Ac Circuits Handout and Tutorials

.
Heriot-Watt University
ECTE172 Introduction to Circuits and Devices

ac circuits
Electrical Electronic and Computer Engineering
Edinburgh
B3.8EB Circuits and Analysis

Part 2
1.
Introduction
The application of dc circuits/analysis in Electrical Engineering is very limited. However

when we move into the realms of handling alternating waveforms things are completely
different. These notes are an introduction into the real world of Electrical Engineering,
Communications, Power Generation and much more.
Part 2 Notes/Tutorials will cover the following topics:
2.
An introduction to alternating current and voltage

Sinusoids and phasors
Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance in ac circuits
Complex Impedance
Impedance and Admittance
Alternating Current (ac)
If a current is varied in a repetitive manner then it is known as an alternating current,

commonly abbreviated to ac. Current flows first in one direction and then in the other
(electrons moving in one direction and then in the other), and the cycle of variation is exactly
the same for each direction.
Sinusoidal wave
Square wave
Triangle wave
Figure 2.0.1 Alternating Current Waveforms

The curves relating current to time are known as waveforms. These can be of a variety of
shapes as shown above or even more complicated as long as the shape above the zero line is
identical to that below the zero line. However, the most common and most useful form is the
sinusoid as:
This can be easily generated

It can form other interesting waveforms (Fourier)
It is a very naturally occurring shape
It is mathematically simple
As ac waveforms appear to be so common we must first learn how to define the terms
involved prior to being able to analyse circuits operating with ac rather than dc.
2.1
Generating ac
Before looking at the generation of ac waveforms we should recall some basic principles.
Consider the relationship:
E = Blu where E is the voltage generated by a wire, length l (m) passing through a magnetic
field of strength B at a velocity u (m/sec)
If we now consider a loop of conductor, AB, carried on a spindle, DD, rotated at a constant
speed in an anticlockwise direction in a uniform magnetic field created by the poles of a
magnet as shown.
Figure 2.1.1 Generating an alternating e.m.f.

We may observe that when the loop is horizontal, no flux is being cut and no emf can be
generated. Whereas, if the loop is vertical, then flux is being cut at a maximum rate. At any
angle in between these limits, the flux is being cut at some rate less than the maximum but
more than zero. It is not difficult to imagine that the signal that will emerge will be
sinusoidal.
Figure 2.1.2 Emf in a rotating coil
Figure 2.1.3 Instantaneous value generated emf
Taking the A part of the loop at an angle to the horizontal, we can see that if AL represents
velocity u, then the horizontal component of this at angle is AM = AL sin.
Going back to the equation, E = Blu we now have

the emf generated by one side of the loop as:
Blu sin volts
For both halves of the loop this doubles to:
e= 2Blu sin volts
The maximum value of voltage generated is when the sine function is unity and gives:
Em = 2Blu volts
If the loop has a breadth of b meters and has N turns and the rotational rate is n revs/s, then
the circumference of the circle the loop makes is b meters and this gives a speed of bn
meters/sec so,
e= 2Bl (bn) sin volts and Emax = 2Bl bn volts
Noting the area of the loop to be A = bl gives for an N turn coil:
e = 2BAnN sin volts and Em = 2BAnN volts
Note that lower case letters are conventionally used for instantaneous values and that upper
case letters are used for definite values such as peak voltage.
3.
Waveform Terms and Definitions
The essential terms that define sinusoidal waveforms are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Waveform:
Cycle:
Period:
Instantaneous value:
5. Peak Value:
6. Peak-to-peak:
7. Peak Amplitude:
8. Frequency:
The variation of voltage or current against time as a graph.

A complete repetition of the waveform assuming periodicity
The duration of one cycle of the waveform
The magnitude at any given instant. This can be positive or
negative.
The maximum value the function can reach.
The measure of the range between the maximum and minimum
values the function reaches.
The maximum instantaneous value measured from the mean
value of the waveform
Previously called cycles per second, which is self explanatory.
The correct name is Hertz (Hz) and this is the inverse of the
period. If a waveform has a frequency of 50Hz the period is
1/50 = 0.02 or 20ms. In other words the waveform repeats
every 20ms.
4.
Sine and cosine
Sine and cosine waveforms are universally accepted as the fundamental alternating
waveforms associated with all aspects of electrical engineering theory. There are a number
of reasons for this: many practical systems, including the National Grid and radiocommunications systems, have essentially sinusoidal waveforms; sinusoids are readily
handled mathematically (trigonometric formulae) and through the application of Fourier
techniques all waveform shapes can be considered as composed of summations of sinusoids
of varying frequency, amplitude and phase; the natural response of many electrical and nonelectrical circuits is to generate a sinusoidal responses.
4.1
Phasors
The sinusoidal and co sinusoidal waveforms can be best understood by considering them as
being represented by the horizontal and vertical projection of a rotating phasor. Imagine a
line rotating in an anticlockwise direction, so that its tip traces out a circle, as shown in
Figure 4.1.1. The resultant waveform is the plot sin () versus.
Figure 4.1.1 The horizontal projection of a rotating line or phasor

A sine wave can be expressed as a function of time by writing sin = sin t
Figure 4.1.2 Plot of the sine function versus = t

