ITA/AITES REPORT 2006 on

Shotcrete for rock support

A summary report on state-of-the-art

presented by ITA Working Group N12 "Shotcrete Use"

PART A REPORT FROM THE WORKING GROUP

February 2006

Secretariat : ITA-AITES c/o EPFL - Bt. GC Station 18 - CH-1015 Lausanne - Switzerland

Fax : +41 21 693 41 53 - Tel. : +41 21 693 23 10 - e-mail : secretariat@ita-aites.org - www.ita-aites.org

ITA REPORT - WG12 : SHOTCRETE FOR ROCK SUPPORT

1. GUIDELINES, SPECIFICATIONS, STANDARDS

As could be expected the different countries and regions adopt a variety of local and
international codes, standards and guidelines for shotcrete application. The EFNARC
specification and also the Austrian Guidelines have a good international recognition, along
with parts of ASTM, Norwegian Guidelines and Japanese Guidelines.
One important recent addition is the Australian Round Determinate Panel test for failure
energy testing of fibre reinforced shotcrete. The driving force behind this new method is Dr.
Stefan Bernard. The method has now been published as ASTM C 1550.

2. DESIGN
Today more than before, the common understanding is that most shotcrete usage entails rock
reinforcement rather than rock support. How to design rock support is in any case a very
complicated subject and this understanding is not making it easier, only changing the way to
approach the problem.
The contributions from different countries illustrate well the widely different views on rock
support design. This becomes especially evident when comparing the sometimes overconservative cast in place concrete linings with what evidently is satisfactory support under
similar conditions using shotcrete. There are many examples of thickness reduction from
about one meter cast in place down to 10 to 15 cm of shotcrete. The use of empirical systems
like Bartons Q-method is one way of approaching the design problem in a structured manner.
In any event, it appears that an observational approach, supported by other methods as
needed, is the way to go.
It is a matter of system-understanding, where not only shotcrete and rock are involved, but
also rock bolts, lattice girders, steel beams and other sorts of reinforcement depending on the
actual case.

3. CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Australia is reporting that alkali free accelerators have more or less completely taken over the
market both in civil construction and in mining. The reasons are health and safety
requirements as well as performance results. It is also customary to use set-regulating
admixtures and high range water reducing admixtures, since a combination of low w/c-ratio
and high fluidity is normally targeted. There is some focus on finding alternatives to micro
silica, due to high cost of this additive.
The Belgian contribution deals with the concrete mix requirements when using steel fibres.
The target is to create a best possible bond between fibres and the concrete matrix and in high
quality concrete mixes, this will require a high tensile strength of the steel fibre material.
Czech Republic is reporting on concrete technology for wet mix shotcrete and the approach is
very much up to normally applied European practice. Early strength is tested according to the

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Austrian Guidelines and will mostly meet the J2 requirements. Durability requirements are
specified on a case by case basis.
In Italy the wet mix method already covers 98% of all shotcrete applied, like in a few other
countries, but the fact that about 95% of the accelerator use is Na Si O2 "waterglass" is a very
special situation. The reason has been stated as low cost and availability. However, it can be
added that after the time of submittal of the Italian contribution, there has been a strong
increase in the use of alkali free accelerators. In addition to investigations about set control
and water reducing admixtures, Italy has also been working on special types of cement. The
target has been to reduce the dependency on admixtures and expensive additives like micro
silica.
The shotcrete market in Japan seems to be strictly regulated and application is either carried
out as so-called normal shotcrete (18 MPa 28 day compressive strength) or as high strength
shotcrete (36 MPa 28 day compressive strength), the last version may be used with fibre
reinforcement. Accelerator is generally in powder form, even though some use of liquid
products has been reported. Set control and water reducing admixtures are used on a regular
basis.
Lesotho is presenting a detailed account of the requirements and the control system used at
the Lesotho project. Wet mix and alkali free accelerator was a requirement and the whole
regime as described in detail, reflects the targeted high quality end result.
The Norwegian contribution describes the change from silicate accelerators to alkali free and
the effects of high range water reducing admixtures. Investigations showed that the strength
gain reached after 3-4 hours with silicates could be achieved immediately (at end of
application) by the modern systems. Also, dust exposure was reduced and the ability to cope
with wet conditions was improved. Tests with the use of re-circulated aggregate in shotcrete
is described and the results are very encouraging, with compressive strength exceeding 45
MPa.
South Africa presents a very advanced stage of wet mix application for a mining shaft. To
reach the required 60 MPa strength, 1000 J Efnarc failure energy and 60 year service life, a
full set of State-of-the-Art measures were adopted. About 7500 m3 were successfully applied
under very wet conditions.
Sweden presents the concrete technology issues for the Southern Link highway tunnels in
Stockholm, where again the requirements were very demanding and strictly controlled.
Extensive pre-construction testing was carried out with products from several different
suppliers. One of the important parameters to control was the required freeze thaw properties.
More than 30000 m3 have been applied and more than 200 tests carried out for control
purposes. The results have met the strict requirements with only small variations.
Turkey is presenting a very interesting comparison of shotcrete mixes based on use of alkali
free accelerator and silicate accelerator as used and tested at the Bolu project. The details can
be found in the Report, but the highlight is may be that not only is the compressive strength of
the silicate accelerated shotcrete seriously lower than when using alkali free, but the quality
further deteriorates from 28 days to 1000 days.

