A Review of Gas-Gas Heat Recovery Systems

Heat Recorery Systems Vol. 1. pp.
3 to 41
Pergamon Press Ltd 1980. Printed in Great Britain
A REVIEW
OF
GAS-GAS
HEAT
RECOVERY
SYSTEMS
D.A. REAY
International Research & Development Co Ltd (UK), Fossway,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, NE6 2YD, U.K.
Abstract--Gas-gas heat recovery systems are probably the most prolific in all application areas.
and are certainly of considerable interest for rapid 'retro-fitting"on industrial plant as an energy
saving measure. They are of growing importance in the home, and their use in large HVAC
systems is now mandatory in Sweden. A major development effort in equipment design to meet
the requirements of more arduous environments and economic eonstraints is evident in many
countrieS.
This paper reviews this field, giving descriptions of equipment available and, for the more
important systems, factors to be taken into account in their selection.
i. I N T R O D U C T I O N
IT IS in the field of heat recovery from exhaust gas and air streams that in most cases the
largest benefits from investment in energy conservation equipment can be realized. There
are a considerable number of uses to which this waste heat can be put, and these depend
to a large extent on the temperature and condition of the exhaust gases or air, the heat
recovery equipment used, and the economic assessment of the overall system performance. With regard to the uses which determine the type of heat exchanger to be used. we
may identify three main areas, these being the heating of liquid, steam raising, and air
heating. This paper is concerned with the last of these categories, the recovery of heat
from exhaust gas or air streams for preheating of other air or gas streams.
Within this category it is possible to identify three main application areas for the waste
heat recovery equipment:
(i) Use of process waste heat for preheating process supply air.
(ii) Use of process waste heat for space heating and air conditioning.
(iii) Recovery of exhaust heat from an air conditioning system in a commercial or
domestic building for preheating supply air. (Note that in summer such a heat
exchanger may also be used for precooling incoming air, effecting savings on the
refrigeration load.)
One can also identify a few more specialised areas of application, involving for
example pollution control, recovery of heat from prime movers, and the use of incinerator waste heat.
Most items of equipment described here can be used when the waste heat is at a
sufficiently high temperature not to require 'upgrading' for reuse. However, heat pumps,
which can use outside air or process air as a heat source, are also available. The heat
pump, which is able to upgrade waste heat, may also be effectively used in some drying
processes, and is dealt with here in this context.
A point often overlooked when selecting heat recovery equipment, whatever the type,
is that when installed in a new building or process, it can generally result in a reduction
in size of, say, boiler or refrigeration plant. However, when retrofitted, the equipment,
while relieving the load on steam raising plant, for example, may as a result cause it to
operate at a lower efficiency. Such changes should be taken into account when carrying
out an economic assessment, but, of course, such a loss in efficiency is unlikely to result
in any dramatic reduction in the effectiveness-bf heat recovery equipment as an energysaving technique. (In the same way, of course, extra fan power needed to overcome the
pressure drop through a waste heat recovery unit should also be included in an operating
cost balance sheet.)
D.A. REAY
Three other points of importance should be taken into account when considering the
installation of waste heat recovery equipment, particularly applicable to heat recovery
from exhaust gas streams. Firstly, while recovering heat obviously saves energy, it may
result in such a reduction in fuel consumption that the burners used in the process to
which the heat exchanger is being applied may not have a sufficiently large operating
range to cope with reduced fuel requirements. In such a case it will of course be necessary
to replace the existing burners, and this may have a serious adverse effect on the economic analysis. Obviously this will only happen if the recovered heat is being used to
preheat the combustion air, and if burner turn-down range is insufficient, an alternative
use may be found for the waste heat, i.e. for space heating or replacing calorifiers.
Secondly, the use to which the waste heat is put can have a significant effect on the
total installed cost of the heat recovery installation. Taking the example above, where
preheating of combustion air may be required, a complex oven used for food baking may
have several burners along a length of oven approaching 50 m. Such an oven will also
have possibly four exhaust gas flues situated along its length. Ducting of preheating air to
each burner (depending upon the type of gas-gas heat recovery system used) can be an
expensive exercise, and in any heat recovery installation under study, it is extremely
important to look in detail at all the associated costs, such as ductwork, fans. controls,
and additional thermal insulation, in arriving at a realistic cost. It is worth pointing out
here that the installed cost of gas-gas heat recovery system can be anything between 1.5
and 4 times the cost of the basic heat exchanger itself, depending upon the system
complexity and operating temperature. (Installation costs increase with operating temperature, because of the need to use more expensive materials, etc.)
2. TYPES OF GAS-GAS HEAT RECOVERY EQUIPMENT

Of the techniques for waste heat recovery, it is in the area of gas-gas heat exchange
that the widest variety exist. However, commercially available systems may be broadly
grouped into two classifications, recuperators and regenerators. The recuperator functions in such a way that the heat flows steadily and continuously from one fluid to
another through a separating wall. In a regenerator, however, the flow of heat is intermittent, and is typified by rotary systems such as the heat wheel. In this unit a matrix of
metal comes into contact alternately with the hot and cold fluid, first absorbing heat and
then rejecting it. The run-around coil (or liquid-coupled heat exchanger) unit, which
incorporates a pumped liquid circuit carrying heat between two gas-liquid heat
exchangers, can also be classified as a regenerator.
From the point of view of the user of the heat recovery equipment, the distinction
between recuperative and regenerative heat exchange may be regarded as largely academic, as each type of heat exchanger in both categories has its own merits and drawbacks, discussed later. A much more important distinction in the selection of heat recovery equipment is the operating temperature range. Temperature of course can have
adverse effects on heat exchanger materials at both ends of the scale. If temperatures are
too low, brought about by the removal of too much heat from the exhaust gases, the dew
point may be reached and condensation can result in corrosive products affecting heat
exchanger materials. Freezing in air conditioning heat recovery systems can also be a
serious problem, and it will be noted that defrosting systems are offered as optional
equipment on many heat recovery devices. The life of heat exchangers used at high
temperatures can be seriously reduced if incorrect materials are selected. Even ceramics
are not immune in exhausts from heavy oil-fired equipment. As discussed in more detail
later, the fluids used in heat recovery systems such as heat pipes and run-around coils
may also be subject to thermal degradation if temperature limits are exceeded. Safety
aspects in such pressurized systems should also not be neglected, and use of toxic working fluids should be communicated to the customer--this is mandatory under some
health and safety regulations, but is by no means universal.
A review of gas-gas heat recoverysystems
Another aspect of particular importance in process applications of gas-gas heat recovery equipment is fouling. The accumulation of matter on the heat exchange surface
affects both pressure drop and heat transfer, and 'disposable' heat exchanger elements
(described elsewhere in this Journal) are offered by some manufacturers as an alternative
to regular cleaning, which may be difficult or necessitate process shut-down for extended
periods. The use of disposable units can generally only be entertained if the cost is low,
however.
The designer of gas-gas heat recovery systems must, because, at least in the case of
industrial installations, the majority of units are still retrofitted to plant, make sure that
the installation is easy to implement, and the unit has a minimum effect on plant
operation. It may be said that practicalities associated with installation, operation, maintenance and, of course, economics, take precedence over thermal design. A few points
improvement in thermal efficiency is meaningless to the process plant manager if the
design does not meet his many other requirements.
This paper reviews the following types of ~quipment:
Rotating regenerators
Static regenerators
Plate heat exchangers
Run-around coils
Convection recuperators
Radiation recuperators
Recuperative burners
Thermosyphon and heat pipe heat exchangers
Multiple tower enthalpy exchangers
Gas-gas heat pumps
The above systems represent the vast majority of commercially available gas-gas units,
and more unusual or speculative designs will be discussed in separate papers in future
issues (as will developments and applications of the more common types).
3. ROTATING REGENERATORS
The rotating regenerator variously known as the heat wheel, rotary air pre-heater,
Munter wheel, or Ljungstrom wheel after its Danish inventor,* has been used over a
period of about 50 years for heat recovery in large power plant combustion processes [2].
It has also been widely used in air conditioning and a variety of industrial process heat
recovery applications--in 1975 it was estimated that in Europe alone upwards of 15000
rotating regenerators were in use [3].
The operation of the rotating regenerator is shown in Fig. 1. In common with plate
and heat exchangers, the regenerator wheel spans two adjacent ducts, one carrying
exhaust gas and the other containing the gas flow which it is required to heat. The gas
flows are counter-current. As the wheel rotates, it absorbs heat from the hot gas passing
through it and transfers the heat to the cooler gas flow. A later development, the hygroscopic wheel, is able to transfer moisture as well as sensible heat between the two ducts.
Rotating regenerators, in common with many other heat recovery systems, can be used
in hot climates for pre-cooling air used for conditioning large buildings, and the wheel
works effectively in applications where the temperature differences between hot and cold
airstreams are too low for effective use of recuperative heat exchangers.
Many manufacturers produce three different types of rotating regenerator. The most
common form utilizes a wheel made up from a knitted aluminium or stainless steel wire
matrix. This matrix is cheap, and the heat transfer efficiency is high as the airflow is
exposed to a large amount of surface as it~passes through the wheel. However, the
* Some power generating plants use a second type of rotating regenerator, the Rothemuhledesign, which
incorporates a stationary matrix with rotating hoods to distribute the gas and air flows, as shown in Fig. 2.
However, few manufacturersofferthese commerciallyfor process plant applications[1].
D.A. REAY
Warm
our I
Hot
gas
I Jn
air
"~
,...__~ ) 1
't:::5
Rotating
hme~:xeXChange
~
//
Circumferential
' seals
Cold
o,d
in
I ? Cool
o,
out
Fig. 1. Schematic of rotating regenerator.
pressure drop through this type of matrix can be relatively high, and the fouling of the
matrix tends to be more severe than on other types.
Development of laminar flow wheels, in which the matrix is corrugated, resembling a
small pore honeycomb, has alleviated the pressure drop and fouling problems of the
mesh matrix, and this type of wheel is easier to clean, fibres etc. tending to collect on the
face of the matrix. In terms of thermal efficiency the performance of a metallic corrugated
matrix wheel is similar to that of the mesh type.
A third form of matrix used in rotating regenerators is non-metallic. Known as the
hygroscopic wheel, this type can transfer moisture as well as sensible heat, and is particularly useful in heating and ventilating applications. The structure is similar to that of the
Warmair
out
Collar seals
Hot
gos
in
Stationary
heat-exchc
matrix
out
gas
hoods
Cold air
in
Fig. 2. Operation of Rothemuhle regenerator.
A review of gas-gas heat recovery systems
metallic laminar flow wheel. While the hygroscopic wheel is likely to be up to 35Yo more
expensive than the metallic type, the increased capital cost is generally more than offset
by the increased heat transfer attributable to latent heat recovery. The latent heat content
can vary considerably from one application to another, and should be carefully assessed
before settling for a particular unit.
The use of a stainless steel matrix in the regenerator permits operation in exhaust gases
at temperatures in excess of 800C. In some processes regeneration is required at even
higher temperatures (for example in gas turbines and in steel-making plant). Glassceramics and silicone nitrides have been used as core materials 14]. During the last 2-3
years, however, difficulties have been encountered with material degeneration and cracking in some ceramic regenerators.
3.1. Performance and operation