A phase angle can be added to the variable or t to cause the sine wave to shift to the left
along the horizontal axis for positive phase angles. A negative phase angle causes the sine
wave to shift to the right. See Figure 4.1.3.
Figure 4.1.3 Plot of sin versus showing the effect of the phase angle
The sine wave is an example of a periodic waveform. If the value of a periodic sine wave is
f (t1) at time t1 and is similar at times (t1 + nT), where n is an integer, then T is known as the
period or periodic time of the function. The frequency, f, of an alternating waveform is the
number of cycles that occur in 1 s. Frequency is inversely proportional to period.
1
Thus f = . The units of frequency are cycles per second or in SI units Hz.
T
From Figure 1.0.2, it is clear that one cycle is the same as 2 radians. The number of radians
produced in 1 s is (2) times (f), or = 2f rads-1. This is known as the angular frequency.
Now sin t is sine (angle) and angle has units of radians. Remember to set your calculator to
radian measurement!
The phasor shown in Figure 4.1.1 is a convenient mathematical model for sinusoidal
alternating waveforms and can be represented as v (t) = V exp. j (t + ) where V is the peak
voltage, is the angular frequency (rads-1) and is some reference phase angle. As (t) has
units of radians, so the phase angle , must also have units of radians. In Figure 1 the
magnitude of V was taken as unity. For convenience we refer to the horizontal (right-hand)
x-axis as the reference, i.e. a phase of zero degrees.
Now, v(t) = V exp. j(t + ) expands to give v(t) = V {cos (t + ) + j sin (t + )} hence a
cosine wave can be considered as Re{v(t)} and a sine wave the Im{v(t)}. The designations
real (Re) and imaginary (Im) are simply there to differentiate between the two directional
components. As alternating circuit theory is founded on phasors, i.e. a two dimensional coordinate axis system, mathematical manipulations must inevitably use complex number
theory.
4.2
Phase Angles and the phasor representation
In using the phasor as a mathematical tool to represent the sine and cosine functions we will
restrict ourselves (for the moment) to dealing only with linear circuits that have multiple
input and output phasors all of which rotate at the same angular frequency.
Multiple phasors can be frozen in time; it is only the relative phase between one phasor and
another that is of importance in ac theory.
Consider the frozen phasor shown in Figure 4.2.1

Im
1
ej =1
ej
<) ej =
sin
cos
Re
Figure 4.2.1 Frozen Phasor

polar form
vector
V V/
exponential form
exponential functions
rectangular form
complex numbers
V cos + jVsin
V.e j
= Re[e j ] + jIm[e j ]
Example 1:
v = Vp cos(t + v ) V = Vp / v
3
45o
Consider three phasors: v, i & i1
v = 3cos(t + 45) V = 3/ 45 volts
2
I1
i = 2 cos(t 30) I = 2/ 30 amps
ref
-30 o
I
10
i1 = 10 sin t = 10 cos(t + 90) I1 = 10 / 90 amps

As phasors with positive frequencies rotate anticlockwise:
V leads I leads I1
Example 2:
Given that y(t) = 1 sin (3141.6)t
Determine:
a. the angular velocity
b. the frequency
c. the period of the waveform.
a. Comparing y(t) = sin 3141.6t with sin t, we see that the angular velocity, , is
3141.6 rads-1.
b. The frequency, f, is given by f = /2 = 3141.6/2 = 500 Hz.
c. The period of the waveform is the inverse of frequency, thus T = 1/f = 1/500 Hz = 2 ms.
4.3
Phase relationships between sinusoids of the same frequency
When we write V sin (t + ) we understand from the mathematics of this equation that its
waveform shape is sinusoidal, that it can be pictured as a phasor of magnitude V volts
rotating anticlockwise at an angular rotation of rads-1. But what about the phase term ()?
One interpretation is that the temporal waveform at t = 0 (?) has a value of sin (). But it is
usually phase difference that matters in electrical engineering; i.e. our interest lies in the
phase of one phasor relative to another.
When two waveforms have different phase angles, the one shifted farthest to the left is said to
lead the other. For example in Figure 4.3.1 we see two sinusoidal signals; the ac voltage is
shifted left by 30 and the ac current is shifted right by 45 . We can say that v (t) leads i (t)
by 75 . Alternatively it is equally correct to say that i (t) lags v (t) by 75 .
Figure 4.3.1
A voltage 10 sin (t + 30) volts, and a current 10 sin (t - 45) amps.

v (t) leads i(t).
There is one other way of looking at Figure 4.3.1. Try to imagine the phasor equivalents at a
set point in time, say t = 0. The voltage has a positive value in the first quadrant of the
complex plane (+Re, +Im). The current has a negative value in the fourth quadrant
(+Re, - Im). Try drawing the phasors for v(t) and i(t)!
4.4
Complex Numbers: Revision
The complex plane is a rectangular co-ordinate system in which real numbers are plotted
along the horizontal (real) axis and imaginary numbers along the vertical axis.
Figure 4.4.1
Examples of complex numbers plotted in the complex plane.
The representation (a + jb) is called the rectangular form of a complex number. Every
complex number can also be represented in polar form: y = M / where M is the magnitude
of y and is its angle.
Figure 4.4.2 Converting between the polar and rectangular forms of the
complex number.
Addition and Subtraction can only be performed in rectangular components.

