45

CHAPTER2
REVIEWOFLITERATURE

Inthischapter,inordertodevelopaproperproceduretoachieve
the objectives of the study, a review of literature was undertaken on the
quantity of Biomedical wastes (BMW) generated in various countries,
characteristic study of lime, neem (Azadirachta indica) leaves extract and
utilizationofsolarenergyasdisinfectantofbiomedicalwastesandtheuseof
anaerobicdigestionindecomposingprocess.Veryfewresearcharticlesare
availableontreatmenttechniquesofhospitalwastes.Sotreatmentoptionsand
analysis details of various other wastes were collected and utilized for
biomedicalwastestreatmentoptionsandanalysisprocedures.
2.1

GENERAL
Intheprocessofhealthcare,wastegeneratedisusuallyincludes

sharps,humantissuesorbodypartsandotherinfectiousmaterials(Bavejaet
al 2000). As a result of developing healthcare technology, the amount of
hospital wastes being generated is increasing due to the use of more
disposable products (Omrani 1998). The waste produced in the course of
healthcareactivitiescarriesahigherpotentialforinfectionandinjurythan
anyothertypeofwaste.Environmentandnaturalresourcescanbepolluted,
andconsequentlyhumanbeings,animalsandplantscanbeimpacted(Prusset
al1999).

46
2.2

CHARACTERISTICSOFBIOMEDICALWASTE
Biomedical waste is defined as any solid, fluid or liquid waste

includingcontainerandanyintermediateproduct,whichisgeneratedduring
diagnosis, treatment or immunization of human beings or animals or in
research activities or in the production or testing of biological products
[Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1998]. Hospital
wastes include different kinds of wastes such as infectious, radioactive,
chemical, heavy metals and regular municipal wastes (DoE 1998).
Biomedical waste can be categorized based on the risk of causing injury
and/orinfectionduringhandlinganddisposal.Wastestargetedforprecautions
during handling and disposal include sharps (needles or scalpel blades),
pathologicalwastes(anatomicalbodyparts,microbiologyculturesandblood
samples) and infectious wastes (items contaminated with body fluids and
dischargessuchasdressing,cathetersandI.V.lines).Otherwastesgenerated
in healthcare settings include radioactive wastes, mercury containing
instrumentsandpolyvinylchloride(PVC)plastics.Theseareamongthemost
environmentally sensitive byproducts of healthcare (Remy 2001). WHO
(1999, 2001, 2004) stated that 85% of hospital wastes are actually non
hazardous,around10%areinfectiousandaround5%arenoninfectiousbut
hazardouswastes.IntheUSA,about15%ofhospitalwasteisregulatedas
infectiouswaste.InIndiathiscouldrangefrom15%to35%dependingonthe
totalamountofwastegenerated(GlennandGarwal1999).
2.3

IMPACTOFINFECTIOUSAGENTSONHUMANHEALTH
ANDENVIRONMENT
Hospitalwastes,becauseoftheirinfectiousnature,areoneofthe

most dangerous causes of pollution (Sadeghi 2002). Hospital waste is

potentiallydangerous,sinceitmaypossesspathogenicagents.Someofthe
pathogenicorganismsaredangerous,becausetheymayberesistantto

47

treatmentandpossesshighpathogenicity.Inadequatewastemanagementwill
causeenvironmentalpollution,unpleasantsmell,growthandmultiplicationof
insects,rodentsandwormsandmayleadtothetransmissionofdiseaseslike
typhoid, cholera, hepatitis and AIDS through injuries from syringes and
needlescontaminatedwithhumanblood(HenryandHeinke1996).
Theinefficienthandlingofbiomedicalwasteismorelikelytocause
problemssuchasbloodbornepathogenstothegroupsathighestrisk,namely;
healthcarestaff,scavengers,andmunicipalworkers(fromneedlesticksfor
example, ifthebiomedicalwastes arehandledanddisposedtogetherwith
domestic wastes).There is particular concern about infection with human
immunodeficiencyvirus(HIV)andhepatitisvirusesBandC,forwhichthere
is strong evidence of transmission via healthcare waste (WHO 1999).
Transportingofmixedhospitalwastetothewastedumpingsitescausessoil
andgroundwaterpollution,andconsequentlyhealthhazardsforlivespecies
(Shirazinejad,1996).Hence,collectionanddisposalofwasteintheproper
mannerisofgreatimportanceasitcandecreasedirectlyandindirectlyhealth
riskstopeople,anddamagetoflora,fauna,andtheenvironment(Centersfor
DiseaseControlandPrevention2001).
2.4

BIOMEDICALWASTEMANAGEMENTSTRATEGIES
The biomedical waste (Management and Handling) rules 1198

apply to all persons who generate, collect, receive, store, transport, treat,
disposeorhandlebiomedicalwasteinanyform.Andalsoitgivesguidelines
about categories of biomedical waste, colour coding of containers,
transportationandtreatmentssuchasIncineration,AutoclaveandMicrowave.
Handling, segregation, mutilation, disinfection, storage,
transportation and final disposal are vital steps for safe and scientific

managementofbiomedicalwasteinanyestablishment(AcharyaandSingh

48

Meeta 2000). The most appropriate way of identifying the categories of

biomedicalwasteisbysortingthewasteintocolourcodedplasticbagsor
containers(PatilandShekdar2001).
SaharMohamedSolimanetal(2006)statethat60%ofsurgical,
medical and laboratory departments store biomedical waste inside utility
rooms,followedby40%ofintensivecareunits.Labour,operatingroomsand
dialysisunitsdonotstorebiomedicalwasteinthedepartment,butthewasteis
immediatelytransportedtothegeneralstorageareaofthehospital.Themean
periodofstorageforbiomedicalwastesinthestorageareasofthehealthcare
settingwas4.68.1dayswhilethestudywasconductedinfivehospitalsand
tenprimaryhealthcaresettingsofEgypt.Itwasconcludedthatinadequateand
inefficient segregation, collection and transportation of biomedical waste
contributetoincreasedriskofexposureofstaff,patientsandthecommunity
tobiomedicalhazards.
Muhlichetal(2003)conductedaresearchprojectsponsoredbythe
ECLIFE programme to compare waste management in five different
Europeanhospitals.Acomparisonoftheregulationsgoverningcurrentwaste
management revealed different strategies for defining infectious hospital
waste. The differences in the infrastructure were examined and the
consequences for waste segregation and disposal were discussed under
economicandecologicalaspects.
MohammadKaramouzetal(2006)statedthatdisposalofabout
1750tonsofsolidwastesperdayistheresultofarapidpopulationgrowthin
theprovinceofKhuzestaninthesouthwestofIran.The frameworkofa
masterplanformanaginghospitalsolidwastesintheprovinceofKhuzestan,
Iranwasproposedconsideringdifferentcriteriaforevaluatingthepollutionof
hospitalsolidwasteloads.Theeffectivenessofthemanagementschemesis

alsoevaluated.Inordertorankthehospitalsanddeterminetheshareofeach

49

hospitalinthe totalhospitalsolidwaste pollutionload, amultiple criteria

decision making technique, namely analytical hierarchy process (AHP), is
used.Theresultshaveshownthatthehospitalslocatednearthecapitalcityof
theprovince,Ahvaz,producemorethan43%ofthetotalhospitalsolidwaste
pollutionloadoftheprovince.Theresultshavealsoshowntheimportanceof
improvingmanagementtechniquesratherthanbuildingnewfacilities.The
proposedmethodologyisusedtoformulateamasterplanforhospitalsolid
wastemanagement.
Tamplinetal(2004)reportedthatthereuseofsyringescancause
thespreadofinfectionssuchasHIVandhepatitis.Thisposesobvioushealth
risks,bothintermsofdirectexposureandenvironmentalcontamination.This
study of issues and options for the safe destruction and disposal of used
injectionmaterialswasundertakenusingdocumentanalysisandsummarize
approaches to the interrelated issues of syringe reuse and clinical waste
disposal. The authors suggest that holistic approaches to syringe use and
clinicalwastedisposalneedtobeutilized.TheHealthCareWithoutHarm
publicationNonIncinerationMedicalWasteTreatmentTechnologies(August
2001)andtheWHOdraftGuidancefortheDevelopmentofNationalAction
Plans(2002)provideasoundframeworkforaddressingissuesofhealthcare
waste management and used injection materials disposal. This framework
needstobefieldtestedinselectedcountries.Thefocusisontechnologyand
proceduresthatmaybeadaptabletoruralareasindevelopingcountries.
Miyazaki and Une (2005) carried out the waste management
practiceinJapan.Thefirstruleofinfectiouswastemanagementwasregulated
in 1992 and revised criteria for infectious waste management were
promulgated by the Ministry of Environment in 2004. Infectious waste
materialsaredividedintothreecategories:theformofwaste;theplaceof

wastegeneration;thekindofinfectiousdiseases.Theysummarizedas

50

Infectious waste materials are to be collected and segregated from other

wastes,andtransportedtoincineratorswheretheyarecombustedbyaspecial
wastehandlingbusinesswithwhichamedicalinstitutioncontracts.Disposal
costs are, however, becoming expensive. Therefore, medical institutions
should make every effort to reduce infectious waste generated in their
facilities.Therevisedregulationisexpectedtoencouragethereductionof
infectiouswasteandtoprotectwasteworkersfrombeinginfected.
Blenkharn(2006)observedthearrangementsforbulkclinicalwaste
handlingin26UKhospitals.Storageofwastecartsinareasfreelyaccessible
tothepublic,andfailuretolockindividualcartswascommon.Manyclinical
wastecartsandareasdedicatedtotheirstoragewereinapoorstateofrepair.
Substantialimprovementisrequiredinthemanagementofclinicalwastein
hospitalsinorder(1)toeliminatethepossibilityofacquiredinfectionthrough
unauthorized,inappropriateaccesstoclinicalwasteandtominimizeadverse
effectsresultingfromcontactwithwastepharmaceuticals;(2)tocomplywith
theDutyofCareimposedbyUKHealthandSafetylegislation;and(3)to
satisfyconcernsregardingthegeneralstandardofhospitalhygiene.
Patil and Shekdar (2001) concluded that the healthcare waste
managementisnotonlyatechnicalproblem,butisalsostronglyinfluenced
byeconomicconditions.Onitsown,enactmentoflegislationwillnotmakeit
moreefficient.Sustainablesolutionscanbeeffectedbyinvolvinglocalbodies
engagedinwastemanagementandmakingsuretheyfollowtheprinciplesof
effectivemanagement.Healthcarewasteshouldbesubjectedtodisinfection
andmutilationpriortoreuse,recyclingordisposal.Precautionshavetobe
takensothatdisposableitemslikeneedles,syringes,IVsetsandotherplastic
itemsarenotreused.Effortshavetobemadeforminimizationofwaste:an
appropriateplanhastobeevolvedaspertheprevailingconditions.Finally,

adequatefinancialprovisionneedstobemade.

51

Chandira boss and coworkers (2009) studied the character and

quantity of BMW generation in Government General Hospital (GH)
Puducherry. Unhygienic disposal of nonsegregated BMW in Puducherry
posesaserioushealthhazardtothepopulationandtoscavengers.Thecurrent
practicesofhandling,transportation,storage,anddisposalofBMWgenerated
atGHneedtobestrict.Oflate,moreandmorepatientsfromabroadare
optingtoundergoadvancedmedicaltreatmentinIndia,becausetheycanbe
carriedoutata fractionof the costinIndia. With this "medical tourism"
expanding(Connell2006,Lee2007),hospitalsneedtomanagetheirBMW
properly, to minimize risks to the public and to the environment (Mudur
2004).AftertheBMWguidelineswereexplained,observationsindicatethat
propermanagementofBMWhasimprovedandthatthesegregationofBMW
ismuchbetterthanbefore(AgrawalandSingh2005).
2.5

