dist[0] + cost[0][2]
b) dist[1] + cost[1][2]
3) The min cost for station 3 is minimum of following three.

a) dist[0] + cost[0][3]
b) dist[1] + cost[1][3]
c) dist[2] + cost[2][3]
Similarly, dist[4], dist[5], ... dist[N-1] are calculated.
Below is C++ implementation of above idea.
// A Dynamic Programming based solution to find min cost
// to reach station N-1 from station 0.
#include<iostream>
#include<climits>
#define INF INT_MAX
#define N 4
// This function returns the smallest possible cost to
// reach station N-1 from station 0.
int minCost(int cost[][N])
{
// dist[i] stores minimum cost to reach station i
// from station 0.
int dist[N];
for (int i=0; i<N; i++)
dist[i] = INF;
dist[0] = 0;
// Go through every station and check if using it
// as an intermediate station gives better path
for (int i=0; i<N; i++)
for (int j=i+1; j<N; j++)
if (dist[j] > dist[i] + cost[i][j])
dist[j] = dist[i] + cost[i][j];
return dist[N-1];
}
int main()
{
int cost[N][N] = { {0, 15, 80, 90},
{INF, 0, 40, 50},
{INF, INF, 0, 70},
{INF, INF, INF, 0}
};
cout << "The Minimum cost to reach station "
<< N << " is " << minCost(cost);
return 0;
}
Run on IDE
Output:
The Minimum cost to reach station 4 is 65
Snake and Ladder Problem

Given a snake and ladder board, find the minimum number of dice throws required to reach the destination or last cell
from source or 1st cell. Basically, the player has total control over outcome of dice throw and wants to find out
minimum number of throws required to reach last cell.
If the player reaches a cell which is base of a ladder, the player has to climb up that ladder and if reaches a cell is
mouth of the snake, has to go down to the tail of snake without a dice throw.
For example consider the board shown on right side (taken from here), the minimum number of dice throws required
to reach cell 30 from cell 1 is 3. Following are steps.
a) First throw two on dice to reach cell number 3 and then ladder to reach 22
b) Then throw 6 to reach 28.
c) Finally through 2 to reach 30.
There can be other solutions as well like (2, 2, 6), (2, 4, 4), (2, 3, 5).. etc.
We strongly recommend to minimize the browser and try this yourself first.
The idea is to consider the given snake and ladder board as a directed graph with number of vertices equal
to the number of cells in the board. The problem reduces to finding the shortest path in a graph. Every vertex
of the graph has an edge to next six vertices if next 6 vertices do not have a snake or ladder. If any of the
next six vertices has a snake or ladder, then the edge from current vertex goes to the top of the ladder or tail
of the snake. Since all edges are of equal weight, we can efficiently find shortest path using Breadth First
Search of the graph.
Following is C++ implementation of the above idea. The input is represented by two things, first is N which is number
of cells in the given board, second is an array move[0N-1] of size N. An entry move[i] is -1 if there is no snake and
no ladder from i, otherwise move[i] contains index of destination cell for the snake or the ladder at i.
// C++ program to find minimum number of dice throws required to
// reach last cell from first cell of a given snake and ladder
// board
#include<iostream>
#include <queue>
// An entry in queue used in BFS
struct queueEntry
{
int v;
int dist;
// Vertex number
// Distance of this vertex from source
};
// This function returns minimum number of dice throws required to
// Reach last cell from 0'th cell in a snake and ladder game.
// move[] is an array of size N where N is no. of cells on board
// If there is no snake or ladder from cell i, then move[i] is -1
// Otherwise move[i] contains cell to which snake or ladder at i
// takes to.
int getMinDiceThrows(int move[], int N)
{
// The graph has N vertices. Mark all the vertices as
// not visited
bool *visited = new bool[N];
for (int i = 0; i < N; i++)
visited[i] = false;
// Create a queue for BFS
queue<queueEntry> q;
// Mark the node 0 as visited and enqueue it.
visited[0] = true;
queueEntry s = {0, 0}; // distance of 0't vertex is also 0
q.push(s); // Enqueue 0'th vertex
// Do a BFS starting from vertex at index 0
queueEntry qe; // A queue entry (qe)
while (!q.empty())
{
qe = q.front();
int v = qe.v; // vertex no. of queue entry
// If front vertex is the destination vertex,
// we are done
if (v == N-1)
break;
// Otherwise dequeue the front vertex and enqueue
// its adjacent vertices (or cell numbers reachable
// through a dice throw)
q.pop();
for (int j=v+1; j<=(v+6) && j<N; ++j)
{
// If this cell is already visited, then ignore
if (!visited[j])
{
// Otherwise calculate its distance and mark it
// as visited
queueEntry a;
a.dist = (qe.dist + 1);
visited[j] = true;
//
//
//
if
Check if there a snake or ladder at 'j'

then tail of snake or top of ladder
become the adjacent of 'i'
(move[j] != -1)
a.v = move[j];
else
a.v = j;
q.push(a);
}
}
}
// We reach here when 'qe' has last vertex
// return the distance of vertex in 'qe'
return qe.dist;
}
// Driver program to test methods of graph class
int main()
{
// Let us construct the board given in above diagram
int N = 30;
int moves[N];
for (int i = 0; i<N; i++)
moves[i] = -1;
// Ladders
moves[2] = 21;
moves[4] = 7;
moves[10] = 25;
moves[19] = 28;
// Snakes
moves[26]
moves[20]
moves[16]
moves[18]
=
=
=
=
0;
8;
3;
6;
cout << "Min Dice throws required is " << getMinDiceThrows(moves, N);
return 0;
}
Run on IDE
Output:
Min Dice throws required is 3
Detect cycle in an undirected graph