For example the sum of the two phasor voltages, v1(t) = 12/ -30 volts and v2(t) = 20 / 45
volts requires the conversion of the voltages from polar to rectangular format. Thus 12/ -30
volts plus 20 / 45 volts => (10.4 - j 6) + (14.1 + j 14.1) = (24.5 + j 8.1) volts. To get the
answer back in polar notation, we do the reverse: (24.5 + j 8.1) => 25.8 / 18.3 volts.
Multiplication and Division can only be performed in polar co-ordinates.

For example 180 / 27 amps divided by 1.5 / 85 amps is straight forward as both currents
180
are in polar co-ordinates. Thus the answer is
/(27 - 85 ) = 120 / - 58 amps. If (1 + j2)
1 .5
was multiplied by (2 + j6) then we have to do the rectangular to polar conversion and then the
multiplication.
It is absolutely imperative that this sort of manipulation (on your calculator) becomes second
nature. For everything we do in ac theory, and this will include complex impedance as well
as voltages and currents will rely on complex manipulation and rectangular polar
conversions.
4.5
Spectra
The range of frequencies used in engineering literally covers the frequency spectrum.
Figure 4.5.1 The Frequency Spectra
Tutorial: Sine and cosine
(The Questions from this Tutorial are all drawn from Hughes Exercises 9 and 14)
1. An alternating current is represented by: i (t) = 10 sin 942 t amperes.
Determine (a) the frequency (Hz), (b) the period (sec), (c) the time taken from t = 0 for the
current to reach a value of 6 A for the first and second time.
(150 Hz, 6.7 ms, 0.7 ms (and 2.65 ms), 7.4 ms)
2. In a certain circuit supplied from a 50 Hz mains supply, the potential difference has a
maximum value of 500 volts and the current has a maximum value of 10 amps. At the instant
t = 0, the instantaneous values of the p.d. and the current are 400 volts and 4 A respectively,
both increasing positively. Assuming sinusoidal variations, state trigonometric expressions
for the instantaneous values of the p.d. and the current at time t. Calculate the instantaneous
values at t = 0.015 s and determine the angle of phase difference between the p.d. and the
current.
(500 sin (314t + 0.93) volts, 10 sin (314t + 0.412) A, - 300 volts, -9.15 A, phase = 29.6)
3. Express in rectangular and polar notation the phasors for the following quantities:
(a) i (t) = 10 sin t amps; (b) i (t) = 5 sin (t - /3) amps; (c) v (t) = 40 sin (t + /6) volts
(10 +j0, 10/0, 2.5 - j4.33, 5/-60, 34.64 + j20, 40/30)
4. Express each of the following phasors in polar notation:

(a) 10 + j5;
(b) 3 - j8.
Now add the two phasors (a) and (b). Express in both rectangular and polar notations.
Now subtract (b) from (a). Express in both rectangular and polar notations.
(11.2/26.5, 8.54/-69.4, 13 - j3, 13.34/-13, 7 +j13, 14.76/61.7)
5. Derive expressions in rectangular and polar notation for:
(a) 1/ (10 + j15);
(b) 1/ (20 - j10);
(c) 1/ (50/20);
(0.0555/-56.3, 0.0308 -j0.0462, 0.0447/26.56, 0.04 +j0.02, etc)

6. Determine the resultant of the following four voltages:
v1 (t) = 25 sin t;
v2 (t) = 30 sin (t + /6);
v4 (t) = 20 sin (t - /4) volts.
v3 (t) = 30 cos t;
Express your answer in a similar form.

(72 sin (t + 0.4424) volts)
10
7. Two sinusoidal e.m.f.s of peak values 50 V and 20 V respectively but differing in phase
by 30 are induced in the same circuit. Draw the phasor diagram and find the peak value of
the resultant e.m.f.
(68 volts (8.45)
8. Two impedance's are connected in parallel to the mains supply. The first impedance takes
a current of 40A at a lagging phase angle of 30, the second takes a current of 30 A at a
leading phase angle of 45.
Determine the total current taken from this supply.
(55.9 A, 1.2)
9. Two circuits connected in parallel take alternating currents that can be expressed
trigonometrically as I1(t) = 13 sin 314t amperes and I2 (t) = 12 sin (314t + /4) amperes.
Sketch the waveforms of these currents. Determine the resultant of these currents.
(23.1 sin (314t +0.374) A)
11
6.0
The Resistor, Inductor and Capacitor in ac circuits
There are only three passive components, the R, L and C. We need to have an in depth
understanding of all three; after all they are all we have! We will start our analysis by
assuming that they are ideal devices.
6.1
The Resistor
6.1.1
ac voltage and current in the Resistor
Ohm's Law can be applied to an ac circuit containing a resistance to determine the ac current
in the resistance when an ac voltage is connected across it, see Figure 6.1.1. At every
instance of time, the current in the resistor is the voltage at that instant divided by the
resistance. Thus given a resistance (R) and a voltage v(t) = V sin t, the current is given by,
V
i(t) = sin t.
R
i(t) = V/R sin t
v(t) = V sin t
R
Figure 6.1.1.1(a) ac voltage across

and current through a Resistor
6.1.2
Figure 6.1.1.1(b) In a resistor the voltage

and current are in phase
ac Power in a Resistor
You will recall that in a dc circuit power can be calculated using any of the three
V2
relationships: VI, I2R and
Watts. In ac circuits both voltage and current are time-varying
R
quantities, and so therefore is power. The power at any instant, the instantaneous power, can
be computed using instantaneous values of voltage and/or current.
ac Power, p = v(t).i(t) = (V sin t)(I sin t) = VI sin2 t Watts
Now the sin2 t term can be viewed in two ways.
Firstly, although sin t goes both positive and negative, in the function sin2 t all such values
are squared, so the function is always positive. This is illustrated by Figure 1.1.1, which
shows the square of the current sine wave, I sin t. The waveform is positive going, has a
sin2 shape versus time and clearly has an average value. This average value for power is best
explained by taking the second approach to the sin2 term.
12
Figure 6.1.2.1 The square of a sinusoidal current, I sin t