QUANTITYOFBIOMEDICALWASTEGENERATION
India,apotentialeconomicworldleaderisexperiencingasteady

economic growth leading to depletion of natural resources and poses a

significantchallengetothecountryssustainableandecologicaldevelopment.
Indiancitiesgenerateanestimated0.115millionmetrictonnesofwasteper
dayand42millionmetrictonesannually(CPCB2003).Thepercapitawaste
generationrangesbetween0.2and0.6kgperdayintheIndiancitiesthatis
lower thanthat indevelopedcountries. However, lifestyle changes due to
economicgrowthandfastratesofurbanizationhaveresultedinpercapita
wastegenerationincreasingbyabout1.3%peryear.TheEnergyResources
Institute(TERI)hasestimatedthatwastegenerationwillexceed260million
tones per year by the year 2047more than five times the present level
(CPCB2003).
Tsakonaetal(2007)examinestheexistinghospitalwastestrategy

inGreecewithabedcapacityof400600.Infectiouswasteproductionwas

52

estimatedbyweighingtheincineratedwasteas880kg/day.Itwasconcluded
thatinappropriatesegregationpracticeswerethedominantproblem,which
ledtoincreasedquantities ofgenerated infectious waste andhence higher
costsfortheirdisposal.
MehrdadAskarianetal(2004)surveyed15hospitalsinIran.The
results indicated that the waste generation rate is 4.45kg/bed/day, which
includes1830kg(71.44%)ofdomesticwaste,712kg(27.8%)ofinfectious
wasteand19.6kg(0.76%)ofsharps.Segregationofdifferenttypesofwasteis
not carried out perfectly. Two (13.3%) of the hospitals uses containers
without lids for transportation of wastes. Nine (60%) of the hospitals are
equipped with an incinerator and six of them (40%) have operational
problems withincinerators. They concluded thatthe hospitals under study
arent providing any effective training courses about hospital waste
managementandthehazardsassociatedwiththem.Thetrainingcoursesthat
areprovidedareeitherineffectiveorunsuitable.
Jayanthiandherassociates(2002)reportedthequantityandquality
ofwastearisingfromdifferentwardsandunitsofIndiangovernmenthospital
withacapacityof360beds.Thequantityofwastearisingfromthehospitalis
about 285kg/day. 59% of total waste is general waste and rest 41% is
biomedicalwaste.Itwasconcludedthatpropersegregationatsourceisnot
practicedinthestudyarea,whichpavedthewayforincreasedmedicalwaste
streamduetomixingofgeneralandmixedwastesatthecollectionpoints.
Gayathri Patil et al (2005) assessed the waste handling and
treatment system of hospital biomedical solid waste and its mandatory
compliance with regulation of Biomedical Waste (Management and
Handling) Rules, 1998, under the Environment (Protection Act 1986),
MinistryofEnvironmentandForestry,Govt.ofIndia,atthechosenKLE

SocietysJ.N.HospitalandMedicalResearchCenter,Belgaum,Indiato

53

estimate the amount of noninfectious and infectious waste generated in

different wards/sections and reported as an average about 520 kg of non
infectiousand101kgofinfectiouswasteisgeneratedperday(about2.31kg
perdayperbed,grossweightcomprisingbothinfectiousandnoninfectious
waste).
MohammadRezaSabouretal(2007)developedamathematical
model to calculate the generation of (infectious) hospital wastes for any
desired year. Utilizingthe model, generatedinfectious hospitalwastes has
beenestimatedas698,937tonnesfor2008(shortterm)and3,494,387tonnes
for 2028 (longterm period). If the real infectious wastes are collected
separately,thenthegeneratedinfectiouswasteswillbereducedby15.1%of
theabovementionedamount(139,787tonnesfor2008,and698,877tonnes
for2028).Resultsofphysicalanalysisshowthecomponentsofthehospital
waste as 67.3% infectious, 8.8% medical, 1.8% biological and 22.1%
common municipal wastes. An appropriate collection method requires
trainingthestaffathospitalsalongwithpreparationoftherequiredfacilities.
PatilandShekdar(2001)analyzedvariousissueslikequantitiesand
proportion of different constituents of wastes, handling, treatment and
disposalmethodsinvarioushealthcareunits(HCUs).Thewastegeneration
raterangesbetween0.5and2.0kgbed 1 day1.Itisestimatedthatannually
about0.33milliontonnesofwastearegeneratedinIndia.Thesolidwaste
fromthehospitalsconsistsofbandages,linenandotherinfectiouswaste(30
35%),plastics(710%),disposablesyringes(0.30.5%),glass(35%)and
other general wastes including food (4045%). In general, the wastes are
collectedinamixedform,transportedanddisposedalongwithmunicipal
solidwastes.
AlZahranietal(2000)assesstheamountofhealthcareriskwaste
generated by health establishments in Saudi Arabia. A healthcare waste

managementquestionnairewasappliedin27hospitals,and16primaryhealth

54

centres and clinics. They stated that the mean hospital waste rate of
generationwas1.130.96kg/bed/day.Themeanprimaryhealthcarecentres
and clinics healthcare risk waste rate of generation was 0.080.08
kg/visitor/day. The estimated mean amount of all healthcare risk waste
generatedintheKingdomofSaudiArabiais25,207tons/year.Aprogramis
beingestablishedtoformulatestandardsforhealthcarewastemanagement.
Mohee(2005)examinedcharacteristicsofsolidandliquidwastes
generatedinhealthcareinstitutionsandtoprovideaframeworkforthesafe
managementofthesewastes.Theprojectwascarriedatthreemajormedical
institutions, namely, the Jeetoo Hospital, SSRN Hospital and the Clinic
Mauricienne. A waste audit carried out at these sites revealed that
approximately 10% of solid wastes were hazardous in nature, consisting
mainlyofinfectious,pathologicalandchemicalwastes.Theaverageamount
ofhazardouswastesperpatientperdaywasfoundtobe0.072kgatJeetoo
hospital,0.091kgatSSRNhospitaland0.179kgattheclinic.Theamountof
hazardouswastesgeneratedasafunctionofthenumberofoccupiedbedswas
found to follow a relationshipof type y=0.0006x 0.19, where y was the
amountofhazardouswastesgeneratedperbedperdayandxwasthenumber
ofoccupiedbeds.ThewastequantifyingprocessalsorevealedthatatSSRN
Hospital,0.654m3ofwaterwasbeingconsumedperpatientperdayandthe
amountofwastewaterproducedwas500m3d1.Furtheranalysisrevealedthat
thewastewaterwaspollutingwithCOD,BOD5totalsuspendedsolids(TSS)
andcoliformcontentwellabovepermissiblelimits.
Chitnisetal(2005)reportedthatpathology,microbiology,blood
bankandotherdiagnosticlaboratoriesgeneratesizableamountofbiomedical
waste (BMW). The audit of the BMW is required for planning proper
strategies.Theauditinlaboratoryrevealed8kgsanatomicalwaste,600kgs

microbiologywaste,220kgswastesharps,15kgssoiledwaste,111kgssolid

55

waste,480litresliquidwastealongwith33,000litrespermonthliquidwaste
generatedfromlabwarewashingandlaboratorycleaningand162litresof
chemical waste per month. Needle sharps are collected in puncture proof
containers and the needles autoclaved before sending to needle pit. The
formalincontainingtissuescannotbesentforincinerationforthefearoftoxic
gasreleaseandtheguidelinesbythebiomedicalwasterulemakersneedtobe
amendedfortheissue.Thesegregationofwasteatsourceisthekeystepand
reduction,reuseandrecyclingshouldbeconsideredinproperperspectives.
MuratOzbekandDilekSanin(2004)reviewedasdentalwastesare
regulatedundermedicalwaste controlregulationsinmostcountries. Even
though the quantity of hazardous wastes in dental solid wastes is a small
proportion, there is still cross infection risk and potential danger for
environment associated with mismanaged wastes. They examined the
compositionofsolidwastescomingfromeightclinicsofthedentalschoolof
aUniversityhospitalinTurkey.Thecompositionofwastechangesfromone
clinic to the other as expected. However, one can deduce from the data
obtainedthatrubberglovesconstituteclosetothehalfofthetotalsolidwaste
in almost all the clinics. Other major component is paper forming
approximately30%ofthesolidwaste.Ingeneral,totalwastecomingfromthe
clinicsisrelatedwiththenumberofproceduresconductedonpatientsatthe
clinics. Only a small fraction of the waste is hazardous indicating that at
HacettepeUniversitySchoolofDentistry,hazardouswastecollectionrules
areobeyedinmostofthetimes.
ByeongKyu Lee et al (2004) investigated generation volume,
sources, composition, treatmentanddisposalmethods for RMWs obtained
fromthreeoutofthefivetypicalcityhospitalsinMassachusettstoobtain
relevant data on medical waste. Also, this study compared the generation

patternsandamountsofRMWsbetweenthehospitalandthemedicalschool.

56

The yearly operational treatment and disposal costs of RMWs based on

differenttreatmentanddisposalmethodswereanalyzedforonehospital..
Finally, study identifies Combine onsite incineration and microwave
technologiesarethemostcosteffectiveoptionforthereductionoftreatment
anddisposalcostsofRMWs.BycarefulexclusionofnonRMWfromRMW
wastestreams,hospitalscanreducetheRMWvolumethatrequiresspecial
treatmentandreducedisposalcosts.
2.6

BIOMEDICALWASTETREATMENTFACILITIES
TheCommonBiomedicalwastestreatmentfacility(seerules14,

amendedinJune2000),whichcasttheresponsibilitiesonmunicipalbodiesto
collectbiomedicalwastes/treatedbiomedicalwastesandalsoprovidesitesfor
settingupofincinerator.TheownersofCBMWTFsareserviceproviders,
whoareprovidingservicestohealthcareunitsforcollectionofBMWsforits
finaldisposaltotheirsite.Thecomponentsofacommonbiomedicalwaste
treatment and disposal facility (CBMWTFs) are autoclave, shredder,
compactor, and incinerator for anatomical waste, secured landfill facility,
laboratoryandvehiclesfortransportationofwastes.
TheTamilnaduPollutionControlBoardenforcestheBiomedical
Waste(ManagementandHandling)Rules,1998asamendedin2000.Aspart
ofthisprocess,theBoardhassofarinventoried317Governmenthospitals
and 1,835 private hospitals. The Board has issued directions to the
Governmentandprivatehospitalstotaketimeboundactionforidentifying
sitesandsettingupcommonfacilitiesformanagementofbiomedicalwastes
incoordinationwiththeIndianMedicalAssociation.
Mohandasundarametal(2003)studiedthestatusofBioMedical
WastedisposalinUrbanCoimbatore.Thetotalnumberofhospitalsinthe

privatesectorinCoimbatoreUrbanareais76.TheeffortsofPCBandthe

57

IMA chapter at Coimbatore along with the Coimbatore corporation

establishmenthavebeendeliveringthebenefits.Inanorderdated21.5.2003
theTNPCBhasauthorizedTeknoThermIndustriestooperateafacilityfor
collection,reception,storage,transportanddisposalofBioMedicalWasteof
2.5tonnesperdayinthepremisessituatedatR.S.No.183/1ofOrattukuppai
village,CoimbatoreTaluk,CoimbatoreDistrict.
KlangsinandHarding(1998)investigatedmedicalwastepractices
usedbyhospitalsinOregon,Washington,andIdaho.Theresultsimpliedthat
confusionaroundthedefinitionofinfectiouswastemayalsohavecontributed
tothefindingthatalmosthalfofthehospitalsarenotsegregatinginfectious
wastefromothermedicalwaste.Themostfrequentlyusedpracticeoftreating
anddisposingofmedicalwastewastheuseofprivatehaulersthattransport
medical waste to treatment facilities (61.5%). The next most frequently
reportedtechniqueswerepouringintomunicipalsewage(46.6%),depositing
in landfills (41.6%), and autoclaving (32.3%). Other methods adopted by
hospitals included ElectroThermalDeactivation (ETD), hydropulping,
microwaving,andgrindingbeforepouringintothemunicipalsewer.Most
hospitalsinOregonandWashingtonnolongeroperatetheirincineratorsdue
tomorestringentregulationsregardingairpollutionemissions.Hospitalsin
Idaho, however, were still operating incinerators in the absence of state
regulationsspecifictothesetypesoffacilities.
2.6.1

Incineration
10th International Congress (2008) focused on: the origin,

characterization, and health impacts of combustiongenerated fine and

ultrafineparticles;emissionsofmercuryanddioxins,andthedevelopment/
application of novel analytical/diagnostic tools. The consensus of the
discussionwasthatparticleassociatedorganics,metals,andpersistentfree

radicals(PFRs)producedbycombustionsourcesarethelikelysourceofthe

58

observedhealthimpactsofairbornePMratherthansimplephysicalirritation
of the particles. Ultrafine particles induced oxidative stress is a likely
progenitor of the observed health impacts, but important biological and
chemicaldetailsandpossiblecatalyticcyclesremainunresolved.Otherkey
conclusionswere:(1)Inurbansettings,70%ofairbornefineparticlesarea
resultofcombustionemissionsand50%areduetoprimaryemissionsfrom
combustion sources, (2) In addition to soot, combustion produces one,
possiblytwo,classesofnanoparticleswithmeandiametersof~10nmand~1
nm. (3) The most common metrics used to describe particle toxicity, viz.
surfacearea,sulfateconcentration,totalcarbon,andorganiccarbon,cannot
fullyexplainobservedhealthimpacts,(4)Metalscontainedincombustion
generatedultrafineandfineparticlesmediateformationoftoxicairpollutants
such as PCDD/F and PFRs. (5) The combination of metalcontaining
nanoparticles, organic carbon compounds, and PFRs can lead to a cycle
generatingoxidativestressinexposedorganisms
LeeandHuffman(1996)viewedregulationregardingthedisposal
ofhospitalwaste.TheconcernoverAIDSandothercommunicablediseases
coupledwithrighttoknowlegislationhasresultedinconcernbyallelements
ofhospitalpersonnel;hospitalsneedtobereevaluatedrelativetotheirwaste
collectionanddisposalpractices.Basedonthecurrenttechnologyassessment,
environmentallysafeincinerationofmedicalwasteisachievable,if:1.State
ofartincineratorsareinstalled2.Modernairpollutioncontrolequipmentis
usedand3.Incineratoroperatorsareproperlytrained.
Satnam Singh and Vinit Prakash (2007) reviewed toxic releases
from medical waste incineration comprising organic emissions such as
polychlorinated dibenzodioxin/furan (PCDD/Fs) and polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons(PAHs),inorganicemissionsandashescontainingtoxicmetals.