Given an undirected graph, how to check if there is a cycle in the graph? For example, the following graph has a
cycle 1-0-2-1.
We have discussed cycle detection for directed graph. We have also discussed a union-find algorithm for cycle
detection in undirected graphs. The time complexity of the union-find algorithm is O(ELogV). Like directed graphs, we
can use DFS to detect cycle in an undirected graph in O(V+E) time. We do a DFS traversal of the given graph. For
every visited vertex v, if there is an adjacent u such that u is already visited and u is not parent of v, then there is a
cycle in graph. If we dont find such an adjacent for any vertex, we say that there is no cycle. The assumption of this
approach is that there are no parallel edges between any two vertices.
// A C++ Program to detect cycle in an undirected graph
#include<iostream>
#include <list>
#include <limits.h>
// Class for an undirected graph
class Graph
{
int V;
// No. of vertices
list<int> *adj;
bool isCyclicUtil(int v, bool visited[], int parent);
public:
Graph(int V);
// Constructor
// to add an edge to graph
bool isCyclic();
// returns true if there is a cycle
};
Graph::Graph(int V)
{
this->V = V;
}
{
adj[w].push_back(v); // Add v to ws list.
}
// A recursive function that uses visited[] and parent to detect
// cycle in subgraph reachable from vertex v.
bool Graph::isCyclicUtil(int v, bool visited[], int parent)
{
visited[v] = true;
{
// If an adjacent is not visited, then recur for that adjacent
if (!visited[*i])
{
if (isCyclicUtil(*i, visited, v))
return true;
}
// If an adjacent is visited and not parent of current vertex,
// then there is a cycle.
else if (*i != parent)
return true;
}
return false;
}
// Returns true if the graph contains a cycle, else false.
bool Graph::isCyclic()
{
// Mark all the vertices as not visited and not part of recursion
// stack
for (int i = 0; i < V; i++)
visited[i] = false;
// Call the recursive helper function to detect cycle in different
// DFS trees
for (int u = 0; u < V; u++)
if (!visited[u]) // Don't recur for u if it is already visited
if (isCyclicUtil(u, visited, -1))
return true;
return false;
}
int main()
{
Graph g1(5);
g1.addEdge(1, 0);
g1.addEdge(0, 2);
g1.addEdge(2, 0);
g1.addEdge(0, 3);
g1.addEdge(3, 4);
g1.isCyclic()? cout << "Graph contains cycle\n":
cout << "Graph doesn't contain cycle\n";
Graph g2(3);
g2.addEdge(0, 1);
g2.addEdge(1, 2);
g2.isCyclic()? cout << "Graph contains cycle\n":
cout << "Graph doesn't contain cycle\n";
return 0;
}
Run on IDE
Output:
Graph contains cycle Graph doesn't contain cycle

Time Complexity: The program does a simple DFS Traversal of graph and graph is represented using adjacency list.
So the time complexity is O(V+E)

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Find maximum number of edge disjoint paths between two vertices

residual graph. Also fills parent[] to store the path */

// This array is filled by BFS and to store path

// There is no flow initially

// Augment the flow while tere is path from source to sink

Longest Path in a Directed Acyclic Graph

Following is complete algorithm for finding longest distances.

// Graph is represented using adjacency list. Every node of adjacency list

Here vertex numbers are

// 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 with following mappings:

Backtracking | Set 6 (Hamiltonian Cycle)

/* Let us create the following graph

Dynamic Programming | Set 16 (Floyd Warshall Algorithm)

Following is C implementation of the Floyd Warshall algorithm.

Find the number of islands

// Mark this cell as visited

to test above function

printf("Number of islands is: %d\n", countIslands(M));

Union-Find Algorithm | Set 1 (Detect Cycle in a an Undirected Graph)

// a structure to represent a graph

Union-Find Algorithm | Set 2 (Union By Rank and Path Compression)

// Naive implementation of union()

struct Edge* edge;

Greedy Algorithms | Set 2 (Kruskals Minimum Spanning Tree Algorithm)

2. Pick edge 8-2: No cycle is formed, include it.

3. Pick edge 6-5: No cycle is formed, include it.

4. Pick edge 0-1: No cycle is formed, include it.

5. Pick edge 2-5: No cycle is formed, include it.

9. Pick edge 0-7: No cycle is formed, include it.

// An index variable, used for sorted edges

// Step 1: Sort all the edges in non-decreasing order of their weight

struct Graph* graph = createGraph(V, E);

// add edge 0-1

Greedy Algorithms | Set 5 (Prims Minimum Spanning Tree (MST))

the first vertex so that it is picked first.

The key value of vertex 6 and 8 becomes finite (7 and 1 respectively).

How to implement the above algorithm?

int min = INT_MAX, min_index;

// driver program to test above function

Greedy Algorithms | Set 6 (Prims MST for Adjacency List Representation)

struct AdjList* array;

struct MinHeapNode **array;

// move to parent index

int u = minHeapNode->v; // Store the extracted vertex number

If v is not yet included in MST and weight of u-v is

Greedy Algorithms | Set 8 (Dijkstras Algorithm for Adjacency List Representation)

// C / C++ program for Dijkstra's shortest path algorithm for adjacency

// Initialize each adjacency list as empty by making head as NULL

// Store the root node

// Driver program to test above functions

Dynamic Programming | Set 23 (BellmanFord Algorithm)

// a structure to represent a weighted edge in graph

Transitive closure of a graph

printf ("%d ", reach[i][j]);

Check whether a given graph is Bipartite or not

Algorithm to check if a graph is Bipartite:

Topological Sorting vs Depth First Traversal (DFS):

// A C++ program to print topological sorting of a DAG

// Mark all the vertices as not visited