In determining the performance and operating characteristics of a rotating regenerator,
a number of factors must be taken into account, and these include the following:
Operating temperature. As discussed above, the type of matrix used, be it metallic or
ceramic, depends upon the operating temperature range likely to be encountered in the
application.
Operating pressure. In general it is desirable to operate this type of regenerator in
situations where the exhaust and supply gas streams have similar pressures. If knitted
mesh is used for the matrix, there is a potentially large flow path available through the
mesh if pressures are not equalised. In wheels of the laminar flow type, where the gas is
restricted to movement in the axial direction, some pressure differential can be supported
if suitable seals are fitted to the unit. Matrices of this type are used on regenerators in
large boilers (up to 660 MW size in the United Kingdom) and leakages of up to 10~o can
occur, however. To minimise carry-over of contamination, it is preferable to operate the
exhaust stream at a marginally lower pressure than the supply stream.
Cross-contamination. The possibility that contamination of clean supply gas could
occur .with this type of regenerator has led to the incorporation by manufacturers of
purge sections. Here a proportion of the supply air is used to scavenge the matrix section
leaving the exhaust duct, and the contamination or residual exhaust gas is blown back
into the exhaust duct. Proper purge section operation depends on correct fan location so
that the pressure on the supply side is higher than on the exhaust side, and in cases where
this requirement can be met, cross-contamination can be as low as 0.04~ by volume, and
particle carry-over less than 2~. Some manufacturers specify a carry-over of less than
0.1 vol.yo in their literature, and where this factor is critical, their advice should be
sought [5]. Tests in the U.S.A. [6] have shown that, in general, the use of purge sections
on wheels having mesh (or randomly orientated) . media will reduce carry-over to less
than tYo by volume, and to less than 0.2yo where directionally orientated media are used.
Purging is not obtained without sacrificing efficiency. The sizing of system fans may be
increased by up to 10~o of rated volume to handle the greater gas flow requirements, and
if the correct fan arrangement cannot be installed because of practical difficulties, seals
can be incorporated at each radial partition, but these are not nearly as effective, crosscontamination rates possibly then approaching 8 vol.Yo.
On some of the higher temperature metallic regenerators, a separate fan specifically for
purging may be fitted. These may use up to 4 kW in electrical energy, and, together with
the much lower motor power for rotating the heat exchanger, should be accounted for in
any cost analysis.
Very ,high temperature ceramic regenerators also suffer from cross-contamination, but
in the .case of gas turbine units, for a 4:1 engine compression ratio transverse flow
accounts for only about 0.3~o of engine air flow at full speed conditions.
Unequal flow rates. Potential users will find that most manufacturers quote performance figures based on equal supply and exhaust flow rates. If the flows are unequal,
correction factors must be applied. It is normal practice to size the generator for the
maximum flow rate and to select the efficiency on the basis of the lower flow.
D.A. REAY
Exhaust air
from BLDG.
Exhaust air
to weather
Mixer
/
/
Supply
air
from
wheel
/ r ....l /
Outside air
By pass air
Fig. 3. Compensation for unequal flows in a rotating regenerator.
In situations where the inlet gas flow rate is much larger than the exhaust flow, say by
a factor of 4, the rotating regenerator may be selected on the basis of the exhaust flow,
and used to heat only a proportion of the supply air, say 25~. The arrangement for this,
shown in Fig. 3, permits the balance of the supply air to bypass the regenerator, after
which it is mixed with the preheated air.
Pressure drop. The pressure drop through the heat exchanger is a function of gas
velocity and matrix design. Some manufacturers offer two types of matrix, one designed
for optimum heat transfer capability which, because of its greater amount of surface, has
a pressure drop which may be unacceptable in some applications. By compromising on
thermal efficiency, a lower pressure drop unit having larger pores may be adopted.
Typically a high efficiency unit (81% at a velocity of 4 m/s) will have a pressure drop of
approximately 35 N/m 2, whereas the corresponding low pressure drop syst0m will oper,
ate at 76~ efficiency at the same velocity, resulting in a pressure loss of only 17N/m 2. In
comparative assessments of wheel matrix materials, randomly orientated media have
pressure drops proportional to (face velocity)I'~, while the pressure drop in directionally
orientated media is proportional to (face velocity)1"7s.
Control. Most rotating regenerators (excluding high temperature ceramic types) are
driven by electric motors, the power of which on the largest wheels (4 m diameter)
approaches 0.5 kW. For optimum heat transfer, rotational speed is typically 10-20 rev/
min. As this speed reduces, the thermal efficiency is lowered, and hence speed control can
be used to meet reduced heat load duties. Alternatively the supply air may be regulated
using dampers and/or a bypass system. In most industrial processes where a constant
duty is required, any form of modulation will be unnecessary, and a constant speed
motor is recommended.
3.2. Applications
In common with many other types of gas-gas heat recovery systems, the rotating
regenerator is equally applicable in heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) and
process heat recovery, the main differences being in the type of wheel used (hygroscopic
or sensible heat only).
It is now possible to obtain metallic matrix material for HVAC regenerators, the core
of one such unit being of aluminium foil, again formed into a honeycomb. The hygroscopic properties in this instance are ensured by treating the wheel after fabrication so
that a micro-porous layer of aluminium oxide is formed on the surface. This layer has the
same properties as a dry desiccant, absorbing water vapour into the pores.
The need to use a hygroscopic wheel, in spite of the fact that it is more expensive on
first cost than a simple sensible heat metallic wheel, can be judged from the fact that the
latent heat content of air exhaustedTrom buildings can reach almost the same magnitude
as the sensible heat contribution. In addition to the recovery of the heat, however, an
exchange of humidity itself is required in order either to dehumidify the supply air in
summer, or to increase the humidity in winter [7]. Recuperative heat recovery systems,
by virtue of the fact that a solid wall separates the two air streams, are unable to transfer
moisture, and can only affect the temperature of the incoming air.
Kruse and Vauth, following on the research of a number of other workers, including
Spahn & Gnielinski [8], Ruth et al. [9] compared the performance of an asbestos/lithium
chloride (hygroscopic) wheel and an aluminium knitted wire (non-hygroscopic) wheel
under climatic conditions appropriate to HVAC in Germany. Of particular interest was
their work on the formation of frost on the matrices under adverse ambient conditions.
Their results indicate that hygroscopic wheels ice up at lower temperatures (typically
- 2 0 C ambient in their tests) than metallic sensible heat wheels (icing commenced at
-10C). This was attributed to the fact that in the latter case, all moisture was in liquid
form and invariably forms frost when the mean effective rotor temperature falls below
the ice point. They also recommended that the performance of hygroscopic wheels
should be presented by manufacturers in terms of both temperature and humidity.
Unlike the majority of process plant heat recovery operations, where, once set up, the
process operates continuously with little change in exhaust gas conditions, heat
exchangers used in air conditioning plant require, in general, some form of modulation.
On rotating regenerators the primary control technique is to vary the speed of rotation,
and Fig. 4 shows how a typical regenerator is affected, in terms of efficiency, as the speed
of rotation is altered.
The rotating regenerator may also be used in domestic heat recovery, in conjunction
with a forced ventilation system. Although less common at present than the plate heat
exchanger discussed later, its high efficiency should make it worthy of further exploitation in this small, but rapidly growing area of use.
Process heat recovery. Process heat recovery applications of rotating regenerators are
many and varied, ranging from small units of 0.5-1 m in diameter on dryers, to the large
wheels in 660 MW power station boilers, where diameters of 15 m are typical. Operating
temperature ranges vary from just above ambient to 1000C, and a wide range of
materials are available to meet corrosion and thermal stress requirements in these processes.
At the top end of the temperature scale, the British Steel Corporation has been working on a ceramic rotating regenerator for use on large reheat furnaces. Flexible seals are
used to minimise gas leakage between the two flow regimes [10]. The regenerator will
provide a constant air preheat without any of the thermal downgrading or switching loss
I
'r
Air velocity
2 m/s
3 mls
:-
4 mls
70
.
6c
5C
40
30
20
I0
I
I
I0
Rotor speed, r e v / m i n
Fig. 4. Efficiency of a Flakt rotating regenerator as a function of rotational speed.
10
D. A. REAY
Gloss tank
I
Chequer
~brickwork
500 =
7~
J
Flue gas
ta stack
Fig. 5. Additional heat recovery on a flat glass tank.
of static regenerators (such as the type used in glass melting furnaces) and will achieve
efficiencies in the region of 90%. Because the level of refractory utilisation is very high
(about 2000 W/kg compared with less than 100 W/kg for a static regenerator), the unit
will be much more compact than the equivalent static unit.
It has been estimated by the British Steel Corporation that if applied to a 150 t/h
reheat furnace, a rotating regenerator of this type could save 500000 per annum by
raising the air preheat temperature from 400 to 900C.
Howden, one of the major manufacturers of large rotating regenerators for process use
in the United Kingdom, have estimated [11] that the total annual value of fuel savings
potentially available from the recovery of flue gas heat in three industrial sectors, (oil
refining, steel and aluminium, and packaged boilers) is 286 million. Heat wheels have
been developed for use in these and other energy-intensive processes such as glassmaking. Figure 5 shows the layout of an installation, using a stainless steel heat recovery
unit, downstream of the conventional brick static regenerators, on a glass melting furnace. By reducing the exhaust gas temperature from 700C down to 400C, fuel savings
of 20% are achievable. Work, also using a stainless steel unit, has been carried out using
support from the European Economic Community, with a view to demonstrating its
suitability in the aluminium manufacturing industry.
Another area of application where a heat wheel can be used is in the printing industry.
In this instance a rotating regenerator was installed in the exhaust from coating and
gravure machines at Harrison & Sons Ltd. These machines use large quantities of hot air
for evaporating off solvents in the inks and coating materials. Heat is frequently wasted
by directly exhausting the air to atmosphere following passage through the printing
machine, although in some cases solvent recovery is practised [12].
In this particular factory, the air supply to the coating and gravure installation is
heated by circulating heat transfer oil through finned tubes over which the air flows. The
maximum heater output is 12700 M J/h, at which rate consumption is 0.39 m3/h of 3500 s
fuel oil. By recovering 70~ of the heat in the exhaust air, the fuel bill can be reduced by
600 per week, based on current fuel oil prices. Two regenerators are used in the plant,
and the location in one machine is shown in Fig, 6. They have diameters of 2 m and are
280 mm thick.
The total installation cost was 42000, of which 11000 is attributable to thermal
wheel costs. Much of the ductwork used, which is included in the above cost. would be
A re~ie~ of gas-gas heat recoverysystems
lI
~xh~ust c)lr t'0
HmOt oIr
Heated ozr
1o machine B2*C
Fig. 6. Rotating regenerator used to recover heat from a coating and gravure plant.
necessary to remove exhaust even if heat recovery was not used. In this case the payback
period on the investment is substantially less than two years.
Static regenerators. The static regenerator, the operating principle of which is illustrated in Fig. 7, takes several forms, and is commonly associated with high temperature
processes such as glass melting furnaces. Static regenerative heat exchangers are in effect
heat storage devices, the heat store often being required to function over a comparatively
short cycle time.
By switching the gas flows through the regenerator core, the core is alternately exposed
to the hot exhaust and cold supply air streams. The exhaust gas heats up the core
material, which may be a stack of bricks, as in glass melting furnace regenerators, and
then the supply air is directed through the core, picking up heat retained by the core
before passing to the process where it is to be used.
A comparatively recent development has been the design and application of static
regenerative systems in domestic heat recovery units. With this exception, progress in the
field of regenerative heat exchangers of this type awaits further application of heat
storage systems under development for longer term storage, and more sophisticated
control techniques, possibly microprocessor-based.
4. PLATE HEAT EXCHANGERS
The gas-to-gas plate heat exchanger takes several forms, two of which are illustrated in
Figs 8 and 9. They normally involve a cross-flow configuration, although some approach
Heated
supply
air A
f
1
Flow ~ - control
volves.~_
Cooled
exhaust
Regenerator
core
[
t
Gas
flow
./
I
Hot
exhaust
SupPly
air
Fig. 7. Operation of a static regenerator.
--~ Flow
control
/valves
12
D.A. ReAY
Fig. 8. A conventional plate heat exchanger module.