Secondly, we can use standard trigonometric formulae to expand sin2 t:
sin2 t = 0.5 (1 - cos 2t).
Thus ac power = VI sin2 t = 0.5VI (1 - cos 2t) Watts.
Now, consider the cos 2t term.
The average value of cos 2t over some period of time (t>> a period) is zero (equal positive
and negative areas).
Thus average ac power = 0.5VI. This relates to rms. (root mean square values) of voltage
and current:
V
I
Vrms =
volts and Irms =
amps.
2
2
2
V
Thus ac power, p = 0.5 VI = Vrms.Irms. = rms etc.
R
6.2
Inductor
6.2.1
ac voltage and current in an Inductor
Whereas in the resistor the Voltage and Current are related by the linear relationship we call
Resistance (), for the Inductor (and the Capacitor) the situation is not so straightforward.
di
For an Inductor the voltage to current relationship is: V = L where V is the voltage across
dt
the inductor and i is the current through the inductor.
So let us return to our basic circuit with a voltage v(t) = V sin t volts applied across an
inductor (L), Figure 2.0.1.
Both sides of the equation, V = L
must be I sin (t - /2), i.e.
di
must agree. If the voltage is sinusoidal then the current
dt
V sin t = L
d
{-I cos t}
dt
13
Now
d
{-I cos t} = I sin t
dt
i(t)
so substituting in the above equation gives:
v(t) = V sin t
L
Figure 6.2.1.1(a) ac voltage

across and current through an
Inductor
V sin t = L
Figure 6.2.1.1(b) In an Inductor the voltage

LEADS the current by 90
d
{-I cos t} = L I sin t
dt
So the fundamental relationship between Voltage and Current for an inductor is L which
naturally has units of. L is known as the Inductive Reactance and is denoted XL.
So the key features for the Inductor are:
In an Inductor the Voltage LEADS the Current by 90 (It is perhaps worthy of note that
by convention for Inductive circuits we usually refer to the inductor as a LAGGING
circuit element i.e. we say Current LAGS Voltage. Please be content with either
definition.
The relationship between Voltage and Current is the inductive Reactance, XL = (L)
As XL = (L) the value of Inductive Reactance is directly proportional to Frequency
6.2.2
Power in an Inductor
The instantaneous power delivered from the supply, v(t), is given by:
ac power p(t) = v(t).i(t) = (V sin t). (- I cos t) Watts
Refer to the trigonometric identity: SinA cosB = 0.5[sin (A - B) + sin (A + B)]
Thus, p(t) = (V sin t). (-I cos t) = - 0.5VI [sin 2t] Watts
14
Figure 6.2.2.1 Voltage, current and power in an Inductor

Now this is an interesting result as we have already proved that a sine or cosine term has an
average value of zero. Thus the perfect Inductor dissipates no power. This is entirely due to
the 90 relationship between Voltage and Current. This is not surprising as 90 infers that the
two quantities are orthogonal.
Note:
During the time that the voltage and current are both positive the power p(t) is positive
and power and energy is delivered from the source to the Inductor and stored in the
magnetic field.
During the time that the voltage and current have opposite signs the power p(t) is negative
the stored energy is returned from the Inductance back to the source.
6.3
Capacitor
6.3.1
ac voltage and current in a Capacitor
1
idt where V is the voltage
C
across the Capacitor and i is the Current through the Capacitor.
For the Capacitor the voltage to current relationship is: v =
If we return to our basic circuit with a voltage v(t) = V sin t volts applied across a Capacitor
(C), Figure C1.
i(t)
v(t) = V sin t
C
Figure 6.3.1.1(a) ac voltage across

and current through a Capacitor
Figure 6.3.1.1(b)
In a Capacitor the voltage LAGS the current by 90
15
Both sides of the equation must agree. If the voltage is sinusoidal the current must be co
sinusoidal, i.e.
V sin t =
Now {I cos t.dt} =
1
1
idt = {I cos t.dt}
C
C
I sin t, so substituting in the above equation gives:
V sin t =
1
1
I
idt = {I cos t.dt} =
sin t
C
C
C
So the fundamental relationship between Voltage and Current for a Capacitor is
1
which is
C
the Capacitive reactance, XC.