59

Attemptsmadebyvariousinvestigatorstoreduce/eliminateemissionshave
alsobeenincluded.
MartinPavlasandMichalTous(2008)dealswiththeproblemof
efficientenergyutilizationinthefieldofthermalprocessingofwaste(waste
toenergy).Thewastecombustion(incineration)processesareaccompanied
byreleaseoflargeamountofenergy,whichshallbeeffectivelyutilized.In
additiontothemainpurposeofincineration,i.e.treatingthespecifiedamount
of waste, wastetoenergy systems are able to some extent substitute
conventional energy production plants fired by fossil fuel and thus to
contributetosolvingglobalenvironmentalproblems.Amathematicalmodel
based on combination of basic auxiliary operations and simple
thermodynamicmodelsofheatengineshasbeencreatedwiththeaidofa
specificcomputationaltool.Itsconceptionisbasedonbothrequirementsand
experiencecomingfromindustry.Themostseriousproblemofeffectively
running incineration plants consists in economical utilization of energy
produced.
OlgaBridgesetal(2000)conductedacomparisonofthepotential
riskstohumanhealthfrommunicipalsolidwaste(MSW)incinerationand
landfillonagenericbasis.Forthispurposeaworstcaseapproachisadopted
andanumberofassumptionsregardingthesizeandactivitiesofeachwaste
disposal method are made. The airborne pollutants measured for an
incinerator are different from those for a landfill with or without gas
collection.However,basedontheavailableinformationitappearsthatasfar
asairbornepollutionisconcerned,landfillsiteswithoutgascollectionposea
potentially higher generic risk to human health than MSW incinerators
performingtoEnvironmentalAgency(UK)standards.Thisanalysiscannotbe
usedtoreplacespecificevaluationsforaparticularincineratororalandfill

60

sitebecauselocalconditionscanhaveaverylargeimpactonthemagnitude
ofrisksinvolved.
HosnyandElZarka(2007)performedasurveyformedicalwaste
disposalinordertoexaminethecurrentstatusofmedicalwastedisposalin
some hospitals in Alexandria and to properly assess management of
hazardouswaste.AsAlexandriahasabout3911healthcarefacilitiesproviding
medicalservicesforpeople,ahugeamountofmedicalwastearegenerated
dailywithabout208tonsgeneratedpermonth.Theresultsrevealedthatthe
mostcommonproblemsassociatedwithhealthcarewastesaretheabsenceof
wastemanagement,lackofawarenessabouttheirhealthhazards,insufficient
financialandhumanresourcesforpropermanagement,andpoorcontrolof
wastedisposal.ThecurrentsituationofmedicalwastedisposalinAlexandria
is depending on incinerators. Some of these incinerators are not working
anymore.Incinerationsasasystemisnotacceptedatthetimebeinginmost
developed countries due to the risks associated with it and suitable
substitutionmanagementsystemformedicalwastedisposalisnowtakingits
place.
Kanemitsuetal(2005)performedbasicexperimentstoconfirmthat
bacillus spores are killed by incineration in a muffle furnace. Biological
samplescontaining106sporesofBacillusstearothermophiluswereplacedin
stainlesssteelPetridishesandthenintohotfurnaces.Thefurnacetemperature
anddurationofincinerationwere300Cfor15min,300Cfor30min,500
Cfor15min,500Cfor30minand1100Cfor3min.Weconfirmedthat
allsporesofB.stearothermophiluswerekilledateachofthesesettings.The
effectofincinerationseemstobeequivalenttothatofsterilization,basedon
thesatisfactorysterilizationassurancelevelof106.

AlvimFerraz and Afonsot (2005) estimated that the amount of

atmosphericpollutantsemittedthroughtheincinerationofhealthcarewastes

61

usingemissionfactorsaccordingtothePortugueselegislation.Onecontrolledair
incineratorwithoutairpollutioncontroldeviceswasusedintheresearch.The
main objectives of the study were: (i) to estimate the emission factors for
particulatematter,dioxins,heavymetalsandgaseouspollutants,accordingtothe
typeofwasteincinerated;(ii)toevaluatethequalityofatmosphericemissions;
and(iii)todefineamethodologyforthemanagementofatmosphericemissions,
evaluating the influence of type of waste incinerated and of the segregation
methodusedontheemittedamounts.Itwasconcludedthat:(i)whenemission
factorsarenotassociatedwiththetypeofincineratedmixture,theutilityofthe
emissionfactorsishighlydoubtful;(ii)withoutappropriateequipmenttocontrol
atmosphericpollution,incinerationemissionsexceedlegallimits,neglectingthe
protectionofhumanhealth(thelegallimit for pollutantconcentrations could
onlybemetforNOx,allotherconcentrationswerehigherthanthemaximum
allowed:dioxins,93710times;Hg,1.3226times;CO,1124times;SO2,25
times;andHCl,9200times);(iii)rigoroussegregationmethodologiesmustbe
usedtominimizeatmosphericemissions,andincinerateonlythosewastesthat
shouldbeincineratedaccordingtothelaw.Arigoroussegregationprogramcan
resultinareductionoftheamountofwastethatshouldbeincineratedby80%.A
reduction in the quantity of waste incinerated results in a reduction on the
amountsofpollutantsemitted:particulatematter,98%;dioxins,99.5%;As,Cd,
Cr, Mn and Ni, respectively, 90%, 92%, 84%, 77% and 92%; Hg and Pb,
practicallyeliminated;SO2andNOx,93%;andCOandHCl,morethan99%.

DavidRogersandAlanBrent(2006)establishedaprotocolforthe
firstquantitativeandqualitativeevaluationofrelativelylowcostsmallscale
incinerators for use at rural primary healthcare clinics. The protocol
comprisedthefirstphaseoffour,whichdefinedthecomprehensivetrialsof
threeincinerationunits.Thetrialsshowedthatalloftheunitscouldbeusedto

rendermedicalwastenoninfectious,andtodestroysyringesorrender

62

needlesunsuitableforreuse.Emissionloadsfromtheincineratorsarehigher
thanlargescalecommercialincinerators,butapanelofexpertsconsidered
theincineratorstobemoreacceptablecomparedtotheotherwastetreatment
and disposaloptions available inunderservicedrural areas. However, the
incineratorsmustbeusedwithinasafewastemanagementprogrammethat
provides the necessary resources in the form of collection containers,
maintenance support, acceptable energy sources, and understandable
operationalinstructionsfortheincinerators,whilstminimisingtheexposure
riskstoemissionsthroughthecorrectplacementoftheunitsinrelationtothe
clinicandthesurroundingcommunities.
Sukandar Sukandar et al (2006) present metals leachability of
medical waste incinerator fly ash in Japan on the basis of particle size.
SequentialextractionandToxicityCharacteristicLeachingProcedure(TCLP)
analysiswerecarriedoutinordertoquantifytheleachingamountofmetalsin
eachcategorizedparticlesize.Theresultsofsequentialextractionshowedan
increase both exchangeable and carbonate associated chromium
concentrationsinthebiggerparticlesizefractions.TheyconcludedthatBa,
Cd, Ni, Pb, and Zn inthe medical waste incineratorfly ash showedhigh
mobilityandtendedtobindtocarbonateandexchangeablefractionswiththe
exceptionofarangeofparticlesize,150106m.LeachabilityofCd,Cr,Cu,
Hg,Ni,Sn,andZndeterminedbyTCLPmethodwasnotstatisticallydifferent
amongthecategorizedparticlesize.Leachabilityofarsenicinparticlesize
fractionof38mmtendedtobehigherthantheotherparticlesizefractions.Ba
andPbshowedthehighestleachabilityintheparticlesizefractionof150106
mand7538mrespectively.
2.6.2

PlasmaTechniques

MosseandSavchin(2006)analysisthecompositionandthedegree
oftoxicityofmedicobiologicalwasteswiththeuseoftheresultsof

63

investigationsmadeindifferentcountries.Ithasbeenshownthatsuchwastes
are highly hazardous to ecology and a universal technology of their
management is needed. They developed and tested a plasma chamber
incinerator for plasmo thermal treatment of medicobiological waste. To
optimizetheoperatingconditionsofthefacilityandpreventchemicaland
thermalpollutionoftheenvironment,theyconstructedamodelofthermal
calculationoftheplasmachamberincinerator.
Amourouxetal(2005)reportedthattheEuropeanUnioniscreating
strict standards for air and water pollution and waste treatment and
implementing aggressive regulations. Compliance with these regulations is
impossiblewithoutthedevelopmentofnewdepollutionprocessesinvolving
plasmaorlasertechnology.Timeisoneofthemajorproblemsinmonitoring
pollutants with the use of the timeresolution laserinduced breakdown
spectroscopytechnique,whichcanperformonlineanalysiswithoutsampling
withahighlevelsensitivityforallthespeciesofthePeriodicTable.Plasma
enhanceddesorptionfromflyashesorpollutedsoilsassociatedwithamass
spectrometeroranopticalemissionspectrometerallowsthemonitoringof
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and organochlorine species in a few
seconds.ThetreatmentofVOCsbytheplasmatechniqueswaspresentedin
ordertodestroyortrapPAHmolecules.
2.6.3

NonIncinerationTechnologies
EPA Part V (2002) gives the guidelines of NonIncineration

Technologies for treatment of Biomedical Waste (Procedures for

MicrobiologicalTesting)Thepurposeofthisguidelineistoensurethatnon
incineration technologies such as Autoclave, Microwave are capable of
sterilizingoradequatelydisinfectingbiomedicalwaste.Thisisverifiedatthe
commissioningoftheequipmentatanewsite,andfurtherverifiedatregular

intervalsbytestingtheefficiencyoftheoperatingequipment.Theverification

64

involvesstrictproceduresandthetestresultsarereviewedbeforesuitable
disposalofthetreatedbiomedicalwastemayproceed.
2.6.3.1

Autoclave
Pimshtein and Zhukova (2003) assesses the possibility of the

externalheatingofautoclavesbasedonresultsofcalculationsofthestress
stateofthemonolithicandmultilayerversionsofthesevessels.Thevariation
of mechanical properties of the material as a function of temperature,
temperaturegradient,internalpressure,andtightnessoffitofthelayersinthe
multilayer wall are taken into account in the analyses. The following
recommendationsfortheheatingconditionsoftheautoclavesonthebasisof
thecalculationsperformed:
1.

Theheatingrateshouldnotexceed30Ch1

2.

External heating is permissible for monolithic autoclaves.

Here,theallowabletemperaturegradient(DT)isdetermined
asafunctionoftheinternalpressure,andthetemperatureof
theinnersurface.

3.

Operationofrolledsheetautoclave1rwithexternalheating
and an average initial interlayer clearance of 0.03 mm is
permittedunderaninternalworkingpressureof70MPa,an
innersurfacewalltemperatureof338C,andatemperature
gradientofnomorethan32C.

4.

Externalheatingofrolledsheetautoclaves2rand3rwithan
averageinitialclearanceof0.03mmispermittedonlywhen
they are being brought to operating conditions. External
heatingisprohibitedforaninternalpressureabove90MPa.

65

WilliamslineraandEwel(1984)reportedthatsteamsterilizationof
a Typic Dystrandept in Costa Rica resulted in a sixfold increase in
extractable Mn, to levels often considered toxic. Seeds of eight species,
comprisedofsixsuccessionaltaxaandtwocultivars(soybean,Glyeinemax
and raddisli, Raphanus sativus) were planted in the sterilized soil and in
unsterilizedsoilafterdelaysof1,8,15,and28d.Germinationandmortality
werenotdifferentinthetwosoils,indicatingthatsteamsterilizedsoilcan
safelybeusedinseedtraps.Sixspecies(includingbothcultivars)grewbetter
in unsterilized soil, but two of the native taxa (Phytolaeca rivinoides and
Bocconiafrutescens)grewsignificantlyfasterinsterilizedsoil.
HeeJong Lee et al (2000) developed a practical model for an
industrialhighpressurepolyethylene plant. Thereactorconsideredinthis
work is the adiabatic slim type autoclave with four zones for free radical
polymerization of ethylene. A fairly comprehensive but realistic model is
describedthathastheabilitytopredictthetemperatureateachreactionzone
aswellastheeffectsofinitiatorflowchanges.Fromthestabilityanalysisthey
identifiedtherangeofoperatingconditionswhichcaneffectivelybeusedto
prevent decomposition phenomena (runaway reactions) and to maximize
polymerconversioninLDPEautoclaves.
Sadykov(2006) discusses the results ofstudies of the autoclave
technologyforprocessingofzincconcentratesinKazakhstan(Kazakhmys
plant).Theautoclaveleachingisbasedontheinteractionofcomponentsofa
crushedconcentratewithsulfuricacidandoxygentogivethecorresponding
sulfatesandelementarysulfur.Thegoodagreementbetweenthedataforzinc,
copper, iron, lead, and sulfur in input and output materials in autoclave
leaching indicates that the procedures used for sampling and analysis are
reliable.