counterflow, and are available in a variety of materials to cover HVAC and process
operating conditions. As with regenerative and heat pipe types, the exhaust and inlet
ducts must be brought together at the location of the heat exchanger.
The materials of construction of the plates used, depending upon the application and
operating temperature range, range from paper to metal, glass and ceramics, Impregnated paper heat exchanger elements are used in HVAC applications, one Japanese unit,
the Lossnay heat exchanger, being available for use as a room air conditioning system for
houses, where flows as low as 100 m3/h may exist.
The operating principle of the Lossnay plate heat exchanger element, which is a
cross-flow unit, differs fundamentally from that of the other plate heat exchangers discussed below in that moisture transfer can occur via capillary action and/or osmosis in
the treated paper which forms the barrier between the two airstreams.
It is possible to qualitatively examine the performance differences between a sensible
heat unit and total heat Lossnay unit by studying the psychometric chart in Fig. 10.
Point A on the chart represents the condition of air supplied to a room using sensible
heat units, and point S represents conditions obtained using the Lossnay unit. tNote that
suffices OA = outdoor air, RA = return air, and SA = supply air.) Thus air is dehumidified in summer and humidified in winter, in addition to being changed in temperature.*
The implications of this in terms of heat transport capability and humidity changes
may be seen with reference to Table 1, for winter conditions.
Moving up to the temperature scale to encompass industrial process heat recovery, a
wide variety of metallic plate heat exchangers exist. Utilizing aluminium, mild or stainless steel, or coated metals (the coating being commonly plastic-based as an anti-corro* Note that in any heat exchanger in a gas stream the recover? of latent heat is possible ~'here condensation
occurs, but, except in the case of the hygroscopic plate or rotating regenerator, this does not involve an
exchange of moisture.
A review of gas gas heat recovery systems
13
........
Fig. 9. A plate heat exchanger employingglass plates.

sion protection), the plates may be corrugated to increase the heat transfer surface per
unit volume of heat exchanger, or to promote turbulence. The surface of the Munters
Econovent EX series (or Econoplate in North America), a module of which is illustrated
in Fig. 11, is typical of the form used, the plates in this case being aluminium. The
corrugations also serve as pathways for condensate transport and removal to the drain
pan at the lower apex of the heat exchanger, and prevent entrainment of the condensate.
It is interesting to note that the modules may be mounted in parallel to cater for high
flow rates, one module handling up to 1.5 m3/s. Modules are also removable for cleaning.
A novel feature of the Munters system, which may also be applied in HVAC systems, is a
freeze protection device. Illustrated in Fig. 12, this small lid is traversed by a motor
across the outdoor air side of the heat exchanger core, temporarily inhibiting the cooling
effect of the fresh air, thus permitting the core of the exchanger to increase in temperature.
The selection of plate heat exchangers (in common with many other types of heat
recovery unit) is becoming relatively easy insofar that many manufacturers now produce
selection charts, particularly for use at the HVAC end of the temperature scale. The
modular construction of most units simplifies this procedure still further. Figure 13
shows a capacity chart for the Munters Econovent EX10/11 plate heat exchanger. With
the assistance of a psychometric chart, and knowledge of flows, temperatures and humidities of the ambient and exhaust air, it is possible to select the number of modules
required, predict supply and exhaust side pressure drops, and the supply air conditions
H.R.S. J I
14
D.A. REaY
/......
Outside air /
~
condition ~
in winter
o/zj,, kc
O//~ ,
-?g
~
---4
/~-
I,
/Y
~-~_.'~__~/
P
%%..
r, IAir condition at the

Ioutlet of Lossnoy into
~.lthe room
t,'
~, / ,
i
9 ::o
I Room air condition
J in winter
Room air condihon

in summer
/
'r~-L
X, u~
outlet of Lossnay into

the room
.~ I
"~-~
|/
"~WO
Outside air
condit on n summer
Absolute humidity, kg/kg'

Fig. 10. Psychometric chart showing Lossnay unit performance.
after the heat exchanger, together with heat exchanger efficiency. (It must of course be
emphasised that the input data should be accurate--a fact sometimes overlooked when
assessing the potential benefits of heat recovery systems.)
Applicable in both HVAC and process plants, although more attractive at present in
the latter because of capital costs, is the glass plate heat exchanger. The use of glass in
heat exchangers is not new, but fouling and corrosion problems associated with many
metallic heat recovery units have led to increased interest in glass plate (and tubular)
recuperators. Differing little in design from its metallic counterparts, the glass plate heat
exchanger has found application in the textile industry and in the paper industry on
drying plant. Where powders and other particulate matter are being dried, the ease with
which glass heat exchangers can be cleaned is an advantage. A certain amount of care is
needed in ensuring that the differential pressure between inlet and exhaust ducts is not
excessive, and the benefits of cleanability and lack of corrosion must be weighed against
the size (extended surfaces are not used on glass) and cost.
Table 1. Performance of Lossnay unit
Air into room
Dry bulb temp. ( C )

Absolute humidity (g/kg)
Relative humidity (o~,)
Enthalpy (kcal/kg)
Heat recovered (kcal/h)
Outside air
Sensible heat exch.
Lossnay
0
1.9
50
1.1
15
1.9
lg
47
433
t5
5.4
52
6.9
689
15
Exhaust
fly
Condensat~
Fig. 11. Econovent EX plate heat exchanger module.
In order to reduce the volume of the heat exchanger, considerable amounts of

extended surface may be incorporated between the plates, as is visible in Fig. 14, which is
a cut-away view of the Beltran & Cooper aluminium plate heat exchanger. In this
context, it is interesting to note that [13], in comparing the four major types of gas-gas
heat recovery systems, showed that the 'compactness' of the plate type was less than that
of the other three, as follows:
Heat exchanger
Compactness
(W/m3/C)
Heat pipe
Heat wheel
Run-around coil
Plate
7200
5400
4680
4140
The data was obtained from an analysis of commercially available units for operation
in the temperature range 30-300C.
The use of metallic plate heat exchangers in industrial processes has in some instances
been limited by the technique used for sealing the gap between the plates and the
supporting structure. Epoxy-based resins and other cements have been used, and the
application of ceramic based cements is now overcoming this temperature limitation
problem. Ceramic cores capable of operating in exhaust gas streams of 1350C are now
available.
4.1. Applications and economics
Some application areas of plate heat exchangers have already been mentioned. Uses
differ little from those of the other types of gas-gas heat recovery units listed above, but
Fig. 12. Freeze protection device on the Econovent unit.
16
D.A. REAY
% % supply oir efficiency~
AT
W e , q e x l . 2 x ~ kd/s, "C
At
A~" is token from process line
in psychrometic chort
8C
7C ~
66*/,--
50
Heat capacity flow Ws, kJls, C
40
I*~l,,i
m3/~ air flow q~
I I *!~tll I I I I I " I ' ' H t I '

3
I0
w,I
20
,////
g
qt~
qfm
(~
I I'1"11
3.6
Po pressure drop Ap
5ooF
4oot-
I /
~'
I
I
I I j I
2
I I I )~1I
3
4 5
I I, I I I I I I ~ l l l
10
20
Exhoust air flow qe, m3/s
Fig. 13. Capacity chart for Econovent EXI0/II unit.
advantages of, in general, zero leakage and simplicity (no moving parts) must be weighed
against the need to bring ducts together at the heat exchanger location. The use of glass
plates, while introducing its own limitations, offers scope in fouled and corrosive gas
Fig. 14. Incorporation of fins in the Beltran & Cooper plate heat exchanger.
A reviewof gas-gas heat recoverysystems
17
streams, and the low cost of modules for the domestic sector has attracted several studies
of their potential (and that of other systems) even in UK climatic conditions. A 'disposable' plate module, not described in this paper but discussed elsewhere in the Journal, is
one answer to heat recovery in situations where cleaning is difficult or impractical.
HVAC applications of plate heat exchangers are many, including commercial buildings, hospitals, and swimming pools. An example of the economics of the glass plate heat
exchanger is given by the Air Froelich data for a unit installed in a swimming pool in
Switzerland. An indoor swimming complex containing two baths was studied, and ventilation equipment sized on the basis of the following data:
Maximum number of swimmers
Room temperature
Room humidity
Water temperature
Total surfaceof water
370
30C
60%
26C
427 mz
Quantity of air: Intake air/exhaust air: 32800/

21000m3/h; Fresh air/exhaust air: Variable (depending
on the humidity of the fresh air).
By installing a glass plate heat exchanger at the outset, the heating boiler specified
could be reduced in size, as could the heater battery in the air conditioning equipment.
This amounts to a reduction of 120000 kcal/h in the heating requirement, leading to a
reduction in running costs of Swiss Francs 17700 a year at a fuel price of approximately
Swiss Francs 18/100 kg (prices in 1973).
The pay-back period of the additional heat recovery equipment would be approximately 3.3 years, and the savings over the life of the pool are illustrated in Fig. 15.
Industrial applications of plate heat exchangers have concentrated largely on drying
plant, partly because of limitations on the maximum temperature of some of the units.
However, process-to-process heat recovery applications are becoming more widespread.
The Oak Medical plant in the U.S.A. is typical of the oven applications of plate heat
exchangers where heat may be reused in the process. This company manufactures surgical plastic gloves, and the production process includes a curing stage in an oven. Prior to
installation of waste heat recovery equipment, more than 11 500 m3/h of air at 150C was
being discharged to atmosphere. Since fitting the heat recovery unit on one of the oven
exhausts, plate exchanger manufactured by United Air Specialists and marketed under
the name 'Temp-X-Changer', the incoming air to the process, at a flow rate of
10000 m3/h, is being heated from ambient (21C) to 93C, saving approximately 8 therms
per hour. The annual saving in the first year was $9600 for an installed cost of $12400,
and the success of this project has led to further investment in heat recovery by this
company.
1000,000
900,000
800,000
700,000
Running costs without