So the key features for the Capacitor are:
In a Capacitor the Voltage LAGS the Current by 90
The relationship between Voltage and Current is the Capacitive Reactance, XC =
I
the value of Capacitive Reactance is inversely proportional to Frequency
C
(See Figure 3.0.2)
As
Figure 6.3.1.2 Plot of Capacitive Reactance, XC, versus frequency
16
6.3.2
Power in a Capacitor
The instantaneous power delivered from the supply, v(t), is given by:
ac power p(t) = v(t).i(t) = (V sin t). (I cos t) Watts
Refer to the trigonometric identity: sinA cosB = 0.5[sin (A - B) + sin (A + B)]
Thus, p(t) = (V sin t). (I cos t) = 0.5VI [sin 2t] Watts
Figure 6.3.2.1
Voltage, current and power in a Capacitor
Now this is the same result (except for the change in sign) as for the Inductor. Again this is
not surprising as 90 infers the two quantities are orthogonal. Thus the perfect Capacitor
dissipates no power, taking energy from the power supply during part of the ac cycle and
returning it back to the source during another part of the cycle.
6.4
What about this (j) operator thing?
AC Theory has revealed the distinct differences between the three passive components. The
key facts are summarised in the following table.
Property
v versus i relationship
Average Power
dissipated
v versus i phase
relationship
Reactance ()
Reactance versus
angular frequency
This (j) thing?
Resistor
V=Ir
Inductor
di
V=L
dt
Capacitor
v=
1
idt
C
vrmsirms
v in phase with i
v LEADS i by 90 (/2)
v LAGS i by 90 (/2)
XL = (L)
XC =
I
C
proportional
inversely proportional
Table 6.4.1
Clearly in ac theory we need to take into account the phase angles of 90 between the voltage
and currents in the reactive devices and the zero phase shift in the resistor. The obvious way
to present this information is by using the complex plane. All we need is a reference datum!
17
The universally accepted approach is to use the Real axis of the complex plane to represent
the current axis. This is an important fact to remember as in order to establish any rule-base
you must always remember to what you are referring.
By making the real axis a current reference we see that for the resistor (voltage in phase with
current) we can represent the phasors for voltage and current as both on the real axis.
Now for the Inductor, the voltage leads the current by 90. The (j) operator is of course just a
mathematical representation of a 90 anticlockwise rotation. Reference to current, the
inductor voltage is 90 ahead or + j. Thus we display Inductor voltage on the + j axis of the
complex plane.
Thus Inductive reactance becomes:
XL = j L
For the Capacitor, the voltage lags the current by 90. We thus display the Capacitor voltage
on the - j axis of the complex plane.
Thus Capacitive Reactance becomes:
XC = - j
I
C
The complex plane will from now on always be our means of handling currents and voltages
and resistance's and reactance's. The ac world is a world of complex mathematics (though
not necessarily computationally complexity!). This is the move that opens the way to explore
the whole big world of Electrical Engineering!
6.5
The complex Planes
j|X L|
VL
VR
VC
- j|X C|
The Impedance Plane
The Voltage Plane (series circuits)
Figure 6.5.1 The complex plane
6.6
Aide-memoire to voltage/currents/lead/lag/Inductor/Capacitor
One memory trick is to remember "CIVIL". Reading from left to right:

"In a Capacitor I (current) leads Voltage - (V)oltage leads I in an L (Inductor)"
18
7.0
Impedance (Z)
7.1
Introduction
In the previous section we saw that the Inductor and Capacitor have Inductive and Capacitive
1
Reactances of XL = j L and XC = - j
respectively. This led us to the concept of
C
complex impedances and the use of the complex plane.
Now very few circuits are pure R, L or C. Most circuits are combinations of these R, L and C
and either Series or Parallel or combinations of Series/Parallel circuitry.
The rules for series and parallel circuits are identical to those established in the dc circuits
part of your course. However the difference in the ac circuits is that all voltages and currents
must be treated as phasors.
7.2
Series ac circuits
The total impedance Z of a series circuit containing the three passive components, resistance
R, inductive reactance XL = jL, and capacitive reactance XC = -j (1/ C) can be found by
combining the phasor forms of each of these components on an impedance diagram, see
Figure 7.2.1.
R
O
j|X L|
j|X L|
R
O
- j|X C|
- j|XC|
Z = R + j(|X L| - |X C|)
j|X L| - j|XC|
Figure 7.2.1 Series RLC circuit impedance diagram

If there is only one reactive term then the diagram is modified accordingly. Like series d.c.
circuits, the current in a series a.c. circuit is the same through each series connected
component, the significant difference for the a.c. circuit being that the current is a phasor.
When computing Kirchhoffs voltage law remember to treat all voltages as phasors. Voltage
phasors can be combined using a phasor diagram in much the same way that impedance
phasors are combined, see Figure 7.2.2.
19
VR
VL
R
VL
VR
VC
VC
e
(VL - VC)
VR
Figure 7.2.2 Voltage relationships in series RLC circuit

From Figure 7.2.2 the following points should be noted:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The voltage across the inductor vL leads the current i through it by 90 degrees
The current i in the capacitor leads the voltage vC across it by 90 degrees
The current i in a series circuit is in phase with the voltage across the resistor Vr .
The applied voltage e is the phasor sum of all the voltage drops in the circuit.
The angle between the applied voltage e and the current i is the same as the
angle of the total impedance of the circuit.
7.2.1
Series Resonance
The circuit, Figure 7.2.1 is a series R, L and C circuit. Consider this circuit connected to a
sinusoidal signal generator whose frequency can be varied over a wide range of frequencies.
As the frequency is increased, the magnitude of the inductive reactance increases according
to |XL| = L, whereas the magnitude of the capacitive reactance term decreases according to
|XC| = 1/ C. At some frequency, which we shall call fS, |XL| will have exactly the same
magnitude as |XC|. The frequency at which |XL| = |XC| is called the resonant frequency and at
this frequency (only) the circuit will have no reactance term and will thus be purely resistive.
This will be a situation where the circuit will have a minimum impedance (resistance) and
thus a maximum current. Since the voltage across the resistor is vr = iR, it also follows that
the voltage across the resistor will have a maximum value at resonance.
We will return to resonance in more detail later in the course.
20
Example: Series circuit