66

GuzeevandDyachenko(2006)investigatedthatoptimalparameters
of zircon breakdown with ammonium fluoride and hydrofluoride in an
autoclaveunderisochoricconditionswerefound.Inthecaseofammonium
hydrofluoride,the95%decompositionat300Cisreachedwithin1.5h,anda
pressureof45atmisdevelopedinthesystem.Theoverallschemeofthe
cycleofzirconbreakdownwiththeregenerationofammoniumfluorideand
productionofzirconylhydroxidewassuggested.
AntoshchakandGnyp(2000)describedstructuralfeaturesofaset
of equipment for corrosionmechanical and electrochemical studies of
materialsinahightemperatureaqueousmedium.Theautoclaveisusedfor
studying cyclic and static cracking resistance of structural materials. The
autoclaveequipment,incontrasttotheknownone,allowsonetoclearthe
workingelectrodeinthemediumathightemperatureunderpressureandto
investigate the electrochemical processes on the freshened surface. Under
laboratory conditions, they designed autoclaves and procedures for
performingcorrosionmechanicalandelectrochemicaltestingofmaterialsat
temperaturesofupto350Candpressuresofupto18MPa.Specialattention
ispaidtothefeaturesofthemethodicalapproachtothechoiceofthetypeofa
designandtotheimplementationofelectrochemicalexperiments.
2.6.3.2

Microwave
Edvard Mikhailovich Barkhudarov et al (2008) described the

killing of bacteria on surfaces by two types of UV sources generated by

microwaveradiation.Inbothcases,UVradiationisproducedbygasdischarge
electrodeless lamps (Ar/Hg) excited bymicrowaves generated bya power
supplyfromastandarddomesticmicrowaveoven.ForUVlampexcitation,
one of these sources makes use of a coaxial line with a truncated outer
electrodethatallowstheexcitationofgasesandgaseousmixturesoverawide

rangeofpressuresatacomparativelylowmicrowavepower.Inthesecond

67

source,UVlampsareplacedinsideamicrowaveoven.Ultravioletgenerated
bythetwosourceswasusedtodestroyvegetativeEscherichiacolibacteria
dispersedinthinfilmsandindropletsonsurfaces.Itwasshownthatbacterial
cellsdispersedinfilmsonsurfacesarekilledmorerapidlythancellspresent
indropletswhenusingthelampsproducingozoneandUVradiation.TheUV
sources described can effect rapid killing and constitute a costeffective
treatmentoffoodandothersurfaces,and,thedestructionofairborneviruses
and bacteria. The lamps can also be utilized for the rapid eradication of
microorganismsinliquids.
Angela Gonzalez and Ramon Barnes (2002) used the Waste
Extraction Test (WET) in California as a complement to the Toxicity
Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP). The WET protocol consists of
shakingasamplewithcitratebufferanddeterminingthemetalcontentinthe
solutionproduced.Thisprocedurerequiresa1to10wastetoliquidratioand
48hforextraction.AlthoughtheWETprotocolprovestobeveryuseful,itis
a timeconsuming step in the determination of leaching and mobility.
Therefore,amicrowaveextractionprocedurewasoptimizedtoemulatethe
relativeextractionefficiencyobtainedbytheWETprotocol.Lead,arsenic,
and copper concentrations were measured by inductively coupled plasma
massoratomicspectrometry(ICPMSorICPAES),followingastrictquality
assurance protocol. Results obtained with this new methodology were
statistically comparable to those obtained by the WET protocol. This
microwave extraction approach proved simple and fast, reducing sample
treatment by almost 280%. A significant reduction also occurs in waste
production,materials,labor,andchemicalusage.Therefore,themicrowave
extractionprocedureisrecommendedasarapidandcosteffectivemonitoring
tool for waste samples when combined with or supplemented by the
traditionalWETprotocol.

68

WayneNicholson(2003)reportedthatthermalinactivationkinetics
withextrapolationwereusedtomodelthesurvivalprobabilitiesofsporesof
variousBacillusspeciesovertimeperiodsofmillionsofyearsatthehistorical
ambienttemperatures(2540C)encounteredwithinthe250millionyearold
Saladoformation,fromwhichtheputativeancientsporeformingbacterium
Salibacillus marismortui strain 293 was recovered. The model indicated
extremelylowtomoderatesurvivalprobabilitiesforsporesofmesophiles,but
surprisinglyhighsurvivalprobabilitiesforthermophilicspores.
2.6.3.3

HospitalLiquidWasteTreatment
Daiane Bopp Fuentefria (2010) evaluated the contribution of

untreatedhospitalwastewatertothedisseminationofresistant P.aeruginosa
strains in aquatic environments, through the analysis of their antibiotic
susceptibility profile and genetic similarity. Wastewater samples were
collected from two hospitals located in Rio Grande do Sul, RS, Brazil.
Superficialwatersampleswerecollectedfromwaterbodiesthatreceivedthis
wastewaterdischarge.Theantibioticsusceptibilityprofilesofthestrainswere
determinedusingthediskdiffusiontechniqueandtheirgenotypingwasdone
by amplification of the Enterobacterial Repetitive Intergenic Consensus
sequences (ERICPCR). The antibiotic resistance was higher among the
hospital wastewater strains and the multiresistant phenotype was also
observedonlyamongthesestrains.TheERICPCRprofilesdidnotrevealany
geneticsimilarityamongthe P.aeruginosa strainsfromthewastewaterand
superficial water samples. On the contrary, they showed that genetically
distinct populations were established in these different environments and
probablythatsomeothercontaminationsourcecouldbecontributingtothe
presenceofresistantstrainsinthesewaterbodies.

69
2.6.4

Disposal
SaurabhGuptaandRamBoojh(2006)studiedtothebiomedical

waste management practices at Balrampur Hospital, a premier healthcare

establishmentinLucknow,inNorthIndia.Thestudyshowsthatinfectious
andnoninfectiouswastesaredumpedtogetherwithinthehospitalpremises,
resultinginamixingofthetwo,whicharethendisposedofwithmunicipal
waste at the dumping sites in the city. Lucknow Municipal Corporation
generally collect it every 2 or 3 days. The hospital does not have any
treatmentfacilityforinfectiouswaste.Thelaboratorywastematerials,which
aredisposedofdirectlyintothemunicipalsewerwithoutproperdisinfection
ofpathogens,ultimatelyreachtheGomtiRiver.Alldisposableplasticitems
aresegregatedbytheragpickersfromthehospitalaswellasmunicipalbins
anddumps.Theopendumpingofthewastemakesitfreelyaccessibletorag
pickerswhobecomeexposedtoserioushealthhazardsduetoinjuriesfrom
sharps,needlesandothertypesofmaterialusedwhengivinginjections.
ByeongKyuLee(2002)analyzedtherecyclingpotentialofplastic
wastesgeneratedbyhealthcarefacilities.Wastestreamsandrecyclingdata
fromfivetypicalcityhospitalsandmedicalcentersandthreeanimalhospitals
in Massachusetts were obtained. The recycling potential of plastic wastes
producedbygeneralcityhospitaldepartments,suchascafeterias,operating
rooms,laboratories,emergencyrooms,ambulanceserviceandfacilities,and
animalhospitalswereevaluated.Facilities,laboratories,operatingrooms,and
cafeterias were identified as major sources of plastic wastes generated by
hospitals.Itwasdeterminedthattherecyclingpotentialofplasticsgenerated
inhospitalcafeteriaswasmuchgreaterthanthatinotherdepartments.This
wasmainlyduetoaveryslightchanceofcontaminationorinfectionand
simplification of purchasing plastic components. Methods to increase the

recyclingofmedicalplasticwasteswerediscussed.Thisstudysuggeststhata

70

classificationatwastegeneratingsources,dependinguponinfectionchance
and/orplasticcomponent,couldbeamethodfortheimprovedrecyclingof
plasticwastesinhospitals.
Ghaly et al (2007) investigated the suitability of a passive
technology, consisting of filters composed of a mixture of limestone and
sandstonerocks,forthetreatmentoflandfillleachatescontaining6.6mgL 1
ironand1.8mgL1 manganese.Thelimestoneandthelimestone/sandstone
filters successfully removed iron from the prepared solutions. The filters
removedonaverageaminimumof97.60%oftheironfromsolutionona
dailybasis.Theremovalofmanganesefromsolutionwasnotasefficientas
iron removal. The filters removed between 22.22% and 100% of the
manganesefromsolution.Neitherthefiltertypenorthesolutiontypeaffected
theironandmanganeseremovalefficiencies.Althoughironprecipitatewas
evidentduring the 7dayexperimentalperiod, armoringdid not affect the
removal efficiencyof the elements. The pH ofthe water samples didnot
exceed 7.7. Therefore, the wetland ecosystem should be able to adjust to
waterhavingaslightlyhigherpHwithoutsufferingadverseeffects.
Lim(2004)reportedthatthegenerationofmunicipalsolidwaste
incineratorflyash(MSWIF)hasbeenincreasingsignificantlyovertherecent
past,anditsdisposalisproblematicandcostlyduetohighconcentrationof
leachableheavymetalspresentinthematerial.Thisstudyexploredapotential
stabilizationofMSWIFbyblendingwithanaturalsorbentmaterialwithlow
permeability,clay,andassessedthepotentialreleaseofheavymetalsfromthe
stabilized mixtures under various simulated subsurface environments. The
leachingtestresultssuggestedthatthenaturalclaycouldturntheMSWIFinto
nonhazardousmaterial.AlltheMSWIFclaymixturesdemonstratedleaching
behaviordifferentfromthatoftheoriginalMSWIF.Conversely,theoxidizing

andalkalineconditionswerenotcriticaltothestabilizedMSWIFclay

71

mixtures.Apparently,clayinthemixturescouldfunctionasanadsorptive
microbarriertoretaintheheavymetalswithintheMSWIFclaymatrices.
RajandreaSethiandAntonioDiMolfetta(2007)reportedthatheat
generationinsidemunicipalsolidwaste(MSW)landfillsisduetoaerobicand
anaerobicexothermicreactionsoccurringinsidethewaste.Theresultofheat
generationandtransportinsidesanitarylandfillleadstoatemperaturefield
thatvariesfrommesophylicrange(optimumat3040 C)tothermophylic
range(optimumat5060C).Duetohightemperaturesatthebottomofthe
landfill,linersystemscanbeseverelydamaged.Theincrementinconvective
andconductiveheattransportcouldleadtoanincreaseofthetemperaturein
the surrounding geological layers and in the underlying aquifer. They
investigate the origin of a thermal anomaly in the aquifer underneath a
municipal landfill in the North of Italy. Heat transport model has been
exploitedusingtheanalogybetweenheatandmasstransportinporousmedia.
The model showed that the thermal anomaly is due to convective and
conductiveheattransportfromthelandfilltotheaquifer.
Hailong Wang et al (2008) concluded that Conventional
incineration systems for biosolids management generally consume more
energy than they produce and cannot be regarded as a beneficial use of
biosolids. However, biosolids are likely to become a source of renewable
energy and produce carbon credits under the increasingly popular low
carbon economy policy. A large proportion of biosolids are currently
landfilled. Biosolids contain nutrients and energy that can be used
beneficially. Significant efforts have been made recently to develop new
technologiestomanagebiosolidsandmakeusefulproductsfromthem.Asa
result,monoincinerationandcocombustionwillremainpopularoptionsfor
biosolidsmanagement.Theseoptionsalsoprovideacompletepackagefor

72

biosolids management when the residual ash is used to manufacture

constructionmaterials.
MufideBanaretal(2006)evaluateextensivelythecharacterization
andidentificationofmajorpollutantparametersbypayingattentiontothe
organic chemical pollution for unregulated dumping site leachate in Eski
Sehir/Turkey.However,analysisresultsweregenerallydecreasedinwinter
season when each parameter and each sampling point are examined
separately.Accordingtocorrelationbetweeneveryparameter,especiallysolid
contentanddissolvedoxygenconcentrationofleachateisaffectingtoother
parameters. Also, sodium and potassium are changing proportionally with
sameparameters(suspendedsolids,fixedsolids,dissolvedoxygen)andhigh
correlationbetweenchlorideandheavymetalconcentrationisshowing.
2.6.5

RecoveryfromHospitalWastes
MuralidharandPanda(2000)statedthathumanplacentaisarich

sourceofmanybiologicalproducts.Itisaneconomicalsourceasitiseasily
availableasahospitalwaste.Theproductsobtainedfromhumanplacenta
include enzymes, genetic material, cellular proteins and antibodies. Some
classesofenzymeswhicharenotavailableafterparturitionorwhichcannot
beobtainedfromthehumanbodycanbeobtainedfromplacenta.Thisarticle
reviewsvariousplacentalproductsincludingtheirextractionandpurification.
2.7