heat recovery
600,000
._~ 5 0 0 , 0 0 0
c
400,000
a:
300,000
,oo,
Poy b0ck period
Running costs
with heat recovery
~ , I i If, i , J , I , I I t , l , l , t
,I, It lilf
i,l,
,,I I
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 t9 20
Yeors of service
Fig. 15. Economics of Air Froehlich heat exchanger.
18
D.A. RE,v
The recovery of process heat for space heating is also a viable proposition, as can be
shown by the following example of a plant recently installed in a heat treatment furnace:
Objective To recover heat from the exhaust stack of a continuous Heat Treatment
Factors
System
Conveyor Tunnel Furnace and use it for industrial warm air space heating, to
provide basic background heating over a wide area, thereby gaining maximum utilisation of the plant.
1.
Stack temperature Max. 95C Min. 45C Average 65C (from recorder).
2.
Stack gas flow rate average 3.14 m3/s (at temperature).
3.
Workshop temperature 20C.
4.
Utilisation: Furnace runs for 120 h per week.
Heated areas occupied for 80 h per week.
1.
Total stack loss based on an internal temperature of 20C = 1455 kW.
2.
Using 70% heat recovery efficiency = 101 kW heating input.
3.
Based on current fuel costs and overall plant efficiency 75,% cost to
generate 1 kW = 0.76 p/h.
Cost saving = 76.5 p/h.
4.
Based on 80 h utilisation per week.
Cost return rate = 61.00 per week.
5.
Heat exchanger--Laminaire $2-336.
Ex works cost 2000. Approximate cost returned in 33 weeks use.
This data was prepared by Laminaire Products. Note that the heat exchanger cost is
for the basic unit, and in order to do a more realistic payback analysis, installation costs
should be known. In this case the operating temperature is not sufficiently h i ~ to inflate
installation costs, and the only unknown is the availability of ductwork to transfer heat
from the furnace flue to the areas to be space heated.
5. RUN-AROUND COILS
The run-around coil system, sometimes referred to as a lipid-coupled indirect heat

exchanger network, or a coil heat recovery loop, can be a highly effective and readily
installed waste heat recovery technique, particularly when it is desirable to locate a
system without the need to reroute ductwork. This makes it particularly attractive for
'retrofit' installations and sets it apart from the other types of heat recovery units dis-
.it
to
.~.
)l'c
4 Extract air 27C.
Ir~_:.
no
o n e
system.- Duct
mounted coils.
F'A!.-5"C.
(Fresh air input.)
Fig. 16. Run-around coil layout.
19
cussed in this paper. In its simplest form, used for HVAC and low temperature process
waste heat recovery, it consists of standard extended surface finned tube water coils, used
with a circulating pump. As illustrated in Fig. 16, one coil is located in the exhaust gas
stream, and the other is located in the duct through which the air to be preheated is
flowing. The pump is used to circulate water, an anti-freeze solution, or a higher temperature heat transfer fluid such as Dowtherm or a heat transfer mineral oil through the
two coils. The liquid picks up heat from the exhaust gas as it passes through the coil in
that duct, and subsequently rejects the heat to the incoming air stream before being
pumped back to the exhaust gas coil.
Run-around coils cater for air precooling in Summer in HVAC applications, and, in
common with other types of air-air recovery systems, can be incorporated by many
manufacturers in a 'package', together with fans, filters, control circuitry, etc.
One of the principal advantages of the run-around coil system is its ability to operate
effectively without having to reroute ductwork. Because the intermediate heat transfer
medium is a liquid, the coils in the exhaust and inlet air ducts can be many meters apart,
even on different floors of a building, and the interconnecting pipework takes up little
space and is much cheaper to install than air ducting. This has obvious benefits when the
system is to be 'retrofitted' to a HVAC installation or item of process plant, but can also
lead to cost savings when incorporated at the design stage.
Run-around coils rely on sensible heat recovery, at least in their basic form, although
the occurrence of condensation on the coil in the hot exhaust duct may result in the
capture of some latent heat content also. Maximum efficiencies are about 70~, but
operation in the efficiency range of 40-60~ is more typical.
Two other merits of the run-around coil may be cited. Because an intermediate heat
transfer fluid is used in a sealed system, no cross-contamination between the two gas
streams can occur. Also, the coils used in the ducts are widely used on their own as
heaters, evaporators, and condensers in most HVAC plant, and are therefore available
from a large number of manufacturers and at very competitive prices.
The pump may introduce a reliability factor into the system, being the only moving
part, but for water/glycol and water intermediate heat transfer fluids problems should
occur very infrequently. Pumps for high temperature heat transfer fluids can, however, be
expensive.
An excellent analysis of the practical engineer of a high temperature liquid-coupled
heat exchanger loop is given by Boyen 113]. In considering both fired heaters and systems employing waste heat from, for example, gas turbines or incinerators, Boyen points
out that two-phase, as well as single phase systems may be used. Charging of the system
with Dowtherm A, one of several working fluids which may be used in both vapour and
liquid phases, offers advantages in a number of applications. In processes where heat
uniformity is important, condensing vapour offers precise temperature control. If a single
phase system was used, extreme flow rates would be necessary in order to maintain a
similar degree of precision.
In designing single and two-phase run-around coil systems utilising high temperature
organic fluids as the intermediate heat transfer medium, it is important to have an
accurate knowledge of the maximum film temperature, which the fluid is likely to
achieve. This has a critical bearing on the life of the fluid and the successful long-term
operation of the unit at peak efficiency. (Manufacturers of the various fluids are able to
advise on the limiting values and degradation rates.)
Coils for use at high temperatures (above 200C) may differ significantly in design and
arrangement to those used in HVAC and low temperature process applications. The
finned tubes may, for instance, be arranged in a spiral around the inner wall of the duct
carrying the hot exhaust gas, as shown in Fig. 17. Individually finned tubes used in such
a configuration may prove easier to clean in cases where the exhaust gas contamination
is high. At these higher temperatures the sensible heat effectiveness of the units is generally about 10--15~ less than those using water as the working fluid, due to the reduced
heat transfer capabilities of these thermal fluids.
20
D.A. REAY
Fig. 17. Spiral gas-liquid coil as used on some run-around systems.
The application areas for run-around coils differ little from those of other gas-gas heat
recovery units. However their use in high temperature processes is limited by the availability of suitable working fluids. Most of the organic fluids used should not be taken
above 350C, and as yet a pumped loop using liquid metals has not received serious
consideration.
Where duct location or the expense involved in rerouting of duct prohibits the use of
other heat recovery systems, the run-around coil is the only commonly available unit,
particularly for HVAC applications. It is also, however, particularly effective in process
to space and process to process heat recovery applications. The system shown in Fig. 18,
installed by Flakt in Sweden, is a complex arrangement of coils used to recover heat
process exhausts in a sausage skin manufacturing plant. The recovered heat is then used
to preheat clean incoming process make-up air. In this instance the total investment of
70000 was recovered in less than one year, and it is interesting to note that the use of
liquid-coupled heat exchangers facilitate heat transfer between different floors within the
same building.
Run-around coils of both the single and two-phase type have been applied in kilns in
malting plant, although the former have been the most successful to date. Depending
upon the firing system used and the type of pollution anticipated in the exhaust gas
stream, the coil in this stream may be of a different material and fin pitching than that
used to heat the make-up air. In one malting plant installation, for example, the exhaust
gas coil is of all-copper construction, coated with a protective plastic film, whereas the
other coil is constructed along lines identical to that used in most HVAC units---copper
tubes expanded into aluminium plate fins on a close pitch.
A new area of considerable interest to static heat exchanger manufacturers is the field
of boiler air preheaters. As with the heat pipe heat recovery unit, the run-around coil
Min-14"C
Recoveryf
35" 38%
l
<
%.
I,
Fig. 18. A run-around coil complex used for heat recovery in a sausage skin factory.
A revie,xof gas-gas heat recoverysystems
21
may be used on large steam-raising plant (multi-MW size) to recover heat from the
exhaust gases for boiler air preheating. Traditionally the large boiler air preheater market
has been dominated by regenerative heat exchangers, principally the rotating regenerator
but. to a lesser extent, the Rothemule regenerator. Regenerative units are now receiving
competition from the run-around coil, which, using economizer technology, can be successfully applied in this application. The largest installation to date in the UK is at
Stanlow refinery.
6. CONVECTION (TUBULAR) RECUPERATORS
The tubular convection recuperator comes in many forms, depending upon the operating temperature range, plant size. and the type of fouling in the exhaust gas stream. In
this section a number of different types are described and applications listed. It is difficult
to generalise on the rate of return following investment in these units because of the wide
variety of applications, but data from Air Frot,~qich, tabulated later in the section, gives
an idea of the potential for their particular unit in several process industries.
6.1. Low temperature units
As with any type of heat recovery unit. the technological problems to be overcome in
the design and operation of tubular recuperators increase with increasing process exhaust
gas temperatures, and at temperatures below about 250C, several interesting types of
tubular recuperator exist which bear little resemblance to their higher temperature
counterparts.
The most interesting of these is the glass tube recuperator, an example of which,
manufactured by Air Froehlich, is shown in Fig. 19. A glass tubular heat exchanger (like
the glass plate heat exchanger described in another section) is very easy to clean and has
excellent resistance to corrosion. In common with all other tubular recuperators, one gas
stream flows across the tubes, which in this case are not finned, and the other stream
passes through the tubes, effecting a cross-flow arrangement. Of course, the two gas
streams are completely sealed from one another, thus no cross-contamination can occur.
In some tubular recuperators, a number of passes on the tube side are used, and this is
illustrated later in the case of a high temperature unit. It is also possible, although not
common, to put the dirty gas stream through the insides of the tubes, which may, with
some types of deposits, be easier to clean than the outside of the tubes.
Fig. 19. A glass tube recuperator.
Wood
Fodder
Brewing
Pump and
paper
Fertilizer
Chemical
Food
Ceramics
Textile
finishing
Industry
High-temperature air
drying of printed
textiles
High-temperature
thermofixation
Drying and granulating
with spray dryers
Powdertzation of
milk, coffee, potatoes,
etc. with spray dryers
Powderization of
colouring agents
Kiln-drying of malt
Pulp and paper
drying
Drying of animal
dung
Grass drying
with cyfinder
Pressboard chip
drying
Process description
120-150
20000-50000
5000-50000
5000-20000
90-110
90-100
30000 250000
40000-200000
20000
up to 200000
20-70
60-100
100
60-140
5000-50000
up to 100000
150-250
50-150
5000-20000
(kg/h)
(C)
70-160
Average air
volume
Exhaust air
temperature
Wood-dust resin
Dust graphite
Dust, partially moist
Dust, combustion impurities