In the series circuit shown a 100/0 volt
sinewave connected across a series RLC
circuit. Show that the sum of the voltage
drops over the three components is equal to
the applied voltage.
ZTOTAL = Z1 + Z2 + Z3 = (4 + j3 - j6)
Example: Series circuit
= (4 - j3) = 5 / -36.9
Total current I =
V
ZTOTAL
1000
= 2036.9 Amps
5 36.9
Voltage across the resistor = IR = (20 / 36.9) (4) = 80 / 36.9 volts

Voltage across the inductor = IXL = (20 / 36.9) (3 /90) = 60 / 126.9 volts
Voltage across the capacitor = IXC = (20 / 36.9) (6 /-90) = 80 / -53.1 volts
Thus the sum of the voltage drops across the three components:
VR + VL + VC = (64 + j48) + (-36 +j48) + (72 - j96) = (100 + j0)
21
7.3
Parallel ac circuits
The fundamental difference between parallel a.c. circuits and series a.c. circuit theory is that
for the parallel circuit the voltage across each branch of the parallel circuit is identical. In
parallel a.c. circuit theory we have to obey Kirchhoffs current law, but once again, in phasor
format. Figure 7.3.1 illustrates the phasor current addition for a parallel RLC circuit.
i
iR
iL
iC
(iC - iL)
iC
iR
iL
iR
Figure 7.3.1 Parallel RLC circuit and current phasors

One very important thing to notice about Figure 7.3.1 is that in the parallel circuit, it is the
voltage that is the common term. We thus take the voltage across the Resistor as the
reference. In the capacitor the current is leading the voltage by 90 and thus must appear as
a (+ j) term relative to the real axis. Likewise the Inductor has a current that lags voltage,
hence the (- j) term. This nomenclature is contrary to the previously adopted system used
with series circuits. For the parallel circuit configurations however it is sensible to adopt the
above phasor diagram when describing the current flow.
7.3.1
Parallel Resonance
In a series circuit we said that at a certain frequency the capacitive and inductive reactances
cancelled leaving a circuit with only a resistive term. In the case of the parallel circuit we
will have a minimum current as the capacitive and inductive phasor currents cancel. Thus at
resonance a parallel circuit will have a maximum impedance (resistance).
We will return to resonance in more detail later in the course.
22
Example: Parallel circuit

In the parallel circuit shown a 50/0 volt
sinewave connected across a parallel RLC
combination circuit. Show that the sum of the
currents in each branch equals the total
current flowing out of the generator.
Determine the total impedance for the circuit.
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 amps
I1 =
500
500
500
I2 =
I3 =
10
(553)
10 36.9
Example: Parallel circuit
I1 = 5/0 I2 = 10/-53 I3 = 5/36.9

(3 + j4) = 5 /53
(8 - j6) = 10/-36.9
IT = (I1 + I2 + I3) = 5 + (6 - j 8) + (4 + j3) = (15 - j5) amps
IT = (15 - j5) = 15.9/-18.45 amps
Total Impedance:
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
= +
+
= 0.1 + 0.2 53 + 0.136.9
ZT Z1 Z 2 Z 3 10 (3 + j 4 ) (8 j 6 )
1
= 0.1 + (0.12 j 0.16) + (0.08 + j 0.06) = (0.3 j 0.1)
ZT
ZT =
1
1
=
= 3.16418.43 = (3 + j1)
(0.3 j 0.1) (0.316 18.43)
Thus the total current: I T =
500
500
=
= 15.89 18.43 amps
(3 + j1) 3.14618.43
23
7.4
Thevenin and Norton
Norton and Thevenin circuit analysis is central to much future work in ac analysis. The
follow example is designed to remind the reader of how to handle these theorems in ac
circuits.
Determine the Thevenin equivalent for the network below.
(Hughes: Example 15.8)
(a) ac network with load resistor
(b) Thevenin Voltage: remove the load

resistor & determine the open circuit voltage
(c) Thevenin Impedance: voltage source

short circuited
(d) Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
Working (excuse the mix of rectangular/polar units):

(b) Potential division of 100/0 volts by (6 +j8) and (-j3)
(1000 )( j 3) (1000)(3 90 300 90)

=
=
= (38.4 129.8) volts
VT =
(6 + j 5)
(7.8139.8)
(0 j 3) + (6 + j8)

(or (-24.58 j-29.5) volts in rectangular units)!
(c) ZT = (6 +j8) in parallel with (-j3) =
(6 + j8)( j 3) (1053)(3 90) (30 37)
=
=
= 3.84 76.8
(6 + j8) + ( j 3) (7.8139.8) (7.8139.8)
(or (0.876 j3.73), which is a more correct units for ohms)
24
8.0
Tutorial: Series and Parallel circuits
1. The current through a 47 resistor is i(t) = 1.5 sin (t + 70 ) A.

