Diffusion
Diffusion
Diffusion
2.
Here the molecules move out of the liquid and into the air by
diffusion.
OSMOREGULATION
Osmoregulation is the means by which cells keep the
concentration of cell cytoplasm or blood at a suitable
concentration.
OSMOREGULATION IN ANIMAL CELLS
(A)
(B)
Plant cells have a cell wall that allows all materials to enter. It then
has a semi-permeable membrane surrounding the cells cytoplasm.
Plant cells are able to take in water and swell because the cell wall
is strong enough to withstand the pressure within the cell. This
pressure is called turgor pressure. As a result of turgor pressure
the cell becomes firmer and stronger. Plant cells with the correct
internal water pressure are said to be turgid. Plants with too little
internal water are said to be flaccid.
A good example of this is a plant that is watered compared to a
plant that is not watered. The non-watered plant will shrivel and will
because it has lost its Turgor pressure.
The loss of water from a plant is called plasmolysis. The cell then
become plasmolysed. The cell on the right (below)
is plasmolysed. Deplasmolysis is the process by which the cell
become turgid by gaining water.
Diffusion
Diffusion refers to the process by which
molecules intermingle as a result of
theirkinetic energy of random motion.
Consider two containers of gas A and B
separated by a partition. The molecules of
both gases are in constant motion and make
numerous collisions with the partition. If
the partition is removed as in the lower
illustration, the gases will mix because of
the random velocities of their molecules. In
time a uniform mixture of A and B
molecules will be produced in the
container.
Index
Kinetic
theory
concepts
Applications
of kinetic
theory
Osmosis
Fluid
concepts
Thermal energy
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Rate of Diffusion
Since the average kinetic energy of different types of molecules (different
masses) which are at thermal equilibrium is the same, then their average
velocities are different. Their average diffusion rate is expected to depend
upon that average velocity, which gives a relative diffusion rate
Index
Kinetic
theory
concepts
where the constant K depends upon geometric factors including the area
across which the diffusion is occuring. The relative diffusion rate for two
different molecular species is then given by
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Applications
of kinetic
theory
Fluid
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Osmosis
Index
Kinetic
theory
concepts
Applications
of kinetic
theory
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Osmotic Pressure
Osmosis is a selective diffusion process driven
by the internal energy of the solvent molecules.
It is convenient to express the available energy
per unit volume in terms of "osmotic pressure".
It is customary to express this tendency toward
solvent transport in pressure units relative to the
pure solvent.
If pure water were on both sides of the
membrane, the osmotic pressure difference
would be zero. But if normal human blood were
on the right side of the membrane, the osmotic
pressure would be about seven atmospheres!
This illustrates how potent the influence of
osmotic pressure is for membrane transport in
living organisms.
The decision about which side of the membrane
to call "high" osmotic pressure is a troublesome
one. The choice made here is the opposite of that
made in many biology texts, which attribute
"high" osmotic pressure to the solution and zero
osmotic pressure to pure water. The rationale for
the choice is that the energy which drives the
fluid transfer is the thermal energy of the water
molecules, and that energy density is higher in
the pure solvent since there are more water
molecules. The thermal energy of the solute
molecules does not contribute to transport,
presuming that the membrane is impermeable to
them. The choice is also influenced by the
observed direction of fluid movement, since
under this choice the fluid transport is from high
"pressure" to low, congruent with normal fluid
flow through pipes from high pressure to low.
The final rationale has to do with the
measurement of osmotic pressure by
determining how much hydrostatic pressure on
the solution is required to prevent the transport
of water from a pure source across a semipermeable membrane into the soluton. A positive
pressure must be exerted on the solution to
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Kinetic
theory
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Applications
of kinetic
theory
Fluid
concepts
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Measuring Osmotic
Pressure
One approach to the measurement
ofosmotic pressure is to measure the
amount of hydrostatic pressure necessary to
prevent fluid transfer by osmosis.
Kinetic
theory
concepts
Applications
of kinetic
theory
Fluid
concepts
Membrane transport
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Membrane Transport
The transport of water and other types of molecules across membranes is the
key to many processes in living organisms. Many of these transport processes
proceed by diffusion through membranes which are selectively permeable,
allowing small molecules to pass but blocking larger ones. These processes,
including osmosis and dialysis, are sometimes called passive transport since
they do not require any active role for the membrane. Other types of transport,
called active transport, involve properties of a cell membrane to selectively
"pump" certain types of molecules across the membrane.
The transport of gases across membranes depends upon diffusion and the
solubility of the gases involved. In life science applications such transport is
characterized by Graham's Law and Fick's Law.
