4

Material Properties Affecting

Extrusion Foaming

Q. Zhang and M. Xanthos

CONTENTS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Importance of Material Properties in Extrusion Foaming
4.3 Physical Blowing Agents
4.3.1 Types and Properties
4.3.2 Blowing Agent Solubility
4.3.2.1 Main Factors Affecting Blowing Agent Solubility
4.3.2.2 Measurement of Blowing Agent Solubility
4.3.2.3 Gas Dissolution Inside Foaming Extruders
4.4 Resin Properties
4.4.1 Importance of Viscoelasticity
4.4.2 Modification of Resins to Enhance Foamability
4.5 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
References

4.1

Introduction

Extrusion foaming for the production of medium- and low-density thermoplastic foams has been carried out successfully for some time with physical
blowing agents (PBAs). PBAs are atmospheric gases, volatile hydrocarbons,
or hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) that are metered and dissolved in the
polymer melt during processing. The extrusion foaming process can use a
single extruder or two extruders operating in tandem. The basic steps in the
process involve (a) melting of the solid polymer; (b) injection and dissolution
of the blowing agent into the polymer melt, which is a diffusion controlled
0-8493-1728-2/04/$0.00+$1.50
2004 by CRC Press LLC

2004 by CRC Press LLC

Drive

Hopper

Die
Melting
Section

Mixing
Section

Cooling
Section

Check Valve
Injection
Point

Seal
Section

Metering Pump

Blowing Agent Supply

Single (Large L/D)

Drive

Hopper

Gas
Injection
Port

Crossover
Die

Primary Extruder

Secondary Extruder
Tandem
FIGURE 4.1
Schematics of single barrel and tandem foam extruders.

process; (c) cooling of the blowing agent laden melt; (d) expansion through
the nucleation (often in the presence of nucleating agents) and growth of
bubbles due to super-saturation and diffusion of gas into the nucleated
bubbles (this is, generally, achieved by suddenly releasing the system pressure); and (e) stabilization of the resultant cellular structure, which is accomplished by subsequent cooling and solidification of the cell walls.
The schematics of single barrel and tandem foam extruders are given in
Figure 4.1. In the single extruder case, high length to diameter ratio (L/D)
equipment is normally required to provide sufficient elements for polymer
melting, gas dissolution, cooling and pressurization, and foaming through the
die. In such a process, typically a two-stage screw is used. The polymer composition fed in the extruder feed section is melted and mixed in the transition
section of the screw and then the blowing agent is injected. The blowing agent
is dispersed and dissolved in the melt; this process depends on several factors
including the type of resin and blowing agent, temperature, pressure, and
2004 by CRC Press LLC

conditions such as screw configuration, screw speed, and so on. The gas-laden
melt is then pressurized and extruded through the die. The temperature profile
on the extruder is set in such a way that for the zones prior to the gas injection,
the temperature is high enough to ensure proper melting; for the zones past
the injection section, temperature is gradually lowered substantially so as to
allow for adequate cooling of the gas-laden melt prior to exiting the die, a
necessary condition for cell expansion without coalescence. It is believed that
bubble nucleation is heterogeneous and begins at the shaping die as the gasladen melt emerging from the die experiences a sudden pressure drop; this
thermodynamic instability causes phase separation. The escaping gas leads
to expansion within the fluid matrix in such a manner that individual minute
bubbles merge into cells and, through subsequent solidification, stable
expanded structures are produced.
In the tandem process, the polymer and additives are melted and mixed in
a primary extruder, which is typically equipped with a high shear mixing
screw. The blowing agent is injected near the end of this primary extruder.
The melt containing the blowing agent is then transferred to the feed section
of the secondary extruder through the so-called crossover section. The main
purpose of the secondary extruder is to cool the gas-laden melt to an optimum
temperature and pressure for foam formation without cell coalescence. The
tandem extruder setup normally allows for excellent control of process variables and is used in industry to produce very low-density foams.
The overall basic requirements for polymers, blowing agents, nucleators,
equipment, and processing parameters for making extruded polymeric
foams are shown schematically in Figure 4.2 (adapted from Khemani1). The
processes to be discussed in this chapter involve macrocellular foams (typically 100 mm or larger in cell size); we will not cover so-called microcellular

Polymer

-Melt strength
-Viscosity
-Tm, TC, Tg
-End groups

Blowing Agent

Cell Nucleators

-Solubility
-Cell size
-Permeability &
Type
diffusivity
Distribution
-Inj. pressure
Concentration
-Point of injection
-Concentration
-Dispersion

Additives

-Permeability
modifiers
-Processing aids
-Flame retardants

Extruder

Screw

-Single/Tandem
-Die Design -Screw design
-Throughput
Sheet
Mixing
-L/D ratio
Annular
elements
-Temperature profile Arc
Seal ring
-Pressure
-Temperature -Output
-Pressure

Foam Characteristics
Cell Structure (shape, size, distribution, open vs. closed)
Density and Gas Retention in Cells
Mechanical Properties (impact, tensile, bending)
Thermal Properties
Extractables (for food contact)

FIGURE 4.2
Parameters affecting the thermoplastics foam extrusion process.