Pumping fibres
Powder
Powder
Ceramic powder combustion impurities
Fibres resin
Dyestuff urea fibres
Exhaust air
impurities
4000
3000
6000
4000
5000
4000
8400
6000
4000
2500
(h)
Average yearly
operating time
Table 2. Application and economic data on glass tube recuperators (Air Froehlich)
690
360
540
170
511)
520
1080
780
I100
400
0.6
1.2
0.8
2.2
0.9
11.85
04
0.6
0.4
Recoverable energy
per year with
Payback period
lO000 kg/h air
for additional
volume (Gcal)
investment (years)
3,
2~
Exhaust
23
35"C
-20"C
9000 m~/h
Fresh air
"
I~
Gloss tube~ ' ' j ~

recuperotor
<1,
9000 m3/h
Fig. 20. Glass tube recuperator downstream of a dryer hood.
Table 2 gives data on the heat recovery capacity and the resulting pay-back period for
glass tube recuperators in a number of industrial processes. As with other heat
exchangers, the heat recovery capability depends on the temperature difference between
the hot and cold gas streams, and this is to some extent reflected in the pay-back figures,
when related to the exhaust temperatures in the third column. In most cases these units
are designed to recover between 60 and 70~ of the heat in the exhaust gas stream.
As an example of a plant in operation for several years, consider an installation in a
textile factory. In a textile finishing machine with cylinder dryers, fumes and vapour are
extracted through hoods over the dryer section and then exhausted to the atmosphere.
This exhaust air has to be replaced by outside air preheated to a temperature of 20--25C
for working space ventilation. As illustrated in Fig. 20 complete heating of outside air is
accomplished without any external energy, i.e. no heating coils are installed in the ventillation plant. Even if the outside air temperature is as low as - 20C, all energy necessary
to raise the temperature to the required level is recovered from the exhaust air which is at
30-35C. In order not to overheat the textile plant during the warmer periods of the year,
supply air temperature is controlled by a bypass in the exhaust air duct.
In this installation the fouling in the exhaust air was the primary reason for selecting a
glass heat exhanger. This consists mainly of dust, fibres and sticky components from the
finishing process, and settles on the inlet side of the heat exchanger. From time to time
the residues are flushed away with a permanently installed sprinkler nozzle. No depositions could be found in the unit itself, mainly due to the fine surface structure of glass
and the high air velocity along the surface.
Operating savings on this unit amounted to about 6000 Swiss Francs per annum. A
number of simple tubular recuperators using metal tubes are also available for use at low
gas temperatures. If fouling is not a problem, the use of external (and in some cases
preferably with internal) tube finning is advantageous in helping to keep the size of the
heat exchanger within reasonable proportions.
6.2. High temperature recuperators
Metallic convection recuperators can be used where gas approach temperatures are
less than 1000C, although higher temperatures can be permitted if special materials and
construction techniques are used. Originally all recuperators were made from ceramic
materials, but these units suffered from serious leakage problems, and have today been
largely superseded by metallic recuperators, except in some special cases (see below).
There are two basic types of convection recuperator, those which use cast tubes and
those using drawn tubes which are assembled in bundles, in common with many other
types of heat exchanger. The use of cast tubes is normally recommended for low pressure
applications, where leakage is unlikely to be a significant replacement is relatively
easy [14].
The tubes used are available either plain or with a wide variety of extended surface
configurations. Wide pitching of surface projections is used when the exhaust gas flow
may be heavily contaminated. In some cases, the outside of the tubes may be left completely bare. However the overall heat transfer through a tube of this type may be
24
D.A. REAY
I air
Preheoted
inlet__J ~ L~~ LILo

lg
~/////////~
LCold air
11II
~/~;;,';,
Waste
gas
outlet
; :; ; ;~,
Fig. 21. A 4-pass cast composite tubular recuperator installation.
maintained at an acceptable level by retaining the extended surfaces on the inside of the
tube, through which the air to be heated is passed.
An alternative method of location used on cast tube recuperators involves the use of
end flanges with integrally cast steel expansion joints. This permits the tubes to be
welded together to form tube banks of any size. A 4-pass horizontal flue case composite
tube recuperator designed by Thermal Efficiency Ltd is illustrated in Fig. 2L It can be
seen that both bare and externally finned tubes are used in this installation. These rows
of plain spun alloy steel tubes containing a percentage of chromium and nickel, are
arranged in front of the composite tubes to safeguard the latter from localised heating,
created by non-uniform and excessive radiation. The chromium provides a resistance to
oxidation at high temperatures, the the nickel content improved ductility in areas where
high thermal stresses are likely to be encountered. Typical uses of these units include
soaking pit and re-heat surface recuperation, where an additional requirement is for
resistance to abrasive and sintered dust laden gases. Although tube replacement is not as
conveniently carried out as with bolted units, each tube can be removed from the bundle
once the weld beads have been ground off.
Composite tube recuperators are used exclusively as convection type heat exchangers
with waste gas temperatures of up to 950C. Using the plain spun tube system described
above, the temperature range can be slightly extended. The unit in Fig. 22 can operate in
gases at 1100C. Drawn steel tube recuperators are available in many forms. Each tube
bundle is attached to header boxes, and the construction technique used allows the tubes,
and individual tube bundles, to expand relative to one another. In some systems the
tubes are also bent at their mid point to minimise stresses arising from thermal expansion. These recuperators are often used where it is required to recover a considerable
proportion of the radiation heat, and the tubes are generally n o t finned. However conduction through the wall is enhanced by the fact that whereas cast recuperator tubes
have wall thicknesses of the order of 8 ram, drawn tubes may have a thickness of only
3 ram.
It has been stated above that metallic recuperators have largely superseded the refractory type. However, high pressure/high temperature ceramic recuperators have been
overcome using a ceramic fibre packing ~ d
on aluminium silicate. An example of such
a recuperator, with tubes of 'Carbofrax' and "Refrax' produced by the Carborundum
Company, connected directly to the outlet of a high temperature kiln, is designed to
accept 0.86 m3/s of gas at 1800C, giving an air pre-heat temperature of 1200C and a
heat transfer ate of 104 kW.
The Corporate Engineering Laboratories of the British Steel Corporation (BSC)
worked for a number of years on ceramic high temperature recuperators and regener-
A review of gas gas heat recovery systems
25
Fig. 22. Spun cast flue type recuperator.
ators for steel plant applications. The ceramic recuperator, which can preheat combustion air to 650=C is illustrated in Fig. 23. A prototype system commenced operation in
November 1973, and its performance is considerably better than metallic recuperators.
particularly as far as restrictions on operating temperating temperature are concerned.
Leakage problems are also minimised by the use of flexible ceramic seals.
A design problem area with tubular recuperators, particularly at high temperatures.
has been the effect of differential expansion on the tube-to-tube plate joints. In some
instances tubes have been bent, in the form of a U, to join a common header, as a means
of overcoming this difficulty. Where ceramic tubes have been used in conjunction with
metallic headers, ceramic fibre rope has been employed in an attempt to obtain a flexible
seal [10], but leakages in excess of 15% led to the abandonment of this system in favour
of a new seal design. High nickel/chrome steels are preferred to ceramics by some, and
preheats of 550-600'C are possible in aggressive environments using metallic tubular
recuperators, and hybrid ceramic/metallic recuperators have provided preheats of 700C
in the steel industry.
7. RADIATION RECUPERATORS
Radiation recuperators take two basic forms. They may consist of two concentric
cylinders, the air to be heated normally flowing through the outer annulus while the
26
D . A . REAY
Glazed
ceramic
tube
\ -~,
\
\x
HeQder
~
box
\.
\,
\\
Fig. 23. British Steel ceramic tube recuperator.
exhaust gas flow through the central duct. Alternatively, the unit may be built up with
tubes between two headers.
Compared with the convection recuperator, the radiation type offers very low resistance to gas flow and in most instances never needs cleaning. The dirtiest of exhaust gases
can be permitted through it, and by its nature this type of recuperator can also act as
part of the chimney or flue.
The size of radiation recuperator can vary considerably, the largest units being about
50 m long and 3 m in diameter. Radiation recuperators can be constructed using tubes to
Gas in
Fig. 24. Combined radiant tube heater and recuperator.
27
Fig. 25. lnka Radiation recuperator.
separate the exhaust gas and air, rather than a single annulus. These are used in instances
when preheat temperatures in excess of 600C are required. It is preferable to use parallel
flow of air and gas in these, as the tubes tend to be subject to near equal temperatures
along their whole length, thus keeping temperature-induced stresses to a minimum.
The radiation recuperator is generally regarded as being the most reliable of the two
main types available, and has the longest life.
As well as applications involving heat recovery from boiler and furnace exhausts, the
radiation recuperator may be used in conjunction with a radiant tube heater, forming
self-contained radiant tube heater and recuperator unit, as shown in Fig. 24. The recuperator replaces the normal exhaust stack on individual radiant tubes, absorbing heat which
is then used to preheat combustion air for the burner.
One of the main application areas for tubular radiation recuperators is in glass melting
furnaces. Such a unit, manufactured by Johnson Construction Company AB consists of a
bundle of tubes hanging freely in a vertical refractory shaft, as shown in Fig. 25. The
bundle of tubes, which serves as the heating surface, is made of high alloy heat-resistant
steel and welded as one unit. The inlet and outlet are placed on two ring manifolds,
between which the tubes are welded.
One of the main advantages of such a recuperator over conventional ceramic regenerators used on glass furnaces is the weight reduction. Metals in glass furnace exhaust gas
streams have suffered from corrosion and severe fouling, but with the correct selection of
materials, and reliance on radiation as the mode of heat transfer, these difficulties can be
overcome and lives equivalent to that of the furnace lining (5-10 years) can be achieved
without repairs.
8. R E C U P E R A T I V E B U R N E R S
Descriptions have already been given of several types of recuperators, many of which
are applied for the preheating of combustion air. These include the radiant tube recuperator described above, which may be directly linked to a burner to provide this combustion air preheat. However, it is also possible to integrate the recuperator within the body
of the burner.
One of the most successful recuperative burners is that developed by the Midlands
Research Station of British Gas, and their design is illustrated in Fig. 26. The unit
consists of a high velocity nozzle-mixing burner, in itself an effective burner because of
the good heat transfer obtained by directing high velocity hot gases over the furnace
load, surrounded by a counter-flow heat exchanger. This heat exchanger supplies hot
28
D A. REACt
c o m b u s t i o n products
..
comOus,,on.,,, ,e,
products
o. o , ust,on
Fig. 26. Recuperative burner schematic
combustion air to the burner nozzle. The heat exchanger consists of a series of concentric
tubes which act as interfaces between the combustion gases and the air to be preheated,
and is made from a heat resisting steel.
In operation, the combustion air enters the burner at a manifold, which totally
encloses the flue annuli. It then passes forward along the air annulus, thus keeping the
external surfaces of the recuperator cool. Flue products are extracted in a counterflow
direction around the outside of the air annulus and thus preheat the air. At the front of
the recuperator the air flow doubles back and enters the burner nozzle. The gas and
preheated air mix at the nozzle, on the face of which the flame stabilises, and combustion
is essentially complete before the gases pass into the furnace chamber. Exit velocities
from the burner tunnel considerably exceed 50m/s. Normally all the combustion
products are extracted through the recuperator, assisted by the use of an air-driven
eductor mounted on the flue of the burner. By controlling the amount of eductor air the
furnace pressure can be maintained at the desired level.
9. HEAT PIPE HEAT EXCHANGERS
The heat pipe heat exchanger used for gas-gas heat recovery is essentially a bundle of
finned heat pipes assembled like a conventional air-cooled heat exchanger, Because the
heat pipe is a comparatively recent development in the waste heat recovery field, it will
be discussed in some detail in this context. It is in many ways, however, similar to the
Perkins tube, a two-phase thermosyphon which was in regular use until the t960"s as a
heat transfer device in bread ovens, and which was invented in the 19th century.
9.1. The heat pipe
A heat pipe [15] is basically a sealed container, normally in the form of a tube,
containing a wick lining the inside wall. The purpose of the wick is to transport a
working fluid, contained within the heat pipe, from one end to the other by capillary
action. The full operating cycle may be described with reference to Fig. 27. Heat applied
externally to the evaporator section of the heat pipe causes the working fluid contained
within the wick to evaporate, and the increase in pressure causes the vapour to flow
along the central vapour space to the slightly cooler condenser section, where it condenses, giving up its latent heat of condensation. This heat is then rejected from the outer
surface of the condenser, and the condensate is pumped back to the evaporator by the
capillary action in the wick. Because of the reliance on capillary action to return the
29
" i
, , u,o
,o
5 Heat out
Fig. 27. The heat pipe.
condensate to the heat input section, the heat pipe is particularly sensitive to the effects
of gravity, and hence its inclination to the horizontal. Depending of course on the type of
wick used and its pore size, a heat pipe operating with the evaporator below the condenser may be capable of transporting several times as much as one having the evaporator above the condenser. This is particularly important in long heat pipes (more than
500 mm in length), and its implications with respect to heat pipe exchangers are discussed
below.
In cases where gravity aids return of the condensate to the evaporator section, it is
possible to omit the wick, either in whole or in part. The device then becomes a simple
thermosyphon. It should be noted here than some manufacturers use the term 'thermosyphon' to describe the basis of their heat recovery equipment, while others use 'heat pipe"
or 'gravity-assisted heat pipe'. (It is becoming increasingly common to use some form of
internal "heat flux-enhancing" to improve internal heat transfer coefficients. Longitudinal
and circumferential grooves, meshes, and roughened surfaces are discussed in more detail
in Dr. Groll's paper in this issue.)
9.2. General description of the heat exchanger
In a gas-gas heat pipe heat exchanger the evaporator sections of the heat pipes span
the duct carrying the hot exhaust gas, and the condensers are located in the duct through
which the air requiring pre-heating is passing, as shown in Fig. 28.
Splitter plate
Recoven
Finned heat pipes
Fig. 28. Layout of heat pipe heat exchanger.