Henry's Law
Index
When a gas is in contact with the surface of a liquid, the amount of the gas
which will go into solution is proportional to the partial pressure of that
gas. A simple rationale for Henry's law is that if the partial pressure of a
gas is twice as high, then on the average twice as many molecules will hit
Kinetic
the liquid surface in a given time interval, and on the average twice as
theory
many will be captured and go into solution. For a gas mixture, Henry's law
concepts
helps to predict the amount of each gas which will go into solution, but
different gases have different solubilities and this also affects the rate. The
constant of proportionality in Henry's law must take this into account. For Applications
of kinetic
example, in the gas exchange processes in respiration, the solubility of
theory
carbon dioxide is about 22 times that of oxygen when they are in contact
with the plasma of the human body.
Diffusion Osmosis Membrane transport
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Graham's Law
When gases are dissolved in liquids, the relative rate of diffusion of a given
gas is proportional to its solubility in the liquid and inversely proportional
to the square root of its molecular mass. Important in thetransport of
respiration gases is the relative diffusion rate of oxygen and carbon dioxide
in the plasma of the human body. Carbon dioxide has 22 times the
solubility, but is more massive (44 amu compared to 32 for oxygen).
According to Graham's law, the relative rate of diffusion is given by
Index
Kinetic
theory
concepts
Applications
of kinetic
Graham's law
theory
may be
applied to the
process that
occurs in tha
alveoli of the
lungs.
Diffusion
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Henry's Law
Fick's Law
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Fick's Law
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The total membrane surface area in the lungs (alveoli ) may be on the order
Kinetic
of 100 square meters and have a thickness of less than a millionth of a
theory
meter, so it is a very effective gas exchange interface. The relative rate of
oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange across these thin membranes depends concepts
upon diffusion and the solubility of the gases in the fluid membrane. This
Applications
is described by Fick's law.
of kinetic
theory
Respiration
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Respiration
The process of respiration involves the lowering of the diaphragm to increase
the volume of the thoracic cavity, which by the ideal gas law is seen to lower
its pressure. A model of lung action can be made with a bell jar, balloons, and
Index
an elastic membrane. The thoracic cavity normally has a negative gauge
pressure to keep the lungs inflated, and the diaphragm action must lower it
Gas law
more to accomplish inhalation. The inhalation process must accomplish
concepts
the inflation of the alveoli of the lungs, which itself is a remarkable process.
The pressure achieved by the diaphragm action is only about -4 mmHg
Kinetic
compared to a pressure inside the alveoli of about -3 mmHg, so inhalation
theory
must be accomplished with a pressure differential of only about 1 mmHg. The concepts
remarkable efficiency of oxygen transport across the lungmembranes is
characterized in Fick's Law.
Lung model
Alveoli of lungs
Respiratory system
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Gas law
concepts
Kinetic
theory
concepts
Respiration
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Problem #11: What is the rate of effusion for a gas that has a molar mass twice that of
a gas that effuses at a rate of 3.62 mol/min?
Solution:
Set rate1 = 3.62
Set rate2 = x
The gas that has twice the molar mass is the one whose rate we are trying to
determine.
MM2 = 2
MM1 = 1
These molar masses are arbitrary values, we just need MM 2 to be twice the value for
MM1.
3.62 / x = (2/1)
x = 2.56 mol/min
Problem #12: Calculate the rate of effusion of NO2 compared to SO2 at the same
temperature and pressure.
Solution:
The rates of effusion of two gases are inversely proportional to the square roots of
their molar masses -- Graham's law.
We can state Graham's law like this:
rate12 x MM1 = rate22 x MM2
Solve for the unknown
rate2 = (rate12 x MM1 / MM2)
rate2 = (12 x 46 g/mol / 64 g/mol)
rate2 = 0.85
The rate of effusion of SO2 is 0.85 times the rate of effusion of NO2, which is logical
because SO2 is more massive than NO2, and moves more slowly, on average.
This is not my (the ChemTeam's) solution, but it is rather nice, so I decided to copy it
as is. Notice how the solution assigns rate1 to be equal to 1. You might wish to
rearrange the writer's Graham's law equation into the one the ChemTeam tends to use.
Problem #13: Assume you have a sample of hydrogen gas containing H 2, HD, and
D2 that you want to separate into pure components. What are the various ratios of
relative rates of effusion?
Solution:
Let us first compare H2 and HD to D2. Since D2 is the heaviest molecule, it is the
slowest. D2's rate (which is r2) will be set to 1.
Graham's Law is: r1 over r2 = MM2 over MM1
1) H2 : D2
x/1 = (4/2)
x = 1.414
H2 effuses 1.414 times faster than D2
2) HD : D2
x/1 = (4/3)
x = 1.155
HD effuses 1.155 times faster than D2
3) Finally, let us compare H2 to HD. This may be solved two different ways:
x/1 = (3/2)
x = 1.225
or, use a ratio and proportion:
Problem #14: A 3.00 L sample of helium was placed in container fitted with a porous
membrane. Half of the helium effused through the membrane in 25 hours. A 3.00 L
sample of oxygen was placed in an identical container. How many hours will it take
for half of the oxygen to effuse though the membrane?