2004 by CRC Press LLC

Die

foaming where resins, presaturated with blowing agents such as CO2, are
heated at or above Tg and cooled rapidly to stabilize the cellular fine morphology and prevent excessive cell growth. Such morphology is characterized by closed cells up to 25 mm in size and a cell density of 108 cell/cm3
and above.2 Continuous microcellular processes involving extrusion equipment as described in various patents3 are under development,4 and some are
already commercially available.

4.2

Importance of Material Properties in Extrusion Foaming

The solubility and diffusivity of the gas in the melt and the viscoelastic
properties of the molten polymer are among the material parameters playing
an important role during the various stages of low-density extrusion foaming. Material properties that influence these processes include melt shear
and elongational viscosity, melt strength, and, if the polymer is crystallizable,
the rate of crystallization. Gas/polymer interfacial properties also play a
significant role in all these stages of operation. To summarize pertinent
information from Throne:5
PBAs need to be highly soluble (to alleviate the need for high extrusion and die pressures) and uniformly distributed in the polymer,
since undissolved microbubbles may promote premature nucleation
before the die. In addition, PBAs must diffuse at a high but controlled
rate to allow rapid cell inflation.
Melts with high viscosity, particularly extensional viscosity, are
needed in the presence of dissolved gas which may act as a plasticizer, reducing the overall viscosity.
Melts with high elasticity and high normal stress differences are
needed during the extensional portion of bubble inflation, in addition to high resistance to stretching for stabilization of the growing
bubbles.
At the end of bubble growth during the final biaxial stretching, high
melt elasticity to resist blow-out and moderately high elongational
viscosity (the latter increased by cooling) and rapid crystallization
are needed.
The first requirement for successful foaming is to form a uniform gas-laden
melt. This means that all gas molecules are dispersed on a molecular level
throughout the melt. The key here is the solubility of the gas in the polymer
at the melt temperature. If inert gases of low solubility such as nitrogen and
2004 by CRC Press LLC

argon are used as blowing agents to produce low-density foams of many

commercial polymers, then very high extrusion and die pressures would be
normally required.
The rheological properties of the gas-laden melt become very important;
for example, the viscosity of the mixture has to be high enough to achieve
the pressure required. The viscosity of the gas-laden melt is a strong function
of the gas concentration. It has been shown that at a given temperature, the
gas-laden polymer melt viscosity decreases exponentially with gas content
throughout the practical range of gas concentration for many polymergas
systems.6 The required high pressure is normally achieved by cooling the
polymergas mixture substantially before reaching the extrusion die. Temperatures can be set to below the normal polymer melting point and near
the crystallization temperatures, in cases of semi-crystalline polymers, and
near Tg for amorphous polymers. This is possible because the inclusion of
the gas causes depression of the glass transition temperature (Tg) of an
amorphous polymer or the crystallization temperature (Tc) of a semicrystalline polymer. Depression of Tg , or Tc (the latter to a lesser extent) is a wellknown phenomenon and experimental results are available for a number of
polymergas systems.711
A variety of materials can be used during extrusion foaming, mostly to
control nucleation of bubbles and produce uniform cells of the desired density and dimensions. Fine inorganic minerals such as talc are commonly
used, although polymers immiscible in the foamable matrix may play the
same role. Glycerol stearate esters have also been used as additives in certain
polyolefin foams to control gas diffusion through the cells and to control the
aging time of the foams.

4.3
4.3.1

Physical Blowing Agents

Types and Properties

The optimal blowing agent must be environmentally acceptable and economically viable, or readily available at low cost. It must also meet safety
regulations as required in storage, usage, and handling of both the blowing
agent and the foams made from it. The ideal blowing agent should be nontoxic, non-flammable, and chemically and thermally stable. Other requirements include appropriate solubility in polymer melt, low vapor pressure at
room temperature, low boiling point, and slow diffusion through the polymer compared to air.
Continuous extrusion foaming processes primarily used chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) as blowing agents prior to their ban in mid-1990s. The release
of CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) had been identified
to be the main cause for rapid erosion of the stratospheric ozone layer, and
2004 by CRC Press LLC

the foam industry was one of the main industries that used and released
ozone-depleting chemicals. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agencys estimation,12 in the U.S., foam plastics accounted for approximately
18% of all U.S. consumption of ozone-depleting chemicals in 1990.
Following the ban on the use of CFCs for foam production in 1996, the
foam industry began to use other groups of chemicals. Currently, HCFCs,
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), mostly
hydrocarbons, are the major chemicals being used as blowing agents. HCFCs
are also ozone-depleting chemicals and are used only as transitional alternatives to CFCs facing staged phase-out. HFCs are being used as chlorinefree substitutes of HCFCs, and currently a number of HFC blowing agents
are commercially available. Examples include HFC-134a (CH2FCF3), HFC143a (CH3CF3), and HFC-152a (CHF2CH3). Hydrocarbons (such as butane
and pentane) are still very popular but highly flammable and can produce
explosive mixtures with oxygen despite sophisticated equipment and safety
measures.
In response to increasing regulation of halocarbons and increasing safety
and environmental concerns over the use of flammable, volatile hydrocarbons, recent research has focused towards replacing the traditional foaming
agents with various inert blowing agents, including atmospheric gases such
as CO2, N2, and Ar, but also water. Currently, CO2 is being commercially
used as a blowing agent in polyurethane foaming, along with CFC alternatives such as HCFC and HFC. Some thermoplastic foaming processes using
CO213 and other atmospheric gases as blowing agents have also been developed, while most thermoplastic foams are still being manufactured using
HCFCs, HFCs, and hydrocarbons as blowing agents. The use of inert gases
in foam extrusion has been shown to demand a very narrow window of
processing conditions as opposed to the use of halocarbons.14 Inert gases are
much less soluble in the polymer melt and have much higher vapor pressures
than CFCs or hydrocarbons.
A comparison of some of the properties of different blowing agents is given
in Table 4.1. Comparison of solubility data of R-22 CFC and 142-B HCFC
versus CO2 in polystyrene shows higher values at a magnitude of four times
or more.15 The effects of the lower CO2 solubility coupled with its much
higher vapor pressure and permeability versus conventional blowing agents
are reflected in almost all stages of the foaming process, including gas disTABLE 4.1
Comparison of PBA Properties in Polystyrene15
Blowing Agent
CFC (R-22)
HCFC 142-B
CO2