What is the voltage across the resistor?
Sketch a phasor diagram showing the voltage and current relationship.
(70.5 sin (t + 70 A).
2. The voltage across a 0.015 F capacitor is v(t) = 16.4 sin (3400 t - 63 ) volts.
What is the current through the capacitor?
(0.836 sin (3400 t + 27) mA)
3. The current through a 0.2 H inductor is i(t) = 0.06 sin (2 x 103 t - 80) A.
What is the voltage across the inductor?
(75.4 sin (2 x 103t + 10) volts)
4. The current in an R - L series circuit of R = 5 and L = 30 mH lags the applied voltage
by 80. Determine the supply frequency and the circuit impedance.
(150.4 Hz, (5 + j28.4) )
5. A 2 A rms. current source of frequency 100 Hz is connected to a series circuit consisting
of a 35 resistor in series with a 0.1 H inductor.
Determine the circuit impedance in both rectangular and polar form and establish the
voltage developed across this circuit. Sketch the phasor diagram for this question.
((35 + j62.8) , 71.9 / 61 , 144 / 61 volts)
6. A parallel circuit consists of a 1 k resistor and a 100 F capacitor.
Determine the component values for an equivalent series circuit when a UK ac. mains
voltage (240 / 0 V AT 50 Hz) is applied. Determine the supply current.
(1 in series with 100 F, 7.55 / 88 A)
7. A series circuit consists of a 510 resistor and a 0.3 F capacitor.
Determine the component values for the equivalent parallel circuit operating at a
frequency of 1 kHz
(1060 in parallel with 0.156 F)
8. An ac circuit consists of a 200 resistor connected in series with the parallel combination
of a 1 H inductor and a 4 F capacitor.
Determine the circuit impedance and the total current that will flow when this circuit is
connected to the mains supply (240 / 0 V ).
((200 + j518) , 0.43 / -70 A)
25
9. For the network shown in Figure Q9 determine the current in XL. Use both superposition
and nodal analysis.
Figure Q9
(5.7 /- 58.6 A)
10. Determine the voltage V across the 10 resistor for the circuit of Figure Q10.
XL = + j 6
R2 = 4
(2 + j1)A
R1 =
10
(20 +J20) V
Figure Q10
(27.7 /35.3 volts)
11. Determine the Thevenin equivalent for Figure Q11.
Figure Q11
(22.4 /26.6 volts, (3.2 j4.4))
26
12. Obtain the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits (a b) for Figure Q12a and Figure
Q12b.
Figure Q12a
Figure Q12b
(a) (V th = 5.59/26.4 volts, Z th = 6.76/68 , I th = 0.83/- 41 A)
(b) (V th = 11.4/- 85 volts, Z th = 8.26/- 15 , I th = 1.38/- 70 A)
13. For the circuit of Figure Q13 determine the current I.

Xc = - j3.3k
R3 = 4.7k
I
1mA
R2 = 10k
R1 = 6.8k
XL =
j2.2k
Figure Q13
(0.18 /9.8 A)
27
14. For the circuit shown in Figure Q14 determine the current I flowing in the 60 resistor.
Figure Q14
(0.33 /- 22.3 A)
15. Obtain the Thevenin equivalent at ba for the bridge circuit shown in Figure Q15.
Consider one end of the voltage source as a reference point.
Figure Q15
(V th = 0.33/169volts, Z th = 47.3/26.7 )
28
9.0
Impedance and Admittance
Impedance relates voltage to current. If we only have resistance to deal with then impedance
would revert to being the simple case of Ohms law: V = IR.
However as we enter the ac complex impedance world impedance consists of both real and
imaginary parts (we are dealing with phasors). Remember j is just a 90 operator.
Impedance = Resistance + Reactance or Z = R + jX

When we have two parallel connected components having impedances Z1 and Z2, the total
equivalent impedance of such a circuit is given by Z total, where
Z total =
Z1.Z 2
( Z1 + Z 2 )
All the arithmetic operations in the above equation must be performed in phasor format.
An alternative approach often used in parallel circuits is to use not impedance terms but
admittance. The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G, and it has the units of
Siemens (S). Similarly, the reciprocal of reactance is called susceptance, B = 1/ X. There is
naturally inductive susceptance and capacitive susceptance.
Admittance (Y) = Conductance (G) + Susceptance (B)

The general term for conductance, susceptance and combinations of these is admittance,
which has the symbol Y. The relationship between the impedance of a circuit and its
admittance is Z = 1/ Y. The most important fact about admittance is that the total admittance
of parallel connected components is the sum of the admittances of the individual
components.
Since i =
e
1
and Z = , the relationship between current, voltage and admittance is i = e Y
Z
Y
The Relationship between Impedance and Admittance: Z = 1/Y

1
Thus: R + jX =
now remembering that we have a complex number to invert:
G + jB
G jB
1
R + jX =
= 2
G + jB G + B 2
Consider a parallel RLC circuit.