Solution:
1) Determine helium's rate of effusion:
1.50 L per 25 hr = 0.0600 L/hr.
Let r2 be the rate for helium. So r1 will be the rate for oxygen in L/hr.
2) Determine oxygen's rate of effusion:
r1/r2 = [MM2/MM1]
x / 0.0600 = [4/32]
x = 0.0212132 L/hr
3) Determine time for half of oxygen's 3.00 liters to effuse:
1.50 L divided by 0.0212132 L/hr = 70.7 hrs
Problem #15: At a certain temperature, hydrogen molecules move at an average
velocity of 1.84 x 103 m/s. Estimate the molar mass of a gas whose molecules have an
average velocity of 311 m/s.
Solution:
r1/r2 = [MM2/MM1]
1840 / 311 = [x / 2.02]
Divide, square both sides, multiply by 2.02
x = 70.7 g/mol
Although the question does not ask for the identity of the gas, we could identify it
tentatively (based on just the data we have) as Cl 2. The molecular weight for chlorine
gas is 70.9 g/mol.
Problem #16: An unknown gas effuses 1.66 times more rapidly than CO 2. What is the
molar mass of the unknown gas.
Solution:
r1/r2 = [MM2/MM1]
1 / 1.66 = [x / 44.01]
Divide, square both sides, multiply by 44.01
x = 16.0 g/mol
Although the question does not ask for the identity of the gas, we could identify it
tentatively (based on just the data we have) as CH 4. The molecular weight for methane
gas is 16.043 g/mol.
Problem #17: A sample of hydrogen gas effuse through a porous container 9 times
faster than an unknown gas. Estimate the molar mass of the unknown gas.
Solution:
r1/r2 = [MM2/MM1]
9 / 1 = [x / 2.02]
x = 163.62 g/mol
I always try and set up these problems so that the x is in the numerator of the righthand side of the equation. Makes for a slightly easier solution path.
Sorry. I don't know what compound this gas is.
Problem #20: Why are the rates of diffusion of nitrogen gas and carbon monoxide
almost identical at the same temperature?
Solution:
1) The speed of a gas is given by:
v = (3RT/M)
where M is the molecular weight of the gas in kg/mol.
2) The molecular weights are:
N2 = 0.028014 kg/mol
CO = 0.028010 kg/mol
Without solving the formula for the speeds, you should be able to see that the speeds
will be nearly identical. Two values (R and T) are going to be same for each gas and
the values for M are very nearly the same.
The diffusion rates for nitrogen gas and carbon monoxide gas are very nearly the same
at the same temperature because the two substances have very nearly the same
molecular weights.
x / 1 = [36.4609 / 17.0307]
x = 1.463
Ammonia diffuses 1.463 times faster than HCl.
2) Percent deviation is:
(1.50 - 1.463) / 1.50 = 2.47%
Problem #22: A sample of Br2(g) take 10.0 min to effuse through a membrane. How
long would it take the same number of moles of Ar(g) to effuse through the same
membrane?
Solution:
Let us assume that 1.00 mole of Br2 effuses. Therefore, its rate is 1.00 mol / 10.0 min
= 0.100 mol/min
r1 = x
r2 = 0.100 mol/min
MM1 = 39.948 g/mol
MM2 = 159.808 g/mol
x/0.100 = [159.808/39.948]
x/0.100 = 2.00
x = 0.200 mol/min
1.00 mole of Ar effuses in 5.00 minutes
Problem #23: At a particular pressure and temperature, it takes just 8.256 min for a
4.893 L sample of Ne to effuse through a porous membrane. How long would it take
for the same volume of I2 to effuse under the same conditions?
Solution:
r1 = x
r2 = 4.893/8.256 = 0.59266 L/min
MM1 = 253.8 g/mol
MM2 = 20.18 g/mol
x / 0.59266 = [20.18 / 253.6]
x / 0.59266 = 0.2821
x = 0.16719 L/min
4.893 L / 0.16719 L/min = 29.27 min
Problem #24: How much faster does U235F6 effuse than U238F6?
Solution:
1) Calculate molecular weights:
U235F6 = 235.04393 + 6(18.99840) = 349.03433
U238F6 = 238.05079 + 6(18.99840) = 352.04119
2) U238F6 is heavier, so:
assign its rate to r2 and set the rate equal to 1
3) Solve Graham's Law:
r1 / r2 = [MM2 / MM1]
x / 1 = (352.04119 / 349.03433)
x = 1.0043
U235F6 effuses 1.0043 times faster than U238F6
Problem #25: O3 effuses 0.8165 times as fast as O2. What % of the molecules
effusing first would be O2?
Solution:
The rate of effusion of O2 is 1.225 times faster than O3, which means that every
second there will be 1225 molecules of O 2 effusing for every 1000 molecules of O3.
Therefore, the percentage of O2molecules is:
[1225 / (1225 + 1000)] x 100 = 55%