2004 by CRC Press LLC

Vapor Pressure
(psia)
151
49
930

Solubility at 24C
(pph/atm)
1.60
6.25
0.40

Permeability
(Dow units)
19
0.21
1430

solution, bubble nucleation and growth, and cell structure stabilization. In

efforts to produce zero ozone-depleting-potential (ODP) polystyrene formulations, the issues in replacing HCFCs with CO2 on an industrial scale have
been addressed through rheological modification of the resin, the use of
processing aids, the use of PBA mixtures, and modification of machine and
process conditions.15
4.3.2

Blowing Agent Solubility

A very important parameter in the production of these multicomponent,

multiphase systems is the solubility of physical blowing agents in the pressurized polymer melt, as affected by concentration, pressure, and temperature. Knowledge of the solubility characteristics of the gas in polymer melts
is highly desirable in order to estimate the pressure requirements to keep it
in the melt throughout the extruder all the way to the die, thus avoiding the
formation of premature bubbles which would result in uneven cell growth.
For molten polymers, the solubility of a blowing agent dictates the conditions under which bubbles will start to nucleate and grow. After the foaming
process, the long-term characteristics of the foam are still influenced by the
solubility and diffusivity of the blowing agents. Diffusion of the blowing
agent out of the cells and the polymer matrix will change the thermal and
mechanical properties of the foam. This is especially the case when the
blowing agent plasticizes the polymer and the material stiffens as the blowing agent diffuses out.16
4.3.2.1

Main Factors Affecting Blowing Agent Solubility

It is generally accepted that solubility is dependent on the free volume

available to the gas molecules in the polymer, and therefore dependent on
temperature and pressure. Free volume increases with temperature; therefore, solubility should increase with temperature. For many cases, however,
interactions between gases and polymers cause solubility to decrease with
increasing temperatures. For most gases, it turns out that more easily condensed gases have higher solubility.
Solubility is usually expressed through Henrys law17 as:
X = Kp Pg

(4.1)

where X is the concentration of gas in the melt (cm3 (STP)/g), Pg is partial

pressure of dissolved gas (kPa), and KP is the Henrys law constant (cm3
(STP)/gkPa). For a number of gases, the logarithm of the experimental
Henrys law constant has been shown to correlate linearly with (Tc/T)2,
where Tc is the critical temperature of the gas.18,19
Features in the molecular structure of polymers which disrupt chain
packing increase their free volumes. Therefore, polymers with branched
2004 by CRC Press LLC

structures or bulky pendant groups in their repeat unit have increased

solubility, relative to polymers with more linear structures. Specific interactions such as hydrogen bonds between the gas molecules and the polymer repeat structure can also promote solubility.
Experimental data reported by Durrill and Griskey20,21 indicate that
Henrys law constants rank as N2<CO2<ClF3C for each polymer from the
group of polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyisobutylene (PIB), polystyrene (PS), and polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). Thus, for these systems
comprising nonpolar or low polarity polymers, solubility was primarily
dependent on the type of gas rather than the type of polymer, with CFC
showing much higher solubility than atmospheric gases. From the above
data, other researchers22 working on microcellular foaming estimated very
similar solubilities of CO2 at 200C and 27.6 MPa in various polymers, such
as PP and PS (12%) and PMMA (15%). The heat of the solution was found
to be positive for nitrogen in PE but negative for CO2 in PE, PP, and PS.18,20
For the PS/CO2 system, recent data indicate good agreement between theory
and experiment with correct prediction of decreasing solubility with increasing temperature.23
For amorphous polymers without strong polar groups, the linear relation
between log-solubility and critical temperature or boiling point of gas18 may be
used as a first approximation. For polybutadiene (PB), for example, solubility
of gases decreases with decreasing critical temperature in the order
CO2>CH4>Ar>N2,19 with a positive temperature dependence for N2 and a negative dependence for CO2, CH4, and Ar. However, for amorphous polymers with
strong polar groups, significant effects of the polymer polarity on gas solubility
have been observed.24,25 For example, the solubility of CO2 at 25C in butadiene/
acrylonitrile rubber increases with an increasing content of acrylonitrile polar
groups in the polymer, whereas that of nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen (being
already much lower than CO2 by an order of magnitude) decreases.24 Equilibrium uptakes of CO2 at room temperature range from 3% in PE to 27% in
PMMA to over 50% in PVAc. Equilibrium sorption of CO2 in styrene/acrylonitrile copolymers increases with AN content and in ethylene/vinyl acetate
with increasing vinyl acetate monomer. For a variety of polar polymers,
solubility of CO2 ranks as EVA>PMMA>PC>PVC.25 The relatively high sorption values of CO2 in polar polymers may result from enhanced specific
interactions of CO2 with carbonyl or nitrile groups; these could be related to
its quadrupole moment or its H-bonding basicity.25 Recent work2629 on melt
mixed PS/PMMA blends demonstrated that the solubility of CO2 in the
PMMA phase is, indeed, significantly higher than that in PS. Higher affinity
with the carbonyl group of the PMMA polymer implies also higher plasticization capacity, which is manifested in lower Tg8 and lower viscosity.
4.3.2.2