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4. EQUIPMENT AND APPLICATION METHODS

The contributions cover traditional dry mix thin stream shotcreting, as well as thin stream wet
mix, dense stream wet mix and wet mix using dense stream the first part of the conveying
distance and thin stream the last part. Accelerators are available both in powder and liquid
form.
The development away from thin stream to ordinary wet mix dense stream is evident from the
contributions received and by comparing with the previous WG12 State of the Art Report.
In Australia, practically all wet shotcrete applied in mines and in civil tunnelling projects is
done by robotic shotcrete equipment. Most robotic shotcrete equipment has facilities to
monitor the dose rate of accelerator that is being applied.
Shotcrete usage for mining in Canada shows a shift from dry mix materials and shooting
methods towards wet mix with many operators using dry mix material supply with wet mix
shooting. The development into wet mix fibre reinforced boltless shotcrete, especially within
INCO in the Sudbury Basin is part of a rapid increase in the use of robotic shotcrete
application and even computer controlled or computer assisted placement of shotcrete in
Canada. The majority of the shotcrete is still being placed by dry mix equipment.
In the Czech Republic dry shotcrete is still dominating, but especially for traffic tunnels and
other objects requiring high volume shotcrete application, the wet mix is now taking over,
using modern equipment like the rest of Europe.
Germany has seen a rapid change from dry mix into mechanized wet mix shotcrete
application, specifically is mentioned the output increase from typically 8 m3/h to 20 m3/h and
the reduction of dust and eluates (which was previously a problem).
In Italy, most of shotcrete (98%) is applied by the wet process. The reasons for this according
to the preference given by the Italian building companies and designers are:

the composition of the mixture can be controlled with certainty

the wet process produces less rebound
higher concrete output
the wet process produces a very small quantity of dust
difficult to find nozzlemen who are able to operate the dry process
the machinery manufactured in Italy for pumping and spraying of shotcrete is exclusively
designed for the wet process;
industrial-safety norms are very strict in Italy, and in the safety plans the use of
manipulators is imposed. These manipulators are at present only produced for the
wet process. (Emphasis added).

Japan has a special situation on the equipment side. Almost all the huge quantity of more than
2 mio m3 of shotcrete per year is placed by the wet mix method. What is special, is the
extensive use of thin stream concrete conveyance for the last 10 to 15 m up to the nozzle. This
technique is frequently combined with the addition of powder accelerator also transported by
compressed air. The current Japanese focus and legislation to reduce dust levels may be partly
linked to this special situation.