PRETREATMENTOFINFECTIOUSBIOMEDICALWASTE

2.7.1

LimePretreatment
WeiHua Chu (2007) studied with thirtyfive strains capable of

secretingextracellularalkalineproteaseswereisolatedfromthesoilandwaste
waternearthemilkprocessingplant,slaughterhouse.StrainAPP1withthe

highestyieldalkalineproteaseswasidentifiedasBacillussp.Thecultural

73

conditionswereoptimizedformaximumenzymeproduction.Whentheinitial
pH of the medium was 9.0, the culture maintained maximum proteolytic
activityfor2,560Uml1 at50Cfor48hundertheoptimizedconditions
containing(g1):soyabeanmeal,15;wheatXour,30;K 2HPO4,4;Na2HPO4,
1; MgSO47H2O, 0.1; Na2CO3, 6. The alkaline protease showed extreme
stabilitytowardSDSandoxidizingagents,whichretaineditsactivityabove
73and110%ontreatmentfor72hwith5%SDSand5%H2O2,respectively.
NilsOlof Nilvebrant et al (2003) evaluated the treatment of
lignocellulosehydrolysateswithalkali,usuallyintheformofoverlimingto
pH10.0,hasbeenfrequentlyemployedasadetoxificationmethodtoimprove
fermentability.Theresultssuggestthatalkalitreatmentofhydrolysatescanbe
performed at temperatures below 30C at any pH between 9.0 and 12.0
withoutproblemswithsugardegradationorformationofinhibitingaliphatic
acids.TreatmentwithCa(OH)2insteadofNaOHresultedinmoresubstantial
degradationofsugars.Inconclusion,theconditionsusedfordetoxification
withalkalishouldbecarefullycontrolledtooptimizethepositiveeffectsand
minimizethedegradationoffermentablesugars.
Thaddeus Graczyk et al (2007) quantitatively tested solid waste
landfill leachate and sewage sludge samples for viable Enterocytozoon
bieneusi, Encephalitozoon intestinalis, Encephalitozoon hellem, and
Encephalitozoon cuniculi spores by the multiplexed fluorescence in situ
hybridization (FISH) assay. Quicklime stabilization was 100% effective,
whereasmicrowaveenergydisintegrationwas100%ineffectiveagainstthe
spores of E. bieneusi and E. intestinalis. Topsoil stabilization treatment
gradually reduced the load of both pathogens, consistent with the serial
dilutionofsewagesludgewiththesoilsubstrate.Thisstudydemonstratedthat
sewagesludgeandlandfillleachatecontainedhighnumbersofviable,human

virulentmicrosporidianspores,andthatsonicationandquicklimestabilization

74

werethemosteffectivetreatmentsforthesanitizationofsewagesludgeand
solidwastelandfillleachates.
Javier Alejandro GonzlezLeija (2008) analyzed the effect of
severalalkalitreatmentsontheyield,gelstrength,rheology,andchemical
characteristics (quality) of the agar obtained from Gracilariopsis
lemaneiformis from the Gulf of California using different alkali
concentrations,temperaturesandtreatmenttimes.Sinceagaryieldswerenot
significantlydifferentamongtemperaturesandtimes,theoptimalconditions
to obtain best quality agar were those providing the highest gel strength.
Treatmenttimeplayedanimportantroleinincreasinggelstrength.Maximum
gelstrength(Nikan,954gcm2)wasobtainedwith5%NaOHat100Cafter
90 min of treatment, though these conditions resulted in an agar yield
reductionof25.5%relativetonativeagar.Thistreatmentprovedtoefficiently
yield G. lemaneiformis agar that will meet the commercial quality
requirementsregardinggelstrength,3,6anhydrogalactoseandsulfatecontent,
aswellasrheologyandhysteresis.
JihGaw Lin et al (1997) studied that the performance of an
anaerobicdigestionfedwithwasteactivatedsludge(WAS)pretreatedwith
NaOH was examined. The laboratory work was run in four 11 semi
continuousanaerobicdigestionreactors.ReactorAwasfedwithuntreated
WASat1%totalsolids(TS).Theotherthreereactors,B,CandD,were
respectivelyfedwithWAS(1%TS)pretreatedwith20meql 1NaOH,WAS
(1%TS)pretreatedwith40meql1NaOH,andWAS(2%TS)pretreatedwith
20meql1NaOH.TheperformancesofreactorsB,CandD,weresuperiorto
thatofreactorA.
BjornAlrikssonetal(2006)reportedthatalkalinedetoxification
strongly improves the fermentability of diluteacid hydrolysates in the

productionofbioethanolfromlignocellulosewithSaccharomycescerevisiae.

75

NewexperimentswereperformedwithNH 4OHandNaOHtodefineoptimal
conditionsfordetoxificationandmakeacomparisonwithCa(OH) 2treatment
feasible.Theoptimizationtreatmentswereperformedasfactorialexperiments
with3hdurationandvaryingpHandtemperature.Optimalconditionswere
foundroughlyinanareaaroundpH9.0/60CforNH4OHtreatmentandina
narrow area stretching from pH 9.0/80C to pH 12.0/30C for NaOH
treatment.ByoptimizingtreatmentwithNH 4OH,NaOH,andCa(OH)2,itwas
possibletofindconditionsthatresultedinafermentabilitythatwasequalor
better than that of a reference fermentation of a synthetic sugar solution
without inhibitors, regardless of the type of alkali used. The considerable
differenceintheamountofprecipitategeneratedaftertreatmentwithdifferent
typesofalkaliappearscriticalforindustrialimplementation.
Voronovaetal(2003)analyzedstructuraltransformationsinduced
in flax cellulose by alkaline treatment. (1) The presence of concomitant
compounds(lignin,hemicelluloses,etc.)inuntreatedlinencellulosehasno
significanteffectonthestructuraltransformationoccurringincelluloseunder
the action of NaOH, contrary to, e.g., regenerated wood cellulose (sulfate
pulping).(2)Theextremainthedependencesoftheparameterscharacterizing
structural changes in cellulose under the action of NaOH (swelling,
transformationofcelluloseIintocelluloseII,hydrogenbondingstrength,and
degreeofpolymerization)arefoundwithintheNaOHconcentrationrange2
3M.Itissuggestedthat,overthisrange,structuralrearrangementintheNa+
hydrationshellfacilitatespenetrationofthealkaliintothecrystallineregions
ofthecellulosestructure.
Krupa et al (2005) compares the effects of various surface
modifications, ion implantation, alkaline treatment and anodic oxidation,
upon the corrosion resistance and bioactivity of titanium. The chemical

compositionofthesurfacelayersproducedwasdeterminedbyXPS,SIMS

76

andEDScoupledwithSEM.However,themostsatisfactorybioactivitywas
shown by the samples subjected to oxidation + hydrothermal treatment,
whereas the highest corrosion resistance was exhibited by the samples
subjectedtoalkalinetreatmentfollowedbyheatingat700C.
2.7.2

Neem(Azadirachtaindica)Pretreatment
Cardet et al (1998) tested the comparative efficiency of neem

(Azadirachtaindica)kerneloil,groundnutoilandasyntheticinsecticide,K
OthrineO,inprotectingstocksofleguminoustreeseedsagainstseedbeetles
under Sahelian conditions. This study concluded that it is possible to use
neemoiltoefficientlyprotecttreeseedstocksatlowcost.
Yasminetal(2003)usedextractneemleaveseedtocontrolroot
knotnematodemeloidogynejavanicaofsweetguard.Therootknotdiseaseis
economic importance as the loss is increased because root knotnematode
predisposesinplantsbyotherpathogens.Chemicalcontrolofrootknotis
costlyand hazardous to agrosystems and environment. Neem seed kernel
extractshavebeeneffectivelyusedtocontrolfieldcroppests.Theeffectof
neemseed,barkandleafontheincidenceofrootknotwasstudied.
SrinivasaRaoandhisassociates(2007)investigatesthepotential
useofneem(Azadirachtaindica)sawdusttreatedwithhydrochloricacidfor
theremovalofcopper(II)andnickel(II)ionsfromwastewater.Theeffectsof
different system variables, viz, adsorbent dosage, initial metal ion
concentration,pHandcontacttimewerestudied.Theresultsshowedthatas
the amount of the adsorbent was increased, the percentage of metal ion
removalincreasedaccordingly.Theadsorptionofmetalionsfollowedafirst
order rate equation. Both Freundlich and Langmuir adsorption models are
suitablefordescribingthesorptionofCu(II)andNi(II)onthetwoformsof

sawdust.Furthermore,thenaturalorganicmatter(neemsawdust)is

77

characterized by FTIR spectra and surface area analysis. At optimal

conditions the maximum adsorption capacity is found to be 48.3 and 286
mg/gforCu(II)and31.5and74.1mgg 1 forNi(II)innaturalandacid
treatedforms,respectively.
BabuandGupta(2008)preparedadsorbentfromneemleavesand
usedforCr(VI)removalfromaqueoussolutions.Neemleavesareactivated
bygivingheattreatmentandwiththeuseofconcentratedhydrochloricacid
(36.5wt%).Theactivatedneemleavesarefurthertreatedwith100mmoll 1
ofcoppersolution.Batchadsorptionstudiesdemonstratethattheadsorbent
preparedfromneemleaveshasasignificantcapacityforadsorptionofCr(VI)
fromaqueoussolution.Theadsorptionprocessfollowssecondorderkinetics
andthecorrespondingrateconstantisfoundtobe0.00137gmg1min1.
FathyAbdelGhaffaretal(2008)studiedtheefficacyofwaterfree
neemseedextractshampooWashAwayLouse,providedbyAlphaBiocare
GmbH, Dsseldorf (Germany), was investigated against Sarcoptes scabiei
infesting dogs in Egypt. Ten naturally infested dogs were collected from
differentareasintheNiledelta.Theoccurrenceoflesions,hairloss,andskin
inflammationwereregardedassignsofinfestationandprovedbydetectionof
adultparasitesandtheirdevelopmentalstagesinscrapingsofinfestedlesions.
Adequateamountoftheprovidedshampoowasappliedtopicallyandspread
on the infested areas daily for 14 successive days. Scraping examinations
wereusedtofollowupthehealingprocess.Atday7ofapplication,fourdogs
werecompletelyfreeofmitesaswasprovenbythedisappearanceofadults
and/oranydevelopmentalstagesofmites.Theremainingsixdogsshoweda
cleardecreaseinmitecounts.Bytheendofthetreatment(after14d),onlya
small number of mites were found in two dogs, while eight dogs were
completelycuredaswasprovenbymitecountsanddisappearanceofclinical

78

signs.Noremarkablesignsofsideeffectsoradversereactionswereobserved
throughoutthestudy.
Makshoof Athar et al (2007) conducted laboratory batch
experimentswithAzadirachataindicumindicatedthatthispopulationhadan
excellentabilitytobindlead(II)fromitsaqueoussolution.Theexperiments
carriedoutexaminedpH,biomassquantity,timeofcontact,andtemperature
dependency.Underoptimumconditions,theremovaloflead(II)wasfoundto
bearound95%.Columnexperimentswereperformedtoexaminethebinding
of lead (II) to silicaimmobilized biomass under flow conditions. They
concludedthatthedecreaseinthepHsuggestedanionexchangemechanism
for metal binding, i.e., exchange of biomass functionalgroup (carboxyl
groups)protonswiththemetalionspresentinthesolution.
Allamehetal(2002)studiedtherelationshipbetweentheactivities
of3cytosolicenzymeswithaflatoxinbiosynthesisin Aspergillusparasiticus
culturedunderdifferentconditionshasbeeninvestigatedinordertofindout
theroleofeachenzymeinaflatoxinbiosynthesis.Basicallytheactivityof
isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) was higher in nontoxigenic strains as
compared to its counterpart toxigenic fungi (p < 0.05). In contrast, the
activitiesoffattyacidsynthase(FAS)aswellasglutathione Stransferase
(GST) were higher (P < 0.05) in toxigenic strains than that of the non
toxigenic fungi. Aflatoxin production was inhibited in fungi grown in
presence of various concentrations of neem leaf extract. No significant
changesinFASandIDHactivitieswereobservedwhenaflatoxinsynthesis
wasunderrestraintsbyneem(Azadirachtaindica)leafextract.Duringacertain
periodoftimeofculturegrowth,whenaflatoxinproductionreachedtoits
maximumlevel,theactivityofFASwasslightlyinducedinthetoxigenic
strainsfedwithalowconcentration(1.56%v/v)oftheneemleafextract.At

thetime(96h)whenaflatoxinconcentrationreachedtoitsmaximumlevels,

79

theactivityofGSTinthetoxigenicfungiwassignificantlyhigher(i.e711
folds) than that of nontoxigenic strains. The difference was highest in
mycelialsamplescollectedafter120h.HoweverunlikeFASandIDH,GST
was readily inhibited(~67%) in mycelia fedwith 1.56%v/v of the neem
extract.Theinhibitionreachedtomaximumof80%insamplesexposedto
6.2512.5%oftheextract.
Mishraandcoworkers(2007)studied theroleofdeadbiomasses
viz.,mango(Mangiferaindica)andneem(Azadirachtaindica)barksamplesare
assessedintheremovalbehaviorof,oneofimportantfissionfragments,Cs(I)
fromaqueoussolutionsemployingaradiotracertechnique.The batchtype
studieswerecarriedouttoobtainvariousphysicochemicaldata.Itistobe
notedthattheincreaseinsorptiveconcentration(from1.0.10 8 to1.0.102
mol.dm3),temperature(from298to328K)andpH(2.6to10.3)apparently
favor the uptake of Cs(I) by these two bark samples. The concentration
dependence data obeyed Freundlich adsorption isotherm and the uptake
followsfirstorderratelaw.Thermodynamicdataevaluationanddesorption
experimentsrevealtheadsorptiontobeirreversibleandendothermicinnature
proceeding through ionexchange and surface complexation for both dead
biomasses. Both bark samples showed a fairly good radiation stability in
respectofadsorptionuptakeofCs(I)whenirradiatedwitha300mCi(RaBe)
neutronsourcehavinganintegralneutronfluxof~3.85.106n.cm 2.s1 and
associatedwithanominaldoseof~1.72Gy.h1.
RaviAsthanaetal(2006)studiedPharmaceuticallyimportantc
linolenicacid(GLA)whichwasproduced(4.1mgg)1drywt)bylaboratory
growncyanobacteriumFischerellasp.colonizingNeem(Azadirachtaindica)
tree bark. GLA isolated from the test cyanobacterium was active against
Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, Escherichia coli ATCC 25992,