Measurement of Blowing Agent Solubility

Given the importance of blowing agent solubility, recent experimental efforts

have focused on the measurement of solubility of gases in molten polymers
2004 by CRC Press LLC

at high temperatures and pressures. Efforts have also been made to model gas
solubility using, for example, equations of state (EOS). The SimhaSomcynsky
theory has been used to model gas solubility in polymer melts and has found
success in predicting gas solubility characteristics for a number of polymergas
systems.30
Experimental data on gas solubility in polymer melts have been reported
by many investigators.19,20,3134 These investigators used either the pressure
decay method or a high-pressure vessel batch process to determine thermodynamic equilibrium data. More recently, a gravimetric method employing
an electrobalance was also used.35,36
On-line/in-line methods have drawn attention in recent years, since they
allow measurements under dynamic conditions. Dual transmission infrared
sensors have been used for on-line monitoring of foaming processes, the sensors being linked with fiber-optic cables to a Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR)
spectrophotometer which records spectra of the melt in the near-infrared
region. Infrared probes were mounted on a slit die to monitor the polymergas
mixtures during the extrusion of foams.16,37 This technique was also used to
detect degassing in the melt. Ultrasonic sensors were also used in the same
slit die for measuring the phase behavior of molten polymers.38 Tsujimura et
al.39 studied the dynamic behavior of bubble nucleation in a slit die with quartz
glass windows using a long-distance microscope and a high-speed video system. The effect of nucleating agents on bubble nucleation dynamics for a PPbutane system was also studied using this method. An in-line method has
been developed in the laboratory of the authors which is capable of measuring
PBA solubility in polymer melts under extrusion conditions. This method
combines an optical flow cell with a foaming extruder (single or twin-screw)
and generates apparent solubility data by observing the onset of bubble formation and dissolution in the melt, via a microscope-CCD (charged coupling
device) camera-monitor-recorder system. The schematic of the experimental
setup is shown in Figure 4.3. The onset of gas bubble presence or absence in
the cell was monitored and recorded using an optical system consisting of a
microscope, a CCD camera, a monitor (TV), and a recorder (VCR) (Figure 4.4).
The important parameters, such as melt pressure and temperature at the die
and the window, gas injection pressure, and flow rate, were digitized and
recorded in a computer for real-time monitoring and off-line analysis.
At the beginning of each experiment, the window pressure is low, and the
gas laden melt passing through the window is a two-phase system with
many large bubbles dispersed in the continuous melt phase, as shown in
Figure 4.5A. The window pressure is then slowly increased by adjusting
(closing) the restricting valve. The number and size of the bubbles decrease
with increasing melt pressure as indicated in Figure 4.5B. When the pressure
is high enough, all bubbles will disappear and the system will appear as a
single-phase system. Figure 4.5C shows this tendency; this pressure is considered to be the lowest pressure required to keep the gas in solution under
the specified conditions. This method generates apparent solubility data that
could be used directly to characterize and control a foaming process and
2004 by CRC Press LLC

Solid Metering Feeder

Gas
Cylinder

Manual Pressure
Control Valve

P
P

Microscope

Extruder
T

P
A/D
Converter

Video Camera
Serial
Interface

TV

Personal
Computer

Video Signal
VCR
FIGURE 4.3
Schematic of the experimental setup to measure the dynamic solubility of blowing agents.

Extrudate

TV

VCR

Valve
CCD
Camera

Microscope

Traveling Device

Flow

Light
Source

Cell

Extruder

FIGURE 4.4
Schematic of the flow cellmonitoring/recording system used to measure the dynamic solubility of blowing agents.

2004 by CRC Press LLC

A.

B.

C.

FIGURE 4.5
Monitoring of CO2 bubbles in PS melt at 215C. (Original magnification 60.) (A) Low pressure.
(B) Pressure close to the targeted pressure. (C) High pressure.

serve as guidance in blowing agent selection and process design and optimization. Unlike traditional methods that generally require long hours for
equilibrium, the apparent solubility measurements are carried out within the
single or tandem extruder residence times (typically 520 min); thus, they
are very useful in solubility measurements for temperature-sensitive polymers. They can be used to study effects of processing conditions on gas
solubility characteristics and can also be potentially useful for studying the
effects of polymer modification on solubility if used with a reactive extruder.
2004 by CRC Press LLC

16

S (cm3[STP]/g-melt)

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0

5000
Melt Pressure (kPa)

FIGURE 4.6
Solubility vs. melt pressure of CO2 in PS melt at 215C.