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Both Korea and Lesotho are reporting the use of wet mix (Korea since 1995).
In Mexico the dry mix method with manual nozzle operation is still dominating. However,
both manual and robotic wet mix is now increasingly being used.
Norway is reporting that wet mix robotic spraying was in use from the beginning of the
1970s. From about 1980 practically all shotcrete has been placed by the wet mix method
using robotic equipment of the last generation all the time.
In South Africa the large volumes of shotcrete are linked to deep level mining. Difficult
logistics and small openings will have the effect that dry shotcrete, manually applied will
continue to have a dominant position. Still, the described examples of wet mix usage show
that also this sector is well advanced and some very successful projects have been executed.
Some applications are using robotic equipment.
Both Sweden and Switzerland are describing the use of modern integrated robotic equipment
for shotcrete application, including dosage systems for accelerator. In both countries this is
now the standard approach for larger projects.

5. METHOD OF REINFORCEMENT
It is already clearly documented by research as well as in practical applications and accepted
by most shotcrete rock support specialists that proper fibre reinforcement can replace normal
welded wire mesh.
One possible problem with fibres is the question mark on [lack of] reinforcement continuity
through construction joints. A substantial contribution to remove this question mark was
presented at the Fourth International Symposium on Sprayed Concrete in Davos, Switzerland,
September 2002 by J-F Trottier [4]. The conclusions are very clearly in favour of fibres where
joints are involved, compared to the use of mesh.
In Australia, the rapid increase in usage of structural synthetic fibres compared to steel fibres
and mesh has been significant the last 4 years. A widespread adoption of steel fibres
developed during the 1990s, especially within the civil construction industry; the rate of
acceptance was somewhat slower in the mining industry. However, the emergence of high
performance structural synthetic fibres that have proven an effective form of reinforcement
for shotcrete at the high levels of deflection typical of mine roadway development has
promoted acceptance of this type of fibre within the mining industry.
SFRS was used for permanent support at the Eastern Distributor and the M5 East tunnels in
Sydney. They were all permanently lined by SFRS.
In Brazil fibre reinforced shotcrete has been widely used recently. This is a new trend, as
mesh has been almost the only reinforcing element until recent years.
For the tunnels of a sample of 5 hydroelectric schemes under constructions steel fibre
reinforced wet mix shotcrete is being used in 4 (tunnel spans ranging from 15 to 17 m), and
mesh is being used in one case (8-m tunnel span).
Belgium highlights that the traditional wire mesh is difficult to fix and it takes a lot of time.
Job data have shown that installing the mesh lasts 3 times longer than shotcreting the same

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surface. The continuously changing position of the reinforcement within the shotcrete lining
does not at all guarantee a uniform tensile capacity.
In Canadian mining industry there is a rapid increase in acceptance of steel fibre reinforced
shotcrete for mine support. A good illustration of the confidence placed in this technology is
the fact that the use of boltless shotcrete support is also increasing (using a shotcrete thickness
of typically 60 to 100 mm).
Czech Republic and Denmark are still primarily using mesh reinforcement, but the Czech
Republic describes the use of fibres for special cases.
In Italy about 30 % of the shotcrete produced contains fibre reinforcement (out of 115000 m3
shotcrete in 2000). The reasons for the increasing use of fibres and the acceptance from
designers to introduce the fibre reinforced shotcrete were the following:

labour saving in comparison to welded mesh

less rebound
a reduction of the thickness of the applied shotcrete

Japan produces an amazing about 2100000 m3 of shotcrete per year. About 2.4% or 50000
m3 is currently executed as fibre reinforced shotcrete.
Since 1995, in Korea the design of rock support in road tunnels has changed to wet
shotcreting with steel fibre using robot application. The contribution from Lesotho is also
describing the use of steel fibres.
Mexico is highlighting the problem linked to fibre reinforcement in dry shotcrete caused by
high fibre rebound. Because of this, also in Mexico the development now shows increase of
wet mix and further increase of fibre reinforcement.
Norway has been using steel fibre reinforcement in shotcrete since the early 1980s. All kinds
of steel mesh are practically excluded from shotcrete for rock support. Most tunnel projects
use high quality robotically applied steel fibre reinforced shotcrete and corrosion protected
rock bolts. Cast concrete linings are not used unless rock conditions are exceptionally poor
and concrete is needed locally for stability against squeezing or swelling rock.
South Africa is using shotcrete in deep level mining. With the high loads and rock burst
situations encountered in these mines fibre reinforcement has been seriously investigate in
research and also used in practical cases under ground. Research on fibre reinforced shotcrete
has been executed both for static loading and for the rock burst situation, starting in 1994 and
ongoing for more than 5 years.
Extensive testing of fibre reinforced shotcrete, both steel and synthetic fibres and for both
static and dynamic loading shows very well that fibres are an adequate alternative also under
very demanding conditions. Under repeated dynamic loading the shotcrete support should be
combined with wire lacing.
Both Sweden and Switzerland are describing the use of fibres in shotcrete for rock support.
The Swiss contribution is highlighting the improved safety of robotic shotcrete application