nas. l I c
30
D.A. REA~
As mentioned above, heat pipes are influenced in their performance b~ the angle of
operation. In the heat pipe heat exchanger, the tube bundle may be horizontal, or tilted
with the evaporator sections below the condensers. Because of this sensitivity, the angle
of the heat pipes may be adjusted in situ as a means of controlling the heat transport.
This is a useful feature in air conditioning applications, and a number of proprietary
units incorporate tilt control mechanisms which, either manually or automatically, can
be adjusted to cater for changes in heat transport requirements [16].
The basic finned heat pipe heat exchanger externally resembles an air-cooled condenser coil, complete with flanged casing and covers protecting the ends of the tubes. The
main external difference is the incorporation of a splitter plate, visible in Fig. 28, which is
used partly to support the heat pipes, which can be several metres in length, but primarily to prevent cross-flow between the two air-streams, effectively sealing them from one
another. In common with other air-cooled heat exchangers, the finning ma~ be applied
individually to each tube, using integral or helically wound fins, or may be in the form of
plates into which the tubes are expanded. In the latter case the contact between the tube
and fin results in a higher thermal resistance between them, but the cost of such tube
bundles is generally lower. Tubes are normally staggered, and the number of tube rows in
the direction of flow is typically between four and ten. {Two other configurations will be
described later.)
Material selection tbr the heat pipes depends upon the working fluid contained within
them, as well as the external environment. Working fluids used in heat pipe heat
exchangers range from fluorocarbons and water to high temperature organic fluids and,
for special applications, liquid metals such as mercury and sodium. Depending upon the
fluid used, aluminium, copper and stainless steel are suitable container materials, and
identical materials are used for the fins (although in some units aluminium fins may be
applied on copper heat pipes). Environmental factors affecting the selection of the tube
and fin material are common to all other types of heat exchanger--temperature, corrosion, erosion, etc. Similarly, fin pitching and the shape of the fin may be dictated by
pressure drop or fouling considerations.
Work reported in Japan [-17] directed at applying heat pipes in aggressive environments such as are found in steel-works, has brought together the longitudinal grooves
mentioned earlier, and protection in corrosive environments. The main features of this
development work are as follows:
(i) Production of longitudinally-finned heat pipes (internal structuret using a hydrostatic
extrusion process which promises economic mass production of long heat pipes having superior heat transfer capabilities.
(ii) Development of envelope materials which can be used as external cladding on waterfilled copper heat pipes.
As will be emphasised elsewhere, water is a good working fluid, having all the desirable
properties, including a high latent heat. However. it is not compatible with mild or
stainless steel, as non-condensible gases can be generated within the heat pipe, and
therefore must be used in conjunction with a copper containment vessel. Copper however
becomes rapidly annealed above 200C, and therefore cannot withstand high internal
pressures. It also has a low resistance to attack in a corrosive atmosphere.
By cladding a copper tube with a stainless steel tube, for example, with fins applied to
the steel outer surface, a heat pipe or thermosyphon may be constructed which retains
the benefits of water and copper/water compatibility, while offering the high strength and
corrosion-resistance of stainless steel. Again the programme in Japan is directed at using
a hydrostatic extrusion process for manufacturing the clad tube.
Unit size varies with the air flow, a velocity of about 2-4 m/s being generally accepted
to keep the pressure drop through the tube bundle to a reasonable level. Small units
having a face size of 0.6 m {length) x 0.3 m {height) are available, and the largest single
units employ heat pipes having lengths in excess of 5 m. as used in large boiler air
preheaters. A wider fin pitch may be used on the evaporator sections, where contami-
31
nated exhaust gas dictate easy cleaning, while retaining a pitch of 2 mm or less on the
condensers located in the supply air duct. Some manufacturers offer this option.
9.3. Application ctreas
Although the heat pipe exchanger has been in production for approximately a decade,
a review of manufacturers' literature and published papers on their development and use
indicate a very wide range of applications in industry and commercial and municipal
buildings [16, 18, 19-t.
The general application areas for heat pipe heat recovery units are, in common with
most other gas-gas systems, covered by the three categories listed in the Introduction.
Heat pipe heat exchangers have lower efficiencies than some other gas-gas heat recovery
systems, notably the heat wheel, but in common with tubular recuperators and plate
have the advantages of zero cross-contamination, brought about by the presence of a
splitter plate which effectively seals the inlet and exhaust ducts, and the fact that there are
no moving parts, including pumps. Performance modulation and full reversibility of the
unit, the latter feature being of benefit in air conditioning systems, are other 'selling
points'.
One of the main limitations of heat pipe heat exchangers, in common with many other
types, is the maximum operating temperature, discussed in more detail later. Historically,
heat pipe heat exchangers were developed initially to meet the requirements of the
heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) industry, where temperatures are of
course little in excess of ambient. During the past few years, however, they have become
increasingly popular in process-space heating. Such a unit, under test, is shown in Fig. 29.
More recent application areas and heat pipe heat exchanger concepts are of considerable interest.
Foster Wheeler are now marketing a heat pipe unit for use as an alternative to rotating
regenerators (and other systems) as boiler air preheaters, using flue gas downstream of
the economizer (if fitted) to preheat combustion air. Such a system has been installed by
Ashland Oil Company on a fired heater in the U.S.A. Illustrated in Fig. 30, where the
overall installation and a detail of the heat pipe heat exchanger is shown, the main
parameters are given in Table 3.
Fig. 29. Simple heat pipe heat exchanger in test rig.
32
D.A. REAY
stack
Air~
inlet
I I
250
"~._.~ ~ ~
__(~__~.
Air
preheoter
_------- Convection
i
section
FD.
Air
fan~
Seal plate~
Flue gas
Support strut
Support plate
- -
Fig. 30. Forster-Wheeler heat pipe air preheater.
Barratt and Henderson [20-1 state that the required performance could be obtained
when the heat pipes were tilted at an angle of 10: to the horizontal {evaporator below
condenser). Welded fin steel tubing was used for the heat pipes, and it is noticeable from
Fig. 30 that the condenser sections are considerably shorter than the evaporator sections.
This is done to minimise the pressure drop on the flue gas side, and also results from the
fact that the air-side (condenser) sections are more effective per unit volume because they
are able to accommodate a higher fin density, as fouling is unlikely to occur.
The fuel for the fired heater is natural gas, but provision is made in the installation for
soot blowers should the fuel be changed to oil at some future time.
Reference has already been made to work in Japan at the National Chemical Laboratory for Industry [17] on heat pipe manufacturing techniques. Two new heat pipe heat
exchanger concepts are being studied at this laboratory for applications where (a) operation in highly fouled environments and (b) higher performance is required.
With regard to operation in fouled environments, as would predominate in almost all
equipment employed in steel-making plant, a unit has been designed which, it is claimed.
could be operated free from problems of dust adhesion. Illustrated in Fig. 31. the evaporTable 3. Boiler air preheater data
Heat transported
Flue gas mass flow
Inlet air mass flow
Flue gas inlet temp.
Flue gas outlet temp.
Air inlet temp.
Air outlet temp.
Working fluid temp.
Maximum heat transfer per heat pipe
Number of heat pipes
Heat pipe length
Heat pipe diameter
Fin pitch
Pressure drop on flue gas side
Pressure drop on air side
938 kW
36 700 kg/h
34500 kg/h
260C
177:C
27C
121C
108-198C
6.74 kW
144
4.57 m
5.1 cm
2.4/cm on air side
1.2/cm on flue gas side
57 Pa
249 Pa
33
old gas
\
~Container
Hea
for
granular media
Gra
Con
Bucket elevator
f
Vih
Fig. 31. Moving granular bed heat pipe heat exchanger.
ator sections of the heat pipes or thermosyphons, which are exposed to the fouled
exhaust gases, are immersed in a bed of granular material. The bed of granules is in
continuous, but slow, motion, aided by gravity which carries the particles down the
surface of the tubes, preventing adhesion by foul!ng matter. Under the base of the
container for the granules, a vibrating screen cleans them, removing any powder, and
bucket elevator then returns them to the top of the container for recycling. There is of
course no need to have such precautions on the supply air side.
The second unit which is the subject of research is a rotary heat pipe heat exchanger.
Illustrated in Fig. 32, one concept under consideration incorporates an annular heat pipe
heat exchanger, fixed to a tube plate and rotated within the casing. The circumference of
the tube plate is sealed at the centre of the casing. The two different gases to be heat
exchanged are fed into the centre and leave the periphery of the heat exchanger through
the heat pipe bundle on their respective sides of the tube plate. A co-current flow
arrangement is adopted, although this may be made counter-current in other concepts.
The purpose of this research is to achieve heat transfer more than 150~ higher per unit
surface area than that now being achieved with static heat pipe heat exchangers. When
the heat exchanger is fully developed, it is intended for application in corrosive and
dust-laden flue gases at relatively low temperatures (200C) arising in the iron and steel
industry.
The improved heat transfer created by rotation, which should arise from benefits both
external and inside the heat pipes, must be weighed against the power needed for rotation. The distribution of working fluid within the heat pipes, while in some ways aided by
centrifugal forces, may not always favour the heat transport requirements, and basic
work is under way to examine the behaviour.
Ceramic heat pipe heat exchangers. Moving close to the top of the industrial-process
exhaust gas temperature range, work is progressing at Los Alamos Laboratory, New
34
D.A. REAY
jIT0el
0,o,e
Heat pipe bundle
Casino I ~ ~
\,,
-I
\
/~ ii J
~1.
l, lit,,.~
."
Motor
Exhaust 0as
Air
Fig. 32. Rotary heat pipe heat exchanger,
Mexico, on heat pipe heat exchangers for use in exhausts of up to 1500~C. Unlike
high-temperature applications for use in space, where cost constraints are not so severe,
enabling refractory metals such as niobium or tantalum to be used, the adoption of such
systems for process heat recovery necessitates close examination of the unit cost-effectiveness [21].
An alternative to the refractory metals is to construct the heat pipes from ceramic
tubing. Ceramics such as silicone carbide and alumina have excellent corrosion and
erosion resistance at these high temperatures, and are not excessively expensive.
One major problem exists with the selection of a ceramic as the container material,
however. Of the two working fluids available for use in the heat pipes at these temperatures, namely sodium and lithium, the latter is particularly reactive with ceramics, and if
used in conjunction with a ceramic tube, some form of protective coating must be
applied inside the tube. The technique for overcoming this problem selected at Los
Alamos is to deposit a thin layer of refractory metal on the inside of the tube by a
method known as chemical-vapour deposition. This will provide an impervious barrier
between the working fluid and the ceramic wall.
The principal application areas for heat recovery using ceramic heat pipe heat
exchangers is in industrial furnaces. In the USA, for example, it has been estimated by
Essenhigh [22] (cited in [21]) that these account for 12% of the gross national energy
usage, or about 9 x 1018 J per annum. Approximately 20% of this energy is lost in the
form of heat, in the stack gases. A potential annual saving, in financial terms, $4 x 109 is
therefore possible.
While ceramic reeuperators and regenerators are not new, more conventional systems
using this material have suffered badly in the past from thermal stresses and vibration,
the large numbers of joints being unable to withstand excess stress cycling. The heat pipe
unit, having individual tubes assembled as shown in Fig. 33 is not so s u ~ p t i b l to such
wear.
Economic analyses have been carried out on ceramic heat pipe heat exchangers of this
type. Based on plain tubes, paybacks of about 5 years using silicone carbide and 2 years
using mullite may be possible, assuming that the ratio of the cost of each finished heat
pipe to the tube material is !.5 and the cost ratio of the finished recuperator to that of the
heat pipes is 1.33. Finning of the ceramic tubes (with ceramic fins) would reduce heat
exchanger size, although the cost reduction is less easy to predict. An altm'native technique for raising the heat transfer would be to locate the unit in a fluidized bed.
Detailed cost-effectiveness analysis. Serious attempts at cost-effectiveness studies on any
type of waste heat recovery equipment are very difficult to find. In many instances the
A review of gas-gas heai recovery systems