TABLE 4.2
Comparison of Experimental Results with Literature Data

In-line data
Sorption experiment results (20)
Data from low temperature
experiments (19)

Temperature
(C)

H/Slope
cm3 [STP]/gkPa

190
188
180

0.0037
0.0022
0.0020

Pressure Range
(kPa)
Up to 5575
Up to 2030
Up to 17000

Solubility data generated for CO2 in polystyrene at 190oC are presented in

Figure 4.6. These results are compared with literature values obtained from
sorption experiments as shown in Table 4.2.
Temperature dependence of gas solubility in PS was also studied. Some
results of CO2 and nitrogen are presented in Figure 4.7 and Figure 4.8. These
results show that for carbon dioxide, the solubility decreases with increasing
temperature. This tendency has been generally observed in many gaspolymer and solutesolvent systems.17,19,20 For nitrogen, however, the solubility
increases with increasing temperature. This tendency called reverse solubility has been observed for gases of low critical temperatures such as helium,
hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen.19
Solubilities of three different atmospheric gases (CO2, nitrogen, and argon)
in polyethylene terephthalate (PET) were also obtained. The results given in
Figure 4.9 indicate that carbon dioxide has the highest solubility in PET,
nitrogen has the lowest, and Ar is somewhere in between. This trend is
consistent with literature results obtained for the same systems under temperatures below the polymer Tg.32
2004 by CRC Press LLC

FIGURE 4.7
Solubility vs. melt pressure of CO2 in PS melt at two different temperatures.

FIGURE 4.8
Solubility vs. melt pressure of N2 in PS melt at two different temperatures.

4.3.2.3 Gas Dissolution Inside Foaming Extruders

Dissolution of physical blowing agents is affected by solubility, diffusivity,
pressure, mixing, and residence time. Shear forces and interfacial tension
may also play a significant role in affecting the gas dissolution process.
Considerable research has been conducted on processes that involve the
formation and growth of gas bubbles in polymer solutions or melts during
foam formation or devolatilization of polymer solutions. Studies on gas
dissolution processes in foaming extruders have been largely ignored, likely
due to the fact that when traditional blowing agents (CFCs, HCFCs, and
2004 by CRC Press LLC

10
CO2
N2
Ar

S {cm3[STP]/g-melt}

0
0

2000
4000
Melt Pressure (kPa)

6000

FIGURE 4.9
Solubility vs. melt pressure of inert gases in PET at 290C.

hydrocarbons) are used, gas dissolution has never been a major concern
thanks to the high solubility of those agents. However, when inert gases such
as CO2 and N2, which have limited solubility in polymer melts, are used as
blowing agents, solubility and dissolution become major factors in determining the process efficiency, feasibility, and product quality, since in these
cases the system needs to operate at much higher pressures.
Solubility results obtained from the in-line method for a PSCO2 system
along with gas injection conditions were used to study the gas dissolution
behavior over the gas injection section of the foaming extruder, in an effort
to elucidate the mechanisms involved in this complex process. In this case,
the extruder used was a 34-mm intermeshing, corotating twin-screw
extruder (Leistritz LSM34) having a L/D of 36.
Generally speaking, gas dissolution in the injection zone is dictated by
solubility and diffusivity of the PBA and polymer/gas flow dynamics. The
main mechanism for gas-melt mass transfer in a partially filled extruder is
diffusion through the surface areas provided by the rotating melt pool and
the barrel melt film40 as shown schematically in Figure 4.10. In extruders the
pool rotates in the partially filled channel under the influence of the cross
channel component of the screw velocity, while being conveyed through the
extruder in drag flow by the down channel component. A stationary melt
film is deposited on the barrel wall due to the clearance between screw and
barrel. The screw rotation causes continuous generation of the free surface
of the rolling pool, significantly enhancing gas diffusion. Other possible
mechanisms have also been speculated for some time. Some researchers41
believe that some degree of foaming or frothing happens inside the injection
zone, which would increase the mass transfer area and, hence, enhance the
rate of gas dissolution.
2004 by CRC Press LLC

The actual amount of gas dissolved in the melt as measured downstream

at the window in the twin-screw extruder is compared with the maximum
possible amount that could be dissolved in the gas injection zone under a
particular injection pressure. The latter is calculated using the gas injection
pressure and assuming equilibrium is reached in the short gas injection zone.
Comparative data for CO2 in the PS melt under three different injection
pressures are given in Figure 4.11. The results show that the actual total
amount of gas in the polymer melt is more than that calculated from equilibrium under the corresponding injection pressure. Given the short residence time and the relatively low diffusivity values of CO2 , on the order of
106 cm2/sec,42 it is much less likely that the diffusion process could reach
equilibrium in the short gas injection section of the screw. Calculations based
on mechanism shown in Figure 4.10 and using typical solubility and diffusivity values have shown that under the applied experimental conditions,
the system can only reach about 4060% of the equilibrium values.43 This
indicates that the gas is carried downstream, possibly in the form of foam,
and gets dissolved somewhere downstream under increased pressure over
a longer residence time. Todd observed the formation of bubbles in twinscrew extruders when small amounts of air or water were injected into the
melt.41 Some amount of gas may be trapped into the melt by the circular
flow of the rotating melt pool, and this amount cannot readily dissolve into
the melt due to limitations of mass transfer rates, limited solubility and
diffusivity, and short contacting time. Thus, it can be envisioned that this
trapped gas serves as the source for bubble nucleation and growth in the
gas injection zone inside the extruder, and the extent of foaming continues
to grow as the melt advances downstream. Data from Figure 4.11 show that
the carryover or entrainment is quite significant and may play an important role during the foaming process.