Salmonellatyphi(localstrain),PseudomonasaeruginosaATCC27853and

80

EnterobacteraerogenesMTCC2822.TheoverproductionofGLAwasalso
monitoredbyalteringphosphateandnitratelevelsinthenutrientmedium.A
doublinginphosphateconcentration(58lM)increasedGLAlevelupto12%
overthatof control cells while halfof this phosphate level reducedGLA
synthesisby8%.Incontrast,elevatednitrateconcentrations(5and10mM)
stimulated biomass yield but not GLA, as the levels approximated to the
nitratelackingcontrol.TheantibacterialpotentialofGLAfromFischerella
sp. grown at varying P or N levels was at variance as evidenced by the
diameterofinhibitionzonesagainstS.aureus.Thisvariationininhibition
zones reflected differing levels of GLA as ascertained quantitatively by
HPLC.
UdayBandyopadhyayetal(2004)reportedthatneem(Azadirachta
indica)barkaqueousextracthaspotentantisecretoryandantiulcereffectsin
animalmodelsandhasnosignificantadverseeffect(Bandyopadhyayetal
2002). They investigated that whether Neem bark extract had similar
antisecretory and antiulcer effects in human subjects. A group of patients
sufferingfromacidrelatedproblemsandgastroduodenalulcerswereorally
treated with the aqueous extract of Neem bark. Some important blood
parametersfororgantoxicitysuchassugar,urea,creatinine,serumglutamate
oxaloacetatetransaminase,serumglutamatepyruvatetransaminase,albumin,
globulin, hemoglobin levels and erythrocyte sedimentation rate remained
closetothecontrolvalues.Thebarkextractwhentakenatthedoseof3060
mgtwicedailyfor10weeksalmostcompletelyhealedtheduodenalulcers
monitoredbybariummealXrayorbyendoscopy.Onecaseofesophageal
ulcer (gastroesophageal reflux disease) and one case of gastric ulcer also
healedcompletelywhentreatedatthedoseof30mgtwicedailyfor6weeks.
The levels of various blood parameters for organ toxicity after Neem
treatmentatthedosesmentionedaboveremainedmoreorlessclosetothe

normalvaluessuggestingnosignificantadverseeffects.Neembarkextract

81

thus has therapeutic potential for controlling gastric hypersecretion and

gastroesophagealandgastroduodenalulcers.
2.7.3

SolarDisinfection
Chitnis et al (2003) assessed solar heating as an alternative

technologyforIncineration. Theyimmersedinfectiousmedicalwastewith
heavyloadofbacteria(108 to109/g)inwaterinaboxtypesolarcooker,
which was left in the sun for 6hr and the amount of viable bacteria was
reduced by 7 log. The results indicated that solar heating to be a cheap
methodtodisinfectinfectiousmedicalwasteinlesseconomicallydeveloped
countries.
XU Ruifen et al(2007) selected Hepatitis B surface antigen
(HBsAg) as reference to evaluate the photo destructive effect of a self
prepared nanoTiO2 on viruses in aqueous suspension through sandwich
ELISAassay(an invitro enzymeimmunoassay)underdifferentconditions,
andmoregeneralexperimentsonRNA(ribonucleicacid)andcaseinwere
carried out. Results indicate that when dispersed in aqueous media, with
enoughconcentrationandcontacttime,thetestednanoTiO 2isdestructiveto
HBsAg,RNAandcaseinandTiO 2 isdestructiveatleasttomostvirusesin
water.SinceTiO2 hasthecombinedfunctionsofpollutantdegradationand
microbial sterilization, the advantage of almost completely mineralizing
organics,andissafeandnontoxictohumanbody,itcanbeusedinwater
treatment,medicalappliancesdisinfectionandsomeotherfieldsformulti
purposeatthesametime.
Soulasetal(1997)carriedoutfieldexperimentsinaforestnursery
during the summer of 1994 to examine the effect of soil solarization on
ectomycorrhizal soil infectivity (ESI) and soil receptiveness to inoculation

withLaccariabicolor.Soilsamplesfromsolarized,steamed,fumigatedand

82

untreatedplotswereperiodicallycollectedandassayedforESI.Untreatedsoil
exhibitedhighESI.Solarizationwasaseffectiveassteamingorfumigationin
reducing ESI in the uppermost layer. Solarization with a double layer of
polyethylenefilmandfumigationweretheonlytreatmentswhichreducedESI
deeperinthesoil.DuringJuly,thetemperatureofcoveredbedsreached50C
atasoildepthof5cm.Ectomycorrhizalfungiwereamongthesoilborne
fungimostsensitivetosolarheating.Soilsolarizationprovidesaneffective
disinfectionmethodforcontrolledmycorrhizationinforestnurseries.
YongSukChaietal(2000)reportedthatchlorinehasbeenwidely
usedtodisinfectdrinkingwatercluetosimple,cheap,andwelldeveloped
technology; however, toxic chlorine byproducts are formed such as
carcinogenictrihalomethanes(THMs).Furthermore,somepathogenssuchas
viruses, certain bacteria Campylobacter, Yersina, Mycobacteria, or
Legionella,andprotozoansCryptosporidiumorGiardialambliacystshave
been known to be resistant to chlorine disinfection [Regli, 1992; Pontius,
1990].DisinfectioncapabilityusingbothTiO2 andUVradiationwasmore
than27timesasthatbyusingonlytheUVlight.OptimalTiO2concentration
andUVlightintensitywere0.1gTiO 2 l1 and50Wm2 withwhich100%
reductiontimewasjust23mininabatchtypeslurryreactor.
Irving Spiewak et al (1998) explored the use of concentrated
sunlight combinedwith dissolved photocatalysts to improve water quality.
Initial experiments with bromacil using organicdye photosensitizers
indicatedthatthereactionkineticswasenhancedbyconcentratedlight.Other
pesticides(EPTC,Tribufos,AtrazineandLindane)werealsotestedinnormal
andconcentratedsunlight.Organicdyeswereeffectiveindegradingsomeof
these compounds but did not appear to be promising for complete
mineralization. Reaction rates were approximately proportional to sunlight

intensity.Thephotoefficiencyofreactionwasinarangehighenoughto

83

indicate that visible light, as well as UV, was participating in the photo
reactions. Preliminary disinfection tests have indicated that either organic
dyesorironcompoundsareeffective.Itwasconcludedthatsolarirradiation
witheitherorganicdyesortheironperoxidesystemareapromising,possibly
lowcost,meansofimprovingwaterquality.Thissystemwasalsoshownto
mineralizephenol.
Amit Vohra et al (2005) report that TiO2 photocatalysis with
ultraviolet (UVA) light has proven to be a highly effective process for
complete inactivation of airborne microbes. They investigated the
enhancement in the rate of destruction of bacterial spores on metal
(aluminum) and fabric (polyester) substrates with metal (silver)doped
titanium dioxide and compares it to conventional photocatalysis (TiO2
P25/+UVA)andUVAphotolysis.Bacilluscereusbacterialsporeswereused
asanindextodemonstratetheenhanceddisinfectionefficiency.Theresults
indicate complete inactivation of B. cereus spores with the enhanced
photocatalyst.Theenhancedsporedestructionratemaybeattributedtothe
highlyoxidizingradicalsgeneratedbythedopedTiO2.
Claude Alabouvette et al (2006) reported as biological control
practicesneedanintegrativeapproach,andmoreknowledgethanchemical
control. The most common approach to biological control consists of
selecting antagonistic microorganisms, studying their modes of action and
developingabiologicalcontrolproductandalsotheyreportedsolarisationor
solar heating is a method that uses the suns energy to increase soil
temperatureandsoreachlevelsatwhichmanyplantpathogenswillbekilled
orsufficientlyweakened,inordertoobtainsignificantcontrolofdiseases.
Solarisation does not destroy all soil microorganisms, but modifies the
microbial balance in favour of beneficial microorganisms. Indeed, many

papersreportsituationswheretheefficacyofsoilsolarisationisnotonlydue

84

toa decrease in the pathogenic populations butalso toan increase inthe

density and activity of populations of microorganisms antagonistic to
pathogens. Several review papers describe both the technology of solar
heatingandthemechanismsinvolvedinthecontrolofpests,pathogensand
weedsbysoilsolarisation(DeVayetal1991,DeVay1995,Katan1996).Soil
solarisation has a large spectrum of activity; it controls fungi, nematodes,
bacteria, weeds, arthropod pests and some unidentified agents, and often
resultsinincreasedyieldswhenappliedtomonoculturesoilswherespecific
pathogenshavenotbeenidentified.Inthiscase,solarisationprobablycontrols
weakpathogensordeleteriousmicroorganismsresponsibleforreducingsoil
productivity,aphenomenonsometimesdescribedassoilsickness(Bouhot,
1997).
MargaritaRosetal(2008)reportedastheAdenosinetriphosphate
(ATP)content,dehydrogenase,phosphatase,urease,andglucosidaseactivity
decreased after manure amendment plus solarization (biosolarization), but
theyrecoveredaftercropping,reachinglevelshigherthanorsimilartothose
beforethebiosolarization.However,thesebiochemicalparametersdecreased
and did not recover with time in the methyl bromide (MeBr) treatment.
Potentialnegativesoileffectswereassayedbymeasuring,ecotoxicity(Vibrio
fisheriluminescence),germinationindex,electricalconductivity,andheavy
metals content. Biosolarization did not negatively affect these parameters,
while MeBr application irreversibly decreased the germination index and
ecotoxicity. Higherquality pepper production (extra and first class) were
observed with biosolarization but notwithMeBr, butnodifferences were
foundforpepperyield.BiosolarizationgaveaMeloidogyneincognita(M.
incognita)incidencesimilartothatofMeBrapplication.
ChunYoonetal(2007)performedapilotstudyofmicroorganism

repairafterUVdisinfectionforagriculturalreuseofsecondaryleveleffluent

85

in paddy rice fields in Korea. Effluent from the biofilter of a 16unit

apartmentwasusedinaflowthroughtypeUVdisinfectionsystem.Inlow
dose UV disinfection, microorganisms increased within 12 h by
approximately 5 and 1% due to photoreactivation and dark repair,
respectively.ThisincreasewasnotsignificantatahighUVdose(16mWs
cm 2). The repaired microorganisms were further inactivated, rather than
reactivated, by solar irradiation, and numbers decreased to nondetectible
levelsafter4hofexposuretosolarirradiation.BasedonUVdisinfectionand
repairstudies,aUVdoseof30mWscm 2 isrecommendedassufficientto
producereclaimedwatervirtuallyfreeofpathogensandmaybeadequatefor
disinfection of secondary effluent for agricultural irrigation in paddy rice
culture.
MingChang etal(2007) reportedthatsewage sludge is a cost
effective media for the production of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) based
biopesticides. To enhance the entomotoxicity of the fermentation broth,
pretreatmentsofsewagesludgebyalkaliandultrasonicwereappliedfortheir
study.EffectsofalkalineandultrasonicpretreatmentsonthesolubleCOD
(SCOD)andtotalCOD(TCOD)wereevaluatedbyalteringthealkaliaddition
doseandtheultrasonicspecificenergy.Suitablepretreatmentconditionswere
optimizedwith5gl1sodiumhydroxide(NaOH)foralkalinetreatmentand
1.2105kJkg1oftotalsolidforultrasonictreatment.Fermentationsofraw
and pretreated sludge for biopesticides were carried out in a bench scale
fermentor. Results revealed that both pretreatments were effective for Bt
growth and metabolism. Higher viable cells (VC) and viable spores (VS)
counts,endotoxinyieldsandentomotoxicitywereachievedinthepretreated
sludge.Theenhancementwasattributedtomoreavailablenutrientsandbetter
oxygen transfer. Moreover, ultrasonic pretreated sludge was superior to
alkaline pretreated sludge for endotoxin production and entomotoxicity

owingtoitshighersolubleC/Nratioandfinerparticles.