If we work in admittance:
For the resistor: YR = 1/R
For the inductor YL = 1/jL
For the capacitor YC = jC
Figure 9.0.1 Parallel circuit
29
The total admittance is Y = (1/R + 1/jL + jC) which can be written as a complex number
G + jB where B in this case is (C 1/L). (Note the negative sign.)
I = V/Z or VY so I = V (1/R + j (C 1/L))
I1 = V/jL
I2 = V/R
I3 = VjC
The relationships between current and voltage in the components are exactly as before.
Example
If = 1000 rad/s and R = 100, L = 100mH and C = 20F in the parallel circuit as above
find the supply current for an input voltage of 1000 /30 volts.
R = 100
XL = jL = j100
XC = -j(1/C) = -j50
YR = 0.01 S
YL = - j0.01 S
YC = +j0.02 S
Y = (1/R + 1/jL + jC) = (0.01 - j 0.01 + j 0.02) = (0.01 + j0.01) = 0.0141 /45 S
I = VY = 1000 /30 x 0.0141 /45 = 14.1 /75 Amps
30
10.0
Tutorial: Admittance
1. Find the admittance of each set of series elements.
Figure Q1 (a)
Figure Q1 (b)
(0.06 + j0.08 S, 0.087 j0.034 S)
2. Three impedances: 10 /- 30 , 20 /60 , 40 /0 are connected in parallel. Using

admittance methods calculate the equivalent total impedance.
(7.32 /- 3 )
3. The admittance of a circuit is (0.05 j0.08) S. Find the values of the resistance and the
inductive reactance of the circuit if they are:
(i) In parallel and (ii) In Series
(20, +j12.5 ) and (5.62 , +j8.99 )
4. Find the total admittance and impedance of the circuit of Figure 5. Identify the value of
conductance and susceptance. Draw the admittance diagram.
(0.333 j0.56 S, 2.92 +j0.49 )
Figure Q4
5. Determine the equivalent impedance Z and admittance Y for the four branch circuit shown
in Figure Q5:
Z1 = + j5, Z2 = (5 + j 8.66) , Z3 = 15 , Z4 = - j 10 .
Figure Q5
(Y = 0.22 / -58 , Z = 4.55 / 58 )
31
6. If the total current I in Figure Q5 is 33 / -58 A, determine the supply voltage V and the
branch current in the 15 resistor.
(150 / 0 o V, 10 A.)
7. For the the circuit of Figure Q7 find a parallel circuit that will have the same total
impedance ZT.
(4k, - j4k)
Figure Q7
32

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ECTE172 Introduction to Circuits and Devices

B3.8EB Circuits and Analysis

The application of dc circuits/analysis in Electrical Engineering is very limited. However

An introduction to alternating current and voltage

If a current is varied in a repetitive manner then it is known as an alternating current,

Figure 2.0.1 Alternating Current Waveforms

This can be easily generated

Figure 2.1.1 Generating an alternating e.m.f.

Figure 2.1.2 Emf in a rotating coil

Figure 2.1.3 Instantaneous value generated emf

Going back to the equation, E = Blu we now have

Waveform Terms and Definitions

The essential terms that define sinusoidal waveforms are:

The variation of voltage or current against time as a graph.

Sine and cosine

Figure 4.1.1 The horizontal projection of a rotating line or phasor

Figure 4.1.2 Plot of the sine function versus = t

Phase Angles and the phasor representation

Consider the frozen phasor shown in Figure 4.2.1

Figure 4.2.1 Frozen Phasor

Consider three phasors: v, i & i1

v = 3cos(t + 45) V = 3/ 45 volts

i = 2 cos(t 30) I = 2/ 30 amps

i1 = 10 sin t = 10 cos(t + 90) I1 = 10 / 90 amps

Phase relationships between sinusoids of the same frequency

A voltage 10 sin (t + 30) volts, and a current 10 sin (t - 45) amps.

Complex Numbers: Revision

Examples of complex numbers plotted in the complex plane.

Addition and Subtraction can only be performed in rectangular components.

Multiplication and Division can only be performed in polar co-ordinates.

Figure 4.5.1 The Frequency Spectra

Tutorial: Sine and cosine

4. Express each of the following phasors in polar notation:

(b) 1/ (20 - j10);

(0.0555/-56.3, 0.0308 -j0.0462, 0.0447/26.56, 0.04 +j0.02, etc)

Express your answer in a similar form.

The Resistor, Inductor and Capacitor in ac circuits

ac voltage and current in the Resistor

Figure 6.1.1.1(a) ac voltage across

Figure 6.1.1.1(b) In a resistor the voltage

Figure 6.1.2.1 The square of a sinusoidal current, I sin t

ac voltage and current in an Inductor

so substituting in the above equation gives:

Figure 6.2.1.1(a) ac voltage

Figure 6.2.1.1(b) In an Inductor the voltage

As XL = (L) the value of Inductive Reactance is directly proportional to Frequency

Figure 6.2.2.1 Voltage, current and power in an Inductor

ac voltage and current in a Capacitor

For the Capacitor the voltage to current relationship is: v =

Figure 6.3.1.1(a) ac voltage across

I sin t, so substituting in the above equation gives:

So the fundamental relationship between Voltage and Current for a Capacitor is

the Capacitive reactance, XC.

In a Capacitor the Voltage LAGS the Current by 90

The relationship between Voltage and Current is the Capacitive Reactance, XC =

Figure 6.3.1.2 Plot of Capacitive Reactance, XC, versus frequency

Voltage, current and power in a Capacitor

What about this (j) operator thing?

The complex Planes