Barrel
Barrel film

Gas
Vs

Rotating pool
Screw

FIGURE 4.10
Schematic of the mass transfer areas in a particular filled screw channel (d = flight clearance,
VS = melt circular flow velocity).

2004 by CRC Press LLC

0.015

Gas weight fraction

Exp. total gas in solution

Calc. from Henrys law

0.010

0.005

0.000

758

1161

1441

1718

Gas injection pressure (kPa)

FIGURE 4.11
The amount of CO2 dissolved in PS (at 215C in twin-screw extruder) vs. that calculated from
equilibrium.

The effects of the extrusion process parameters on solubility characteristics

were also studied using the same in-line method. Detailed results can be
found in Zhang et al.44

4.4 Resin Properties

4.4.1 Importance of Viscoelasticity
During the cell growth phase of extrusion foaming, the polymeric melt
undergoes intense elongational deformations. Rheologically inadequate resins cannot sustain these deformations and their foaming process is characterized by unstable cell growth, nonuniform cell size, and membrane tearing
(blowout) leading to cell collapse and open cells. Many commercially available low molecular weight (MW) resins including PP, PET, and high-density
polyethylene (HDPE), usually having narrow molecular weight distribution
(MWD), exhibit inadequate rheology for low density foaming and a very
narrow process foaming window. Such resins are characterized rheologically
by low values of melt viscosity, particularly elongational viscosity that is not
2004 by CRC Press LLC

dependent on increasing stress or time; poor shear sensitivity in viscosity

curves; and low melt elasticity expressed with criteria such as melt strength
and extrudate swell.45
Effects related to melt rheology and melt elasticity of thermoplastics can, in
general, be controlled through additives or through changes in MW and MWD
during reactor or post-reactor processing by chain extension, grafting and
branching, cross-linking, or controlled degradation. Melt elasticity changes
can be related to changes in the values of viscoelastic functions such as normal
stress difference, storage modulus, extensional viscosity, or recoverable shear
strain; and also to changes in parameters of practical importance such as
extrudate swell and melt strength.46
For example, foamable polypropylene has higher melt elasticity, melt
strength, and extensional viscosity with strain hardening behavior than conventional resins of the same melt flow index (MFI) (Figures 4.12 and 4.13);
foamable PPs may also have higher Mz and high Mz/Mw , and possibly bimodal
MW distribution with the higher MW component highly branched.47 Strain
hardening behavior, defined as the rapid increase of the elongational viscosity
with time or strain under a constant strain rate, is also required for other
processes such as thermoforming or blow molding. Particularly, high melt
strength or elasticity is an important parameter usually associated with
increases in the average relaxation time and broadening of relaxation time
distribution as a result of long chain branching. Most polymers with long chain
branches exhibit marked strain hardening.48,49 Such behavior was found in
bimodal resins or resins of high polydispersity also having higher melt strength
and higher extrudate swell. Improved melt elasticity may also be correlated
with improved foamability of PET resins.50 Long chain branching has also been

3.5 MELT FLOW CONVENTIONAL POLYPROPYLENE

EXTENSIONAL VISCOSITY
GROWTH FUNCTION (Pa*SEC)

1E5

STRAIN RATE

1E4

0.51 1/SEC
0.10
0.51
1.0
2.0
TEMPERATURE = 180C
1000
0.100

10.000

1.000
TIME (SEC)

FIGURE 4.12
Extensional viscosity of linear PP.47

2004 by CRC Press LLC

100.000

1E6
EXTENSIONAL VISCOSITY
GROWTH FUNCTION (Pa*SEC)

STRAIN RATE

0.05 1/SEC
0.1
0.51
1.0
2.0

1E5

1E4

1000
0.100

TEMPERATURE = 180C

10.000

1.000

100.000

FIGURE 4.13
Extensional viscosity of high melt strength PP. 47

suggested to enhance the strain hardening behavior of the elongational viscosity because of the depression of chain contraction, which has been well recognized by theoretical approaches based on the DoiEdwards tube model.5153
Yilmazer et al. studied the chain extension and branching of PET and
reported that modified PET was characterized by low MFI, high extrudate
or die swell, high viscosity, high shear sensitivity, high storage modulus, and
pronounced non-Newtonian behavior54 (Figure 4.14). The modified resins
were suggested to have higher mean relaxation times and relaxation strength
values than the unmodified ones.
Yamaguchi and Suzuki55 studied the rheological properties and foam processability of blends of linear and crosslinked polyethylenes. They found

100000

modulus (Pa)

10000
1000
100

G for unfoamable PET

G for unfoamable PET

10
1
0.1

G for foamable PET

G for foamable PET
10

100

(rad/s)

FIGURE 4.14
Comparison of G and G at 290C of unmodified (unfoamable) and modified (foamable) PET
resins.