86

Pikaev (2001) collected the data from the Sixth International

Conference on Advanced Oxidation Technologies for Water and Air
RemediationwasheldonJune2630,2000inLondon(Ontario,Canada)and
reportedasontheapplicationofelectrodelessgasfilledlampswithmicrowave
orhighfrequencyexcitation,whichgenerateradiationwithwavelengthsfrom
170to350nm,tothedecompositionoforganicpollutantsweregiven.Itwas
notedthatthisradiationcanbesuccessfullyusedforthemineralizationofthe
abovesubstanceswithnoadditionofH2O2 orO3.Generalproblemsofthe
degradationofpolychlorinatedorganiccompounds(usingchlorinatedacetic
acids as an example)in aqueous solutions underexposure to vacuum UV
radiation ( l < 190 nm) were considered. Both oxidation and reduction
processeswerediscussedandfoundthattheactionofsunlightimprovesthe
efficiencyofdegradationofphenolandmalicacidinaqueoussolutionson
ozonation.
Haruhiko Yokoi et al (2003) developed a bactericidal agent
operating under visible light irradiation with a silica gelsupported
dihydroxo(tetraphenylporphyrinato)antimony(V)complex(SbTPP/SiO2).The
SbTPP/SiO2particlesirradiatedbyfluorescentlightinatesttubeinduced
remarkable bactericidal activity for Escherichia coli cells. The bactericidal
activity of the SbTPP/SiO2 was affected by both the concentration of the
SbTPP/SiO2 and the light intensity. Under irradiation by visible light, the
SbTPP/SiO2 photocatalystshowedmuchsuperiorbactericidalactivitytothe
commercially available TiO2. Moreover, under irradiation by sunlight,
bactericidalactivityoftheSbTPP/SiO2 wasobserved,andthebactericidal
effectoftheSbTPP/SiO2particleswaseffectiveforcontinuoustreatmentona
columnphotoreactorunderfluorescentlightirradiation.
Josefina Vergara Snchez et al (2008) carried out a test on the

degradationofwatersolublecornoilwastesbyFentonreactionandalso

87

under mildly basic media in the presence of oxidants, such as hydrogen

peroxideandpersulfate,assistedwithsolarlight.Thedegradationefficiency
wasobtainedbyanalysisofchemicaloxygendemand,carbondioxideandgas
chromatography.Over90%ofbothchemicaloxygendemandabatementand
carbondioxiderecoverywasaccomplishedbyFentonreaction.Thepresence
of oxidants during the photodegradation resultedin high chemical oxygen
demandabatementoftheoilwastewiththedisappearanceofthemajorityof
theinitialfattyacidspresentintheoilwastebeforetreatment.
ChiuJung Liao and ShuLung Kuo (2008) reported that
Photocatalytic inactivation is mainly aimed at bacteria in surface water.
Kaolinite is made to become the photocatalyst that has the inactivating
capability with Ag+, Zn2+, and Ti4+ions. When the kaolinite catalyst is
irradiated by a sodium lamp, it produces photocatalytic action to destroy
bacteria.ThephotocatalyticinactivatingresultshowsthatkaoliniteTicatalyst
has100%inactivationefficiencyin150min,whiletheinactivationefficiency
of kaoliniteZn catalyst is more than 85% in 200 min. Photocatalytic
inactivationofbacteriaoccursbecausewhenkaolinitecatalystsareirradiated
byasodiumlamp,catalystsareexcitedtocarryonphotocatalyticreaction;
irradiationofcatalystswithphotonsofenergyequaltoorgreaterthanits
bandgapresultsinthepromotionofelectronsfromthevalencebandtothe
conductionbandofthecatalystparticles.
AnneVikkulaetal(2006)treatedCarboxymethylcellulose(CMC,
DS0.58)insolutionsofsodiumhydroxide(0.0011M)at95C.Thetreated
(1 12 h) CMC samples were purified by dialysis and analyzed by UV
spectroscopy and by UV resonance Raman spectroscopy (UVRRS) with
excitationat244nm.AUVabsorptionmaximumat265nmandaUVRR
signalat1650cm)1 wereindicativeofformationof,conjugatedaldehyde

endgroupsinCMCthroughbelimination.AnotherstrongUVRRbandat

88

1610 cm)1 gave evidence on conversion of some of the , conjugated

aldehydeendgroupstoalkalistablearomaticstructures.
Jalaletal(2006)testedfortysixbacterialstrainswereisolatedfrom
nine different sources in four treatment plants namely Indah Water
Konsortium(IWK)sewagetreatmentplant,InternationalIslamicUniversity
Malaysia(IIUM)treatmentplant1,2and3toevaluatethebioconversion
processintermsofefficientbiodegradationandbioseparation.Thebacterial
strainsisolatedwerefoundtobe52.2%(24isolates)and47.8%(22isolates)
intheIWKandIIUMtreatmentplantsrespectively.Theresultsshowedthat
the higher microbial population (910x104 cfu mL1) was observed in the
secondary clarifier of IWK treatment plant. Only the gramstaining
identificationwasdoneinthestrainsisolatedfromIWKtreatmentplantnotto
be determined from IIUM. Among the isolates from IWK, 10 isolates of
grampositivebacillus(GPB)andgrampositivecocci(GPC),10isolatesof
gramnegativebacillus(GNB)andrestwerebothorundetermined.Gram
negativecocci(GNC)werenotfoundintheisolatesfromIWK.
Arnoldetal(2009)conductedthestudytodetermineifasurface
materialwithantimicrobialpropertiescombinedwithaneffectivedisinfectant
could achieve total clearance of bacterial contamination. Five species of
bacteriacommontosoilandhumanhandlingwerepresent:Bacillus
amyloliquefaciens,Bacillus cereus/thuringiensis, Staphylococcus
epidermidis,Staphylococcus hominis

ssp.

novobiosepticus,

and

Staphylococcus intermedius were tested for endogenous microflora. Scanning

electronmicroscopyconfirmedthelevelsof Salmonella Enteritidisbeforeand
afterdisinfectanttreatment.AerobicplatecountsonPCAconfirmedthenumber
ofcolonyformingunitspermilliliterofcultureinthetestandoriginalcultures
fordisinfectantscreening.

89

K.Venkateswaranreportedthatanincreasingnumberofinsitulife
detectionandsamplereturnmissionstootherplanetarybodieswherelifemaybe
present are envisioned. As enabling technologies for these robotic missions
emerge,awarenessoftheneedtocontrolthemicrobialcontaminationaboard
spacecraft is growing. Knowledge of the microbial diversity of spacecraft
assembly areas, as well as any exceptional characteristics that contaminant
microbesmightpossess,arecriticaltothedevelopmentofusefulcleaningand
sterilization technologies. Utilization of various modern molecular methods
including microscopy techniques is obligatory to measure the cleanliness of
spacecraftassociatedcomponents.

Farrell Melnick et al (2005) stated that the use of optical

microscopy (OM) and SEM as viewing and enumeration tools provides a
directandprecise measurement of the quantityand type ofcontamination
including microbes. Although there are no specific standards for surface
contaminationinthepharmacy,theusefulnessoftheSEMliesinitsabilityto
provide clear, high resolution images that can often differentiate between
ordinaryparticulatesandmicrobes.

Ridgwayetal(1981)surveyedthemicrotopologicalfeaturesofthe
mineralizedlayerathighmagnificationinthescanningelectronmicroscope
revealed several areas where microcolonization by coccoidshaped or
filamentousmicroorganismshadapparentlyoccurred.

Frank L Bowling et al (2009) tested with four porcine samples

scoredtheninfectedwithabrothculturecontainingavarietyoforganisms
andincubatedat37Cfor24hours.Theinfectedsampleswerethendebrided
withthehydrosurgerytool.Samplesweretakenformicrobiology,histology
and scanning electron microscopy preinfection, post infection and post
debridement.

90
2.8

ANAEROBICDIGESTIONPROCESS
Srihari and Ashutosh Das (2010) presented the importance of

renewable energy resources under the present energy crisis and also they
reportedasBiogasisanexcellentalternativeenergyfromanaerobicdigestion
process,naturalbyproductoforganicwastedecomposition,atthesametime
whichrendersthesolidwastemanagementtoo.
VanderMerweandBritz(1993)treatedahighstrengtheffluent
fromabaker'syeastfactoryusingahybridandananaerobicfilterdigester
undermesophilicconditions.ACODremovalefficiencyandmethaneyieldof
67%and0207m3kg1fortheanaerobicfilterand65%and0208m 3kg1for
the hybrid respectively, achieved at an OLR of 86 kg COD m 3 day 1.
Decreasing digester efficiency was characterized by accumulation of iso
butyricandpropionicacids.
Bouallagui et al (2005) reviewed the potential of anaerobic
digestion for material recovery and energy production from fruit and
vegetable wastes (FVW). The organic fraction includes about 75% easy
biodegradablematter(sugarsandhemicellulose),9%celluloseand5%lignin.
AnaerobicdigestionofFVWwasstudiedunderdifferentoperatingconditions
usingdifferenttypesofbioreactors.Itpermitstheconversionof7095%of
organicmattertomethane.AmajorlimitationofanaerobicdigestionofFVW
isarapidacidificationofthesewastesdecreasingthepHinthereactor,anda
larger volatile fatty acids production (VFA), which stress and inhibit the
activityofmethanogenicbacteria.Continuoustwophasesystemsappearas
more highly efficient technologies for anaerobic digestion of FVW. Their
greatest advantage lies in the buffering of the organic loading rate taking
place in the first stage, allowing a more constant feeding rate of the
methanogenic second stage. Using a twostage system involving a

thermophilicliquefactionreactorandamesophilicanaerobicfilter,over95%

91

volatilesolidswereconvertedtomethaneatavolumetricloadingrateof5.65
gVS/ld.Theaveragemethaneproductionyieldwasabout420l/kgadded
VS.
Salminen and Rintala (2002) reviews the potential of anaerobic
digestion for material recovery and energy production from poultry
slaughtering byproducts and wastes by quantifying organic solid by
products,wastesproducedinpoultryfarming,poultryslaughterhousesand
discuss their recovery and disposal options. They reported certain
fundamental aspects of anaerobic digestion, future potential and current
experienceoftheanaerobicdigestiontreatmentofthesematerials.
OsmanNuriAgdagandDeliaTeresaSponza(2007)studiedthe
feasibility of the anaerobic codigestion of a mixed industrial sludge with
municipalsolidwastes(MSW)wasinvestigatedinthreesimulatedanaerobic
landfilling bioreactors during a 150day period. All of the reactors were
operatedwithleachaterecirculation.Theperformanceandtoxicitytestresults
showed that toxicity was observed in reactors containing industrial mixed
sludgeandbetterperformanceresultsinMSWreactorcomparedtomixed
industrialsludgeMSW.
Salsabil (2010) compared aerobic and anaerobic digestions with
differentsludgereductionprocessessuchasultrasonic,ozone,andthermal
treatments.Eachtreatmentwastestedundertheconditionstoimprovebatch
aerobicoranaerobicdigestionareultrasound(200,000kJkg TS01),thermal
(40C,60C,90Cfor90min,120C15min,1bar),andozonation(0.1
gO3gTS01).Thedifferentpretreatmentsinducedorganicmattersolubilisation
andintrinsicsludgereduction(totalsuspendedsolids)areultrasound(47%),
thermal90C(16%),ozone(15%),thermal60C(9%),thermal40C(5%),

autoclave(120C)(4.2%).TSS(andalsoVSS)