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where the reinforcement is mixed into the concrete (no personnel under unsupported ground
to fix a mesh). Also a 30% reduction in time for rock support installation was given.
In Turkey the 18 m diameter Bolu highway tunnel used both mesh and steel fibres in the
shotcrete rock support.

6. SHOTCRETE FOR PERMANENT LININGS

The use of permanent shotcrete linings has been increasing rapidly, even though it is not a
new solution for tunnel linings. Already in 1985 John Sharp wrote the following in the
conference summary note for Shotcrete for Underground Support V Uppsala, Sweden [1]:
The increasing use of shotcrete as a final lining for machine caverns, transportation tunnels
and the lining of waterways, has been emphasized.
Brazil reports from the mid 70s about substituting the planned 1.5 m thick heavily reinforced
cast in place concrete lining of the 26-m span Paulo Afonso IV Underground Powerplant with
a shotcrete lining. Substantial savings were achieved when 15-cm shotcrete lining was
adopted instead. At the same time railway tunnels were being constructed with 40-cm cast in
place concrete lining, some of which with geology similar to that of the powerplant.
In the early 80s the first NATM tunnels were constructed for the So Paulo Subway, with
shotcrete as permanent lining. Specifications were written at the time with tight criteria for
porosity, permeability and electrical resistivity, with the purpose to reach durability. Recent
inspections of those tunnels have shown that the shotcrete is in good shape.
The West section of the So Paulo ring road includes 3 twin tunnels with large cross-sections
(200 m for four lanes in each direction). Permanent shotcrete linings were adopted. This
decision was taken during construction due to problems of meeting the schedule and budget in
case cast concrete had been adopted.
The Czech Republic is already using shotcrete for permanent lining in utility tunnels and also
optionally in sections of traffic tunnels.
Lesotho reports about final lining shotcrete for a 5.6 km long raw water transfer tunnel.
One of the reasons for this solution was to resolve delay problems.
The Norwegian Public Roads Administration carried out a comprehensive control of shotcrete
linings in road tunnels. The investigations clearly conclude that the condition of existing
shotcrete is generally good. At some spots with thin layers (less than 30 mm) deterioration
and delamination had nevertheless taken place and a minimum of 60 mm thickness is
recommended. Even sections of sub-sea road tunnels with permanent salt water ingress and
chloride saturation, showed no corrosion problems where steel fibres had been used.
Also Russia gives examples of permanent lining shotcrete for Metro and road tunnelling.

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7. HEALTH AND SAFETY

There are two main aspects that the contributors point at within this sector:

Dust development and workers health

How to avoid injury or death from falling rocks

The three contributions received on this subject are all comments to the above mentioned
bullet points.

8. OTHER ITEMS
The subjects covered under this heading range from terminology, ambient temperature
conditions, Italian national group activity to the effects of dynamic loads from blasting close
to the applied shotcrete.
Especially the last subject deserves special note, since the subject is frequently being
discussed with very little factual information. The Swedish contribution is giving some very
good information within this aspect of shotcrete application and drill and blast excavation.
After 24 hours, shotcrete could resist vibrations up to 500 mm/s. Tests done in the Southern
Link tunnel gave vibrations of less than 80 mm/s, as close as 5 m from full blasting rounds at
the tunnel face.
The French tunnel association, AFTES, through its working no. 20 on shotcrete has prepared
a recommendation for the design of Sprayed Concrete for Underground Support. Their
report presents the recommendations prepared by the local working group for the design of
sprayed concrete used in tunnels and underground openings. Version 1 of the document was
approved by the Technical Committee of AFTES on November 9th in 2000. The French
working group was lead by Eric Leca as Chairman,

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