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107

PP
107

PP/gEHDM (97/3)

463 K
463 K

0.013
0.078

0.067
105

E+ (t, )/Pa s

E+ (t, )/Pa s

106
106

0.34

0.015
0.034

3+ (t)

105

0.14
3+ (t)
104
101

100

101

102

103

104
101

100

t/s

101
t /s

102

103

FIGURE 4.15
Time variation of elongational viscosity for PP and foamable PP/crosslinked elastomer blend.55

that blending a small amount of crosslinked LLDPE enhanced strain hardening of the elongational viscosity (Figure 4.15) and enhanced extrudate/
die swell and elastic modulus, whereas it had little effect on the steady-state
shear viscosity. The foams produced from these blends showed higher
expansion ratio and more homogeneous cell size distribution. According to
the studies by Yamaguchi et al., the conditions under which a small amount
of crosslinked polymer enhances the strain-hardening in elongational viscosity of a polymer are (1) the crosslinked polymer has a network chain with
a low density of crosslink points; and (2) the precursor of the crosslinked
polymer is miscible with the linear polymer.5658 The origin of the resulting
rheological properties has been suggested to be the result of the chain stretching of network polymers via trapped entanglements with a linear polymer.
Recent work has suggested that the presence of gel-like structures in the
amount of at least 70% is required for foaming resins, with the resultant
foams having minimal shrinkage.56,58
4.4.2 Modification of Resins to Enhance Foamability
Physical entanglements and entanglements originating from aromatic ring
interactions are believed to be responsible for the foamability of LDPE and
PS, respectively. Contrary to the case for LDPE, the role of strain hardening
has not been clearly defined for PS. Both resins are easy to foam and do
not require any further modification.6 However, for other resins such as PP,
HDPE, and PET, long-chain branching modification in the polymerization
reactor or by post-reactor reactive extrusion has been used to enhance
foamability and broaden the processing window during extrusion foaming;
2004 by CRC Press LLC

foamability in such cases is usually related to enhanced melt strength and

strain hardening or extrudate swell. Other methods proposed in the literature to enhance foamability include:
Introduction of bimodality as with a high MW component in a
bimodal MWD PS resin
Nonreactive blending of immiscible polymers, e.g., LLDPE + LDPE
Reactive processing, e.g., grafting of styrene on PP; compatibilization
of PP/PET blends through functionalized polyolefins and coagents;
incorporation of a dispersed crosslinked polymeric phase in a polymeric matrix as, for example, in certain thermoplastic vulcanizates;
PP blends with crosslinked diene based elastomers; LLDPE containing small amounts of cross-linked LDPE; PP + crosslinked EHDM
Specific methods that have been used to improve the foamability of PP are
Long chain branching through low temperature free radical modification with radiation or peroxides in the absence of oxygen
Controlled crosslinking, grafting with multifunctional monomers,
coagents, vinyl silanes, or styrene (by irradiation or peroxides)
Modified PP resins are characterized by high melt strength and drawability
in a Rheotens apparatus and can be foamed to very low densities (0.05 g/cc).59,60
A significant body of literature exists describing the post-reactor modification of linear PET resins to increase MW and broaden the MWD for
foaming and extrusion blow molding applications.61 Modification is carried
out through the use of suitable multifunctional chain extenders with anhydride or glycidyl functionality which are able to react with the polymer end
groups during solid stating or, alternatively, when added during a reactive
extrusion process. Reactions of polyester end groups with anhydride and
epoxy functionalities are shown in Figures 4.16 and 4.17, respectively. The
production of extrusion foamable polyesters modified by solid state polyaddition with a premixed multifunctional modifier, e.g., pyromellitic dianhydride (PMDA) is discussed in a series of patents and publications.6264
These resins are distinguished from non-foamable resins by increased MW,
as measured by intrinsic viscosity I.V. (>0.9 dl/g), increased melt strength,
high extrudate swell, increased complex viscosity with higher shear sensitivity, and increase in storage modulus. Post-reactor modification by reactive
extrusion of PET carried out using PMDA or other branching additives also
results in significant increase in zero shear viscosity, increase in melt strength
and die swell, increase in molecular weight, and increases in the polydispersity ratio Mz/Mn from about 4.5 up to 11. Property changes depend on
the choice of process conditions and additive concentration and its type of
carrier.65,66 Foams with densities of 0.2 g/ml were obtained by injecting
hydrogenated chlorofluorocarbons in the primary extruder of a tandem
line.65 In another patent on PET foaming,66 isopentane was injected into the
2004 by CRC Press LLC

n
+

PET
n

FIGURE 4.16
Esterification of PET with PMDA.64

molten blend of PET and PMDA to produce rod-shaped foams. The expansion of the extrudate was proportional to the amount of PMDA added (up
to 0.4% by weight); the density values for the PMDA modified foams ranged
from 0.35 to 0.13 g/ml vs. 0.7 g/ml when no PMDA was used.
In a recent publication65 it was shown that production of low-density PET
foams by one-step reactive modification/gas injection foaming is feasible at
process conditions not significantly different than those employed in the