Flue gos
exit
35
Heot
obsorbing
streom
Refrac
portit~
ol
e$
/1I/ i U i?
--g-J
Flue gas
inlet
Preheoted
streorn
Fig, 33. Concept of ceramic heat pipe heat exchanger.
cost data obtained through a manufacturer's literature, when it is available, relates solely
to the capital cost of the heat exchanger and, particularly in the case of high-temperature
heat recovery systems, bears little relationship to the installed cost, which may be up to
four times as high as the basic unit price.
It is possible, although it can be an extensive exercise, to approach as many manufacturers as possible with requests for quotations for a range of heat exchangers. However,
analysis of the data obtained, taking into account differences in pressure drop (hence
operating costs), etc. will be the most time-consuming component.
Possibly because the heat pipe heat exchanger has grown up in an environment where
serious academic interest is present (being the subject of much research and development
in universities and other research laboratories), the development of computer optimization programs, both technical and economic, as an aid to unit selection, has become
almost routine. One such study carried out at the University of New Mexico was recently
published by Lu and Feldman [23]. The results were based on data supplied by the
major heat pipe heat exchanger manufacturer in the U.S.A., Q-Dot Corporation.
Cost data for a variety of heat pipe heat exchangers, covering operating temperature
ranges from HVAC to process at up to 400C, is given in Fig. 34. The initial equipment
cost includes materials, labour and overheads, and makes allowance for the fact that the
units will be part of a production run, rather than 'specials'. Installation cost includes
ducting, controls and labour. The results are presented in such a way as to show the
relationship between the cost per unit surface area of the heat exchanger~ and the total
size of the heat exchanger. As one would expect, the cost per square metre of surface
decreases as the heat pipe heat exchanger increases in size. Other interesting points may
be noted from the graph. First the aluminium heat pipe heat exchanger has the lowest
capital cost, followed by copper, then carbon steel. Second, the installation cost of a
copper unit in a HVAC application is considerably less than the cost needed to install an
identical heat exchanger in a process. Economies of scale are particularly noticeable on
the carbon steel high-temperature heat exchangers.
Based on the cost data, the staff of the University of New Mexico designed a heat pipe
heat exchanger to recover heat from the exhaust flue of the site boilers for air preheating.
With an exhaust gas temperature of 316C (flow of 8534 m3/min), a carbon-steel unit
with Dowtherm A as the working fluid was selected.
D.A. REAY
36
IO0
Equipment cost
. . . .
Total initial cost

(including equipment cost
and installation cost)
90
80 - \
\
70-- \
g
o
60-
50.- \ \
I%
30J--
\../
~x
J~
.Carbon steel (industrial)
.......
-/~. ,---Copper (industrial)
_.~Aluminiurn (HVAC)
Heat transfer surface area,
I0
12
13
m2 xl0 2
Fig. 34. Costs of heat pipe heat exchangers as a function of size and construction materials.
Recovering approximately 1.5 MW, the unit would save fuel values at S45000 per
annum, at a cost per annum of $8000 (amortized over 10 years at 10% interest). Included
in the costs were allowances for fan power and maintenance, totalling $I700 per annum.
The life of the unit was estimated to be 15 years. Costing was based on operation for
24 hours per day, 355 days per year, and the effectiveness of the heat exchanger was 60%.
10. G A S - G A S HEAT P U M P S
The heat pump can in many instances be regarded as a heat recovery device, and this
is particularly true when it is used as an aid to increased efficiency in dryers. While
industrial applications of heat pumps have been in existence since the I940's, the total
number of installations remains comparatively few. However, their application in dryer
technology, which has been demonstrated, albeit on a small scale, to offer substantial
percentage reductions in dryer energy consumption, is likely to be one of the major
growth areas over the next decade.
Heat pumps are more widely known through their domestic and commercial appli,
cations, for heating buildings using "free" heat in the atmosphere or the ground, for
redistributing waste heat available within buildings, and for using waste heat from refri,
geration systems in large old stores or ice rinks. The heat pump would not b e immediately included by everyone in a review of gas-gas heat recovery devices, but its importance justifies a section here.
10.1. OperatinOcycle
There are several heat pump operating cycles, the two most common being the vapour
compression and absorption cycles. In drying processes, involving gas-gas heat transfer,
the vapour compression cycle has predominated to date, and it is this on which I will
concentrate here.
The heat pump cycle is illustrated on a pressure--enthalpy diagram in Fig. 35, and the
principal components are shown in the circuit diagram in Fig. 36. The low grade heat
input occurs at the evaporator, this causing the heat pump working fluid (typically a
37
~ ,
,~
~Constont entropy
Pressure
~ ~ X ~
~i
Constant temperature
Enthalpy
Fig. 35. Heat pump pressure-enthalpy diagram.
fluorinated hydrocarbon) to evaporate. The vat, our passes to the compressor, where it is
raised in pressure (and hence temperature) by the application of external work of compression. This higher temperature vapour then passes to the condenser, where useful heat
is rejected as the vapour condenses, giving up its latent heat. This liquid is then reduced
in pressure by passing through an expansion valve before entering the evaporator.
The efficiency of a heat pump is expressed in a different way to that of conventional
heat recovery devices, and is normally expressed in terms of a 'Coefficient of Performance' (COP).
The COP is the ratio of heat delivered at the high temperature to work supplied by the
compressor. Theoretical maximum figure which a fully reversible thermodynamically
ideal heat pump can give is given by:
COPmax =
Tcon
Tcon -
Tcvap
where
Tean = condensing temperature
Tc,,~p = evaporating temperature.
In practice this is not very useful, and it is much more enlightening to study the cycle
on the pressure-enthalpy (p-h) diagram. This type of presentation is used exclusively in
refrigeration/air conditioning/heat pump equipment and is very useful in calculating
COP. This is because the enthalpy change h3 - h, is the output heat, while the enthalpy
h3 - h2 represents the input work so
COP - h3 - h4
ha - h2"
Note that isentropic compression is not achieved, and we have assumed 709/0 isentropic
efficiencyfor the compressor
ha - h2 (isentropic)
= 709/o.
e.g.
h3 _ h2
If the p-h diagram is studied for different possible working fluids, then one can rapidly
identify suitable and unsuitable fluids for any given set of operating temperatures. This is
Hightemperature
Lowtemperature
Tcoo
Heatoutput l /
Condenser
Cmpressr
Expansionvalve
l/
Heat input
Evaporator
Fig. 36. Heat pump circuit showing major components.
38
D.A. REAY
Compressor
Air flow
V////C
/3
Drying bed
"r
t.
Fig. 37. Closed cycle heat pump dryer.
because the fluids must be selected such that they are working at reasonable pressures
and temperatures, to suit the compressor being used.
The theoretical coefficient of performance decreases as the difference between heat
source and heat sink temperature grows, and in order to operate economically, the COP
for industrial applications should generally be well in excess of 3.0.
10.2. Heat pumps in drying
Other sections have mentioned the use of conventional gas-gas heat recoyery units in
drying applications, but such heat exchangers do not permit highly efficient operation of
closed circuit dryers. The heat pump can fulfill this requirement.
In a conventional dryer only part of the exhaust air can be recirculated, as increases in
humidity would quickly reduce its drying capacity. The heat pump, however, may be
used most effectively in dryers as a means of dehumidifying the exhaust air so that it may
be recirculated in significantly greater quantities. The exhaust air leaving the product
being dried is passed over the evaporator coil of the heat pump, where it is cooled. As
a result of this cooling, some of the moisture contained in the exhaust air condenses
out, and is drained away. The recirculated air which has been cooled then has to be
raised in temperature before re-entering the product to be dried. This is done by passing
the air over the condenser, where it picks up both latent and sensible heat recovered from
the evaporator, and the heat associated with the work of compression, as illustrated in
Fig. 37.
If recirculation is not possible because, for example, the fouling in the exhaust stream
is difficult to remove, an open cycle heat pump dryer can be used as shown in Fig. 38. In
this case a proportion of the latent heat content on the exhaust can still be recovered, as
can some of the sensible heat, but the efficiency will not be as high as in a closed cycle
system.
The efficiency of the system is subject to the same considerations as any other heat
pump application--the COP being a function of the difference between evaporating and
condensing temperatures. A reduction in temperature difference is commonly achieved in
the dryer by incorporating a plenum chamber where chilled saturated air is mixed with
unchilled air before passing over the condenser.
It may be argued that on many dryers, particularly those involving only the evaporation of water, the heat pump could well surplant conventional gas-gas waste heat
recovery systems as, discussed later, the economics are attractive. This concept has also
been applied to the domestic tumbler dryer.
"
g/
~ Evaporator
Compressor
/1
Drying bed Ak
Condenser
Internal ~
Fig. 38. Open cycle heat pump dryer.
External
39
More unconventional types of heat pumps may be used in this category of cycle uses
superheated steam as the heat transfer medium. In a practical arrangement the exhaust
air from the dryer, would be split into two streams, one stream being compressed adiabatically, thus raising its temperature and pressure. At the higher pressure the latent heat of
condensation is transferred via a heat exchanger at high temperature to the second
stream. Heated and dried in this manner, the second stream may be recirculated through
the dryer. The first stream is rejected as condensate.
Because the use of refrigerants, which are liable to thermal degradation at high (greater
than 120C) temperatures, is not required in such a cycle, there is potential for operating
such a system at very high temperatures. Reporting in 1976, the Electricity Council
Research Centre at Capenhurst in the United Kingdom suggested that COP's of 3 to 3.5
should be attainable for a 150C output temperature, with a compressor pressure ratio of
between 4 and 4.5. It was however pointed out that the performance of the system at
off-design conditions and under part load may be unsatisfactory [24].
The application of heat pumps in the field of drying and dehumidification is likely to
be a substantial growth area, and commercial systems for this purpose are available on
the market. Most of the work in the U.K. on the use of heat pumps in drying and
dehumidification has been carried out at Capenhurst (see above) over a period of several
years, where it is continuing. Hodgett [25] has analysed the state of the art in dryer
technology, and also calculated the amount of water removed in industrial processes in
the United Kingdom. It is estimated that in the U.K. between 20 and 30 million tonnes
of water are evaporated by industry per annum. Taking a value of 30 million tonnes, the
energy required to evaporate this would be 74 x l06 G J, and, assuming an overall dryer
efficiency of 50%, the total energy consumption in these processes would be
148 x 106 GJ.
One recent application of a heat pump dehumidifier has been its use in ceramics
drying. Typical of the installations possible in this industry is that at Portacel Ltd in
Kent, who manufacture ceramic filters for water purification. High standards of production control must be exercised, and the heat pump system has proved beneficial in
improving production efficiency and throughput.
The ceramic elements are cut from a continuous cylindrical extrusion to lengths of
between 125 and 250mm. These elements are then dried before being kilned under
controlled conditions. Following final completion and testing in water, another drying
stage is required. A Westair Dynamics dehumidifier is used to dry the filters prior to
kilning and following testing.
The energy costs of the two drying processes when gas- and oil-fired had been nearly
6500 per year. These costs have been reduced to under 3000 per annum with the new
electric dehumidifying system. The saving of more than 3500 p.a. provided a pay-back
period of less than 3 years on the plant and installation costs of under 10000. Equally
important to the company, however, is the improvement in work flow and the availability of additional drying capacity to match a planned increase in output. Because of
the significant reduction in drying time, production bottlenecks are avoided and more
effective use made of factory space and manpower.
11. MULTIPLE TOWER HEAT RECOVERY UNITS
The multiple tower exchange concept is applied in HVAC comfort conditioning, and,
like the hygroscopic rotating regenerator in similar applications, is capable of transferring both sensible heat and moisture from warmer to cooler airstreams. The flow diagram for a multiple tower exchanger, illustrated in Fig. 39, resembles that of a runaround coil system, except for the fact that the circulating liquid is brought into direct
contact with the exhaust and supply air, rather than being retained in a finned coil heat
exchanger.
A circulating liquid, known as the sorbent solution, is sprayed onto the contact surface
which spans the warm exhaust air duct. This contact surface is normally non-metallic, of
40
D.A. REAY
II
!rl
//'/
P-~MP
CONTACTOR
TOWERS
Fig. 39. Multiple tower heat exchanger.
the type used in modern cooling towers. Spraying is generally directed counterflow to the
air stream, and a demister pad is located downstream of the contractor to prevent
droplet carryover. Having extracted both heat and moisture from the exhaust air, the
sorbent is pumped to an identical installation in the supply air duct, where the heat and
moisture is rejected to the air, again by spraying. The cooled sorbent is then returned to
the exhaust air duct.
The sorbent solution is typically a mixture of lithium chloride and water, halogen salt
solutions being the most common. The other solution regularly used is calcium chloride
in water.
The transfer of heat and moisture is reversible in that the system can be used in
summer for precooling and dehumidifying a supply airstream to an air-conditioned
building. Although as illustrated in Fig. 39, the liquid and air are countercurrent, it is
possible, as may often be dictated by ductwork configurations, to locate the towers with
the air passing horizontally through them, the spray being introduced from the top in a
cross-flow mode. This leads to a slightly lower unit efficiency, however.
Cross-contamination is a possibility with multiple tower exchanger systems, and
gaseous cross-contamination is most common. In a HVAC installation, such cross-contamination, due to solubility of the gases in the sorbent, has been measured to average
only about 0.025% by volume. If chemical fumes or other severe contamination is present
in the exhaust, however, careful selection of the sorbent may assist to prevent excessive
transfer to the incoming air. Most of the working fluids used are bacteriostatic, and the
towers, by their nature, have been shown to be effective 'scrubbers' of micro-organisms.
75
70
65
~o
bd
55
5
I
1.5
i
Face velocity,
Fig. 40.
I
20
m/s
41
11.1. Performance characteristics