92

solubilisationwerefoundtobehighlycorrelatedtothepretreatmentabilityto
breaktheflocsratherthantospecificenergyinput.ThetotalvaluesofTSS
reductionrangedfrom57%to71%underaerobicconditionsandfrom66%to
86%underanaerobicconditions.Ultrasonicandozonepretreatmentspriorto
aerobicoranaerobicdigestionledtothebestreduction.Anaerobicdigestion
was globally more effective (compare to aerobic digestion) in enhancing
sludgeproductionreduction.
Shuguang (2007) investigated two dry anaerobic digestions of
organic solid wastes were conducted for 6 weeks in a labscale batch
experimentforthestartupperformancesundermesophilicandthermophilic
conditions. The enzymatic activities i.e. glucosidase N benzoylL
argininamide(BAA)hydrolysingproteaseureaseandphosphataseactivities
wereanalysed.TheBAAhydrolysingproteaseactivityduringthefirst23
weekswaslowwithlowpHbutwasenhancedlaterwiththepHincrease.
Glucosidaseactivityshowedthelowestvaluesinweeks12andrecovered
with the increase of BAAhydrolysing protease activity. Acetic acid
dominatedmostofthetotalVFAsinthermophilicdigestionwhilepropionate
andbutyratedominatedinmesophilicdigestion.Thermophilicdigestionwas
confirmedmorefeasibleforachievingbetterperformanceagainstmisbalance
especiallyduringthestartupperiodinadryanaerobicdigestionprocess.
JohnNovaketal(2010)studiedauniquesludgedigestionsystem
consistingofanaerobicdigestionfollowedbyaerobicdigestionandthena
recycle step where thickened sludge from the aerobic digester was
recirculatedbacktotheanaerobicunittodeterminetheimpactonvolatile
solids(VS)reductionandnitrogenremoval.Itwasfoundthatthecombined
anaerobic/aerobic/anaerobic (ANA/AER/ANA) system provided 70% VS
reductioncomparedto50%forconventionalmesophilicanaerobicdigestion

witha20daySRTand62%forcombinedanaerobic/aerobic(ANA/AER)

93

digestionwitha15dayanaerobicanda5dayaerobicSRT.TotalKjeldahl
nitrogen(TKN)removalfortheANA/AER/ANAsystemwas70%forsludge
wastedfromtheaerobicunitand43.7%whenwastedfromtheanaerobicunit.
TKNremovalwas64.5%fortheANA/AERsystem.
GulbinErdenandFilibeli(2010)investigatedtheeffectsofFenton
processonanaerobicsludgebioprocessing.Aratioof0.067gFe(II)pergram
H2O2,and60gH2O2/kgdriedsolids(DS)wasappliedtobiologicalsludge
samples preceding anaerobic sludge digestion. Single stage anaerobic
digestionunderthermophilicconditionsiscomparedwithtwostageanaerobic
digestion (mesophilic digestion prior to thermophilic digestion). The
comparisonisintermsofsolidreductionsandspecificmethaneproductions.
Fenton processed sludge gives higher solid reduction and higher methane
productionforeachexperiment.Anotherobservationisthat,Fentonprocess
ledtodecreasethebiosolidsresistancetodewateringintermsofcapillary
suction time (CST), but had no effect on sludge dewatering on beltpress
application.
Masse et al (2008) investigated the feasibility of using
psychrophilicanaerobicdigestioninsequencingbatchreactors(PADSBRs)to
codigestgrindedswinecarcassesandswinemanureslurryat20Cand25
CandtheyconcludedthattheadditionofswinecarcasstoPADSBRfeeddid
notaffectthestabilityofthebioreactorsatbothCLRs.Theperformanceof
the PADSBRs codigesting swine carcasses was not statistically different
fromthecontrolintermsofbiogasproductionandquality.Therewasno
accumulation of volatile fatty acids in the bioreactors at the end of the
treatment cycle. The mixedliquor pH and alkalinity remained within
acceptablerangesfortheanaerobicmicroflora.Also,therewasnooperational
problemcausedbytheformationoffoamandscuminthesystem.

94

YeboLietal(2010)reviewedtheprinciplesandapplicationsofthe
SSADprocess.Solidstateanaerobicdigestion(SSAD)generallyoccursat
solidconcentrationshigherthan15%.Incontrast,liquidanaerobicdigestion
(AD)handlesfeedstockswithsolidconcentrationsbetween0.5%and15%.
Animalmanure,sewagesludge,andfoodwastearegenerallytreatedbyliquid
AD, while organic fractions of municipal solid waste (OFMSW) and
lignocellulosic biomass such as crop residues and energy crops can be
processed through SSAD. Some advantages of SSAD include smaller
reactorcapacityrequirements,lessenergyusedforheating,andnoprocessing
energyneededforstirring.Duetoitslowerwatercontent,thedigestateofSS
ADismucheasiertohandlethantheeffluentofliquidAD.Thevariationin
biogasproductionyieldsofdifferentfeedstocksisdiscussedaswellasthe
need for pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass to enhance biogas
production. The effects of major operational parameters are summarized.
Whileanincreaseinoperatingtemperaturecanimproveboththebiogasyield
andtheproductionefficiency,otherpracticessuchasusingADdigestateor
leachate as aninoculantor decreasing the solid content, may increase the
biogasyieldbuthavenegativeimpactonproductionefficiency.
Hanna Choi (2006) developed an electric pulsepower reactor
consistingofonecoaxialelectrodeandmultipleringelectrodestosolubilize
wasteactivatedsludge(WAS)priortoanaerobicdigestion.Bypretreatment
ofWAS,thesolublechemicaloxygendemand(SCOD)/totalchemicaloxygen
demand (TCOD) ratio and exocelluar polymers (ECP) content of WAS
increased4.5timesand6.5times,respectively.SEMimagesclearlyshowed
thatpulsepowerpretreatmentofWASwasfoundtoresultindestructionof
sludgecells.Batchanaerobicdigestionofpulsepowertreatedsludgeshowed
2.5 times higher gas production than that of untreated sludge. Solubilized
sludge cells by pulsepower pretreatment would be readily utilized for

anaerobicmicroorganismstoproduceanaerobicallydigestedgas.Slowor

95

laggedgasproductionintheinitialanaerobicdigestionstageofpulsepower
pretreated sludge implied that the methane forming stage of anaerobic
digestionwouldbe the ratelimiting stepfor anaerobic digestionofpulse
powerpretreatedsludge.
Jeongsik kim et al (2003) studied enhance the efficiency of
anaerobicdigestionwithwasteactivatedsludge(WAS)bybatchexperiments.
Westudiedtheeffectsofvariouspretreatmentmethods(thermal,chemical,
ultrasonicandthermochemicalpretreatments)onthebiogasproductionand
pollutants reduction owing to solubilization enhancement, particle size
reduction, increased soluble protein, and increased soluble COD. The
thermochemical pretreatment gave the best results, i.e., the production of
methaneincreasedbymorethan34.3%andsolubleCOD(SCOD)removal
alsoincreasedbymorethan67.8%overthecontrol.Inthiscase,thebiogas
production,methaneproductionandtheSCODremovalefficiencywereabout
50371biogasm3WAS,3367lmethanem 3WASand61.4%,respectively.
Therefore,itisrecognizedthathigherdigestionefficienciesoftheWASwere
obtainedthroughthermochemicalpretreatmentofthesludge.
JesusRodrguezMartnezetal(2002)investigatedthekineticsof
anaerobic treatment of slaughterhouse wastewater in batch and upflow
anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactors. Different concentrations of
organicmatterinslaughterhousewastewaterdidnotchangethefirstorder
kineticsofthereaction.Inbatchdigesters,methaneandnitrogenproduction
stopped after 3040, 2030 h, respectively, and in UASB reactors it was
terminatedafter3040days.Theconstantofvelocitywas3.93and0.23h 1
respectively,formethaneandnitrogenproduction.Theyieldcoefficient,Yp
was 343 and 349 ml CH4 per g of chemical oxygen demand at standard
temperature andpressure conditions for batchreactors andUASB reactor,

respectively.

96
2.9

PROCESSKINETICS

2.9.1

ReactionRatesandReactionRateCoefficients
Metcalf and Eddy (1993, 1995, 2003) stated that for process

selectionanddesign,thecontrollingstoichiometryandtherateofthereaction
areoftheprincipalconcern.Thetwoprincipaltypesofreactionsthatoccurin
biologicaltreatmentareclassifiedashomogeneousandheterogeneous.
In homogenous reactions, the reactants are distributed uniformly
throughoutthefluidsothatthepotentialforreactionatanypointwithinthe
fluidisthesame.Homogeneousreactionsareusuallycarriedoutinthebatch,
completemix,andplugflowreactors.Homogeneousreactionsmaybeeither
irreversibleorreversible.
Theexpressionforirreversiblereactionsofbatchreactoris
AB

(2.1)

A+AC

(2.2)

aA+bBC

(2.3)

Heterogeneousreactionsoccurbetweenoneormoreconstituents
thatcanbeidentifiedwithspecificsites,suchasthoseonanionexchange
resinandsolidphasecatalyst.Heterogeneousreactionsareusuallycarriedout
inpackedandfluidizedbedreactors.
Therateofreactionisthetermusedtodescribethechangeinthe
numberofmolesofareactivesubstanceperunitvolumeperunittime(for
homogenous reactions) or per unit surface or mass per unit time (for
Heterogeneousreactions).

97

Forhomogeneousreaction,therateofreactionris
1d(N)
V (dt)

(2.4)

If N is replaced by VC, where V is the volume and C is the

concentration,
1d(VC)
V(dt)

1VdC CdV
V
dt

(2.5)

Ifvolumeremainsconstant,(i.eIsothermalconditions),r=dC/dt.
dC
dt

VQC

QCrV

(2.6)

Inbatchreactor,flowisneitherenteringnorleavingthereactori.e.
flowenters,istreated,andthenisdischarged,andthecyclerepeats).The
liquidcontentsofthereactoraremixedcompletely.
Q=Oforbatchreactor,theequationbecomes
dC
dt

eKT

KC

(2.7)

(2.8)

where

rc

= Rateofconversion

K = Firstorderreactionratecoefficient,T

C = Concentrationoforganicmatterremaining,ML
C0 = Initialconcentrationoforganicmatter,ML
T

= Detentiontime,T

98

GraphicallybyplottingIn(C/C0)versusTisusedtodetermine
thereactionratecoefficient.
2.9.2

GrowthYieldandSubstrateUtilizationrate
Metcalf and Eddy (1993, 1995, 2003); Perry McCarty (1964)

reportedthatBacterialgrowthcurverepresents,attimezero,substrateand
nutrientsarepresentinexcessandonlyaverysmallpopulationofbiomass
exists. As substrate is consumed, four distinct growth phases (Lag phase,
Exponentialphase,Stationaryphase,andDeathphase)developsequentially.
In biological treatment process, cell growth depends on the oxidation of
organic or inorganic compounds. The ratio of the amount of biomass
producedtotheamountofsubstrateconsumedisdefinedasbiomassyield.
BiomassyieldY=gbiomassproduced/gsubstrateutilized.
Themaximumspecificgrowthrateofthebacteriaisrelatedtothe
maximumspecificsubstrateutilizationrate,so
k

wherek

Y
= maximumspecificsubstrateutilizationrate,

(2.9)

gsubstrate/g

microorganisms.d
m=

maximumspecificbacterialgrowthrate,g/g.d

Y=Yieldcoefficient,g/g
2.9.3

Effect of Substrate Concentration on the Microbial Growth

Rate
MetcalfandEddy(1993;1995;2003);PerryL.McCarty(1964)
confirmedthatthesubstrateutilizationrateinbiologicalsystems

canbemodeledas

99

kXS
rsu(2.10)(KsS)
where rsu=rateofsubstrateconcentrationchangeduetoutilization,g/m3.d
1k =maximumspecificsubstrateutilizationrate,gsubstrate/g

microorganisms.d
X=biomassconcentration,g/m3
S=growthlimitingsubstrateconcentrationinsolution,g/m3.
Ks=halfvelocitycoefficient(substrateconcentrationatonehalf
themaximumspecificsubstrateutilizationrate),g/m3.
Thesubstrateutilizationrateinbiologicalsystemsisalsoreported
as

su

mXS

Y(Ks

S)

Itisacceptedthattheanaerobicdigestionoforganicwastesisa
complexmultistageprocess.
2.10

CONCLUSION
A comprehensive literature survey was presented in this chapter

and the following valuable informations are revealed from the literature
review.i)Theavailableliteraturesaremainlyongenerationofbiomedical
wasteandrelatedhealthrisksduetohospitalwastes.ii)Veryfewresearch
articlesareavailableontreatmenttechniques.iii)Thepublishedinformation
regarding treatment and guidelines for analysis of biomedical waste are
inadequate.AllIncinerationbasedtechnologies,Hydroclave,Microwaveand
AutoclaveforthetreatmentofIBMWaretooexpensivefordeveloping

(2.11)

100

countriesandtherefore,lowcosttreatmentoptionsareneededasanalternate
forbiomedicalwaste(BMW)managementarises.
Henceusingtreatmentoptionsandanalyticalproceduresofvarious
other wastes, a detailed investigation was carried out for infectious
biomedical waste (IBMW) to understand the effect of lime, neem
(Azadirachtaindica)leavesextractandalsoutilizingsolarenergyandsolar
energywithadditionoflimesolutioninboxtypesolardisinfectorasaPre
treatmenttodestroythepathogenicorganismsabsolutelyfromtheIBMW.
The study also estimates the Infectious and general Biomedical wastes
(BMW) quantity arising from different wards and units of one of the
HospitalsinCoimbatore.
Anaerobic digestion was globally more effective (compare to
aerobic digestion) in enhancing sludge production reduction. Therefore an
attempthasbeenmadeonanengineeredanaerobicdigestionusingpretreated
BMWandMixedBMW(pretreatedBMWandOFMSW)inlongtermbatch
modeasanalternatetoburningtechnology.