Etherification

FIGURE 4.17
PET end group reactions with epoxides.67

2004 by CRC Press LLC

simple PET reactive modification with low MW additives. In initial experiments PET was chain extended with a dianhydride, benzophenone tetracarboxylic anhydride (BTDA, solid, tetrafunctional), and a triepoxide,
triglycidyl isocyanurate (TGIC, solid, trifunctional), in a 40 : 1 L : D SSE. It
was assumed that only initial OH groups react with dianhydrides and only
initial COOH groups react with epoxides at the process conditions. Table 4.3
shows that changes in the reactive extrusion related parameters (die pressure,
extrudate swell) and product characteristics (melt flow index and melt
strength) as a result of increasing MW and MWD depend on the type of the
modifier. A one-step reactive extrusion/foaming with 23 phr isobutane
injected at 19 L : D length was carried out with the PET and the PET/BTDA
system under the same operating conditions (Figure 4.18). The unmodified
PET showed 120% expansion with only a few irregular cells; by contrast the
BTDA modified extrudate showed 540% expansion, low density of 0.13 g/
cc, and uniform cells. Enhanced foamability of PET may be obtained through
the addition of a lower melting temperature polymer such as PP. In this case
it has been shown that proper compatibilization of the immiscible blend
through a functionalized polyolefin and a coagent is important to produce
foams with lower density and smaller cell size (Figure 4.19).67
With respect to reactive blending as a means of enhancing foamability, low
density and uniform cell structure foams were successfully produced from
blends containing LLDPE and peroxide crosslinked LDPE (xLDPE) in a batch
foaming process.68 It was shown that high loadings (50%) of xLDPE were
necessary to bring up properties (including melt strength) to foamable levels
(Figure 4.20). Blending a small amount (10 wt%) of xLDPE also resulted in
significant improvements in LLDPE foam extrusion processability and product quality; foams had larger expansion, uniform cell structure, and ~30%
density reduction versus the unmodified LLDPE. Blending recycled xLDPE
foam with LLDPE was also effective in producing foamable resins, opening
new applications for recycling xLDPE foams.
TABLE 4.3
PET Extrusion Characteristics with Different Modifiers (Solid Extrudates)67
Additive

Die
Pressure
(Mpa)

Die
Temperature
(C)

Extrudate
Appearance

No additive

0.96

270.6

Smooth,
soupy

0.82
(0.04)

BTDA

3.38

274.1

Smooth

TGIC

15.20

279.6

Wavy,
variable
diameter

2.65
(0.19)
3.07
(0.11)

2004 by CRC Press LLC

Average
Melt
Die
Flow Index
Swell
(g/10 min),
(Std. Dev.)
Initial
Reading

Melt
Flow
Index
(g/10 min),
Average

Melt
Strength
(103 N)

>200

>200

5.18

6.69

Not
measurable
13.0

1.06

1.09

332.0

F
Solid Metering Feeder
(PET + TGIC dry-blend)

Gas
Injection
Point

Gas
Cylinder

Extruder Barrel

Motor

PC
FIGURE 4.18
One step reactive extrusion/foaming of PET.

Foam Density (g/cm3)

0.3
0.25
4% Density
Reduction

0.2

30% Density
Reduction

0.15
0.1
0.05
0

No Comp.

5% Comp.

5% Comp. +
Coagent

Percent Additive
FIGURE 4.19
Foam density of 80 : 20 (PET : PP) blend as a function of additive content.

4.5 Concluding Remarks

The objective of this chapter was to summarize the importance of certain
properties of physical blowing agents and polymeric resins that are used to
produce low density foams by PBA injection in extruders. Emphasis was
placed on (a) the importance of solubility of the PBA in the polymer melt,
and (b) the viscoelastic characteristics of the polymer melt.
2004 by CRC Press LLC

25

Force (N)

20

15

10

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

% xLDPE
FIGURE 4.20
LLDPE resin property enhancementmelt strength vs. added xLDPE (170C; die L/D = 10;
draw ratio = 100).68

With respect to current efforts in the field of PBAs, activities mostly focus
on the commercialization of foams containing alternative environmentally
friendly PBAs that are nonflammable and nontoxic. The best examples are
atmospheric gases, particularly supercritical gases such as CO2, which has
already been used with polystyrene, and water, which has been used in
certain thermoplastic vulcanizates. Commercialization of such foams may
require modification of extrusion process conditions as well as changes or
adjustments in the polymer formulation to accommodate the lower solubility
and different permeability of the alternatives versus conventional PBAs. The
alternative PBAs are often used in combination with other low boiling point
liquids (e.g., alcohols) to balance solubility and diffusivity requirements. As
a result of such activities, the need has emerged to measure accurately
solubilities of the PBAs in the melt under extrusion conditions and the
concomitant effects on the viscosity of the gas laden polymer. Such data are
necessary to assist the process and die design requirements; this has lead to
the development of a variety of in-line/on-line instrumentation. Adoption
of alternative PBAs has presented more challenges in the case of multiphase,
multicomponent systems (immiscible polymer blends, thermoplastic elastomers, composites) where solubilities and diffusivities of the PBA in the
various phases may differ.
With respect to efforts in the field of enhancing the foamability of a variety
of resins, the recognition of the importance of structural modification to
enhance melt strength has led to the commercial availability of several resins,
such as PP, PET, and miscellaneous polyolefins that are now foamable to low
densities. Modification can be accomplished in the polymerization reactor
by irradiation, by reactive extrusion, or through polymer/polymer blending.
In addition to the production of conventional closed-cell foam structures,
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such techniques are currently under evaluation for the production of open
cell structures with high fluid absorption characteristics.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their appreciation to Dr. S.K. Dey of the
Polymer Processing Institute for his contributions to the measurement of the
dynamic solubility of the blowing agents.

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