The effectiveness of a multiple tower exchanger as a function of the face velocity is
shown in Fig. 40. It is generally higher (of the order of 709/o) in typical summer operating
conditions in North America, and of the order of 60% in winter. For a given face
velocity, the pressure drop through a typical tower tends to be somewhat higher than for
devices which transfer sensible heat only.
Capacity control is effected by automatic addition of make-up water, thus maintaining
a fixed concentration of sorbent solution and hence enabling a constant delivery air
humidity to be assured. An auxiliary heater incorporated in the solution supply line
leading to the tower through which the air to be preheated is passing, controlled by a
thermostat, serves as a temperature control device.
REFERENCES
1. B. Chojnowski and P. E. Chew, Getting the best out of rotary air heaters, CEGB Research No. 7, 14-21
(1978).
2. G. Applegate, Heating a factory for nothing, Heating & Vent. Engng 44, 21-24 (1970).
3. J. Sohlberg, Klimatechnishe Tenderizer in schwedischen Krankenhausbau, Heizung Lufiung Klimatech. 27
(3) (19761
4. J. Mortimer, Exchanging heat to save fueL The Engineer 34-37, 2-9 August (1973).
5. G. Applegate, Heat regeneration by thermal wheel, in Prec. Waste Heat Recovery Conf., Inst. Plant Engng,
London, 25-26 Sept. (1974).
6. Anon, Energy recovery equipment and systems, Publ. Sheet Metal & Air Conditioning Contractors
National Assn., Virginia, U.S.A. (1978).
7. H. Kruse and R. Vrath, Application limits and performances of hygroscopic and non-hygroscopic regenerative rotary heat exchangers, Sci. Tech. Froid. 1, 705-715 (1976).
8. H. Spahn and V. Gnielinski, Heat and mass transfer performance of hygroscopic rotating regenerator under
summer conditions, Verfahrestechnik 5, 143 (1971).
9. D. W. Ruth et al., Investigation of frosting in rotary air-to-air heat exchangers, Trans. ASHRAE 81, Pt. 2,
410--417 (1975).
10. D. R. Dugwell, Waste heat recovery and use in the British Steel Corporation, Steel Times Ann. Rev.
784--793 (1977).
11. N. B. Orr, Flue gas--an in-house energy source, and ways of putting it to work, in Energy for Industry
(edited by P. W. O'Callaghan). Pergamon Press, Oxford (1979).
12. P. Butler, Using the Muntor wheel to recover your heat and make big savings. The Engineer 20, 20 Nov.
(1975).
13. J. L. Boyen, Practical Heat Recovery. John Wiley, New York (1975).
14. H. Kay, Recuperators---their use and abuse, Iron and Steel Int. 231-240, June (1973).
15. P. D. Dunn and D. A. Reay, Heat Pipes. 2nd Edn. Pergamon Press, Oxford (1978).
16. D: A. Reay, The heat pipe heat exchanger--a technique for waste heat recovery, Heating & Vent. Engng 50,
NO. 593 (1977).
17. T. Hakuta, Waste heat utilisation technology, Technocrat 11, No. 3, 11-17 (1978).
18. A. Basiulis and M. Plost, Waste heat utilization through the use of heat pipes, Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs
ASME Paper 75-WA/HT-48 (1975).
19. K. ,T. Feldman, Simplified design of heat pipe heat exchangers, Prec. 2nd Int. Heat pipe Conf., Bologna,
ESA Report SP3112 (1976).
20. R. O. Barran and G. O. Henderson, The heat pipe air preheater, Prec. American Power Conf., Chicago,
Illinois, April (1979).
21. W. A. Ranken and L. B. Lundberg, High temperature heat pipes for terrestrial applications,, Prec. 3rd Int.
HraI pipe Conf., Pale Alto, U.S.A. AIAA Paper 78--435 (1978).
22. R. H. EssenhiglL Energy use, efficiency and conservation in industry, Prec. Symp. on Environment &
Energy Conservation, Denver, Colorado, p. 161 (1975).
23. D. C. Lu and K, T, Feldman, Cost-effectiveness study of heat pipe heat exchangers, Prec. ASME Winter
Annual Meeting, ASME Paper 77-W/HT-5 (1977).
24. Anon, UK Workshop on Heat Pumps, 30 June-2 July 1976, Energy Technology Support Unit Report
HL77/683, Harwell, U.K. (1977).
25. D. L., Hodgett, Efficient drying using heat pumps, Chem. Engr 510-512, July/August (1976).

A Review of Gas-Gas Heat Recovery Systems

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What are the three main application areas for waste heat recovery equipment discussed in the paper?

What are the three main application areas for waste heat recovery equipment discussed in the paper?

What factors need to be considered when selecting heat recovery equipment?

What factors need to be considered when selecting heat recovery equipment?

Heat Recorery Systems Vol. 1. pp.

2. TYPES OF GAS-GAS HEAT RECOVERY EQUIPMENT

A review of gas-gas heat recoverysystems

Fig. 1. Schematic of rotating regenerator.

Fig. 2. Operation of Rothemuhle regenerator.

A review of gas-gas heat recovery systems

3.1. Performance and operation

Fig. 3. Compensation for unequal flows in a rotating regenerator.

A review of gas-gas heat recovery systems

Fig. 4. Efficiency of a Flakt rotating regenerator as a function of rotational speed.

A re~ie~ of gas-gas heat recoverysystems

~xh~ust c)lr t'0

Fig. 7. Operation of a static regenerator.

Fig. 8. A conventional plate heat exchanger module.

A review of gas gas heat recovery systems

Fig. 9. A plate heat exchanger employingglass plates.

r, IAir condition at the

Room air condihon

outlet of Lossnay into

Absolute humidity, kg/kg'

Dry bulb temp. ( C )

Sensible heat exch.

A review of gas-gas heat recovery systems

Fig. 11. Econovent EX plate heat exchanger module.

In order to reduce the volume of the heat exchanger, considerable amounts of

Fig. 12. Freeze protection device on the Econovent unit.

m3/~ air flow q~

I I *!~tll I I I I I " I ' ' H t I '

Exhoust air flow qe, m3/s

Fig. 13. Capacity chart for Econovent EXI0/II unit.

A reviewof gas-gas heat recoverysystems

Quantity of air: Intake air/exhaust air: 32800/

Running costs without

Poy b0ck period

Fig. 15. Economics of Air Froehlich heat exchanger.

The run-around coil system, sometimes referred to as a lipid-coupled indirect heat

4 Extract air 27C.

(Fresh air input.)

Fig. 16. Run-around coil layout.

A review of gas-gas heat recovery systems

Fig. 17. Spiral gas-liquid coil as used on some run-around systems.

A revie,xof gas-gas heat recoverysystems

Fig. 19. A glass tube recuperator.

Dust, partially moist

Dust, combustion impurities

Ceramic powder combustion impurities

Dyestuff urea fibres

A review of gas-gas heat recovery systems

Gloss tube~ ' ' j ~

Fig. 20. Glass tube recuperator downstream of a dryer hood.

inlet__J ~ L~~ LILo

Fig. 21. A 4-pass cast composite tubular recuperator installation.

A review of gas gas heat recovery systems

Fig. 22. Spun cast flue type recuperator.